COMMERCIAL POULTRY PRODUCTION

TRAINING MANUAL

DEPRTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

COMPILED BY

B. MASUNDA
L. R. MUTETWA

Revised Edition: July, 2006.

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 COMMERCIAL POULTRY PRODUCTION
TRAINING MANUAL

DEPRTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

Compiled by

B. MASUNDA
L. R. MUTETWA

Revised Edition: July, 2006.

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Preface
To write a complete reference guide in the field of commercial poultry production is by no
means an easy task. Since the publication of the first edition, a lot of changes have since taken
place. There are extensive revisions in this edition; new material has been added, particularly in
areas of trouble-shooting the common on-farm problems, feed management and home mixing of
poultry feeds. This manual contains more information on the scientific reasons behind the
various management recommendations and was prepared as a service manual and reference
guide and is by no means exhaustive. Greater emphasis has been placed on the practical aspects
of production of both broiler and layer birds in the Zimbabwean context.

Happy farming!!

_________
L.R. Mutetwa
B. Masunda. 2006.

Contact address:

Department of Animal Science,

University of Zimbabwe,
P.O. Box MP167
Mt Pleasant
HARARE, ZW.
Email: lovemorem@agric.uz.ac.zw
bmasunda@agric.uz.ac.zw
Tel: 263-4-303211 Extn 1409.

________________________________________________________________________
Table of contents
PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 THE POULTRY FARM

1.1 Accessibility
1.2 Electricity
1.3 Bio-security and disease control
1.4 Location in relation to other poultry farms / units
1.5 Water supply

2.0 INFRASTRUCTURE AND EQUIPMENT

2.1 Poultry houses
2.2 Layer house equipment

3.0 CHICK MANAGEMENT

3.1 Before chick arrival
3.2 A day before chick arrival
3.3 Day of chick arrival
3.4 Brooding management
3.5 Temperature management
3.6 Management of ventilation

4.0 MANAGEMENT OF BROILERS

4.1 Feeds and feed management
4.2 Water
4.3 Lighting
4.4 Ventilation
4.5 Bio-security, hygiene and vaccination
4.6 Handling of dead birds
4.7 Withdrawal of feed before slaughter

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5.0 MANAGEMENT OF LAYER BIRDS
5.1 Rearing replacement pullets
5.2 De-beaking
5.3 Lighting for replacement pullets
5.4 Feed management for layer birds
5.5 Equipment for layers
5.6 Lighting for laying birds
5.7 Housing for layers

6.0 EGG COLLECTION

7.0 RECORD SYSTEMS

8.0 SELECTION AND CULLING OF LAYERS

8.1 Prerequisites for successful culling
8.2 The kind of layers to cull
8.3 When to cull
8.4 How to cull
8.5 How long should the layers be kept?
8.6 Forced moulting

9.0 TROUBLE-SHOOTING IN THE LAYING HOUSE

10.0 COST MANAGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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INTRODUCTION
The poultry industry in Zimbabwe is undergoing some major changes. Many more farmers are
engaging in poultry farming than in the previous decade. Then, the industry was dominated (it is still
dominated) by two large-scale companies, which are breeders of day-old chicks and point-of-lay
pullets and they are also commercial poultry producers in their own right. Then there are many more
new farmers who are going into poultry production independently of the breeding companies except
as a source of stock. These new groups of farmers are affected by the scarcity of practical hands on
instructions on how to run poultry production as a profitable enterprise.

Commercial poultry production, whether for meat or eggs, is an intensive undertaking. An efficient
management programme is a prerequisite to successful poultry husbandry. This management guide
is designed for both new and established poultry producers to enhance your poultry stockman-ship in
order to obtain optimum performance.

1.0 THE POULTRY FARM

1.1 Accessibility
The poultry farm itself should be easily accessible and well protected. The location of the poultry
units should take into account of prevailing winds. Excessive winds may introduce drafts, which are
not desirable. The terrain also should be such that it will not adversely interfere with the construction
of houses. Other points to take note are described below.

The poultry farm/site must be reachable at all times. Feeds and chicks will need to be delivered at
various times during the year while finished products such as eggs and birds for slaughter will be
taken off farm. It is therefore important that an all weather road should serve the farm

1.2 Electricity
Many poultry operations require electricity for are lighting, artificial ventilation and refrigeration.
Large scale operations will need to use automated feeding systems, these require electrical power.
Thus, a power supply is quite critical. It may be necessary that a step down transformer be on the
farm or somewhere close to it.

1.3 Bio security and disease control

Wheel and foot dips must be provided at the entrance to the farm. Vehicles and people coming to the
farm from outside may be carrying some germs. These need to be eliminated at the entrance. An all-
in–all- out system is strongly recommended as it minimises the risk of disease carry over and cross
infections of flocks.

1.4. Location in relation to other poultry farms/units

The farm or unit must be far away from other poultry farms. The minimum distance from the nearest
farm should be 3 km for layers. However, for single age units or broiler units, the minimum distance
between farms could as low as 1 km. Thus avoid multi-age sites or units in order to minimise the risk
of cross infections from neighbouring farms or units.

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1.5 Water supply
There should be a reliable water source on any poultry farm. The water could be from a borehole,
dam or river. These sources must be able to provide water all year round. When using water from a
river or dam, it must be treated (e.g., with Annulyte or Chlorine pills) before being offered to the
chickens. The average water usage in adult birds may be up to 350ml per day.

2. INFRASTARUCTURE AND EQUIPMENT

2.1 Poultry houses

There are two basic types of housing used for poultry production:
• Controlled environment housing
• Air convection houses
In both instances, the houses are constructed to enable temperature and ventilation control; two
factors critical to the efficient production of poultry.

(a) Controlled environment housing:

A combination of forced ventilation, adequate insulation and temperature-control ensure a
favourable environment conducive to maximising broiler growth in both winter and summer.
However, controlled environment housing is very expensive.

(b) Air Convection housing:

These are relatively cheaper and hence more common than the controlled environment housing.
Consideration should be given to prevailing winds with the object of getting reasonable ventilation.
Houses should be constructed to minimise solar heat gain, as this would cause heat stress in the birds
particularly during the summer months. It is therefore recommended that houses should be
constructed in an east-west orientation. The south-facing should be longer than the north facing
portion, leaving opening along the ridge between the two sections – split ridge (Figure 2).

The site should be dry and, therefore needs drainage to channel water away. In addition to providing
accommodation to birds, the housing complex should consist of the following facilities;
(i) Office to keep records and areas to store vaccines, detergents and some equipment
(ii) Bathing and change room facility
(iii) Storage for litter material
(iv) Dead birds need to be disposed of properly to curb the spread of disease. Therefore, an
incinerator or mortality pits are vital components of the poultry housing complex.
(v) Wheel and foot dips are needed at entrances

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Table 1: Features of a house with a capacity to carry 10000 birds.

Distance from perimeter fence 15m

Capacity 10000 birds
Orientation East-West
Stocking density 12 birds/m2
Width 9.1 m clear span
Length 100m
Height – ground to centre ridge 3.787m
Ground to beam 2.4m
Frame/ structure Steel or gum pole
Side walls 500mm high- brick and plasted on both sides
Doors 2.250mm wide x 2000mm high – both gable ends
Slope < 1:100
Eaves 600mm
Roof: Material Asbestos or corrugated iron
Slope 150
Insulation White paint on outsides
Floors Earth or concrete

There are no standard plans for the poultry houses, but the most common in Zimbabwe are the Flat
roof and the Conventional roof types as depicted below:

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Figure 1: The Flat roof type house.

Asbestos or iron
sheets or grass
thatch

1/2m
Curtains
2.5m
Fence or
Wire mash

1/2m

10 m

2.1.1 Structural material

If gum poles are to be used to provide the main structural frame, they need to be of sufficient
thickness (10 cm is suggested) and spaced at 3m intervals. If angle iron is used (recommended
60x60x60mm) spacing could be 4.55m and height at eaves of 2.4m.

2.1.2 Sidewalls
These should be built on a firm foundation (the depth required for the foundation depends on soil
type). A 50mm thick concrete footing should support the base of the foundation. The sidewalls
should be built to a height of 50cm above the ground and should be about 230mm thick (double
brick wall) (Figures 1 and 2). Plastering on both sides is important to facilitate easy cleaning and
disinfections. Side curtains should also be attached to control ventilation.

2.1.3. The floor

Concrete floors are strongly recommended for poultry houses. This concrete should only be poured
after thorough ramming of the earth below. A fairly smooth floor (wooden float finish) surface is
recommended. The floor should be slightly sloped, as this will allow drainage during cleaning.

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2.1.4 The roof
The roof is normally of corrugated iron or asbestos sheets painted white on the outside. The white
paint is to reflect solar radiation so that the interior of the house does not become excessively hot.
Small-scale farmers sometimes use thatching grass but even though it may provide a cool
environment inside the poultry house, it harbours vermin and parasites, which may end up being a
very big problem.

Figure 2: The Conventional roof type house

Split ridge
North- South-facing
facing side side

4m
½m

Wire mash

Side 2.5m
curtains

2.5m

1/2m

10 to 12 m

2.1.5 Equipment requirement

A batch of 10 000 birds would require the following equipment

2.1.5.1 Feeding equipment

Bulk feed hopper with a capacity of 5 tonnes. Feed can be collected manually into the tube feeders
that are in the house or an automated system can be employed in which the hopper is connected to
the feed pans in the shed through an auger

2.1.5.2 Watering equipment

(i) An external header tank with a capacity for 5000 litres

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(ii) An internal header tank (100 – 200 litres).
(iii) 80 bell drinkers
(iv) Water connection pipes

2.2 Layer house equipment

2.2.1 Nests
This is where the eggs are laid if the system of production id the deep litter or barn system. A nest
must be roomy, easily cleaned and sprayed, dark cool, well ventilated and conveniently located.
Hens usually like secluded places for laying eggs and dark nests reduce the risk of egg eating. Nests
should have some mechanism of shutting the birds out at night to prevent birds from roosting in
them.

Different kinds of nests can be used. One type is the community nest, which is a covered box of 0.7
x 2 m. It has a sloping and hinged cover for convenience when collecting eggs. Most of these nests
are built on legs so that their position can be transferable within the house. The other type of nest is
the trap nest but this is not normally used in hot environments.

2.2.2 Perches
These should allow 24-30 cm of room for each bird and should be 45-50 cm apart. Perches are
normally made of timber (60x90mm). The perches may be laid on edge and it is advisable to round
off the upper edge.

2.2.3 Waterers
Drinking equipment has evolved over time from troughs (attached to cages in the battery cage
system) to small cups and in modern times, the nipple drinkers are used. Nevertheless, all these
forms of drinkers are still in use. The important thing about drinkers is to avoid wastage (which
results in wet litter) while providing a continuous flow of water to meet the requirements of the
birds. Modern nipple drinkers have the advantage that they are a closed system, which eliminates
water contamination.

3. CHICK MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Successful poultry enterprises are those with efficient management practices at all levels. Good
chick management ensures optimum production by adult birds. Mistakes made at this stage are
sometimes difficult to correct or cannot be reversed at all. This section gives recommendations to
ensure better chick survival and growth.

3.1 Before delivery of chicks

(i) Clean and disinfect cages or floor brooding area. Clean the building interior, attached
service areas and equipment.
(ii) Check to make sure equipment is working properly and is adjusted to the right height.
The correct number and type of equipment needs to be determined for each incoming
batch of chicks. Any shortfalls will be detrimental to the chicks.

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 (iii) Remove all the old feed from bins, hoppers and troughs. Disinfect and allow them to dry
before new feed comes.
(iv) Place a thick layer (~5 - 10 cm deep) of absorbent litter from untreated wood-shavings,
cotton hulls or chopped / soft grass. Place rat /mouse poison where it will not be
consumed by chicks.

3.2. A day before chick arrival

(i) Set the heating system at 35-36°C at chick level
(ii) Check water system. Adjust to proper height for the chicks. Disinfect and flush the water
lines.
(iii) Position the waterers and feed troughs to ensure that birds have access to feed and water
within 2-3 metres.

3.3 Day of chick arrival

(i) Make sure the waterers are full and the whole system is operational. Check brooder
temperatures
(ii) As the chicks are placed, trigger water cups or nipples to encourage drinking. In some
situations such as small-scale production units, drinking troughs will be used instead of
water cups or nipples. It will be necessary under such situations to ensure that chicks are
able to drink as soon as they arrive.
(iii) Encourage drinking before eating. It is necessary to make sure that water is visible to the
chicks especially if nipples and water cups are used.
(iv) When the chicks have been drinking for 3-4 hours, feed may then be given. The feed may
be placed on paper, which will be suitably placed in the cage, or on the floor. Feeders
must be operated at the highest level.
(v) Lighting at high intensity must be provided for the first week.

3.4 Brooding Management

Brooding refers to the early growing period when young chicks are unable to maintain body
temperature without the aid of supplemental heat. Poultry rearing comprises brooding and
subsequent growing period until sexual maturity (for layers) or until the birds reach slaughter weight
(for broilers). There are 3 systems for brooding chicks and these are described as follows;

Spot brooding: No surrounds, brooding zone is well lit

Whole house brooding: Hot air system in conjunction with fans and false ceiling

Brooding in surrounds: Heater placed above chicks and the birds are kept close to the
source of heat by surrounds, which are gradually expanded as the chicks grow

Any combination of the above systems can be used.

3.5 Temperature management

Young birds out of the hatchery are unable to maintain constant body temperature without
supplementary heat. Thus, the brooder house or facility has to be well heated to maintain a constant
temperature of between 35°C -37°C in the first week. Temperatures that are higher or lower than this
range often result in pasty vents due to over-brooding and increased chick mortality, respectively.

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Suggested brooder temperature regime are summarised as follows:

- 1st week 32 – 35 degrees Celsius

- 2nd week 27 – 32 “
- 3rd week 21 – 27 “
- 4th week 15 – 20 “ (ambient temperature)

Artificial heating is provided in a number of ways as shown in the table below.

Table 2. Heat sources for brooding chicks

Type No. of Chicks Advantages Disadvantages
Gas Pancake 1000 Simple, achieves the required High fire risk. Gas costs
temperature. Not labour are high and not always
intensive and can easily be available. Expensive to
moved install. Fragile

Modro >1000 Cheap to run. Can be used for Colder at end of house.
(coal powered) cooling and heating Fixed in one place. Needs
a generator or electricity
for the electric motors.
High maintenance costs

Charcoal Burner 300 Cheap to run and easy to Uneven heat. Produces
(mbaura / imbaula) make. Can be moved smoke. Fire risk.

Electric Bar heater 200 Can easily be moved, simple Cost of electricity, small
brood

Infra red lamp 200 Simple, provides red light Expensive, fragile, small
which calms down chicks, brood
heats directly onto chicks

Infrared light bulbs can be used but these will only cater for small numbers of chicks, usually 1 per
50 is a common figure used. Red light also assists in suppressing any problem of cannibalism that
may occur. Normal light bulbs (60W or 100W) will not supply enough heat. High chick mortality
rates have been associated with the use of such bulbs.

The best indicator of temperature is the behaviour of the chicks. A prudent poultry keeper is one who
will not always be walk away after taking temperature readings from a thermometer without taking
time to observe the birds themselves. There can be a wide range of temperature variation between
chick height and a person’s head height; therefore the bird may not share your perception of the right
temperature. Often it may be necessary to take an empty sack and lie down on it so that you may feel
the temperature at the level of the chicks.

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When conditions are too hot, the chicks move away from the heat source, the chicks will pile up
around the perimeter of the brooding area. This may result in death as a result of heat prostration or
piling up. If the temperatures are uncomfortably low, the chicks will huddle close to the heat source.
If the birds are unable to locate the heat source, they obey the natural instinct to get their backs
against the mother hen. They therefore crawl under the other chicks. This action, if taken by a large
number of chicks, leads to bunching and crowding with accompanying evils of smothered chicks and
diminished thrift in the entire flock. Comfortable chicks will spread out uniformly throughout the
brooding area without any incidence of huddling.

It is not advisable to move birds from brooding houses to growing and finishing houses as the stress
resulting from the move will almost certainly induce respiratory diseases, coccidiosis, or both.

3.6 Management of ventilation

Proper ventilation is important in all phases of poultry production. It is the means by which oxygen
is supplied and waste products of metabolism such as heat, carbon dioxide, moisture and heat are
removed. Control of odour is a special challenge during cold season brooding. This is because in
winter the producer is confronted with the need to conserve warmth by reducing ventilation thereby
letting the birds live in high ammonia level conditions, or increase ventilation rate which drops the
temperature in the poultry house.

High ammonia levels (>25 ppm) decreases broiler growth rate and feed conversion, cause breast
blisters which lead to downgrading of carcases and high condemnation. Feed additives that bind
ammonia and other noxious gases are available in Zimbabwe.

Poor ventilation has been implicated in the occurrence of water belly or ascites. A possible cause of
birds coughing is could be insufficient or poor ventilation. In an effort to provide proper ventilation,
all caution should be taken to avoid drafts as these will lead to lowering of temperature. If there are
drafts, chick will huddle in groups to get away from the spot where cool air enters the heated area.

Other general recommendations

• Always provide water-soluble vitamins and minerals during the first 3 to 5 days to alleviate
stress and boost the immune system of the birds. Never use antibiotics during stage as this
will compromise the health status of your birds.
• Always check the mortality charts and ask to see the day’s dead birds. This reduces the
opportunity for theft by staff.
• During the brooding phase, there will be vaccination to be carried out. This should be done in
consultation with a veterinarian for the type, method and days to be done.
• If a poultry attendant is responsible for more than one flock, the younger birds should always
be attended first.

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4. MANAGEMENT OF BROILERS

Introduction

Modern broiler production is a highly specialised field of poultry production where genetic selection,
management and nutrition are geared towards the production and marketing of a bird at the earliest
age and at optimum cost. Broilers are specially bred birds with the ability to grow fast, are quick
feathering, and have a good conformation, are well covered with meat and convert food very
efficiently. Broilers are normally fed ad libitum (i.e., without any restriction) from day old to
finishing, by which time they should have attained just above 2 kg live weight with a feed
conversion ration averaging 2.0 : 1.

4.1 Feeds and feeding management

Feed costs accounts for between 60 and 70% of the total variable costs of a broiler production
enterprise. The prudent producer will therefore plan thoroughly all the feed requirements to avoid
losses and unnecessary surpluses. It is important to monitor feed consumption and weight on a
regular basis. The performance of the birds can be checked against standards that are shown in the
table below.

Table 3: Broiler weights and feed conversion (guideline figures)

Live weight Feed consumption Feed conversion

Weeks of End of week Weekly Weekly Cumulative Weekly Cumulative
age (kg) gain (kg) (kg) (kg)
1 0.13 0.087 0.078 0.078 0.90 0.90
2 0.36 0.142 0.205 0.283 1.44 1.05
3 0.72 0.251 0.402 0.68 1.60 1.32
4 0.95 0.304 0.54 1.23 1.79 1.49
5 1.20 0.360 0.72 1.95 2.04 1.66
6 1.65 0.390 0.86 2.81 2.22 1.80
7 1.96 0.390 0.96 3.77 2.48 1.93
8 2.35 0.390 1.08 4.85 2.78 2.07
9 2.74 0.390 1.17 6.02 2.98 2.20
10 3.15 0.410 1.32 7.34 3.31 2.34

Day old chicks should be fed in feeder lids or plastic trays (1 per 100). The automatic feeders should
be in place on arrival of the chicks and should be adjusted so as to rest directly on the litter. The
feeder lids or trays should be removed as soon as birds have become accustomed to feeding from the
mechanical feeders. This usually takes place around seven days of age.

Feeder height should be continually adjusted as the birds grow. The top edge of the feeders should
be at the same level as the back of the birds. This helps to prevent feed wastage. During the first two
weeks, the chicks should be given starter mash or crumbles. For the remainder of the time, it is best

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to feed pelleted feeds. Mash can still be given but there is much wastage with mashes than with
pellets. Feeders should never be more than 1/3 full at a time. With trough feeders, allow 5 cm feeding
space/bird, while one pan per 50 birds is used with pan type feeders.

Broilers are fed high nutrient density diets so that they achieve market weight within a short period
of time usually 6- 8 weeks. Generally as the energy content of broiler feed increases, less feed is
required to attain market weight. Therefore broiler feeds usually contain lots of energy and protein.

Protein is needed by growing birds while energy is required to drive the processes of life. When
talking about protein requirements, it is much more of the protein quality or amino acids; rather than
the total protein content, which is more important. Birds may not perform well if the levels of critical
amino acids such as lysine methionine and cystine are limiting in the rations. This is regardless of
whether the proportion of total protein is adequate or inadequate. Minerals and vitamins are also
required for maximal performance. The common types of feeding systems are:
o Tube feeders - automatic
o Troughs - manual
o Pan feeders - automatic
o Flat chain feeders - automatic

Optimum salt level is vital as under supply of this ingredient can result in pecking which can lead to
cannibalism. Thus, in practice, when a problem of pecking is encountered, addition of salt in
drinking water at a rate of 1 table spoon per 5 litres of water for 2 to 3 days usually solves the
problem.

General standards for poultry feeds are shown in Table 4. In Zimbabwe, most producers of broilers
practise two phase feeding (feeding of starter followed by finisher rations) instead of three-phase
feeding (starter followed by grower and then finisher). In practice, allow for 1 kg of broiler starter
feed and 3kg of broiler finisher feed.

The nutrient specifications for both starter and finisher rations are as shown in the table. These feeds
are available as complete rations from feed manufacturers, or as concentrates (those which contain
the protein, vitamins and minerals) and then the farmer will have to add the energy component,
usually maize. Sorghum, barley, wheat and millet can also be used as partial substitutes for maize in
broiler rations. Feed maxi-packs, which supply the minerals and vitamins, can also be used by
producers who can supply their own maize and soya-cake, as shown in Table 4b.

Large-scale producers may find it cheaper to make their own feed on the farm. All they need is to be
able to source the individual ingredients and then engage a Nutritionist to formulate appropriate
rations. Complete on-farm mixing of feed reduces the overall feed cost. The most expensive option
is to buy complete rations from feed manufacturers.

In Zimbabwe, a number small-scale poultry producers use pig feeds to finish or fatten off broilers.
This practice is detrimental for the following reasons. Pig feeds are generally less dense nutritionally
vis-à-vis poultry feeds, particularly in energy and protein which are the two first limiting nutrients
for growth. Pig feeds are generally more fibrous and less digestible by poultry. This means that
longer rearing periods will be required to attain slaughter weight which may not be profitable.

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4.2 Water
Water is very important for the survival of birds. Generally it should be available at all times. Chicks
can be started with water founts (15 four-litre founts per 1000 chicks). These should be placed close
to heat sources and between feeders. The founts should be cleaned and sanitised at each filling. It is
important to use fresh water that has been sanitised to kill some material that can cause disease such
as algae and fungi.

At 4-5 days old, the water founts should be gradually moved towards automatic waters and can be
removed at around 10 days. By this time, the birds should have adjusted to drinking from the
automatic waterers. Allow at least 2 cm linear watering space /bird. Where dome waterers are used,
there should be at least 7 per 1000 birds. The height of watering equipment should always be
adjusted as the birds grow such that the top edge should be level with the backs of the birds. The
general water consumption rate is 2-3 kg water for every kg of feed consumed.

Flock vaccinations are sometimes done through drinking water. If this has to be done, water
sanitizers and disinfectants have to be discontinued, as they may be harmful to the vaccines. Instead,
powdered milk (115g per 40 litres) may be given before the introduction of the vaccine. This helps
to limit the adverse effects of the vaccine and prolongs vaccine life. The milk will also neutralise any
traces of disinfectants and sanitizers remaining in the water and equipment.

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 Table 4a: Nutritional standards for poultry feeds

Crude ME Lysine Methioni Calciu Phosphor Salt Zinc Manganese Vit A

protein MJ/kg g/kg ne + m% ous % % mg/kg mg/kg miu/tne
% Cystine
g/kg
Starting chicks 20 11.66 11 7.5 1.0 0.5 0.4 60 100 12
Early growers 15 11.25 8 6.0 1.0 0.4 0.4 60 100 12
Late growers 12 11.25 6 4.5 1.0 0.4 0.4 50 100 8
Light hybrid layers 16-19 11.66 8 4.6 3.6 0.5 0.4 50 100 6
Medium hybrid layers 15-18 11.66 8 4.6 3.6 0.5 0.4 50 100 6
Broiler starter 23 12.88 12.5 9.2 1.2 0.5 0.4 50 100 12
Broiler finisher 19 12.92 10 7.3 1.0 0.5 0.4 50 100 12

Table 4b: Home-mixing of broiler feeds.

Broiler Starter feed (feed 0 – 3 weeks) Broiler Finisher feed (feed 4 weeks to
slaughter)
Starter Maxi-pack 40 kg Finisher Maxi-pack 40 kg
add add
Soyabean Meal 350 kg Soyabean Meal 300 kg
Maize meal 610 kg Maize meal 660 kg
Total 1000 kg Total 1000 kg
OR OR
Mix 2 parts (by mass) Broiler Concentrate to 3 Mix 1 part Broiler Concentrate to 2 parts
parts Crushed maize Crushed maize

4.3 Lighting
Broiler growing is normally done under 23 hours of continuous light and one hour of complete
darkness. This is regardless of whether the type of house is windowless or open. The dark period
helps the birds to adjust to some dark conditions, or should there be a power black-out. This is
especially important in situations where power failures are frequent. If the birds are
unaccustomed to darkness, they may pile up, stampede and die when sudden darkness comes.

Research carried out recently in closed buildings has shown that intermittent lighting of 1-2
hours followed by 2-4 hours of darkness during a 24 hour period significantly improves feed
efficiency and reduces electricity costs. Therefore broiler producers, who have facilities that
enable light control, may find this technique quite appealing.

During the first 2 weeks, chicks need a light intensity of 40-60 watts per 20 m2. Such a light
intensity helps the young birds to get a good start from the feed and water. From 2 weeks
onwards, light intensity can be reduced 15 W/20m2. High light intensity after 4 weeks of age
should be avoided because it can act as a growth suppressant. It may also result in carcass
bruising due to over activity by the birds. It is important that light bulbs should be well
distributed in the poultry house. Burnt bulbs have to be replaced and all bulbs should be cleaned
frequently. Dirty on bulbs reduce light intensity, increase electricity cost and fire risk.

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4.4. Ventilation
Good ventilation is important for the growth of healthy birds. It supplies oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and ammonia (NH3) from the houses. In addition, it controls
the amount of moisture, thus helping to keep litter dry and NH3 levels below 25ppm. Ammonia
build up in broiler houses predisposes birds to respiratory problems, partial blindness and
depressed growth.

In closed up type of housing, ventilation should be designed to achieve a room temperature of

between 21-27°C. Drafts should be avoided in semi open houses but it is important to maintain
good air movement.

4.5 Bio-security, hygiene and vaccination

Bio-security are measures put in place to prevent disease coming into the poultry unit or
preventing the spread of diseases within the poultry unit. Always practice an all-in-all-out system
for broilers and after a batch has been through a house, the house and ancillary equipment should
be thoroughly scrubbed, washed out with water, disinfected and fumigated. It also includes
controlling human traffic and vehicles into the poultry unit, provision of protective clothing for
workers and visitors, rodent control, rest period between bathes, routine vaccination and
prevention of pollution. A strict bio-security programme should always be in place. Good
management should substitute the use of treatment drugs, especially for coccidiosis, necrotic
enteritis, internal parasites and colisepticaemia – E. coli.

For broiler flocks exceeding 1000 birds, it is economic to vaccinate against the following
diseases:

Newcastle Disease – at day-old , spray in hatchery; and day 22 in drinking water

Infectious Bursal Disease / Gumboro disease – day 12 and day 20, drinking water

Infectious Bronchitis – optional, day-old, spray at hatchery.

Mass vaccination through the drinking water is the most common method of administering
vaccines to broilers. When this method is used, the water sanitizers and disinfectants should be
discontinued as these can neutralise or inactivate the vaccines. The addition of dry milk at 129
gram per 40 litres of water prior to the introduction of the vaccine is a common practice. This
assists to prolong the life of the vaccine and bind any contaminants or residual disinfectants in
the water. Veterinary advice should also be sought in situations of a disease outbreak.

4.6. Handling of dead birds

In large scale poultry operations, there will always be some deaths that will inevitably occur
despite the producers’ intention to keep the numbers down. The birds will die mostly from
disease or some other causes. It is therefore important that these dead birds be disposed of in a
manner that does not expose the remaining birds to infection. There are two acceptable methods
of disposal and these are:

14
 • Incinerator: This is the most preferred method although it is very expensive. It is very
handy in areas where burial of dead birds is likely to pollute underground water sources.
The incinerator should have the capacity to meet the needs of the farm as well as any
future expansion programmes. It should be located down wind from poultry houses and
residences to avoid fumes. Whenever some birds are incinerated, it should be made sure
that the carcasses are burnt completely white ash. Incomplete burning may result in some
pathogens forming spores and then survive high burning temperatures.

• Disposal pits: this is a less expensive alternative to incinerators. The pits should be
located in a place where there is good drainage. The other good thing about pits is that
there is no use of chemicals and no odours will emanate from well-designed pits. Various
specifications for the pits can be used but generally they should be at least 2m deep and
2.5m2 at the surface. The top should be covered with at least 30 cm of earth. The bird
repository should be tightly covered always to keep the odours of decomposition inside.

4.7. Withdrawal of feed before slaughter

Withdrawing feed from broilers along with transportation to processing plant can have a
considerable effect on the dressing percentage. Live shrink between 8 hours withdrawal time and
20 hours has been estimated to be about 3.0%. Dressed carcass quality may also be affected by
long periods of withdrawal.

Nevertheless, feed has to be withdrawn at some point before slaughter. This helps to avoid
contamination of the carcasses with intestinal contents during evisceration. The general rule is
that feed should be withdrawn approximately 6 to 10 hours before birds are to be slaughtered.
However, water should be available for as long as is practical

5. MANAGEMENT OF LAYER BIRDS

Introduction
Many years of genetic research have resulted in the production of docile, colour-sexable, brown
egg-layer birds with excellent feed efficiency and good liveability, producing superior high
quality brown eggs.

The use of sound poultry husbandry and management practices; properly controlled feeding to
regulate body weight and careful adherence to lighting recommendations and good sanitation
will help attain a high degree of the genetic potential of these improved egg-type breeds.

5.1. Rearing replacement pullets

The physical condition of the pullet at the time of sexual maturity may determine its productivity
during the laying period which usually lasts for about a year. Most producers rear their own
pullets from day old stage until the point of lay. This allows the producer to plan the periodic
replacement of his laying stock with birds that have been raised under their own standards of

15
housing and management. Other producers may specialise in raising pullets and then sell them
off when they reach point of lay.

Pullets are reared almost exclusively using the deep litter system. Their feeding programme
should be carefully managed so that they do not gain weight excessively and reach sexual
maturity prematurely. This would result in reduced egg production during the laying year. The
nutrient requirements of growing pullets are shown in Table 6. Rations can be formulated on
farm (which is the cheaper option) or purchased from commercial stockfeed manufacturers.

One way of controlling growth rate is by practising feed restriction. This is done a number of
ways; the first and most common method is to give a known amount of feed once in two days –
skip-a-day feeding regime. The other method is to lower the protein content in a feed so that
consumption is reduced and growth slowed. The latter method has the disadvantage that birds
tend to overeat to compensate for nutrient deficiencies.

The average target liveweights and cumulative feed intake for rearing pullets is summarised in
table 5.

Table 5: Target liveweights and cumulative feed intake during rearing phase

Age in weeks Liveweight in grams Est. cum. feed intake and feed type
1 to 4 285 600 g Chick Starter Mash
5 to 8 620 1800 g Chick Starter Mash
9 to 12 960 3400 g Layer Grower Mash
13 to 18 1460 6500 g Layer Grower Mash

5.1.1 Vaccination programme for pullets

The vaccination programme for pullets varies between places and is based on the disease
situation in the area. A veterinarian should be consulted in order to formulate a vaccination
programme which is adapted to the local disease situation. A basic pullet vaccination programme
applicable to most situations in Zimbabwe is shown below:

AGE DISEASE METHOD

Day-old Marek’s intramuscular at hatchery
Day-old Newcastle (NCD) spray at hatchery
10 day Infectious Bursal (IBD) drinking water
20 day IBD drinking water
30 day NCD drinking water
7 weeks Fowl Pox wing stab
9 weeks NCD drinking water
11 weeks Coryza subcutaneous / neck
16 weeks Coryza subcutaneous / neck
18 weeks NCD + Infectious Bronchitis subcutaneous / neck

16
5.2 De-beaking
Proper de-beaking can reduce feed wastage and it can also minimise vices such as feather
picking, vent pecking, bullying, cannibalism and egg eating. De-beaking is done at 6 to 10 days
of age and, or repeated between 8 to 12 weeks if need be. About one-half of both the upper and
the lower beak is removed and cauterised using a cherry red hot blade on a de-beaking machine.
Always provide water-soluble vitamins and minerals a few days prior to the de-beaking and for a
week afterwards to help eliminate stress and allow faster healing.

5.3 Lighting for replacement pullets

Light intensity, the length of the day light period and the pattern of daily change produce
biological responses associated with egg production in layers. Decreasing day length during
rearing will delay onset of laying, while increasing day length will hasten sexual maturity and the
onset of laying. Sexual maturity or egg production generally depends on the following (i)
minimum age 18 weeks which is determined genetically, (ii) a minimum body weight, (iii) a
nutrient intake to support egg production and (iv) a constant or increasing day-length of more
than 12 hours. This light stimulation can be provided artificially when the minimum weight
(Approx 1.5 kg) has been achieved.

In Zimbabwe, if the pullets are raised to reach point-of-lay in winter (June/July), then they are in-
season flock as the natural day-length will be naturally decreasing during period. However, if the
pullets are raised when the natural day-length is increasing, say from July to December, they the
flock is out of season, and the most practical way is to use the open type housing for rearing
pullets.

The recommended light intensity and duration (photoperiod) for pullets from day-old to end of
lay is epitomised as follows:
___________________________________________________________________
Time Light intensity Photoperiod
0 – 4 days 20 lux 23 hours
5 – 18 weeks 5 lux 8 hrs up to 14 wks; increased to
16 hrs by 18 weeks.
Laying period 5 lux 16 hrs (or more, but NOT less)
___________________________________________________________________

Others to be factors concerning lighting are:

o Keep the light bulbs clean,
o Do not expose the birds to direct sunlight,
o Replace faulty lamps regularly, and
o A light source with a clean reflector is better than one without a reflector.

17
5.4 Feeding Management for Layer birds

It is assumed that layers, unlike birds raised specifically for meat, regulate their feed intake.
Layers are generally reared on full feed (ad libitum). Amounts vary between 120 and 135
grams of feed per bird per day (or 45 kg /bird / year) depending on genetics, type of laying
facility, age of stock and environmental conditions (Table 6). Under large commercial set-ups,
the feed is offered to birds via the chain system. The chain system transports feed into the metal
feeder at precise times during the day. In general, 2 inches of feeder space is allotted per pullet
and 2.5 inches or more for each adult laying hen Table 6 illustrates the dietary protein and energy
recommendations and feed requirements based on age in of typical layer. Young birds are fed a
high protein diet (20 percent) during the first few weeks of life.

This level continuously decreases until it reaches approximately 12 to 15 percent proteins during
egg production. In addition to monitoring dietary protein, producers must closely examine other
ingredients. During the laying phase, lysine, methionine, calcium, and phosphorus are precisely
monitored to support maximum egg production. Once egg production begins, energy intake is
the critical factor controlling egg numbers. Therefore, the diet must contain an adequate
concentration of calories if small birds are going to be expected to perform to their full genetic
potential at peak and as the laying cycle continues. Feed should be blended for a few days during
change-over from one phase to next in order to allow smooth transition and to avoid upsetting
the birds’ digesting system.

If greater egg profits are to be realized during an entire laying cycle, it is essential that
replacement pullets attain proper body weight. Note that light breeds reach point-of-lay earlier
(20 weeks) than heavier breeds (22 weeks). A bird that remains small will lay small eggs at the
onset of egg laying. Once egg production begins, it is too late to correct body weight problems in
a flock. The smaller birds will remain small and the larger birds will remain large throughout the
laying cycle. Since feed intake is correlated with body weight increases, the decreased egg size
often seen in some young flocks is most likely a result of feed intake.

Table 6. General Feeding Guidelines for Layers.

Starter Grower Developer Pre-Layer

Nutrient Layer
(0-6 weeks) (6-8 wk) (8-15 wk) (15-18 wk)
Protein % 20.0 18.0 16.0 14.5 15.0
Met. Energy,
1325-1375 1350-1400 1375-1425 1350-1400 1300-1450
Kcal/0.5kg
Feed
2 kg /bird 5 kg/bird 120 – 135 g /b/d
requirements

Egg producers will normally attempt to get the largest number of high-quality eggs of the correct
size from each hen housed in the shortest period of time at the lowest cost. There are numerous
feeding and management programs that have an effect on their investment. Feeding programs are
designed to meet the nutritional needs of the hens. However, the profit margin is different with
each type of feeding program.

18
5.4.1 Restricted feeding for pullets and layers

The feeding programme has to be adapted to the target weight-for –age and to attain a high
uniformity (75 to 80 %) at point-of-lay. Limited feeding in rearing pullets is important for the
following reasons: to prevent over-consumption, birds will be more docile, less stress during
production, better feed utilisation, higher production and less wastage of feed. Restricted feeding
during rearing is desirable but not at point of lay. Restricted feeding can be achieved through the
“skip-a-day” feeding regiment which saves feed costs by about 20 %.

If a feed restriction program is implemented, it is important to formulate the diet to supply

adequate amounts of critical nutrients each day to the hen. The amino acid, vitamin and mineral
concentrations in the diet are more critical with limited feeding than with full feeding. In limited
feeding programs, the objective is to limit only energy without limiting the intake of critical
nutrients. The use of nutrient-dense diets is necessary for a “limited every day” feeding regime.
Energy intake cannot be altered effectively by simply varying diet energy concentration. This is
because, in general, the laying hen will consume the amount of feed necessary to meet her
metabolisable energy requirement.

When young pullet flocks appear to have stopped their production increase or have plateaued
(leveled off for several consecutive days), they will respond when “challenged” with additional
feed amounts of 0.5 kg per 100 birds added to their daily feed allowance.

Laying hens fed an energy-restricted diet have a lower maintenance requirement, and a hen
consuming less feed is more efficient and profitable. If a feed restriction program is used, it is
usually not started until the majority of the eggs being produced fall into the large size category.
Research has shown that during the laying period, the skip-a-day birds laid the same number of
eggs as the hens on a full feeding regime, but their total egg mass output was greater. Initiation
of a feed restriction program should commence later for layer strains of lower body weight,
particularly during periods of hot weather.

Note that during periods of stress, disease and medication, place birds on full feed. Return to
controlled feeding as soon as the flock has recovered.

5.4.2 Phase Feeding

A feeding program that uses only one type of feed during the entire laying period will be simple
and easy to manage, but costly. Such a program has to be designed to meet the peak nutritional
requirements of the hens at all times under all conditions. The feed has a high nutrient density to
meet the maximum requirements at the lowest level of feed consumption expected throughout
the year. This results in an over-fortified and overpriced feed during most of the laying cycle.
This simple feeding program is not normally used in today's advanced poultry industry.
However, there are still companies in some countries that use only one feed during the entire
laying cycle. The average feed conversion efficiency for layers is between 2.1 and 2.3 kg / kg
egg mass (or 2kg feed per dozen eggs).

19
In contrast, phase feeding is used extensively in Zimbabwe and involves the reduction of protein
level in the feed as the hen ages. Today, levels of other nutrients, along with protein and amino
acids, are lowered as the hen ages or when egg production in the flock declines to a certain
percentage. Different feeds are formulated for various stages of production. Usually, the number
of feeds ranges from two to four. As the number of feeds increases, so does the amount of
coordination needed to ensure that the correct feed is delivered to the correct age flock. Phase
feeding reduces feed costs as egg production decreases because each change in formula is
associated with a less fortified feed. For instance, a high-energy and high-protein layer feed
followed by a low-energy and low-protein layer feed have been designed for a two phase feeding
regime, with the former containing about 3.5 % calcium, while the latter feed contains 4 %
calcium for the older birds (+ 40 weeks old).

The effect of temperature on total feed consumption of the flock, and thus total nutrients
consumed, is not considered with a phase feeding program if no adjustments are made to the diet
as feed intake changes.

5.4.3 Home-mixing poultry feeds

Due to shrinkage in profit margins and the ever increasing cost of stockfeeds, a large number of
poultry producers are more inclined to mix their own poultry feed on farm or in the backyard.
For layer birds the following home-mixing programme based on a 3-phase feeding regime can be
recommended (Table 7).

Table 7: Home-mixing programme for layer-bird feeds

Chick Starter Mash Layer / Pullet Grower Mash Layers Mash

(feed 0 – 8 weeks) (feed 9 – 16 weeks) (feed 17 weeks – laying)

Chick starter maxi-pack 40 kg Grower maxi-pack 50 kg Layer maxi-pack 100 kg

add add add
Soya bean meal 360 kg Soya bean Meal 225 kg Soya bean Meal 250 kg
Crushed maize 600 kg Crushed maize 725 kg Crushed maize 650 kg
Total mix 1000 kg 1000 kg 1000 kg

OR OR OR
Mix 2 part Chick Starter Concentrate Mix 2 parts Grower Concentrate to Mix 2 parts Layer Conc.
to 3 parts crushed maize. 3 parts crushed maize to 3 parts crushed maize

5.5. Equipment for layers

For non-automated systems, feeders and waterers are necessary equipment for a laying flock.
Besides these items, containers for limestone / granite grit and oyster shell and roosts might be
included.

Provide at least three linear inches of feeder space per hen. One 4-foot trough, open on both
sides, is enough for 25 to 30 layers. Trough-type feeders can be purchased from local feed and

20
farm supply stores or from mail order houses (waterers and nests also), or may be constructed at
home (Figure 3). Trough-type feeders should be equipped with reels to keep birds out of the
trough. If tube-type hanging feeders are used, a 15-inch diameter pan will be adequate for up to
100 layers. The lip of the feeder should be level with the hens' backs.

Figure 3: Feeder layer birds

Fresh, clean water should be available at all times. This might require a water heater for winter
months. If trough-type waterers are used, at least one linear inch of waterer space per layer is
needed. If round, pan-type waterers are used, a capacity of two to three gallons of water for each
25 to 30 hens will provide enough water for 12 to 24 hours. Waterers should be adjusted to the
same height as the feeders. They can be placed on wire platforms four to six inches high to help
prevent wet litter and water contamination.

Equipment for rearing stage can be summarised as follows:

o Chick fonts (4 litres) - 1 font per 100 chicks

o Round drinkers - 1 X 40cm drinker for 100 birds
o Nipple drinkers - 6 to 8 birds per nipple
o Feeding tray - 1 tray per 50 chicks
o Round feeders - 3 X 38 cm per 100 birds.

5.6 Lighting for laying birds

If laying hens are receiving proper management, the most common reason for reduction of lay is
a reduction of light. The reproductive state of all birds is strongly regulated by the amount of
light that they receive each day. If hens are to maintain a constant state of egg production, they
must be subjected to at least 16 hours of light every day. This light can be provided from
sunlight, artificial light sources, or a combination.

21
The recommended rule of lighting for pullets and hens is:

Never increase light on growing birds, and never

decrease light on mature laying hens.

A violation of this rule results in undesirable hens that do not lay eggs. A good lighting program
for hens requires that light be provided at:

1. The proper length of time every day.

2. A minimum intensity.
3. The proper colour.

The recommended day length for laying hens is 16-18 hours daily. The minimum light intensity
is 1 foot-candle or sufficient light to clearly see the level of feed while standing over the feeder.
The stimulatory color of light is a yellow or orange that approximates the spectrum of sunlight.
Artificial light fixtures that provide excellent light for laying hens are incandescent bulbs, warm-
white fluorescent tubes, and many of the halogen lights that produce a yellowish colored light.

At about 21 weeks of age, pullets should receive an increase in day length to stimulate egg
production. If the pullets were grown on 12 hours of light, increase the light to 13 hours
immediately, and then increase it 15 minutes each week until 14 to 16 total hours of light per day
are reached. Hold this constant. If second-year layers are used, or if pullets have been grown on
14 hours of light per day, the length needs to be increased to 15 hours immediately. Add 15
minutes of light each week until 15 total hours are reached, and then hold constant.

Hens should not be exposed to a decreasing daylight. Artificial lights controlled with a time
clock should be used to hold the light-day constant. Use either morning and evening lights, or
both, to lengthen the daylight.

5.7. Housing for layers

The designing of appropriate layer hen housing embraces a range of diverse issues including hen
welfare (which includes hen health, production costs, food safety, occupational health and safety
and environmental issues).

In evaluating the acceptability of different types of layer hen housing systems, different people
place different emphasis on the relative importance of the aspects listed above.

There are basically three systems currently in general use - cages (often referred to as battery
cages), deep litter system (barns) and free-range; although the latter is not normally used for
commercial layer production.

22
5.7.1 Cages

Laying hens can be raised and housed in cage facilities, but this management system is not
widely practiced with home flocks. Cages can be installed in any small building or a shed-type
building can be constructed especially for cages.

Cages are required to provide a minimum of 450cm2 of floor space per bird (22 birds / sqm),
which may be calculated including the space under the baffle. Recently manufactured cages
measure 50cm X 50cm and house five hens, which allow 500cm2, unrestricted floor space per
hen if there is no baffle and down to 400cm2 unrestricted floor space per bird if the cage has a
10cm baffle.

The advantages of battery cages are:

1. They allow for the close control of various environmental factors that optimize egg
laying, such as temperature, humidity, and lighting.
2. Arranged in tiers along opposite walls of the layer house, battery cages have sloping
floors so that eggs roll forward onto a rack or conveyor belt, which facilitates collection.
3. Food and water are distributed automatically in the cages, and
4. Manure is collected beneath the cages on a moving belt or in a deep pit.
5. Reducing the incidence of parasitic infections such as coccodiosis and round worms that
are transmitted by manure.
6. The first cages housed one bird per cage, which allowed poor layers to be culled. Current
conventional cages generally house five birds.

Conventional cages do not provide hens with nest boxes, litter for foraging or dust bathing, or
perches.

While production levels from caged layers continued to improve, questions are asked about the
impact of traditional caged systems on the welfare of the birds. The effects on the birds of 365
days confinement in a wire cage with a sloping floor at a density, which resulted in continuous
physical, contact with other birds and the cage walls and often of a size not large enough to
accommodate a single bird’s wingspan are debated. The impact on the welfare of hens in the
absence of the environmental features that occupy the time of birds housed on the ground, such
as nest sites, friable material for foraging and dust bathing, are also questioned.

These may be overcome with relatively minor changes to cage design and stocking density
including:

 appropriate perches in appropriate locations (in cages with sufficient height)

 claw shortening devices
 fully opening cage doors
 sufficient space to allow birds to move freely, scratch etc.
 designing and constructing cages without entrapment points

23
5.7.2 Deep litter system

Birds are on the ground and free to move about with access to litter. They are also termed "deep
litter" systems. Nest boxes are provided in barns.

The main disadvantage of barns is high mortality, often related to feather pecking, cannibalism
and parasitic disease. In addition, unstable social groups can occur because of large numbers of
birds. Producers are currently developing the "right" combination of bird strain, rearing
management and layer house design and management to minimise these problems in large
flocks.

Equipment for laying hens (deep litter or floor system) can be summarised as follows:

o Chick fonts (4litres) - 50 chicks per font

o Chick trays (plastic)
o Round drinkers (bell)
o Nipple drinkers
o Round / Tube feeders
o Nest / laying boxes
- 50 chicks per tray
- 1 X 40 cm drinker for 100 birds
- 4 to 6 birds per nipple
- 4 X 38 cm feeders per 70 chicks
- 1 nest for 5 birds (26 cm X 30 cm X 30 cm)

Common laying boxes can be made out of wood or metal, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Typical laying boxes for deep litter systems.

24
1

Wooden or
metal box

Laying
holes
60 – 75cm

Perches

30cm

5.7.3 Other Systems

(a) Furnished / enriched cages

These cages provide perches, a nest, some litter, and more space per bird than conventional
cages.

(b) Aviaries and Percheries

These are similar to barns, but have multi-tiered platforms (aviaries) or perches (percheries),
nests and feeders to make use of the height of the shed.

The home flock layer house does not need to be elaborate or expensive. The basic requirements
are that it provides sufficient floor space, protection from weather and predators, and is well
ventilated but free from drafts.

A house temperature range of 8° to 29°C is desirable for economy of egg production. Moisture
and ammonia buildup is a common problem in laying houses and fresh air should be drawn in
without excessive drafts on the hens. A well-insulated house with controlled ventilation, filled to
capacity with hens will provide the necessary body heat for maintaining a desirable winter egg
production temperature range. Supplemental heating may be necessary during extreme cold
periods. Crowding the birds can produce more body heat during the winter months, but may

25
result in cannibalism and will make maintenance of good litter and air conditions in the house
more difficult.

It must be noted that that there is no ideal system as different housing systems have their
strengths and weaknesses with respect to welfare of hens (including their health), food safety for
consumers, requirements for labour and husbandry skills, occupational health and safety for
operators and environmental protection.

6. EGG COLLECTION

Collection of eggs can be done manually or through automated systems in battery cages. Manual
collection would consist of egg baskets or an egg cart on which egg trays are stacked. The eggs
are manually removed into egg trays. Be careful not to stack more than six eggs on top of one
another. Cracked eggs in manual collection systems can be due to:

(i) Cage floors to steep,

(ii) Infrequent gathering,
(iii) Poor shell quality,
(iv) Damaged floors or insufficient bedding,
(v) High bird density,
(vi) Rough handling,
(vii) Stacking trays too high,
(viii) Poor quality egg trays.

Automated collection consists of a system of conveyors that transfer the eggs to a central
collection point. It is very important that all egg collection equipment be maintained in a high
standard of cleanliness. Hand washing is recommended over high-pressure machine washing.

During the process of gathering eggs, observation of the following rules would help to ensure
that quality is maintained;

• Eggs to be placed round ends up, this reduces breakage and improves holding quality
• Broken and dirty eggs as well as exceptionally large eggs should be placed in separate
egg trays
• Egg trays should not be stacked more than 6 trays per stack.

26
 7. RECORD SYSTEMS

Records are important to assess the performance of any business venture. In the event of any
complaints relating to poor growth, drop in production or disease infection, records will assist the
poultry veterinarian or the field technical advisors for stockfeed, chick or pharmaceutical
suppliers in their trouble-shooting.
In egg production, the records are tailored to give the following information:

Daily egg production: total number of eggs produced per day

Average egg weight: Weight of a sample of eggs divided by the sample size.

%Hen day production: Number of eggs produced during a certain period divided by the
number of hens responsible for the production.

Daily feed consumption: Amount of feed consumed daily (usually expressed as g/bird)

Daily water consumption in ml/bird must be on a daily basis

House temperature recorded daily

Daily mortality and cull birds removed

Weekly weight: the liveweight of a sample of birds divided by the sample size. This
done mainly for broilers

The daily records are transferred to weekly flock charts, which are accumulated over an entire
production cycle. The records are useful to build up historical information on flock performance,
house performance, breed comparisons etc. These records can also be compared against
performance standards provided by breeders. They also form the basis upon which management
can be improved and in finding faults if there are any.

8. SELECTION AND CULLING OF LAYERS

Under present economic conditions it is important to remove all hens not reaching a certain
standard of production in the flock. The cost of egg production, which is already high, is greatly
increased by the presence of non-producing hens consuming high priced feeds. The elimination
of non-profitable hens can be done with accuracy when the characteristics of egg producers are
known.

Culling refers to the sorting of the desirable and undesirable hens. The objective is, not only to
eliminate the non-layers, but also to determine the laying period of the remainder. Forecasting of
future production is made based on past production.

8.1. Pre-requisites for successful culling

The ability to accurately judge the length of time a hen has been laying, the rate of her
production and her vacation periods requires more study and considerable practice.

The first requisite of successful culling is a normal flock that has escaped serious disease
epidemics, is physically fit and has received good feeding, housing, and general management.

27
The age of both hens and pullets should also be considered.

8.2 The kind of layers to cull

Generally, it would be more profitable to eliminate the cull early in life. Birds of low vigour that
are crow-headed, or have long rangy bodies, as well as slow- maturing, off-type individuals,
should be culled before the pullets begin to lay.

8.3 When to cull

Systematic culling should start at 20 weeks of age and continue periodically about once a month.
The principal object of culling at the start of lay is to eliminate non-laying hens. Health, vigour,
size, trueness to standard type and colour, as well as heavy egg production, are points to consider
in culling at the later stages. Some hens are able to stand the strain of high egg production and
maintain good physical condition, while others lay themselves out resulting in low persistence
and reduced rate of lay. The first thing the culler wants to know when examining a hen is
whether or not she is laying. Hens which are laying are usually kept if the price of eggs makes
them profitable. If, upon later examination, they are found to be medium producers only, they
can then be disposed of.

8.4 How to cull

The flock should be confined in the poultry house the day they are to be culled, or in the event
there is no house available, they should be taken from the roosts and cooped the night before. It
is necessary to handle every bird and consider all of the characters to be discussed, before
passing judgment. The culler should be able to determine three things (Table 8):

Present production,

Persistence of production, and

Rate of production.

28
Table 8: Summarised culling chart

Judging for present production

Character Laying hen Non-laying hen
Vent Large, dilated, oblong and moist Small, contracted, round and dry
Pubic bone Flexible and wide apart Rigid close together
Comb Large, red, full and glossy Small, pale and scaly
Wattles and lobes Prominent, soft and smooth Inconspicuous, rough and dry

Judging past production

Character Large laying period Short laying period
Vent Bluish white Flesh coloured
Eyelids Thin and edges white Thick yellow tinted
Eye Prominent, keen and sparkling Listless and sunken
Earlobes Enamel white Yellow tinted
Beak Pearly white Yellow tinted
Face Clean cut sunken Full, well fleshed, yellowish
Shanks White flat, thin creased Yellow, round smooth
Plumage Worn, soiled, lifeless close-feathered Signs of moulting, loose
feathered

Judging rate of production

Character High rate Low rate
Keel Slopes downward Slopes upward
Pubic bones Tips thin, point straight out Tips thick, curved in
Capacity Four-five fingers Two fingers
Abdomen Soft, pliable dilated Fatty, hard and contracted
Rump Broad, width carried back Narrow, cramped
Lateral process Prominent, pointed outward Hard to find, pointed inward
Skin Soft, thin, loose and silky Thick, dry, underlined with fat

8.5 How long should hens be kept?

For market eggs, good hens may be kept at a profit two or three years, Hens on the average give
their greatest egg production the first or pullet year and diminish 15 to 25 percent each
succeeding year. White Leghorns are better second year producers than Plymouth Rocks or
Rhode Island Reds. Low-producing birds may lay more the second year than the first year of
production, while the middle group, those laying 100 to 200 eggs the first year decline about 22
percent the second year and high producers, those laying 200 to 300 eggs, decline about 44
percent the second year. Before production drops to uneconomic levels some producers might
consider force moulting the layers to rejuvenate the laying cycle.

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8.6 Forced moulting

Forced moulting can be practised to give the hen a rest at the end of a long period of intensive
egg production. It is practised in order to carry the birds to a second cycle of egg production
because of lack of cash for replacement chicks or pullets. The normal moulting cycle for hens
can take 4 months, but the forced moulting process usually compresses this period to 6 to 8
weeks.
The conventional force moulting programme involves water and feed withdrawal and light
reduction as summarised in Table 9.

Table 9: A conventional force moulting programme

Day Feed Water Light

1 and 2 None none 8 hrs
3 4.5 kg layer feed / 100 hens water “
4 None none “
5 Same as day 3 water “
6 None none “
7 Same as day 3 water “
8 None none “
9 Same as day 3 water “
10 through to Return to controlled feed restriction – 75 % of full- feed intake water “
55 - 60
61 Full-feed layer ration water 16 hrs

(Source: M.O. North, 1984, Commercial Chicken Production Manual, 3rd Edn, AVI Pub.)

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9. TROUBLE-SHOOTING IN THE LAYING HOUSE

Most of the problems that occur in the laying house are attributed to management errors, disease,
and poor feed quality. Trouble-shooting is the art of observation to spot errors in management.
Highlighted below are some of the common problems encountered in the laying house and their
respective remedial actions (Table 10).

Table 10: Common problems in the laying house

Problem or Signs Corrective action

Decreased water consumption (contamination, feed
sediment in troughs, blockage, slime)
Decreased feed intake (stratum of fermented feed)
Over-consumption of feed (feed in manure)
Poor shell quality (soft, misshapen eggs)
Wet droppings (flies, dirty eggs)
Bloody droppings (disease)
Scrub, clean and disinfect waterers,
Flush out nipples at high pressure.
Throw away stale feed, sterilise troughs, change batch of
feed, check house temperature
Skip-a-day feeding, use mash instead of pellets, don’t
over-fill feeders
Check Ca levels in feed, sprinkle coarse limestone grit
(5 g/ bird/ week)
Check salt levels in feed, check litter in nesting boxes.
Treat with antibiotics

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Worms in droppings (decreased egg production, high
feed conversion)
External parasites (lice. fleas, mites)
High breakages in eggs (method of collection, disease,
stress)
Vent pecking, cannibalism, vent prolapse
De-worm whole flock with antihelmintic
Inspect individual birds and treat whole flock, laying
house & equipment with powdered insecticide / tobacco
dust, depopulate between batches.
Put eggs straight into egg trays, check nutritional
imbalance- Ca, adequacy of nest boxes,
Add salt to drinking water, check light intensity, assess
stress levels

10. COST MANAGEMENT

Commercial poultry production is about making profit. It is therefore important to control costs
tightly so that they are kept at reasonable levels while attempting to increase income.

The costs elements of an egg production enterprise are as follows;

• Stock procurement against sales value of the birds at the end of production period
(generally referred to as the livestock cost)
• Cost of feed (usually between 60 and 70 % of total variable costs)
• Operating costs (labour, electricity, vehicles, consumables, machinery etc)
• Financial costs (capital investments, interest on loans start up costs, depreciation)

A typical broiler costing model should have the following line items:

Item Cost $ / kg live

Cost of day-old chicks x
Feed x
Vaccines x
Medication x
Gas x
Labour x
Disinfection x
Litter x
Fuel for tractor x
Repairs and Maintenance x
Electricity x
Insurance x
Total cost X

Poor production raises the cost of producing a dozen of eggs or a kilogram of meat and this
reduces profitability. Such poor performance may be due to:

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 • Poor production performance
• Feed wastage
• High stock losses
• Poor first grade yield
• Failure to meet market requirements

Acknowledgements

Although some of the ideas are derived from the authors’ practical experiences in the poultry and
stockfeeds industries; the authors have also consulted various texts including the following:
o Agrifoods Broiler / Layer Management Manual
o Bovans Goldline Management Guide
o Crest Breeders International Poultry Management Guide.

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