Reproductive System

Males and females have anatomically distinct reproductive organs that are designed to produce,
nourish, and transport the gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and ovum/egg cell), facilitate
fertilization and, in females, sustain the growth of the embryo and fetus.

Male Reproductive System

A. Formation of Gametes: Spermatogenesis

- During mitosis
o Spermatogonia (stem cell) remain near the basement membrane of the
seminiferous tubule (reservoir cells for future cell division; later sperm
production)
- The rest differentiate into primary spermatocytes
- Primary spermatocyte replicates its DNA; meiosis begins
- Meiosis I: Two cells formed (secondary spermatocytes (haploid))
o No replication of DNA
- Meiosis II:
o Two chromatids of each chromosome separate into four haploid cells called
spermatids
- Primary spermatocyte produces four spermatids via two rounds of cell division (meiosis I
and meiosis II)
- Spermiogenesis: Final stage of spermatogenesis
o Development of haploid spermatids into sperm
o No cell division occurs
o Each spermatid becomes a single sperm cell
- Sustentacular/Sertoli cells dispose of the excess cytoplasm that sloughs off
o Spermiation: Sperm are released from their connections to sustentacular cells
- Sperm then enter the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.

B. Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System

The organs of the male reproductive system include:

 Testes (male gonads): produce sperm and secrete hormones

 A system of ducts: transports and stores sperm, assists in their maturation, and
conveys them to the exterior

 Supporting structures: various functions; i.e. the penis delivers sperm into the
female reproductive tract and the scrotum supports the testes.

C. Functions of the Male Reproductive System

1.. The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.
2. The ducts transport, store, and assist in maturation of sperm.
3. The accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen.
4. The penis contains the urethra, a passageway for ejaculation of semen and
excretion of urine.

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 Male Reproductive System
Testes or testicles
Description Disease
 Develop near the kidneys; Descent Cryptorchidism:
into the scrotum (latter half of the 7th - Testes do not descend into the
month of fetal development) scrotum
 Paired oval glands in - Untreated results in sterility
the scrotum - 30–50 times greater chance of
 Each testis has a mass of 10–15 testicular cancer
grams. Testicular cancer
- Most common cancer in male
(ages 20-35)
 Tunica vaginalis: peritoneal  Hydrocele:
epithelium partially covering the - Collection of serous fluid in the
testes. tunica vaginalis due to injury to
 Tunica albuginea: internal to tunica the testes or inflammation of
vaginalis, white fibrous capsule the epididymis.
composed of dense irregular
connective tissue surrounding the
testis
 Seminiferous tubules: sperm are
produced
(spermatogenesis)
Contain two types of cells:
(1)Spermatogenic cells (sperm-
forming cells)
(2)Sertoli cells: support
spermatogenesis

Duct System
Epididymis
Description Disease
 Tightly coiled ductus epididymis.
 Lined with pseudostratified
columnar epithelium and encircled
by layers of smooth muscle.
 Free surfaces of the columnar cells
contain stereocilia
Location: Superior and posterior border of
each testis
Function
 Site of sperm maturation: sperm
acquire motility and the ability to
fertilize an ovum

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  Propel sperm into the ductus (vas)
deferens
 Stores sperm
Ductus deferens or vas deferens
Description Disease
Location: Ascends along the posterior
border of the epididymis through the
spermatic cord, loops over the ureter and
passes over the side and down the
posterior surface of the urinary bladder
 Mucosa of the ductus deferens:
pseudostratified columnar
epithelium and lamina propria
(areolar connective tissue).
 Muscularis: 3 layers of smooth
muscle; the inner and outer layers
are longitudinal, and the middle
layer is circular.
Function:
 Transports sperm
 Store sperm
Spermatic cord
Description Disease
 Supporting structure that ascends Varicocele
out of the scrotum - Refers to swelling of the
 Each spermatic cord consists: scrotum due to dilation of the
 Ductus (vas) deferens veins that drain the testes
 Testicular artery and veins
 Pampiniform plexus
 Autonomic nerves
 Lymphatic vessels
 Cremaster muscle
Ejaculatory duct
Description Disease
 Union of the duct from Seminal
vesicle and ampulla of Ductus (vas)
deferens.
 Form superior to the base of
prostate and pass inferiorly and
anteriorly through the prostate.
 Terminate in the prostatic urethra
Function
 Eject sperm and seminal vesicle
secretions just before the release of
semen from the urethra to the
exterior.

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 Urethra
Description Disease
 Shared terminal duct of the
reproductive and urinary system
 Passageway for both semen and
urine.
 Subdivided into three parts:
 Prostatic urethra: passes
through the prostate.
 Intermediate (membranous)
urethra: Passes through the
deep muscles of the
perineum
 Spongy urethra: passes
through the corpus
spongiosum of the penis;
ends at the external urethral
orifice.

Accessory Sex Glands

Paired seminal vesicles or seminal glands
Description Disease
Location: Convoluted pouch-like structures
lying posterior to the base of the urinary
bladder and anterior to the rectum
 Secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid
that contains:
 Fructose: used for ATP
production by sperm.
 Prostaglandins:
contribute to sperm motility
and viability
 Clotting proteins: help
semen coagulate after
ejaculation
 The alkaline nature of the seminal
fluid helps to neutralize the acidic
environment of the male urethra
and female reproductive tract
 Constitutes about 60% of the
volume of semen.
Prostate
Description Disease

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 Location: Inferior to the urinary bladder; Acute and chronic infections:
surrounds the prostatic urethra. - Common in post pubescent
 Single, doughnut-shaped gland. males
 Prostatic fluid contains: - Associated with inflammation
(1) Citric acid: used by sperm for of the urethra
ATP production
(2) Several proteolytic enzymes, Prostate Cancer
such as prostate-specific antigen - Increased PSA levels
(PSA) eventually break down the - Over 40 years old male
clotting proteins from the seminal
vesicles.
(3) Acid phosphatase
(4) Seminal plasmin: an antibiotic
that can destroy bacteria.
 Make up about 25% of the volume
of semen; contribute to sperm
motility and viability.
Paired bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands
Description Disease
Location: Inferior to the prostate on either
side of the membranous urethra within the
deep muscles of the perineum, and their
ducts open into the spongy urethra.
 Secrete an alkaline fluid into the
urethra that protects the passing
sperm
 Secrete mucus that decreases the
number of sperm damaged during
ejaculation.

Semen
 A mixture of sperm and seminal fluid (liquid that consists of the secretions of the
seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands).

Characteristic Remarks
Volume 2.5-5 mL with 50-150 million
sperm/mL
pH 7.2-7.7
Coagulation Within 5 minutes after Due to clotting factors from
ejaculation seminal vesicle
Reliquifies 10-20 minutes after Due to prostate-specific
ejaculation antigen(PSA) and other
proteolytic enzyme produced
by prostate

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 Supporting Structures
Scrotum
Description
 Loose skin and underlying
subcutaneous layer
 Regulate the temperature of the
testes (2-3C below core body
temp).
Penis
Description
 Contains the urethra, common
passageway for semen and urine.
 Cylindrical in shape; consists of
body, glans penis, and root.
 Erectile tissue is composed of
numerous blood sinuses (vascular
spaces) lined by endothelial cells
and surrounded by smooth muscle
and elastic connective tissue.
 Glans penis: distal end of the corpus
spongiosum penis; margin is the
corona
 Prepuce (foreskin): covering of
glans penis(uncircumcised)
 External urethral orifice: terminal
slitlike opening formed by the
enlargement of distal urethra within
glans penis
Circumcision
 Surgical procedure wherein part of
or the entire prepuce is removed.
 Lower risk of urinary tract infections,
sexually transmitted diseases and
protection against penile cancer
Disease
Varicocele
 Swelling in the scrotum due to a
dilation of the veins that drain the
testes.
Disease
Priapism
 Persistent and usually painful
erection of the penis
 Results from abnormalities of blood
vessels and nerves
Premature ejaculation
 Ejaculation that occurs too early.
 It is usually caused by anxiety,
other psychological causes, or an
unusually sensitive foreskin or glans
penis.
Erectile Dysfunction
- Consistent inability to
ejaculate or to attain or hold
an erection long enough for
sexual intercourse

Female Reproductive System

The organs of the female reproductive system include:
 Ovaries (female gonads)
 Uterine (fallopian) tubes or oviducts
 Uterus
 Vagina
 External organs (collectively called the vulva, or pudendum)

The mammary glands are considered part of both the integumentary system and the female
reproductive system.

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Gynecology is the specialized branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment
of diseases of the female reproductive system.

A. Functions of the Female Reproductive System

1. Ovaries produce secondary oocytes and hormones
2. Uterine tubes transport a secondary oocyte to the uterus; site of fertilization
3. Uterus is the site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of the fetus
during pregnancy, and labor.
4. Vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse; passageway for
childbirth.
5. Mammary glands synthesize, secrete, and eject milk for nourishment of the
newborn

Female Reproductive System

Ovaries
Description
 Female gonads
 Paired glands
 Produce:
 Gametes: Mature ovum (eggs)
 Hormones: progesterone and
estrogens, inhibin, and relaxin.
 Broad ligament of the uterus,
attaches to the ovaries by a
double-layered fold of peritoneum
called the mesovarium
 Ovarian ligament anchors the
ovaries to the uterus
 Suspensory ligament attaches them
to the pelvic wall
Histology of the Ovary
 Ovarian mesothelium or surface
epithelium: layer of simple
epithelium (low cuboidal or
squamous); covering surface of
ovary
 Tunica albuginea: whitish capsule of
dense irregular connective tissue;
deep to the ovarian mesothelium.
 Ovarian cortex: deep to the tunica
albuginea; consists of ovarian
follicles surrounded by dense
irregular connective tissue
Disease
Ovarian cysts:
- Fluid-filled sacs in or on an
ovary
- Common, noncancerous;
frequently disappear on their
own
- Most do not require treatment
Ovarian Cancer
- Leading cause of death in
gynaecological malignancies
(excluding breast cancer)
- Risk factors:
 Age (Over 50)
 Race
 Family history
 Nulliparity or first
pregnancy at age 30
 High-fat, low-fiber,
vitamin A deficient diet

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  Ovarian follicles consist of
oocytes in various stages of
development
 Ovarian medulla: deep to the
ovarian cortex; consists of loosely
arranged connective tissue and
contains blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves.
 Mature (graafian) follicle: large,
fluid-filled follicle that is ready to
rupture and expel its secondary
oocyte (ovulation).
 Corpus luteum contains the
remnants of a mature follicle after
ovulation; produces progesterone,
estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin

Oogenesis and Follicular Development

- Oogenesis: formation of gametes in the ovaries

o Begins before females are born
- Early fetal development:
o Primordial (primitive) germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries
and differentiate into oogonia (diploid stem cells)
o Divide mitotically to produce millions of germ cells
- Before birth:
o Most germ cells degenerate in a process known as atresia
o Few develop into primary oocytes that enter prophase of meiosis I during
fetal development but do not complete that phase until after puberty
- During arrested stage of development
o Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of flat follicular cells
(primordial follicle)
- At birth:
o Approximately 200,000 to 2,000,000 primary oocytes remain in each ovary
o 40,000 are still present at puberty
o 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman’s reproductive lifetime
- Each month after puberty until menopause:
o Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary further stimulate
the development of several primordial follicles;
o Only one will typically reach the maturity needed for ovulation
o Few primordial follicles start to grow, developing into primary follicles
- Each primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte that is surrounded in a later stage of
development by several layers of cuboidal and low columnar cells called granulosa
cells.
- Primary follicle develops into a secondary follicle.
o Secondary follicle, the theca differentiates into two layers:
(1) theca interna, a highly vascularized internal layer of cuboidal secretory cells
that secrete estrogens
(2) theca externa, an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen fibers.
- Secondary follicle eventually becomes larger, turning into a mature (graafian) follicle

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 - Once a secondary oocyte is formed, it begins meiosis II but then stops in metaphase
- Mature (graafian) follicle soon ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte, a process
known as ovulation.
- At ovulation:
o Secondary oocyte is expelled into the pelvic cavity together with the first polar
body and corona radiate
o Swept into the uterine tube
o If fertilization does not occur, the cells degenerate
o If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates the secondary
oocyte, however, meiosis II resumes
- The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again of unequal size.
o Larger cell is the ovum (mature egg) and smaller one is second polar body
o Nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then unite, forming a diploid zygote.
o If the first polar body undergoes another division to produce two polar bodies,
then the primary oocyte ultimately gives rise to three haploid polar bodies,
which all degenerate.
- Thus, one primary oocyte gives rise to a single gamete (an ovum). By contrast, recall
that in males one primary spermatocyte produces four gametes (sperm).

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes/Oviducts

Description Disease
Location: Extend laterally from the uterus, lie
within the folds of the broad ligaments of
the uterus.
Function:
 Provides a route for sperm to reach
an ovum; transport secondary
oocytes and fertilized ovum from
the ovaries to the uterus
 Parts:
o Infundibulum: funnel shaped
portion of each tube, close to
the ovary; open to the pelvic
cavity
o Fimbriae: fringe of fingerlike
projections; attached to the
lateral end of the ovary
o Ampulla: widest, longest portion;
lateral two-thirds of length
o Isthmus: more medial, short,
narrow, thick-walled portion that
joins the uterus.
Histology
- Composed of three layers:
 Mucosa: epithelium (ciliated
simple columnar cells) help
move a fertilized ovum toward
the uterus; and lamina propria
(areolar connective tissue).

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  Muscularis (middle layer):
composed of an inner, thick,
circular ring of smooth muscle
and an outer, thin region of
longitudinal smooth muscle;
help move the fertilized ovum
toward the uterus.
 Serosa (outer layer)

Uterus
Description Disease
- Site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, Uterine prolapse
development of the fetus during - Weakening of supporting ligaments
pregnancy, and labor. and pelvic musculature
- When implantation does not occur, - Associated with age or disease,
source of menstrual flow. traumatic vaginal delivery, chronic
Location: between the urinary bladder and straining from coughing or difficult
the rectum bowel movements, or pelvic tumors.
- Larger in pregnant females; smaller in
menopause Hysterectomy
- Subdivisions: - surgical removal of the uterus
(1) Fundus: dome shaped
portion superior to the uterine Cervical Cancer
tubes - Pap test or Pap’s Smear
(2) Body: central portion - Caused by Human papillomavirus
(3) Cervix: inferior narrow (HPV) 16&18
portion;opens into the vagina.  Via vaginal, anal or oral
Histology sexual contact
- Three layers of tissue:
 Perimetrium or serosa (outer
layer): part of the visceral
peritoneum; composed of
simple squamous epithelium and
areolar connective tissue.
 Myometrium (middle layer):
consists of three layers of smooth
muscle fibers
 Endometrium (inner layer): highly
vascularized and has three
components:
(1) innermost layer composed of
simple ciliated columnar
epithelium lines the lumen.
(2) endometrial stroma is a very
thick region of lamina propria
(areolar connective tissue)
(3) endometrial (uterine) glands
develop as invaginations of the
luminal epithelium and extend
almost to the myometrium.

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 Endometrium is divided into two
layers:
(1) Stratum functionalis lines the
uterine cavity and sloughs
off during menstruation
(2) Stratum basalis (deeper
layer) is permanent; gives
rise to a new stratum
functionalis every
menstruation

Vagina
Description Disease
- Long fibromuscular canal Imperforate hymen
Location: Between the urinary bladder and - Hymen completely covers the orifice
rectum; directed superiorly and posteriorly, - Surgery may be needed to open the
attaches to the uterus orifice and permit the discharge of
Histology menstrual flow
- Nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium and areolar connective
tissue
- Muscularis composed of an inner
circular layer and an outer longitudinal
layer of smooth muscle
- Hymen: thin fold of vascularized
mucous membrane forms a border
around and partially closes the inferior
end of the vaginal opening to the
exterior, the vaginal orifice.

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 Breast
Description Disease
Location: anterior to the pectoralis major Fibrocystic disease
and serratus anterior muscles.  Most common cause of breast
Parts: lumps in females
 Nipple: Pigmented projection;  One or more cysts (fluid-filled sacs)
o Lactiferous ducts: series of and thickenings of alveoli develop.
closely spaced openings of  Probably due to a relative excess
ducts where milk arises of estrogens or a deficiency of
 Areola: circular pigmented area of progesterone in the postovulatory
skin surrounding the nipple; contains (luteal) phase of the reproductive
modified sebaceous (oil) glands cycle
 Mammary Gland:
o modified sudoriferous Breast Cancer
(sweat) gland that produces  Incidence rises after menopause
milk
o 15 to 20 lobes, or
compartments
 Each lobe has
lobules composed of
alveoli
Function
 The functions of the mammary
glands are the synthesis, secretion,
and ejection of milk (lactation)
 Prolactin: milk production; from the
anterior pituitary
 Oxytocin: ejection of milk; from
posterior pituitary in response to
suckling

Aging and Reproductive Disorders

 Puberty: period when secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop and the
potential for sexual reproduction is reached; onset is marked by pulses or bursts of LH and
FSH secretion
o Reproductive cycle in females occurs each month from menarche (first menses)
to menopause (permanent cessation of menses)
 Between ages of 40 and 50 (Female)
o Remaining ovarian follicles becomes exhausted
o Experience hot flashes and heavy sweating, headache, hair loss, muscular pains,
vaginal dryness, insomnia, depression, weight gain, and mood swings.
o Decline in bone mineral density after menopause.
o Risk of having uterine cancer peaks at about 65 years of age;cervical cancer is
more common in younger women.
 Age 55 (Males)
o Decline in testosterone synthesis
o Reduced muscle strength, fewer viable sperm, and decreased sexual desire.
 Over age 60 (Males)

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o Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
o Enlargement of the prostate to two to four times its normal size
o Decreases the size of the prostatic urethra
o Frequent urination, nocturia (having to urinate at night), hesitancy in urination, and
a sensation of incomplete emptying.

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