Brexit

Brexit (/ˈbrɛksɪt, ˈbrɛɡzɪt/;[1] a portmanteau of "British exit") was the withdrawal of the United
Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU) at 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020 (00:00
CET).[note 1] The UK is the first and so far only member state to have left the EU, after 47 years of
having been a part of the union — the EU and its predecessor the European Communities (EC),
which included the European Economic Community — since 1 January 1973.[note 2] Following
Brexit, EU law and the Court of Justice of the European Union no longer have primacy over
British laws, except in select areas in relation to Northern Ireland.[2] The European Union
(Withdrawal) Act 2018 retains relevant EU law as domestic law, which the UK can now amend or
repeal. Under the terms of the Brexit withdrawal agreement, Northern Ireland continues to
participate in the European Single Market in relation to goods, and to be a de facto member of
the EU Customs Union.[3][4]

The United Kingdom in orange; the European Union (27 member states) in blue.
The European Union and its institutions have developed gradually since their establishment and
during the 47 years of British membership, and grew to be of significant economic and political
importance to the UK. Throughout the period of British membership Eurosceptic groups had
existed, opposing aspects of the Union and its predecessors. The Labour prime minister Harold
Wilson's pro-EC government held a referendum on continued EC membership in 1975, in which
voters chose to stay within the bloc with 67.2 per cent of the vote share, but no further
referendums were held as European Integration continued and became "ever closer" in the
subsequent Maastricht Treaty and the Treaty of Lisbon. As part of a campaign pledge to win
votes from Eurosceptics,[5] the Conservative prime minister David Cameron promised to hold a
referendum if his government was re-elected. His (pro-EU) government subsequently held a
referendum on continued EU membership in 2016, in which voters chose to leave the EU with
51.9 per cent of the vote share. This led to his resignation, his replacement by Theresa May, and
four years of negotiations with the EU on the terms of departure and on future relations. This
process was both politically challenging and deeply divisive within the UK, with one deal rejected
by the British parliament, general elections held in 2017 and 2019, and two new prime ministers
in that time, both Conservative. Under Boris Johnson's majority government, the UK left the EU
on 31 January 2020; trade deal negotiations continued within days of the scheduled end of the
transition period on 31 December 2020. The British government postponed the implementation
of import controls for goods entering the UK from the EU until 2022 in order to reduce supply
issues during the COVID-19 pandemic. Custom controls only applied to British goods entering
the EU during this period.

The effects of Brexit will in part be determined by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement
signed on 30 December 2020, which was provisionally applied from 1 January 2021 when the
Brexit transition period ended, and which formally came into force on 1 May 2021 after
ratification processes on both sides were completed.[6] The broad consensus among
economists is that it is likely to harm the UK's economy and reduce its real per capita income in
the long term, and that the referendum itself damaged the
economy.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] It is likely to reduce immigration from countries in
the European Economic Area (EEA) to the UK, and poses challenges for British higher education
and academic research.

Timeline
The European Single Market as of January 2021
   EU member states
   Other states

The European Union Customs Union as of January 2021

   EU member states
   Other states

Following a UK-wide referendum on 23 June 2016, in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of
leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member, Prime Minister David Cameron
resigned. On 29 March 2017, the new British government led by Theresa May formally notified
the EU of the country's intention to withdraw, beginning the process of Brexit negotiations. The
withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was delayed by deadlock in the British
parliament after the June 2017 general election, which resulted in a hung parliament in which
the Conservatives lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock led to three
extensions of the UK's Article 50 process.

The deadlock was resolved after a subsequent general election was held in December 2019. In
that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "revised" withdrawal agreement led
by Boris Johnson won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the
British parliament finally ratified the withdrawal agreement with the European Union (Withdrawal
Agreement) Act 2020. The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT). This
began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT), during which the
UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.[20] During the transition, the UK remained subject
to EU law and remained part of the European Union Customs Union and the European Single
Market. However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.[21][22]

Withdrawal had been advocated by hard Eurosceptics and opposed by pro-Europeanists and soft
Eurosceptics, with both sides of the argument spanning the political spectrum. In 1973, the UK
joined the European Communities (EC) – principally the European Economic Community (EEC),
and its continued membership was endorsed in the 1975 membership referendum. In the 1970s
and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the Labour
Party's 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty, which founded the EU, was ratified
by the British parliament in 1993 but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the
Conservative Party led a rebellion over ratification of the treaty and, with the UK Independence
Party (UKIP) and the cross-party People's Pledge campaign, then led a collective campaign,
particularly after the Treaty of Lisbon was also ratified by the European Union (Amendment) Act
2008 without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold a referendum on
ratifying the abandoned European Constitution, which was never held. After promising to hold a
second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister
David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain,
resigned after the result and was succeeded by Theresa May.

On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking
Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union with permission from Parliament. May called a snap
general election in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government supported
by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). UK–EU withdrawal negotiations began later that month.
The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the
November 2018 withdrawal agreement, but the British parliament voted against ratifying it three
times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many
Conservatives opposed the agreement's financial settlement, as well as the "Irish backstop"
designed to prevent border controls between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The
Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through a
proposed second referendum.

On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June,
and then later October.[23] Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as Prime
Minister in July and was succeeded by Boris Johnson. He sought to replace parts of the
agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British
Government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for
Northern Ireland.[24][25] Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected
passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the
"Benn Act") to ask for a third Brexit delay. An early general election was then held on 12
December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that
the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.[26] The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on
23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.[27][28][29]

Terminology and etymology

Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related jargon entered
popular use.[30][31]

Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU

membership

The Inner Six (blue) and Outer Seven (green) of European integration from 1961 until 1973.
    EC Members (Inner Six)
   EFTA Members (Outer Seven)

The "Inner Six" European countries signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The 1955 Messina Conference deemed that the ECSC was a
success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 Treaties of
Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy
Community (Euratom). In 1967, these became known as the European Communities (EC). The
UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the President of
France, Charles de Gaulle.[32]

When the UK first joined the European Communities (along with Denmark and Ireland) on 1 January 1973 it was one of
just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.
   EC Members

Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for EC membership, and
the Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972.[33]
Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year[34] and the UK joined Denmark
and Ireland in becoming a member on 1 January 1973, without referendum.[35]

During the 1970s and 1980s, the Labour Party was the more Eurosceptic of the two major
parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. The 1983 Labour Party manifesto would even
pledge to leave the then European Economic Community. Earlier on, Labour had won the
February 1974 general election without a majority and then contested the subsequent October
1974 general election with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the
EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a referendum on whether to remain in the
EC on the new terms.[36] Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in
1975 the UK held its first ever national referendum, asking whether the UK should remain in the
EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,[37] all major political parties and
the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of
the electorate and all but two[38] British counties and regions voted to stay in;[39] support for the
UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016
referendum.[40]

Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums

The Labour Party campaigned in the 1983 general election on a commitment to withdraw from
the EC without a referendum.[41] After their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its
policy.[41] In 1985, the second Margaret Thatcher government ratified the Single European Act—
the first major revision to the Treaty of Rome—without a referendum.

In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations,
the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound sterling pegged to
the deutschmark. Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister the following month, amid Conservative
Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK and Italy were
forced to withdraw from the ERM in September 1992, after the pound sterling and the lira came
under pressure from currency speculation ("Black Wednesday").[42] Italy would soon rejoin but on
a different band whilst the UK did not seek re entry and remained outside the ERM.

On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC
became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty[43] compromise — in a post Cold War and German
reunification — between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain
greater national control in the economic and political union.[44] Denmark, France, and Ireland
held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with Constitution of the United
Kingdom, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, ratification in the UK was not subject to
approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor wrote that
there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are
entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that
power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the
treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification
had no way to express it. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might
be legal, it would not be legitimate—which requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty
was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics
and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."[45][46] This perceived democratic deficit, later, directly
led to the formation of the Referendum Party and the UK Independence Party.

Rising Euroscepticism

Conservative prime ministers Margaret Thatcher (left) and David Cameron (right) used Eurosceptic rhetoric while being in
favour of the UK's membership and the development of the European Single Market. Euroscepticism – and in particular
the impact of the UK Independence Party (former leader Nigel Farage pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election
results – contributed to Cameron's 2015–16 attempt to renegotiate the UK's EU membership, and ultimately the holding of
the 2016 referendum.
Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the
Bruges speech of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance
from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for
Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the
Financial Times later wrote.[47] In 1994, Sir James Goldsmith formed the Referendum Party to
contest the 1997 general election on a platform of providing a referendum on the nature of the
UK's relationship with the rest of the EU.[48][49] The party fielded candidates in 547 constituencies
at that election, and won 810,860 votes—2.6% of the total votes cast[50]—but failed to win a
parliamentary seat because the vote was spread across the country. The Referendum Party
disbanded after Goldsmith's death in 1997.

The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic political party, was formed in 1993. It achieved
third place in the UK during the 2004 European elections, second place in the 2009 European
elections and first place in the 2014 European elections, with 27.5% of the total vote. This was
the first time since the 1910 general election that any party other than Labour or the
Conservatives had taken the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election.[51] UKIP's
electoral success in the 2014 European election is documented as the strongest correlate of the
support for the Leave campaign in the 2016 referendum.[52]

UKIP won two by-elections (triggered by defecting Conservative MPs) in 2014; in the 2015
general election, the party took 12.6% of the total vote and held one of the two seats won in
2014.[53]

Opinion polls 1977–2015

Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.[54] In the
EC membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC
membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left
and right of British politics.[55][56][57]

According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor John Curtice of

Strathclyde University, surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (defined as a wish to
sever or reduce the powers of the EU) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the
period of July–November 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member
and 30% backed withdrawal.[58]

Referendum of 2016
Negotiations for membership reform

In 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU
membership,[59] but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his
proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.[60] According to the BBC,
"The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's [renegotiated] position within the
[EU] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and
strategic patience'."[61] On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the
rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his Bloomberg speech that a Conservative government would
hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated
package, if elected in the 7 May 2015 general election.[62] This was included in the Conservative
Party manifesto for the election.[63][64]

The Conservative Party won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the European Union
Referendum Act 2015 was introduced into Parliament to enable the referendum. Cameron
favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of
the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from
"ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.[65]

In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they
also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards for non-
eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.[66]

The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work
benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state
such as the UK would have to get permission from the European Commission and then from the
European Council, which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.[67]

In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum

date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.[68] He spoke of an
intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-
year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."[69]

After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,[70] the government
agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a
member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"

Referendum result
In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour
of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).[71][72] After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July
2016, with Theresa May becoming Prime Minister after a leadership contest. A petition calling
for a second referendum attracted more than four million signatures,[73][74] but was rejected by
the government on 9 July.[75]

2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

Choice Votes %

Leave the European Union 17,410,742 51.89

Remain a member of the European Union 16,141,241 48.11

Valid votes 33,551,983 99.92

Invalid or blank votes 25,359 0.08

Total votes 33,577,342 100.00

Registered voters and turnout 46,500,001 72.21

Source: Electoral Commission[76]

National referendum results (without spoiled ballots)

Remain:

Leave:

16,141,241
17,410,742 (51.9%)
(48.1%)
▲
Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)

   Leave
   Remain
 Voter Proportion of
turnout, Votes Invalid
Region Electorate votes
of votes
eligible Remain Leave Remain Leave

  East Midlands 3,384,299 74.2% 1,033,036 1,475,479 41.18% 58.82% 1,981

  East of England 4,398,796 75.7% 1,448,616 1,880,367 43.52% 56.48% 2,329

  Greater London 5,424,768 69.7% 2,263,519 1,513,232 59.93% 40.07% 4,453

  North East England 1,934,341 69.3% 562,595 778,103 41.96% 58.04% 689

  North West England 5,241,568 70.0% 1,699,020 1,966,925 46.35% 53.65% 2,682

  Northern Ireland 1,260,955 62.7% 440,707 349,442 55.78% 44.22% 374

  Scotland 3,987,112 67.2% 1,661,191 1,018,322 62.00% 38.00% 1,666

  South East England 6,465,404 76.8% 2,391,718 2,567,965 48.22% 51.78% 3,427

South West England

  4,138,134 76.7% 1,503,019 1,669,711 47.37% 52.63% 2,179

(including Gibraltar)

  Wales 2,270,272 71.7% 772,347 854,572 47.47% 52.53% 1,135

  West Midlands 4,116,572 72.0% 1,207,175 1,755,687 40.74% 59.26% 2,507

  Yorkshire and the Humber 3,877,780 70.7% 1,158,298 1,580,937 42.29% 57.71% 1,937

Voter demographics and trends

A 2017 study published in Economic Policy showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in
areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing
employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications. It also tended to be greater
where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into
areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[77] Those in lower social grades
(especially the working class) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades
(especially the upper middle class) more likely to vote Remain.[78][79][80] Studies found that the
Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,[81] high rates of suicides
and drug-related deaths,[82] and austerity reforms introduced in 2010.[83]

Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely
to vote Remain.[84] According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the London School of
Economics, "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' [...] A majority of
white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave.
There was no gender split in the vote [...] Leaving the European Union received support from
across the political spectrum [...] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated
with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life
in Britain is getting worse."[8]

Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a
better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of
life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership
"would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world."
Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about
the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain
control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that
"the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy,
jobs and prices."[85]

Post-referendum investigations

Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were

investigated by the Electoral Commission, which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In
February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote, Leave.EU, was fined £50,000 for
sending marketing messages without permission.[86] In December 2017, the Electoral
Commission fined two pro-EU groups, the Liberal Democrats (£18,000) and Open Britain
(£1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.[87] In May
2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending and
inaccurately reporting loans from Arron Banks totalling £6 million.[88] Smaller fines were levelled
against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for
inaccurate reporting.[89] In July 2018 Vote Leave was fined £61,000 for overspending, not
declaring finances shared with BeLeave, and failing to comply with investigators.[90]

In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into claims that Russia had
attempted to sway public opinion over the referendum using social media platforms such as
Twitter and Facebook.[91]

In February 2019, the parliamentary Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee called for an
inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of
data" in the Brexit vote.[92]
In July 2020, Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament published a report which
accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with
public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations
had an impact on the result.[93]

Withdrawal process

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Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union

Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union.
It was originally drafted by Lord Kerr of Kinlochard,[94] and introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon at
the insistence of the United Kingdom. The article states that any member state can withdraw "in
accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the European Council of its
intention to do so.[95] The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU
must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with [the leaving] State, setting out the
arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with
the [European] Union".[96] If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends
without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states,
including the withdrawing state.[96] On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by
qualified majority in the European Council, and by the European Parliament.[96]

Invocation of Article 50
Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50

The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,[96] but prior to the
referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.[97] When Cameron resigned
following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke
Article 50.[98][99] The new prime minister, Theresa May, said she would wait until 2017 to invoke
the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.[100] In October 2016, she said Britain would
trigger Article 50 in March 2017,[101] and in December she gained the support of MP's for her
timetable.[102]

In January 2017, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled in the Miller case that
government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.[103] The
government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16
March as the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017.[104] On 29 March, Theresa
May triggered Article 50 when Tim Barrow, the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the
invocation letter to European Council President Donald Tusk. This made 29 March 2019 the
expected date that UK would leave EU.[105][106]

2017 UK general election

A map presenting the results of the 2017 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each
constituency.
In April 2017, Theresa May called a snap general election, held on 8 June, in an attempt to
"strengthen [her] hand" in the negotiations;[107] The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made
manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach
to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU
immigrants.[108][109][110][111] The Liberal Democrat Party and the Green Party manifestos
proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a second referendum.[112][113][114] The Scottish
National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit
negotiations and then holding a referendum on Scottish independence.[115][116]

The result produced an unexpected hung parliament, the governing Conservatives gained votes
(but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons) and remained the
largest party. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the
second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote
share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote
share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a
−10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin also
made gains in votes and seats.[117]

On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a confidence and supply agreement
whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the
course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of £1 billion for Northern
Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to
the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and
Winter Fuel Payments would be maintained.[118][119]

UK–EU negotiations in 2017 and 2018

Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent single
market membership, would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end free
movement of people and maintain the Common Travel Area with Ireland.[120] The EU had
adopted its negotiating directives in May,[121] and appointed Michel Barnier as Chief
Negotiator.[122] The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would
agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then
negotiations on a future relationship could begin.[123] In the first phase, the member states
would demand that the UK pay a "divorce bill", initially estimated as amounting to £52 billion.[124]
EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October
2018.[125]
Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.[126] Negotiating groups were established for three
topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial
obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of
Ireland.[127][128][129] In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there
would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in EU and EU citizens in
Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be £35–39 billion.[130] May stressed that
"Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".[131] Following this partial agreement, EU leaders
agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship,
a transition period and a possible trade deal.[132]

In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.[133] In
June 2018, Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said that there had been little progress on the Irish
border question—on which the EU proposed a backstop, to come into effect if no overall trade
deal had been reached by the end of the transition period—and that it was unlikely that there
would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.[134] In July 2018, the
British government published the Chequers plan, its aims for the future relationship to be
determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for
goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent trade policy.[135] The
plan caused cabinet resignations, including Brexit Secretary David Davis[136] and Foreign
Secretary Boris Johnson.[137]

May's agreement and failed ratification

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2018 Draft withdrawal agreement

On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal

agreement,[138] and May secured her cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,[139] though
Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.[140] It was expected
that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.[141][142][143] On 25 November, all 27
leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.[141][142]

On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her
Brexit deal. This came minutes after the Prime Minister's Office confirmed the vote would be
going ahead.[144] Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave
May more time to negotiate with Conservative backbenchers and the EU, even though they had
ruled out further discussions.[145] The decision was met with calls from many Welsh Labour MPs
for a motion of no confidence in the Government.[146]

Also on 10 December 2018, the European Court of Justice(ECJ) ruled that the UK could
unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not
agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and
unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".[147] If the British revoked their notification,
they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was
launched by Scottish politicians, and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish Court of Session.[148]

The European Research Group (ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative
MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members
objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the Irish backstop.[149][150] ERG
members also objected to the proposed £39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated
that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in
major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the
agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.[151][152]

On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the
largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.[153][154] Soon after, a motion of no
confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition,[155] which was rejected by
325 votes to 306.[156]

On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement
would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.[157] On 12 March, the proposal
was defeated by 391 votes to 242—a loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had
been proposed in January.[158]

On 18 March 2019, the Speaker informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote
could be held only on a motion that was significantly different from the previous one, citing
parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.[159]

The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings
on 29 March.[160] The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was
defeated by 344 votes to 286—a loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been
proposed on 12 March.[161]

Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement

On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that
Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.[162] On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a
European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst
the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice
of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed
between the British government and the European Council.[163] The first alternative offered was
that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019,
with, or without, a deal—or alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to
participate in the 2019 European Parliament elections given. The second alternative offered was
that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date
was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.[164] After the government
deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it
contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,[165][166] on 27 March 2019 both the Lords
(without a vote)[167] and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument
changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is
not.[168] The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.[163]

Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29
March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in
Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; Theresa May had again requested
an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal
Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the
subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in
May, or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.[169][170]

In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is,
renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.[171] After Boris Johnson became prime minister on 24
July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following
"tunnel talks" between UK and EU,[172] a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on
negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.[173] The
revised deal contained a new Northern Ireland Protocol, as well as technical modifications to
related articles.[24] In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.[174] The revised deal
and the political declaration was endorsed by the European Council later that day.[175] To come
into effect, it needed to be ratified by the European Parliament and the Parliament of the United
Kingdom.[176]
The British Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019, which received
Royal Assent on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no
agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.[177] In order
for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the Prime Minister, it would be necessary
for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.[178] On 28 October
2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January
2020.[179] 'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on
30 October 2019.[180]

2019 UK general election

A map presenting the results of the 2019 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each
constituency.

After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the withdrawal
agreement by the end of October, he chose to call for a snap election. Due to the fact three
motions for an early general election under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 failed to
achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead in a highly unusual and
rare direct showing of parliamentary sovereignty in order to circumvent the existing law the
Government introduced a “election bill” which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in
favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438–20, setting the election date for
Thursday 12 December.[181] Opinion polls up to polling day showed a firm lead for the
Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.[182]
In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to
leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to
renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the
renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP
intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-
deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit, but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland
it was dissatisfied with. Plaid Cymru and the Green Party backed a second referendum, believing
the UK should stay in the EU. The Brexit Party was the only major party running for election
which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.[183]

The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365
seats (gaining 47 seats) and a overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst
election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single
seat in Scotland. The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader Jo Swinson losing
her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland.

The result broke the deadlock in the UK Parliament and ended the possibility of a referendum
being held on the withdrawal agreement and ensured that the United Kingdom would leave the
European Union on 31 January 2020.

Ratification and departure

Foreign and Commonwealth Office building illuminated in the colours of the Union Jack on 31 January 2020

Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its
second reading in the House of Commons in a 358–234 vote on 20 December 2019,[184] and
became law on 23 January 2020 as the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020.[185]
The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the constitutional committee in the European
Parliament on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it
in a later vote.[186][187][188] On the following day, Ursula von der Leyen and Charles Michel signed
the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where Boris Johnson signed
it.[27] The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to
49.[189][28] Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands
and sang Auld Lang Syne.[190] The Council of the European Union concluded EU ratification the
following day.[191]

On 31 January 2020 at 11 p.m. GMT, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union
ended 47 years after it joined.[29]

Transition period and final trade agreement

Play media

Conservative party advertisement from early 2020 featuring Boris Johnson answering frequently searched for online
Brexit-related questions

Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of
2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.[192]

The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date.[193] This agreement provides free access
of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to
goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to
back out of this commitment[194] by passing the Internal Market Bill: domestic legislation in the
British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary Brandon Lewis said:

I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international
law in a very specific and limited way.[195]
leading to the resignation of Sir Jonathan Jones, permanent secretary to the Government Legal
Department[196] and Lord Keen, the law officer for Scotland.[197] The European Commission
started legal action.[193]

During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to negotiate a permanent
trade agreement.[198] On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been
reached.[199] The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and
given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing
Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other
opposition parties voted against it.[200] The transition period concluded under its terms the
following evening.[201] After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a grace period limiting
checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the European Parliament postponed
setting a date to ratify the agreement.[202] The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it
passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.[203][204]

There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period,
traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs
declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement
simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and
was designed to facilitate inward trade during the COVID-19 health crisis and to avoid major
disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.[205] Following reports that the border
infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU
to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing Covid
crisis.[206] This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in the context of truck
driver shortages, which are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.[207]

Political developments within Britain

Domestic legislation after Article 50 notification

European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the European
Communities Act 1972 and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law.
Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, it was introduced to the House of
Commons on 13 July 2017.[208]
On 12 September 2017, the bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes
to 290 votes in the House of Commons.[209] The bill was further amended on a series of votes in
both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29
June to renew its call on Member States and European Union institutions to step up their work
on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.[210]

The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on
how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the
withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU;
while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between
the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the
final terms of withdrawal when the Brexit negotiations were completed. In any event, the act did
not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29
March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation
of the negotiating period.[211]

The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no
negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by order made under
section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act
1972, but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to
the UK.[212]

Exit day

Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11.00 p.m. GMT).[180] The European Union
(Withdrawal) Act 2018 (as amended by a British Statutory Instrument on 11 April 2019), in
section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.[163] Originally, 'exit day' was
defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT (UTC+0).[211][213][214][215][216]

Additional government bills

A report published in March 2017 by the Institute for Government commented that, in addition to
the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation will be needed to cover
the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.[217] The report also
commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems,
and as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills may be required, which would involve strict
prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.[218]
In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects,
including:

Brexit: the options for trade (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ld

eucom/72/72.pdf)

Brexit: UK–Irish relations (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeu

com/76/76.pdf)

Brexit: future UK–EU security and police cooperation (https://www.publications.parliament.u

k/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/77/77.pdf)
Brexit: fisheries (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/78/
78.pdf)

Brexit: environment and climate change (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld20161

7/ldselect/ldeucom/109/109.pdf)

Brexit: the Crown Dependencies (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldsele

ct/ldeucom/136/136.pdf)
Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses? (https://www.publications.parliament.
uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/134/134.pdf)

Brexit: trade in non-financial services (https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/l

dselect/ldeucom/135/135.pdf)

Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018

The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to
Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for
connected
purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards
regulations") make provision for the purpose of – (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material,
facilities or
equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or
elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.[219]

Public opinion

Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late
2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to
a plurality, which held until the 2017 general election. Since then, opinion polls tended to show a
plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the
estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain : 47% Leave, as of
October 2019).[220] This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among
those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of
October 2019, were too young to vote at the time).[221][222] Other reasons suggested include
slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of
October 2019)[223] changing how they would vote (particularly in Labour areas) and the deaths of
older voters,[220] most of whom voted to leave the EU.
One estimate of demographic changes
(ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019, there
would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and
700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.[221]

In March 2019, a petition submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the
government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than
6.1 million signatures.[224][225]

Post-referendum opinion polling

 Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU

Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses
 Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses
and normalised

Scotland

First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon addresses journalists about Brexit related matters at Bute House in 2018

After the Brexit referendum, the Scottish Government – led by the Scottish National Party
(SNP) – planned another independence referendum because Scotland voted to remain in the EU
while England and Wales voted to leave.[226] It had suggested this before the Brexit
referendum.[227] The First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon, requested a referendum be held
before the UK's withdrawal, but the British Prime Minister rejected this timing.[228] At the
referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on
Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In 2017,
if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU – for example, by remaining in the Customs
Union, some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.[229] However, in
the event, the only part of the United Kingdom which received unique treatment was Northern
Ireland.[230]

On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill.[231] This was
passed by stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on
where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allows for all devolved
policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduces the executive
power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.[232] The bill
was referred to the Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, which received royal assent between the Scottish
Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under
Schedule 4 of the Scotland Act 1998 as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.[233] The bill
has therefore not received royal assent.[234]

No-deal planning

On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in
specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."[235]

In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the Department for
International Trade (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-
EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.[236]
By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators[237] and was overseen by then Secretary of
State for International Trade Liam Fox. In March 2019, the British government announced that it
would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.[238] The Confederation of
British Industry said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",[239][240][241] and the
National Farmer's Union was also highly critical.[242] Additionally, the plan appeared to breach
standard WTO rules.[243][239][244][245][246][247]

On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel stated that the European Union must
prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the UK. She added that negotiations
were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her
warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on
31 December with or without a deal.[248]

Litigation
There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after R
(Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (simply known as the "Miller case") and
the 2017 Notification Act:

In R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, a Divisional Court of Gross
LJ and Green MR determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified
on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory
power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is
confirmed by the House of Commons Library commentary on the case.[249] The case was
appealed to the Court of Appeal[250] and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable
nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert
Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,[251] aspects of the
case's analysis were supported by the Supreme Court in Miller 2 at paragraph 57, which
confirmed that:

Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the

democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a
voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.

This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of R. (Wilson) v.
Prime Minister[252] which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the
referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before Ouseley MJ[253] and
when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the
'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was
brought both too early and too late.[249] Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before
Hickinbottom LJ and Haddon-Cave LJ) before also went against the applicant.[254]

Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, Wightman and others v Secretary
of State for Exiting the European Union was referred to Court of Justice of the European
Union;[255] the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the
Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.[256] On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the
EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.[257]

Impact

Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a withdrawal agreement, or before
an agreement was ratified ("no-deal" Brexit).[258] In 2017, the Financial Times said that there were
approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would
no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.[259]
Border crossing at Killeen (near Newry), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph).

Economists expect that Brexit will have damaging immediate and longer term effects on the
economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there is a broad consensus
among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit will likely reduce the UK's real per
capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself damaged the
economy.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][260][261][262] Studies found that Brexit-induced
uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment
and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.[263][264][265][266][267][268]

A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased offshoring to the EU after the
Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.[269][270] The
British government's own Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed that British economic
growth would be stunted by 2–8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on
the leave scenario.[271][272] Economists warned that London's future as an international financial
centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.[273][274] Pro-Brexit activists and politicians
have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "CANZUK" countries—
those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom[275][276]—but economists have
said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU
membership.[277][278][279] Studies project that Brexit will exacerbate regional economic inequality
in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.[280]

The potential impact on the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has
been a contentious issue. Since 2005, the border has been essentially invisible.[281] After Brexit,
it became the only UK–EU land border[282] (not counting the land borders EU states, Spain and
Cyprus, have with British Overseas Territories). All involved parties agreed a hard border should
be avoided,[283] as it might compromise the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern
Ireland conflict.[284][285][286] To forestall this, the EU proposed a "backstop agreement" (the
Northern Ireland Protocol) that would have kept the UK in the Customs Union and kept Northern
Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market also, until a lasting solution was found.[287] The
backstop was part of the withdrawal agreement, but was replaced in the revised agreement.[176]

Brexit caused the European Union to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous
country,[288] and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.[289] Brexit will result in an
additional financial burden for the remaining net contributors, unless the budget is reduced
accordingly. The UK will no longer be a shareholder in the European Investment Bank, where it
has 16% of the shares.[290] Analyses indicate that the departure of the relatively economically
liberal UK will reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in
the Council of the EU.[291][292] In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the European Medicines Agency and
European Banking Authority moved their headquarters from London to Amsterdam and Paris,
respectively.[293][294][295]

After Brexit, the UK will leave the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),[296] which provides
government financial support to farmers in the EU.[297] The UK receives much less than it
contributes.[297] Brexit allows the UK to develop its own agriculture policy.[298] The current UK
government has committed to maintaining the same payments to farmers until the end of the
current parliament, even without a withdrawal agreement.[296] The Agriculture Bill is intended to
replace the CAP with a new system.[298] The UK will also leave the Common Fisheries Policy
(CFP)[299] that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast[300] and lets
the EU set catch quotas.[301] The combined EU fishing fleets land about six million tonnes of fish
per year,[302] about half of which are from British waters.[303] By leaving the CFP, the UK could
develop its own fisheries policy.[301] The UK will also leave the London Fisheries Convention that
lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's
coast.[304]
Cars crossing into Gibraltar clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and Schengen
Zone.

Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory bordering Spain, will be affected by Brexit. Spain asserts a
territorial claim on Gibraltar. After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for
joint Spanish–British control.[305] In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that
any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,[306] and the British government
agreed that UK–EU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.[307]

Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK is likely to lose research
funding from EU sources; see a reduction in students from the EU; find it harder to hire
researchers from the EU; and British students will find it harder to study abroad in the EU.[308]
The UK is currently a member of the European Research Area and likely to wish to remain an
associated member following Brexit.[309] The British government has guaranteed funding for
research currently funded by EU.[310]

An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the National Health Service (NHS)
workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at
risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.[311] The Department of Health and Social
Care has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.[312] The
number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in
April 2017.[313]

Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, EU laws will no longer have supremacy over
British laws after Brexit.[314] To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as
"retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide
which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.[314] Furthermore, British courts will no
longer be bound by the judgments of the EU Court of Justice after Brexit.

After Brexit, the UK would be able to control immigration from the EU and EEA,[315] as it can end
EU freedom of movement. The current British government intends to replace it with a new
system. The government's 2018 white paper proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that
prioritizes skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there
after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens
will not have to apply to the scheme.[316][317][318] Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free
movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the
UK.[319][320] After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to do so more than temporarily would need a work
permit.[321][322]

By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA), a single
market in commercial air travel,[323] but could negotiate a number of different future
relationships with the EU.[323] British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU
with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).[323] The UK has its own air service agreements with
111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its
EU membership.[324] These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles
such as customs checks.[325] New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the
European mainland have been established.[325] As of August 2020, the government's Goods
Vehicle Movement Service, an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still
only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in
operation.[326]

Concerns have been raised that Brexit might create security problems for the UK, particularly in
law enforcement and counter-terrorism where the UK could use the EU's databases on
individuals crossing the British border.[327]

Some analysts have suggested that the severe economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in
the UK has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.[328]

Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the 2021 United Kingdom natural gas
supplier crisis, in which panic buying led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the
UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of HGV drivers.[329][330][331] The Road Haulage
Association estimated the UK needs about 100,000 truck drivers.[332][333]

The FT quotes economists as saying that growth has been already hit by the new rules which
kicked in on 1 January when the UK officially left the bloc.[334] Over time, these could leave the
country roughly 4 per cent worse off than it would have been had the 2016 EU referendum gone
the other way, according to the Office for Budget Responsibility.

Cultural references

Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, movies and
video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative,
reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's creative industries
voting against leaving the European Union.[335] Despite issues around immigration being central
in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However,
Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their
representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can
facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of
commonality, and solidarity."[336]

Anti-Brexit protest in Manchester (2017) by sculptor Jacques Tilly

Düsseldorf carnival parade in February 2018 by German sculptor Jacques Tilly

See also

European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020

EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement

International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

Opposition to Brexit in the United Kingdom

Referendums related to the European Union

Multi-speed Europe

Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice

2010s in United Kingdom political history

2020s in United Kingdom political history

Withdrawal of Greenland from the European Communities

Danish withdrawal from the European Union

Dutch withdrawal from the European Union

Frexit

Greek withdrawal from the eurozone

Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union

Polexit

Romanian withdrawal from the European Union

Notes

1. The UK also left the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom).

2. Greenland left the EC on 1 February 1985.

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Online Link (http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangl
ed-by-brexit-chaos) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180924114435/http://www.politics.co.u
k/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangled-by-brexit-chaos) 24 September
2018 at the Wayback Machine

336. Lech K. (2020) Claiming Their Voice: Foreign Memories on the Post-Brexit Stage. In: Meerzon Y., Dean D.,
McNeil D. (eds) Migration and Stereotypes in Performance and Culture. Contemporary Performance
InterActions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39915-3_12 Online Link (ht
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utm_content=null&utm_campaign=SRHS_1_MH01_GL_Highlights2020_TheatreandPerformance#copyrig
htInformation)

Further reading

Ansorg, N. & Haastrup, T.: "Brexit Beyond the UK's Borders: What It Means for Africa", GIGA Focus Afrika
No. 03/2016 (https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publication/brexit-beyond-the-uks-borders-what-it-me
ans-for-africa)

Clarke, Harold D.; Goodwin, Matthew; Whiteley, Paul (2017). Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the
European Union. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1316605042.

Culkin, Nigel; Simmons, Richard (2018). Tales of Brexits Past and Present: Understanding the Choices,
Threats and Opportunities In Our Separation from the EU. Bingley: Emerald Publishing. ISBN 978-
1787694385.

Erlanger, Steven, and Stephen Castle. "In ‘Brexit’ Vote, David Cameron Faces Problem of His Own Making"
The New York Times June 21, 2016 (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/22/world/europe/david-cam
eron-brexit-european-union.html)
Evans, Geoffrey; Menon, Anand (2017). Brexit and British Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-
1509523863.

Freedland, Jonathan, "Fools Rush Out", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September
2019), pp. 30, 32, 34–35.

Freedman, Lawrence D. "Britain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit Role." Foreign
Affairs (May/June 2020) 39#3 pp. 118–130.

Hayton, Richard. "British conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David Cameron."
British Journal of Politics and International Relations 20.1 (2018): 223–238. online (https://eprints.whit
erose.ac.uk/122446/3/HAYTON%20British%20Conservatism%20after%20the%20vote%20for%20Brex
it%20.pdf)

Hobolt, Sara B. (2016). "The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent" (http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67
546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf) (PDF). Journal of European Public
Policy. 23 (9): 1259–1277. doi:10.1080/13501763.2016.1225785 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501
763.2016.1225785) . ISSN 1350-1763 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1350-1763) .
S2CID 158006844 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158006844) .

Oliver, Tim (2018). Understanding Brexit: A concise introduction. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 978-
1447346395.

O'Rourke, Kevin (2019). A Short History of Brexit: From Brentry to Backstop. London: Pelican. ISBN 978-
0241398272.

O'Toole, Fintan (2018). Heroic Failure: Brexit and the Politics of Pain. London: Apollo. ISBN 978-
1789540987.

Outhwaite, William (ed.) Brexit: Sociological Responses. (London: Anthem Press, 2017). ISBN 978-
1783086443

Peers, Steve (2016). The Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU
Membership. Oxford: Hart Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84946-874-9. OCLC 917161408 (https://www.world
cat.org/oclc/917161408) .

Rogers, Ivan (2019). 9 Lessons in Brexit. London: Short Books. ISBN 978-1780723990.

Shipman, Tim. All Out War: The Full Story of How Brexit Sank Britain’s Political Class (2016) excerpt (http
s://www.amazon.com/Tim-Shipman-All-Out-War/dp/B071H17WRX/)

Shipman, Tim. Fall Out: A Year of Political Mayhem (William Collins, 2018), on Brexit debates in 2017

External links

Brexit
at Wikipedia's sister projects
 Definitions from
Wiktionary

Media from Commons

News from Wikinews

Texts from Wikisource

Resources from
Wikiversity

Data from Wikidata

Early Parliamentary General Election Bill 2019–20, Progress in Parliament (https://services.par

liament.uk/bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20191031224436/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/earlyparliament
arygeneralelection.html) 31 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine

British government's Brexit information (https://www.gov.uk/government/brexit)

British government's official negotiation documents (https://www.gov.uk/government/collecti

ons/article-50-and-negotiations-with-the-eu)

European Parliament – Brexit impact studies (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/unitedkingdom/

en/brexitpublic/brexitstudies.html)

Brexit news on Eur-Lex website (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/Brexit-UK-withdrawal-

from-the-eu.html)

Legal Effect of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, Attorney General's advice to Prime
Minister, 13 November 2018 (https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/s
ystem/uploads/attachment_data/file/761852/05_December-_EU_Exit_Attorney_General_s_leg
al_advice_to_Cabinet_on_the_Withdrawal_Agreement_and_the_Protocol_on_Ireland-Northern_I
reland.pdf)

British government's Explainer (for the withdrawal agreement) 14 November 2018 (https://ass
ets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/75
6376/14_November_Explainer_for_the_agreement_on_the_withdrawal_of_the_United_Kingdo
m_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland_from_the_European_Union___1_.pdf)

House of Lords report analysing the proposed Withdrawal Agreement, 5 December 2018 (http
s://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/245/245.pdf)
EU's official negotiation documents (https://ec.europa.eu/commission/brexit-negotiations/ne
gotiating-documents-article-50-negotiations-united-kingdom_en)

British Parliament – Brexit News (http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/european-union)

Reading list of post-EU Referendum publications by Parliament and the Devolved Assemblies
(https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7912) – House of
Commons Library

Record of Brexit-related business in the devolved legislatures (https://researchbriefings.parlia

ment.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7815) (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) –
House of Commons Library

Gov.UK – Department for Exiting the European Union (https://www.gov.uk/government/organi

sations/department-for-exiting-the-european-union)

BBC: "Brexit: What are the options?" (10 October 2016) (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politi
cs-37507129)

BBC: "Brexit vote: What could happen next?" (17 December 2018) (https://www.bbc.com/new
s/uk-politics-46393399)

The Brexit Papers, Bar Council, December 2016 (https://web.archive.org/web/2017051015484

9/http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/media/508513/the_brexit_papers.pdf)

"Plan for Britain: The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU": PM's speech
delivered and published on 17 January 2017 (https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-
governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech) – transcript of speech as
delivered at Lancaster House, London

The United Kingdom's exit from and new partnership with the European Union, February 2017
("White paper") (https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/588948/The_United_Kingdoms_exit_from_and_partnership_with_the_EU_Web.pdf)

Brexit (https://curlie.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Issues/Euro
pean_Union/Brexit) at Curlie

Quotes about Brexit (http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit) on Euronews

European Council Brexit Guidelines (http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-release

s/2017/04/29-euco-brexit-guidelines)

"The economic effects of the government's proposed Brexit deal" (https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sit

es/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf) —National
 Institute of Economic and Social Research, November 2018

How will Brexit affect the UK's manufacturing industry? (http://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/uktpo/201

8/02/06/manufacturing-industry/) UK Trade Policy Observatory, February 2018

The real post-Brexit options (https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_rea

l_post-Brexit_options.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191019121828/https://
www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf) 19
October 2019 at the Wayback Machine Lecture by Ivan Rogers at the University of Glasgow, 23
May 2018

"What are the options for the UK's trading relationship with the EU after Brexit?" (https://ukand
eu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-br
exit/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191022134307/http://ukandeu.ac.uk/explai
ners/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/) 22
October 2019 at the Wayback Machine UK in a Changing Europe, King's College London,
December 2018

"Brexit phrasebook: a guide to the talks' key terms" (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/20

17/jun/19/brexit-phrasebook-a-guide-to-the-talks-key-terms) —The Guardian, 23 November
2018

"Lord Ashcroft: How the United Kingdom voted on EU referendum day – and why" (https://ww
w.conservativehome.com/platform/2019/03/lord-ashcroft-how-the-united-kingdom-voted-on-
eu-referendum-day-and-why.html) Conservative Home, 17 March 2019

Explanatory Memorandum for the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union
(Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019 introduced by the Irish government in the legislature (http
s://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/eu/brexit/keydocuments/Omnibus-Bill-Memo.pdf) (Oireachtas)

EU Council decision, 22 March 2019, extending the negotiating period (https://eur-lex.europa.e

u/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2019%3A080I%3AFULL&from=EN)

Relating to court cases

Judgment (http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html) of the Supreme Court of the
United Kingdom in R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union

Judgment (http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=208636&pageIn
dex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1085843) of the European Court
of Justice in the Wightman case: Right of unilateral revocation of the notification
 Wilson v Prime Minister (2018) EWHC 3520 (Admin) (https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-co
ntent/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) 16 January
2019 at the Wayback Machine

Ewan McGaughey "Could Brexit be Void?" (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/096

15768.2018.1555881) "King's Law Journal", Volume 29, 2018, Issue 3

UK withdrawal from the European Union: Legal and procedural issues (http://www.europarl.euro
pa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/599352/EPRS_IDA(2017)599352_EN.pdf) European
Parliamentary Research Service, March 2017

Ronan McCrea. "The legal issues of revoking the notification to leave the EU – but then
notifying to leave again" (https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/12/20/the-legal-issues-of-revokin
g-the-notification-to-leave-the-eu-but-then-notifying-to-leave-again/) . London School of
Economics, 20 December 2018

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