Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197

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Case Studies on Transport Policy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cstp

Analysis of electric vehicle trends, development and policies in India

Vedant Singh a, *, Virender Singh b, S. Vaibhav b
a
State Project Implementation Unit, Himachal Pradesh, India
b
Career Point University, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: India has been falling behind other countries in the deployment of electric vehicle (EV), as it has no explicit
Electric vehicles policy or strategy. This contrasts with the USA, China, Norway and Germany, who have offered substantial
Air pollution subsidies and incentives to upgrade to EVs, to minimize air pollution and fossil fuel consumption. The main
Electric vehicles market penetration
purpose of this paper was to review the policies, strategies, and technical considerations for developing EVs, by
Automobile industry
India
analyzing both the Indian EV market and the global evolution of EVs. This study also considered the development
and research status of EVs in India. In addition, the current deployment of EVs in India, together with the
challenges and opportunities within this sector, was explored and a strength weakness opportunity and chal­
lenges (SWOC) analysis performed. This study will encourage policy makers, government and businesses to
incentivize the deployment of EVs in India in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It was concluded that the
Indian government should provide more research funds for the development of both EVs and the charging
infrastructure. Also, central government could play a major role in coordinating the activities of the state and EV
related businesses, to support the emerging Indian EV sector.

1. Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the potential to solve interrelated
problems such as air pollution, depletion of non-renewable energy
sources, increasing oil prices, rising oil imports, and demands for
“green” development (Bradley, 2021; Lin and Wu, 2018; McCollum
et al., 2018; Singh and Sharma, 2014). However, the adoption of EVs
faces several challenges. For instance, increasing number of vehicles
with internal combustion (IC) engines is worsening air quality. The
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2010) of India estimated that
75% of cities in the country are at risk for increase of particulate matter
(PM10 and PM2.5) pollution, and 50% are approaching the critical level
for carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NOx) (Kumar and
Revankar, 2017; Mohanty and Kotak, 2017).
Worldwide, the transportation sector is responsible for 24% of all
CO2 emissions from fuel combustion; three-quarters are from road
transport (International Energy Agency, 2020; Singh et al., 2020b). This
level of emission is harmful to the environment as well as human health
(Kumar, 2017; Lott and Daly, 2015). According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA, 2020a), the worldwide fuel demand will grow by

Abbreviations: AMP, Automotive Mission Plan; ABB, Asea Brown Boveri; ARAI, Automotive Research Association of India; BS, Bharat Stage; BEV, Battery Electrical
Vehicles; BNVSAP, Bharat New Vehicle Safety Assessment Program; BOV, Battery Operated Vehicles; CO2, Carbon Dioxide; CPCB, Central Pollution Control Board;
CO, Carbon-Monoxide; CDAC, Centre of Development of Advance Computing; CAGR, Compound Annual Growth Rate; DHI, Department of Heavy Industry; DST,
Department of Science and Technology; EV, Electric Vehicle; E2Ws, Electric Two Wheelers; E3Ws, Electric Three Wheelers; E4Ws, Electric Four Wheelers; FAME,
Faster Adoption of Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicle; EESL, Energy Efficiency Services Limited; FCV, Fuel Cell Vehicle; GHG, Greenhouse Gas; GWH, Giga
Watt Hour; GDP, Gross Domestic Product; GOI, Government of India; HC, Hydrocarbons; IISC, Indian Institute of Science; MMT, Million Metric Tons; MSME, Minor
and Medium Enterprises; MNRE, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy; MORTH, Ministry of Road Transport and Highway; NEMMP, National Electric Mobility
Mission Plan; NOX, Nitrogen Dioxide; NIT, National Institute of Technology; NIT-BHU, National Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar; NTPC, National Thermal
Power Corporation Limited; OPEC, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; OEM, Original Equipment Manufacturer; OCED, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development; OMI, Ola Mobility Institute; PB, Lead; PM, Particulate Matter; PHEV, Plug-In Hybrids; RMI, Rocky Mountain Institute; R & D,
Research and Development; SME, Society of Manufacturer of EV; SO2, Sulphur Dioxide; SWOT, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats; TNC, Trans­
portation Network Company; TWH, Terrawatt -hour; TPEM, Technology Platform for Electric Mobility; USA, United States of America; UK, United Kingdom; VOC,
Volatile Organic Compound; VAT, Value Added Tax; ZEV, Zero Emission Vehicle.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9882034700.
E-mail address: er.vedu@gmail.com (V. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2021.06.006
Received 1 November 2020; Received in revised form 8 April 2021; Accepted 10 June 2021
Available online 18 June 2021
2213-624X/© 2021 World Conference on Transport Research Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Singh et al.
5.7 million barrels per day (mb/d) during 2019-2025. According to the
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (World Health Organization,
2018), much of this demand will originate from India, which consumed
193.745 million metric tons (MMT) of petroleum products in
2017–2018. India relies on imports for approximately 81.7% of its crude
oil requirements and ranks third in terms of energy consumption after
the USA and China (Energy Policy in India) (Hage and Rojatkar, 2018;
Energy statics report, 2017). Based on this prediction, India’s reliance on
oil imports will continue to rise, which will result in a surge in price of
oil and natural gas.
To protect the environment and reduce oil consumption, scientists
and many governments have proposed EVs as a reliable alternative to
petrol and diesel-run vehicles. However, government policies and prices
have an enormous impact on the sale of EVs (Contestabile and Alajaji,
2018). For instance, American electric car manufacturer Tesla Inc. could
not enter the market in India owing to local sourcing norms and supply
issues (Tripathy et al., 2018; Energy economic times, 2018a). The cur­
rent sales of EVs in India are minuscule in comparison with those in the
USA, China, Norway, and several other countries. Furthermore, the
global share of EVs, including electric buses, E4Ws (electric cars), and
E2Ws (bikes and scooters), is negligible (Shukla et al., 2014; ACMA
report, 2017). However, in the first half of 2018, a record volume of
783,000 units of plug-in EVs were delivered worldwide, which repre­
sents a gain of 66% compared to the previous year. In addition, the
initial results for July show a rise of 53% compared to the previous year
(EV-Volumes, 2020). Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) account for 64% of
the global EV volume (maximum value has reached to 88%), whereas
plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) account for 36%. Overtime, the overall average
based on BEVs and PHEVs has varied considerably (E-mobility Index,
2018; EV-Volumes, 2020). The sales of EVs along with market share are
shown in Fig. 1 (EV-Volumes, 2020). These data can be used to develop
standards and support improvements in electric mobility (e-mobility)
worldwide.
EV penetration levels (Kumar et al., 2015), EV policies (Sierzchula
et al., 2014, Figenbaum, 2017), charging infrastructure (Gnann et al.,
2018; Lokesh and Hui Min, 2017; Li et al., 2016a), battery costs and
electrification (Levay et al., 2017; Hagman et al., 2016), EV efficiency
(Wager et al., 2014; Strehler et al., 2017), and government initiatives
(Kumar et al., 2015; NEMMP, 2020) have been identified as the in­
dicators of growth and development of the EV market in India. More­
over, new technological discoveries in EV research and the main trends
regarding the adoption of best practices globally for e-mobility are
particularly relevant to India.
Fig. 1. Global EV sale (2020) envisioned for top seventeen countries (EV-
Volumes, 2020).
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Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197
1.1. Need for and objectives of research
The purpose of this study is to provide an extensive review of Indian
electric mobility. Despite the familiarization of environmental pollution
through conventional vehicles and the depletion of fossil fuels, EV’s
widespread adoption is still among the foremost national objectives.
This study aims to provide complete information on the current Indian
EV status, including EV deployment and future market trends. Part of the
study concentrates on research and development (R&D), which includes
government, private and educational institutions and their role in the
development of a strong research ecosystem for EV in India. This paper
also reviews the complete literature on government EV transportation
policies and legislature documents promoting EV in India. The policy
comparison with other countries will help motivate policymakers and
provide potential policy suggestions for EV adoption.
The present research is focused on the primary objective of providing
detailed literature related to the Indian EV context, the current R&D
status, and government EV policies. The secondary objective is finding
out what hinders a progressive EV path. It is necessary to analyse the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges in this area for
sustainable EV development. And a tertiary objective is providing policy
suggestions to encourage the government and private sector to pursue
EV’s faster adoption.
The paper is organized as follows. In section 2, the current status and
future trends of Indian electric mobility are discussed. In section 3, EV
research and development and the roles of different partners are sum­
marized. The Indian EV transportation policy and potential policy op­
tions are discussed in section 4. A SWOC analysis is generated and
abridged in section 5. Then, in section 6, recommendations are provided
for the faster adoption of EV in India and can be implemented in other
nations. Finally, in section 7, the conclusions and limitations of the study
are presented.
2. Current and future trends for electric mobility in India
2.1. Current status
India has the fourth-largest automobile industry in the world. The
industry is expanding with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
7.01%; it encompassed 4.02 million units (except for two wheelers or
motorcycles) in 2018 (Bhattacharjya et al., 2018). According to present
statistics, India’s vehicle production is more than 25 million units, and
there are over 210 million licensed vehicles on India’s road network.
Bikes have the maximum share (79%), followed by passenger vehicles
(14%). The remaining 7% is composed of commercial vehicles that
include three-wheelers and light commercial vehicles (IBEF, 2017a). In
terms of passenger cars and commercial vehicle sales, this industry
represents Asia’s third-largest area of economic growth at 9.5%, the
fastest among major global markets (India economic news, 2018).
Comparatively, electric vehicles in India have shown slow growth in
terms of the electric mobility with unclear policies. For example, China
has offered strong endowments and stimuli to advance battery-powered
vehicles in its endeavor to reduce its dependency on oil imports (Tyfield
and Zuev, 2018). Automobile manufacturers in China and the US have
sold more than 337,000 and 170,000 units of EVs in 2016, respectively.
Manufacturers in India, however, have sold only 450 units in 2016
(International Energy Agency (IEA) report, 2017). In addition, the
global current stock of BEVs and PHEVs with market share has shown an
incremental increase compared with that in the previous year (Fig. 2)
(DBS, 2018).
However, the trends of electric vehicle possession in India, particu­
larly electric two-wheelers (E2W), have been largely incremental. For
example, in 2018, the number of E2W vehicles crossed 475,000 units,
although only 114,000 units were sold under the faster adoption and
manufacturing of hybrid and electric vehicles (FAME) scheme (Fig. 3).
The quantity of electric four wheelers (E4W) was nearly 7,000 units,
V. Singh et al. Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197

active filters can be helpful in EV chargers to encounter the problem of

harmonic-distortion (NITI Aayog, 2018a).
Several government sectors and private entities have been engaged
to achieve the objective of 100% electric vehicles in India. For example,
a transportation network company (TNC) recently initiated an EV pilot
project that combined a charging substructure with traditional charging
and swappable battery infrastructure (Patil and Abhiram, 2017). The
largest electricity producing utility in India, NTPC has declared strate­
gies to enter the EV charging context and create a charging framework
for the urban areas of Delhi and Noida (Raj and Bhaskar, 2017). Energy
Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) is currently accepting offers for 4,000
charging points in the national capital region (NCR) (Mukherjee, 2018).
As per an investigation by the Lawrence Berkeley National Labora­
tory, even if the EV objectives are met, India’s overall power demand
would not have changed by much, only adding approximately 6% (23
GW) to its anticipated peak and 3% (82 TWh/year) to meet the elec­
tricity demand. However, this extra load signifies a considerable
financial opportunity for the country’s power distribution companies
(DISCOMs). A recent study estimated that the aggregate expenditure of
EV charging incurred on EV proprietors will be approximately USD 11
Fig. 2. Electric vehicle region-wise sale in India Jan-Dec 2020 (JMK research.
billion (RS 70,000 crore) each year by 2030 (Abhyankar et al., 2017).
com, 2020).
Before the objective was declared, industry experts assessed that the
overall request for EV batteries would exceed 1,300 GWh/y by 2030.
India’s declaration to acquire 800 GWh/y from batteries would expand
this market prediction by 60%. It would likewise make India one of the
biggest markets for EV batteries (Bloomberg new energy finance, 2017).
The current charging deployment status of India in comparison with
other countries is shown in Fig. 4 (Statista website, 2019; Plug in India,
2020).

2.3. Future trends in the Indian EV market

Indian automaker Tata Motors unveiled its EV power train, Ziptron,

designed to realize autonomous control in all its future EVs. It will have a
permanent magnet alternating current (AC) motor with a residue and
water-resistant battery framework that satisfies IP67 guidelines. Ziptron
will utilize the regenerative braking technology, which recoups energy
Fig. 3. Segment wise sale of electric vehicle in India (Society of Manufacturers
generated under braking conditions to charge the battery (Money con­
of Electric Vehicles).
trol website, 2019). Hyundai is also working on the next generation of
hydrogen fuel cell EVs (Inteliment official website, 2019). Meanwhile,
while 6,000 were sold under FAME-India. More than 1,750,000 units of Mahindra is collaborating with Auroville, a municipality in the State of
electric three wheelers (E3W) were sold (Society of Manufacturers of Tamil Nadu, India, to advance a holistic ecosystem of Mahindra EVs,
EVs) (Society of Manufacturers of Electric Vehicles (SMEV) official
website, 2018).
India’s vehicle industry is expected to reach $250–$280 billion by
2026 and shows a high capacity for development (IBEF, 2017b). But
automobile sector is in a beginning period of advancement with EVs.
Hence, the biggest manufacturers are afraid to invest in this new vehicle
technology due to high cost of investment and charging infrastructure
(Kumar et al., 2015; Huo et al., 2007).

2.2. EV deployment status

The Government of India recently proposed to replace 100% of ve­

hicles in India with EVs by 2030. However, with just 308 network EV
charging stations in the whole nation, this goal warrants more support
(Plug in India, 2020). Additionally, the relevant policies and infra­
structure are complex and inadequate. Hence, the deployment of an
open EV charging framework will help the country achieve this goal and
benefit its environment. Moreover, worldwide experience suggests
upgrading power grid due to quite loaded distribution channels and
additional electricity capacity is much required to support charging
infrastructure for EVs. In India, adding banks of chargers may be easier
and less expensive by managing and upgrading distribution trans­
formers. Furthermore, grid stability can also disturb the distribution Fig. 4. Indian current charging deployment status comparatively with other
channels due to harmonic distortion while charging EVs. Therefore, countries (Plug in India, 2020; Statista website, 2019).

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V. Singh et al.
smart parking infrastructure, a software platform for next generation
mobility (NEMO), and charging infrastructure (Inteliment official web­
site, 2019). Suzuki Motors Corporation will start production of lithium-
ion batteries at a Gujarat plant in 2020; this may minimize the cost of
battery imports (Magzter official website, 2019).
In the future, e-robo-taxis with autonomous driving mechanisms and
shared mobility may enter the Indian market in upcoming years
(Smartcities India, 2019). An intelligent transportation system to facil­
itate vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications
will be installed in EVs for safety and traffic management. However,
there is no study in the literature conducted by relevant authorities in
India that provides information on the future trends, largely due to poor
market penetration of EVs.
2.4. EV battery research in India
In recent development on EV battery technology, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Bombay in collaboration with Shiv Nadar University
claims to have developed lithium-sulphur batteries which are more cost
effective than lithium-ion batteries and two times more energy efficient
(Economic Times, 2020b). The battery will work on the principal of
green technology, by using sulfur as by-products of petroleum industry,
cardanol as copolymer accessible from bio-renewable feed-stock, and for
cathodic material clove oil were used for manufacturing. To decrease the
dependency on lithium-ion battery import, government concentrating
on alternate research options in metal ion and metal air-batteries. In this
regard, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, Defence Research
Development Organization (DRDO) and Indian Space Research Orga­
nisation (ISRO) were engaged to carry out research in advance battery
technology (NITI Aayog, 2018b).
Moreover, in the advancement of battery technology, IIT-Madras has
found vanadium redox flow battery as an alternative to lithium-ion and
lead-acid batteries (Economic Times, 2020a). The vanadium flow bat­
tery has advantages over lithium for example; recycling property, easy
scalability, and non-flammable. In aluminium-ion battery, government
have tie up with four IITs for the advancement of battery innovation due
to low material cost of aluminium, low flammability, and high volu­
metric capacity than lithium and cobalt. Moreover, hydrogen, iron
sulphur, zinc, metal-ion are also potential battery options in the field of
battery technology in India.
The lithium-ion battery market is at preliminary stage in India, with
lithium manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) and lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePo) chemistries being the most widely recognized configuration
(International Energy Agency, 2018). On account of li-ion battery, the
cathode comprises of a metal oxide (LiMO2) and anode is comprised of
permeable carbon (graphite), alongside lithium electrolyte. Most battery
producers and specialists are creating innovation around this by
changing the electrolyte, be it silicone, graphene, hydrogen energy
component, to guarantee longer battery life cycle and improve the
proficiency of the battery (Diwan, 2019).
2.5. Feasibility of petrol/diesel vehicle replacement with EVs by major
polluters
Following the Paris Agreement on climate change, nations respon­
sible for 97% of worldwide emissions submitted their climate targets
(OPEC, 2017). India proposed climate commitments for minimizing the
emissions intensity by 33–35%, reducing carbon emissions by 60–65%,
and increasing the capacity of existing electric power grids through
renewable energy resources by 40% by 2030 (World Health Organiza­
tion, 2018). Here, we provide examples of various countries and the
amount of pollution they would reduce by adopting EVs.
By replacing all freight and cargo vehicles with the EV equivalent
while retaining the energy mix, China could diminish NOx, PM2.5, and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by 10%, 0.2%, and 7.8%, respec­
tively. However, this would incrementally increase SO2 by 3.5% (Ke
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Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197
et al., 2017). Similarly, in Madrid and Barcelona, 40% EV trans­
formation would decrease NOx emissions by over 10%, but not PM10
(Soret et al., 2014). In Taiwan, 100% EV conversion along with all
excess power originating from thermal power plants would reduce CO,
VOC, NOx, O3, and PM2.5 contamination by 85%, 79%, 7%, 39%, and
7.2%, respectively, while increasing SO2 by 11% (Li et al., 2016b).
Belgium, with its huge share of electricity from nuclear energy, would
have lowered emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and PM with EVs in contrast
to diesel and petrol vehicles (Rangaraju et al., 2015). Thus, EVs can
reduce all major air pollutants but increase SO2. Hence, the increase in
EV penetration will cause this pollutant to increase (Vidhi and Shriv­
astava, 2018).
In New Delhi, motorcycles are responsible for high levels of CO, PM,
VOC, hydrocarbon (HC), and lead (Pb). Automobiles emit higher
amounts of CO2, VOCs, and Pb emissions but lower levels of SO2 and CO
emissions. Buses are accountable for the most NOx and SO2. However,
autorickshaws and taxies contribute less to air pollution because ma­
jority of them now use compressed natural gas (CNG). The emission
factors of various pollutants are listed in Fig. 5 (Ramachandra et al.,
2015; Ramachandra, 2004; Singh et al., 2017).
3. Electric vehicle research and development in India (roles of
different partners)
The various departments and Ministries working to promote electric
mobility in India are shown in Table 1 (IBEF, 2018; NITI Aayog, 2017).
For instance, the Ministry of Power (MoP) proposed schemes to convert
conventional vehicles into electric ones by 2030. The Ministry of Heavy
Industries & Public Enterprise (MHI&PE) manages subsidies under
FAME. The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) is working on green
urban transport schemes and promoting e-buses. The Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways (MoRTH) is writing a report titled “Move in
India,” in cooperation with the World Bank, to promote State trans­
portation, especially e-buses. Furthermore, the Government has shifted
FAME to its policy think tank, NITI Aayog, for further actions, report
preparation, and connected mobility efforts to encourage future clean,
inexpensive, profitable, and reliable transportation opportunities (UITP
official website, 2018).
3.1. Government sector
The Government of India has collaborated with several agencies to
provide flexibility to industries including EVs working toward an
innovative ecosystem. The Department of Science and Technology (DST)
cooperated with the Department of Heavy Industry (DHI) to create the
Technology Platform for Electric Mobility (TPEM). The DHI will govern
the economic aspects of the program while the DST will preside over the
execution arm (DHI-DST technology platform for electric mobility
(TPEM), 2018).
Furthermore, recognizing the need for native simulation tools and
platforms to the EV industry, the Automotive Research Association of
India (ARAI)—in collaboration with IITB Mumbai, CDAC Thir­
uvanthapuram, and IISc Bangalore—created an offline real-time simu­
lator for HEV/EV frameworks (ARAI, 2018a). Similarly, to ensure
suitability for automotive traction applications, ARAI and the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO) have teamed up to assess lithium-
ion battery cells. This is one of the key initiatives undertaken by the
ARAI to develop and enhance EV technology (ARAI., ISRO, 2018b).
The MoRTH, along with other ministries such as the Ministry of
Environment and Forest, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Min­
istry of Power, and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, are
also involved in the formulation of standards related to safety, emis­
sions, noise, fuels, electricity consumption, and alternatively fueled
vehicles (NAP, 2018). In this regard, major administrative declarations
have been put forth in the past, for example, skipping of Bharat Stage
(BS)-V discharge standards and prior presentation of BS-VI from 2020,
V. Singh et al.
Fig. 5. Segment wise analysis (emission factors g/km) of different polluters of road transport (Ramachandra et al., 2015; Ramachandra, 2004; CPCB 2021).
and the necessity of corporate normal fuel utilization guidelines for the
National Auto Policy (NAP) moving toward usage of the Bharat New
Vehicle Safety Assessment Program (BNVSAP, 2017).
In response to the reducing technology costs and new business, NITI
Aayog in collaboration with various ministries and industry partners is
working on model innovation for driving the world’s transition to
renewable energy and EVs (Government of India (GOI), 2018a)[72].
3.2. Private sector
NITI Aayog has employed ABB, a Swiss–Swedish robotics and auto­
mation technology company, and a few original equipment manufac­
turers (OEMs) to create EV charging models. The organization
demonstrated its Terra HP quick charging framework at the MOVE
Global Mobility Summit 2018; the framework controls a vehicle for 200
km on a solitary charge of 8 min (ICICI direct research coverage India.
ABB, 2018a; Economic times, 2018b). In 2017, EESL procured 10,000
four-wheeler EVs, the world’s single largest EV acquisition to date
(Economic Times, 2017). In the past, a few producers did endeavor to
create charging infrastructure themselves. For instance, in 2010, Elec­
trotherm India, Ltd. worked with nearby carport proprietors in an area
of 3 km at cities such as Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, and
Bangalore to introduce charging stations (Business standard, 2018a). A
comparable plan was additionally enunciated by Hero Electric, which
aimed to set up 10,000 charging stations by the end of 2009–2010
(Business standard, 2018b). However, there are currently only 308
community charging stations in India (Plug in India website, 2019).
In 2010, Mahindra and Mahindra, an Indian multinational auto­
maker launched “REVA,” India’s first electric car. After 2 years,
Mahindra Electric produced e2o, an EV hatchback, which was later
upgraded to e2o designs for four-wheeler segments (Autotech review,
2018).
Additionally, Tata Motors made a breakthrough in India’s EV market
in August 2017 with its “Nano EV.” In December 2017, after winning an
EESL tender, Tata Motors provided its first group of 350 “Tigor” EVs to
the Indian government. Maruti Suzuki is another corporate entity
shaping the nation’s EV scenario (Economic times, 2018c). In September
2017, Suzuki Motor Corporation, the Japanese parent company of
Maruti India, was preparing to manufacture EVs at a production line in
Gujarat. In 2010, the they displayed an electric rendition of Swift known
as “Swift REEV” or “Range Extender,” which did not make it past the
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Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197
advancement stage (Autotech review, 2015).
Recently, Ashok Leyland unveiled its new line of electric transport,
including buses and trucks, and proposed to launch it in 2019. The
Indian-origin online transportation network company, Ola, has also
been a functioning partner in the mission 2030 EV goal. A study con­
ducted by Ola Mobility Institute (OMI) on its e-mobility project in
Nagpur mentioned that a combination of e-cabs and e-rickshaws had
served more than 350,000 consumers, saved more than 0.57 million
liters, and reduced over 1,230 tons of CO2 emissions since its initiation
(Ola mobility report, 2018). Recently, Ola initiated a project to deploy
one million EV cabs toward the end of 2021(Hindustan times, 2017).
However, Reuters interviewed 20 Ola drivers in Nagpur and most of
them gave a negative response toward EVs. Most of them were unhappy
with time-consuming charging procedure and high operating costs and
also added in their responses that they were planning to switch to diesel;
some of them had even returned their e-taxies (Chakaborty, 2019).Hero
is one of the most popular E2W partners and introduced 12 EV designs
into the Indian market under the brand name, Hero Electric. Further­
more, Electrotherm India, Ltd. is renowned for its environmentally
friendly electric bikes. No permit or enrollment is required to ride their
“YoBykes.” Recently, TVS also entered the EV market with their “Creon”
bike, and their Emflux and Menza Motors EVs received a largely positive
response from consumers (Electric vehicle, 2018). The top Indian pri­
vate sector partners and their EV models are shown in Table 2.
3.3. Universities and colleges
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (IIT-D) is initiating a graduate
degree program on EVs, which has received interest from the business
sector. Many expert auto selection representatives from Mahindra and
Mahindra, Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki, and Bajaj Auto, among others,
are making inroads to the IITs for assistance with developing innovative
work (Economic times, 2020b).
On the other hand, IIT Bombay has started a new Master’s program
and other programs on electric mobility and vehicle configuration issues
at its Industrial Design Centre (IDC), and aims to address the issues of
future versatility in the nation, and furthermore, to build up the explo­
ration culture in this discipline. The IIT has focused its R&D on eco-
accommodating vehicles (Munshi, 2011). Likewise, IIT-Mandi is work­
ing on the design, development, and manufacturing of e-rickshaws (IIT
Mandi Catalyst, 2020).
V. Singh et al. Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197

Table 1
List of Govt. working groups on research and development of EV in India.
GOVT Ministry/Department/ R&D Testing centre under NATRiP/other Collaborative Research Work In EV Regulatory Bodies/Standard
Board (2015–2019) Committee

Department of Science and
Technology (DST)
Technology Development Board
(TDB)
Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology
(MeitY)
Department of Industrial Policy
and Promotion (DIPP)
Defence Research and
Development Organisation
(DRDO).
Ministry of Micro, Small &
Medium Enterprises (MSME)
Department of Heavy Industry
(DHI) & Niti Aayog
International Centre for Automotive
Technology (ICAT), Manesar.
National Institute for Automotive
Inspection, Maintenance & Training
(NIAIMT), Silchar.
National Automotive Testing Tracks
(NATRAX), Indore.
Automotive Research Association of India
(ARAI), Pune.
Global Automotive Research Centre (GARC),
Chennai.
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-
CRRI), Delhi
Automotive research Association of India (ARAI) with Automotive Research Association of
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) on battery India (ARAI)
cells.
(ARAI, CDAC, IITB & IISc) on Real Time Simulator for Electric Vehicle Association of India
EV/HEV System. (EVAI)
DST with the Department of Heavy Industry (DHI) on Society of Manufacturers of Electric
Technology Platform for Electric Mobility (TPEM). Vehicles (SMEV)
National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and Automotive Component
Power Grid Corporation on charging Infrastructure. Manufacturers Association of India
(ACMA)
ARAI Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Automotive Skills Development
Enterprises, Government of India. Council (ASDC)
CMVR-Technical Standards
Committee (CMVR-TSC)
Automotive Industry Standards
Committee (AISC)

These institutions are reporting success with the charging infra­
structure and design issues, which is summarized in Table 3. Addition­
ally, various automotive organizations such as Tata Motors have opened
design foundations in various institutes, namely IIT-BHU, Birla Institute
of Technology and Science (BITS)-Pilani, Thapar University, and College
of Engineering Pune, as well National Institutes of Technology (NITs)
such as NIT-Trichy and NIT-Jamshedpur (Becker et al., 2018).
4. Indian electric vehicle transportation policy and policy
recommendations
India’s Automotive Mission Plan (AMP) 2006–2016 is a collective
effort of the Indian government and the transportation sector. During
first half of AMP plan, automobile industry has observed compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) in excess of 10% in all vehicle segment
(Motors and Reform, 2007). The plan aims to improve fuel efficiency of
commercial vehicles and reducing oil import between fiscal year FY06

Table 2
List of top Indian private sector partners in EVs market.
Sr. Participant in the market Short description of company Initiatives
No. models/ activities

In four-wheeler segments (fully electric car/bus)

1 Eddy Current Controls India
Limited.
2 Mahindra & Mahindra
3 TATA motors
4 Ashoka Leyland
5 Goldstone Infratech
In two-wheeler segment
6 Electrotherm (Et) Ltd.
7 Hero
8 TVS motors
There are innumerable two-wheeler and three-wheeler manufacturers in India supporting the global e-market (EV industry India, 2018).
• Love Bird car • Eddy introduced India’s First indigenously developed electric car in 1993 and can be fully
charged in about 6 to 8 h (Eddy India, 2018).
• The ride was noiseless, and pollution frees.
• Mahindra Reva • Committed $139 Mn investment in EVs over the next four years (Mukherjee, 2019).
• Mahindra E2o • Long-term aim is to hit 5,000 units by 2019 in manufacturing capacity.
• Mahindra eSupro • Collaboration with Ford Motor Co in emerging technologies including driverless and electric
• Mahindra eAlfa Mini cars.
• Mahindra eVerito.
• Tata Tigore Ev • 25 “Made in India” Tata Starbus Hybrid electric buses delivered in Maharashtra in March
• Tata Evision 2018 (Shah, 2018).
• Starbus Electric 9 m bus • EV version of Tata Nano will be launch soon.
• Charging infrastructure • Tata Power launches two EV charging stations in Mumbai in 2019.
• Charging stations equipped with advanced EV chargers that can monitor the status of car.
• Circuit-S e-bus • Ashok Leyland with SUN Mobility and Hinduja group flagship partnership on EVs (Mukherjee,
• Swappable Smart Battery 2018).
• Creating SMART Mobility solutions for SMART cities.
• Electric bus • Supplied Himachal Pradesh Transport Corporation with 25 electric buses in September 2017
(Electrotherm official website, 2019).
• YO Xplore, • Intensive R&D infrastructure. YoBykes with an installed capacity of 2, 50,000 units-per
• YO Electron annum (Kumar, 2017).
• YO Edge electric • Electric 3-Wheeler and a hybrid Electric Buses are in proposal.
• Electric Maxi • Company sold more than 15,000 units in 2017(Livemint official website., 2019).
• Hero Electric NYX E5, • Currently has a production capacity of 50,000 units per annum in Ludhiana plant and 60
• Hero electric flash, charging points will be available in Bangalore.
• Hero electric optima plus • An investment of about Rs 130 crore to set up charging infrastructure in 30 cities by 2022
• Charging infrastructure (Motor beam official website, 2018).
• TVS Creon • The company has gone on the back foot on its e-vehicles launch.
• TVS doesn’t think they are commercially and economically viable yet.
• TVS is currently concentrating on meeting the BS6 emission norms and brake safety
technology (Becker and Nagporewalla, 2010).

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Table 3
Electric vehicle development activities in Indian universities/institutes.
Name EV development activities References

Aligarh Muslim University • Proposal for Centre of Advanced Research in Electrified Transportation (CARET) (MHI & PE, 2018)
• Development of Indigenous Chargers (AC/DC/Solar).
IIT Indian Institute of • IIT Delhi is going to start a master’s degree program on automotive and EVs. (India EducationalDiary,
Technology Delhi 2021)
IIT Bombay • IIT Bombay is working on EV design initiatives. (Munshi, 2011)
IIT Madras • IIT Madras is doing research on public EV transport system. (Government of India (GOI),
2018a)
IIT Mandi • IIT Mandi is working with several leading manufacturers to monitor and evaluate the performance of e-auto/e- (IIT Mandi Catalyst, 2020)
rickshaws in a hill terrain to understand upgrades required in terms of power range and stability.
• IIT Mandi is also working on the appropriate business model for e-autos.
IIT Guwahati • Electric mobility laboratory of IITG is working on the EV machine design, EV drives, wireless power transfer (IITG, 2018)
(WPT) charging, and vehicle to grid infrastructure.
IISc Bangalore • To ascertain/develop Driving Cycle for electric/hybrid vehicles in Indian conditions. (MHI & PE, 2018)
• IISC also working on light weight EVs design of small EVs.
IIT, Kanpur • Development of Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Battery. (MHI & PE, 2018)
IIT Jodhpur, IIT • To design & develop Non-Permanent Magnet Motor Drives for e2W and e3W based on actual Drive Cycles in (MHI & PE, 2018)
Bhubaneswar Indian conditions.
IIM Ahmadabad • IIM Ahmedabad is undertaking a Pan-India project for e-mobility. (MHI & PE, 2018)
• Electric vehicles and India’s low carbon passenger transport
IIM Bangalore • IIMB is working on EVs Scenario and a Roadmap for India (MHI & PE, 2018)

and FY14.
The legislature of India has laid out plans to make the country’s
transport system entirely reliant on EVs by 2030. This mission analyzed
the prerequisites and paved the way for EV foundational development. It
also surveyed the potential monetary and environmental benefits, and
identified the issues and obstacles, and dependencies on regulatory
agencies, to propose the best way of promoting electric transportation
technology and its related framework across the country (Abhyankar
et al., 2017). Furthermore, the current enactment phase has considered
the charging framework as a power conveyance, which is an authorized
movement. This permit prerequisite has thwarted the market access of
small-scale players (Sasi, 2018). In mid-2018, the ministry of power has
categorized EV charging batteries as a service, a move which will sup­
port such stations to work without a legal authorization and embolden
the use of EVs (First post, 2018). The assessment of the legislative
documents relevant to alternative energy sources and e-mobility is
summarized in Table 4.
4.1. EV central support schemes
With the aim of reducing oil consumption, the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE) announced a subsidy scheme for battery-
operated vehicles (BOVs) in November 2010. To promote EVs, the
administration invested Rs. 950 million to reduce up to 20% of the ex-
production line costs of vehicles, with a limit of Rs. 4,000 for low-
speed electric bikes, Rs. 5,000 for fast electric bikes, and Rs. 100,000
for EVs (Motors and Reform, 2007). When the subsidy scheme was
launched, companies first passed the benefits to the consumers, and later
made other demands of the government. Through this program,
Mahindra had the option to cut the costs of its Revai models by Rs.
75,000. In response to this scheme, the sale of motorcycles and electric
cars doubled. However, when the subsidy scheme was stopped in March
2012, the sales saw an abrupt decline of 65%. The sale of one type of
electric car in India, the Revai, first amounted to 700 units per month
but then fell by two-thirds to an average of 25 units per month when the
MNRE scheme was dropped (Abhyankar et al., 2017).
In 2012, India publicized the National Mission on Electric Mobility
(NMEM). In line with the AMP, it set a nationwide target to produce 6 to
7 million EVs, including hybrids, by 2020. As part of this mission, the
National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP, 2020) was presented
under five year plan 2012–2017, which sets up a roadmap for accom­
plishing significant development toward productive and environmen­
tally friendly EV innovations in India. NEMMP execution will include
mediation among all partners, both within and outside the
administration. The Government has offered stimulus in the range of Rs.
130–140 billion for 5–6 years. Under this scheme, the producer will
diminish the price of a hybrid and EV (the price tag will be scaled down
by the dimension of the eligible prearranged incentive amount) at the
moment of selling to the purchaser, and a similar amount will be repaid
to them by the Government (NEMMP, 2020).
Moreover, the initiation of FAME in the Union Budget of 2015–2016
led to an improvement in NEMMP 2020 centered on technological
growth, demand formation, charging infrastructure, and pilot projects.
The main goals of this scheme are to help the country reduce fuel con­
sumption and adopt hybrid and electric technologies. To this end, Rs.
79.5 million was allocated by the Government over a time span of two
years, although only a preliminary expense of Rs. 7.5 million was
authorized in the last Union Budget. Approximately 15–20% of the
Budget will be spent on R&D to reduce the burning of fossil fuels, with
the industry receiving coordinating assets (DHI, 2015).
Meanwhile, FAME provides demand (financial) incentives under two
slabs for all consumers, considering the principles of total cost of pro­
prietorship, reimbursement period and consequences of fuel savings,
and maintenance costs (Government of India (GOI), 2018a). Level 2
incentives will be associated with 120% of Level 1 incentives. The
elementary standard of having two incentive slabs is to advance the
improvement of innovations and vehicles with a higher fuel reserve
funds potential. This implies that, in order to be eligible for Level 2 in­
centives, vehicles must meet 50% more qualifying targets than those of
the Level 1 incentives. Subsequently, the FAME-India scheme was
extended three times by the DHI up to September 2018 and plans to
advance it until Phase-II of this policy initiative have been laid (DHI-DST
technology platform for electric mobility (TPEM), 2018).
To expedite the transformation of R&D and technology for electric
mobility applications, coordinated efforts by the DHI and the DST were
focused on establishing the TPEM in 2016 (DHI, 2015). This was
intended to prompt investment funds to the tune of Rs. 620 billion
reserve funds or 9,500 million liters of unrefined petroleum by 2020.
The TPEM is generating practical electric innovations that will be open
for use by all. To this end, the efforts include the manufacturing of bikes,
three wheelers, and commerce vehicles for public transport.
Additionally, NITI Aayog and a confederation of Indian industries in
June 2017 organized the joint initiative “Cleaner Air Better Life,” to
recommend suitable interventions for cleaner fuel and clean transport
policies in India (Abhyankar and Sheppard, 2017). In 2019, NITI Aayog
and the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) conjointly expedited a two-day
charrette with assorted personnel and senior investors from the gov­
ernment and the industry, to explore India’s potential to lead the world

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Table 4
List of legislative documents.
Documents of the Indian official institutions References

• Automotive Mission Plan 2006–2016. Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprises, New Delhi, December 2006. (Government of India (GOI), 2006)
• Alternate Fuels for Surface Transportation Program (AFSTP). Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (Bio (Government of India (GOI), 2010b)
Energy and Technology Development Group), No.6/4/118/2010-BETDG, December 2010.
• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020. Department of Heavy Industry, Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public (NEMMP 2020)
Enterprises, New Delhi, August 2012.
• Scheme for Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicle in India- FAME India. S.O.830 (E), Notification of (Gazette of India, 2018)
13 March 2015 of the Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprises.
• DHI-DST Technology Platform for Electric Mobility (TEPM) under the National Mission for Electric Mobility, Office (DHI-DST technology platform for electric
Memorandum F. No. 12(27)/2015-AEI(FAME-TAG) of 1 January 2016 of Department of Heavy Industry, Ministry of Heavy mobility (TPEM), 2018)
Industry and Public Enterprises, New Delhi.
• India leaps ahead: Transformative mobility solutions for all, Niti Aayog, May 2017. (Niti Aayog, 2017)
• Swachhta Action Plan (SAP). Department of Heavy Industry, July 2017. (Plan and (SAP) Industry, 2017)
• National Auto Policy (Draft). Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprises, New Delhi, February 2018. (NAP, 2018)
• Transforming India’s mobility. Global Mobility Summit, Niti Aayog, September 2018. (NITI Aayog, 2018a)
• Zero emission vehicles (ZEVs): Towards a policy framework. Global Mobility Summit, NITI Aayog, September 2018. (NITI Aayog, 2018b)
Reports on India’s development and climate change-related objectives
• GoI, 2008. National Action Plan on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India, New Delhi, (Government of India (GOI), 2008)
India.
• GoI, 2011. Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth. Planning Commission. Government of India, New Delhi, India. (Planning commission, 2011)
• GoI, 2015a. First Biennial Update Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Government of (Government of India (GOI), 2015a)
India, New Delhi, India.
Documents on Minutes of official meeting towards E-Mobility
• Minutes of the first meeting of the National Board on Electric Mobility (NBEM) – July 2011. (Department of heavy industry (DHI), 2011)
• Minutes of the 2nd meeting of the National Board for Electric Mobility (NBEM) held under the Chairmanship of Secretary DHI at (DHI, 2021a)
Udyog Bhawan, New Delhi – Jan 2012.
• Minutes of the 3rd Meeting of ’the National Board for Electric Mobility (NBEM) (Department of heavy industry (DHI), 2012a)
– October 2012.
• Minutes of the 4th meeting of the NBEM. Kaushubham, Udyog Bhavan, Department of Heavy Industry – June 2014. (Department of heavy industry (DHI), 2012b)
• Minutes of the 5th meeting of the NBEM Udyog Bhawan, New Delhi – May 2017. (Department of heavy industry (DHI), 2012c)

in shared, electric, and associated versatility arrangements (NITI Aayog,
2018a). In the union budget 2021, government has not announced any
new policy for the EV manufacturers (Taumar, 2021). Likewise in the
budget 2020, environment and climate change theme were considered
by the government as a part of ease of living but no such financial related
subsidy on EV was provided after FAME-II scheme to accelerate the EV
growth (NITI Aayog, 2018b). However, government has abandoned the
ancient concept of five year plan in 2017 which further replaced by Niti
Aayog fifteen year vision document with “All EV by 2030”.
As suggested by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) report, India has given only the slightest appro­
priations to sustainable power sources and EVs compared with other
important markets, which will impede the objective of 100% EVs by
2030 (NITI Aayog, 2017). The efforts by the authorities to provide in­
centives to manufacturers along with consumers, listed in Table 5, are
not enough for “green mobility.” A single strategy to support an EV
conservation system, including charging stations and assembly and
purchasing benefits, is the need of the hour.
4.2. EV State support schemes
Indian States have their own polices to expedite the adoption of EVs
as the country is expected to implement a framework around green
portability (Table 6). The State of Andhra Pradesh ratified a strategy for
the implementation of EVs. As a main feature of this strategy, the
Legislature has laid out the objective of creating ventures worth Rs. 300
billion in the next 5 years by incentivizing automakers, battery pro­
ducers, charging framework organizations, and customers (AP Govern­
ment, 2018). The State plans on having one million EVs on its streets by
2024 (NAP 2018; Transforming India mobility, 2018; Electric Vehi­
clepolicy, 2018).
The States of Karnataka and Maharashtra have additionally reported
comparable arrangements. In 2018, the Government of Maharashtra
focused on technology generation and sponsorships. The approach un­
derscores how Maharashtra will bolster the creation of EVs with 500,000
vehicles in 5 years. To help with this objective, the State will exempt EVs
from street duty and enlistment charges, along with offering
appropriations; for example, a 15% endowment for the initial 100,000
proprietors of EVs (Ambekar et al., 2018). Meanwhile, Karnataka is
boosting the generation of EVs and has set an objective of investing Rs.
310 billion in ventures that will help create 55,000 jobs. Karnataka’s
legislature plans to make special purpose vehicles that would serve the
transportation needs of metro organizations, State agencies, and vitality
organizations. It also plans to use sustainable power sources for new
charging infrastructure in the State (Govt. of Karnataka (GOK), 2017).
In a move to mitigate air contamination, the Government of New
Delhi released a draft approach to guarantee the appropriation of 25%
EVs among new enrollments by 2023. With this strategy, the State
government will compile a huge corpus of assets and boost the pro­
portion of new EVs. It will also fortify the foundation of battery charging
and swapping that there will be battery charging and swapping infra­
structure at every 3 Km (Delhi electric vehicle policy, 2018).
Meanwhile, by seeking to further develop the Indian EV ecosystem,
the Government of Kerala announced an EV policy to promote shared
mobility and clean transport by having one million EVs on the road by
2023 and a pilot fleet of 200,000 motorcycles, 50,000 three wheelers,
1,000 goods carriers, 3,000 buses, and 100 ferries (Government of
Karela (GOKA), 2018). Similarly, the State of Telangana is boosting
electric vehicles with a focus on manufacturers, purchasers, and
charging framework improvements (Telangana state electricity regula­
tory commission, 2018; Telangana Government. Draft-EV-policy, 2018).
Essentially, the State of Uttar Pradesh has initiated a draft strategy
with objectives focused on EV parks, battery creation, and charging and
swapping foundations for EVs. Furthermore, under this framework,
cabs, school vans/buses, and autorickshaws will be targeted to achieve
100% e-mobility in the biggest cities by 2030. Capital interest subsidy,
infrastructure interest subsidy, stamp duty reimbursement on purchas­
ing land in limited states, and 100% road tax exemption on trans­
portation EVs purchased within Uttar Pradesh were considered in this
scheme (UPEV policy, 2018).
Similarly, the State Bureau of Uttarakhand has also initiated an
arrangement to advance the acceptance of EVs, while additionally
boosting individuals who want to enter EV manufacturing. The policy
aims to generate 70% employment, attract investments, and make land

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Table 5
Government of India schemes and incentives on EVs.
Name ofscheme Year oflaunch Ministry/Department Key point/objectives Results

Alternate Fuels for
SurfaceTransportation Programme
National Electric Mobility Mission
Plan (NEMMP)
Faster Adoptionand Manufacturing
of (Hybrid &)Electric Vehicles in
India (FAME-India),Phase-1
FAME- India (Extension) till FAME-II
Nov 2010 to Government of India (GoI),
March 2012 and Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE)
Jan 2013 Government of India (GoI),
and Department of Heavy
Industry (DHI)
April (FY2015- Government of India (GoI)
FY2017) with and Ministry of Heavy
extension up to Industries and Public
Sep-2018 Enterprises (DHI)
Extended up to Government of India (GoI)
March 2019 and Ministry of Heavy
Industries and Public
Enterprises (DHI)
• Support for R & D projects on This resulted in a big leap in sales of EVs,
advanced high energy density mostly in the e-bikes segments with annual
batteries, ultra-capacitors, and sale of 1,10,000 units in 2011–12 were
control systems. recorded on the peak level under this scheme (
• Support for projects and activities Government of India (GOI), 2010a).
related to education awareness/
promotion/seminars/
conferences/symposia to EVs.
• To claim the subsidy,
manufacturers needed to certify
that 30% of the components were
made in India.
• EVs production and sales with a NEMMP has failed to create a positive impact
total proposed investment of Rs on EV sales.Sales of 2 W EVs have dropped by
224 Billion. more than 80% and this led to the cessation of
• Plan has identified a demand 75% 2 W EV manufacturer (NEMMP 2020).
potential of 60–70 lakh EVs on the
road by 2020.
• Reduce dependency on fossil fuels.
• To encourage EVs by providing Over 1.7 lakh vehicles have received subsidy
subsidies in various segments. worth INR203 crore under FAME so far. But
• An estimated expenditure budget Withdrawn of subsidy by Govt. on mild hybrid
of 795 crore has been allocated by increases the price of the vehicle plus upset
DHI. the sale (Government of India (GOI), 2018c,
• About 99,000 hybrid/EVs have Government of India (GOI), 2015b).
been given direct support by way
of demand incentives.
• Discount amount is about one-
third of the difference between the
price of an EV and a comparable
petrol vehicle.
• Total outlay of Phase-1 of FAME Sales of EVs in India in the ongoing fiscal are
Scheme extended from Rs. 795 likely to be around 74,000 units as confusion
crores to Rs. 895 Crore. over FAME II scheme, which is affecting
• Incentives available to growth. Whereas, Electric two-wheelers
conventional battery vehicle were continue to be costlier when compared to
excluded from this extended petrol versions and there is a need for more
scheme. incentives (Gazette of India, 2018).
• Demand incentives to
unregistered vehicles were also
disqualified from the new list.

apportionments for scheduling EV manufacturing units. Term advances
in the scope of Rs. 100 million to Rs. 500 million will be given to Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) keen on manufacturing EVs.
For purchasers, the initial 100,000 EV clients in the State will be
excluded from tax expenses for 5 years (Society of Manufacturers of
Electric Vehicles (SMEV) official website, 2018).
4.3. Policy comparisons with other countries
4.3.1. Policy for sale/ purchase
The US government launched a tax credit program for plug-in EVs
(PEVs) purchase ranging from US$ 2,500 to US$ 7,500 based on the
battery capacity and weight of the EV (Titege et al., 2016). Similarly, in
China, EVs are exempted from taxes on purchase, and the government
has undersigned a subsidy program that covers almost 40 to 60% of EV
costs based on the driving range (Zhang et al., 2017). Moreover, cities
such as Shenzhen and Beijing have initiated a matching subsidy plan in
relation to the government, where benefits are offered at the same
amount (Mukherjee, 2019). In some European nations, the governments
provide fiscal incentives in the form of vehicle registration exemptions
and non-fiscal incentives such as access to low-emission zones and
preferential access elsewhere (access to bus lanes and free or preferential
parking). For example, the government of Norway offers exemptions for
acquisition tax, a 25% value-added tax (VAT) on car purchases, and toll
road and ferry fee waivers (International Energy Agency, 2019). Simi­
larly, the Netherlands has a strict policy for CO2 emissions and an
incentive plan for EV purchases that involves registration taxes, road tax
exemptions, charging infrastructure, and public–private partnerships.
Conversely, in India, few States offer tax exemptions and rebates on
purchase, and there is no such incentive plan in center government
policy to EVs manufacturers after the national action plan (International
Energy Agency, 2019; Rietmann and Lieven, 2019).
Moreover, countries for example; Canada, China, EU, India, Japan
and US all have tax credits policy for EV purchase. Instead, Japan does
not have incentive policy whereas other countries are providing in­
centives on both demand and supply side for EVs adoption (Interna­
tional Energy Agency, 2019).
4.3.2. Policy support for charging infrastructure and services
Government of China offers subsidies for charging infrastructure,
with an EV development guide targeting 12,000 new centralized
charging points and 4.8 million charging switch stations, to help fulfill
the objective of 5 million EVs by 2020 (International Energy Agency
2019). Austria has very similar fiscal and non-fiscal plans and has a
target of 250,000 EVs and 12,000 charging stations by 2020 (ICEA,
2017). Chile allows EV consumers to charge at a 30% discount in the
night (IREA. Policy landscape report, 2015; Marchán and Viscidi, 2015).
Hong Kong has a high density of Tesla superchargers for improving the
infrastructure and reducing the waiting time of consumers to charge
their EVs (International Energy Agency 2019). Administration of India
would consider giving long-term and short-term tax-incentives and
quicker incentives support to energy operators for the distribution of
slow and fast chargers and battery swapping. GST for every chargers and
swappers ought to be equivalent to that for the vehicles. After meeting

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Table 6
List of state governments in India supporting EVs.
State Policy Name
Karnataka Karnataka Electric Vehicles & Electric Storage Policy
2017 - Government of Karnataka.
Maharashtra Maharashtra’s Electric vehicle and related
Infrastructure Policy- 2018- Government of
Maharashtra.
Andhra Pradesh Electric Mobility Policy 2018–23 -AP Government.
(AP)
Delhi Draft electric vehicle policy 2018 - Delhi
Government.
Kerala Draft Electric Vehicle policy 2018 -Government of
Kerala.
Telangana Draft Electric Vehicle Policy 2017.
Utter Pradesh Draft Uttar Pradesh Electric Vehicles (EVs)
(UP) Manufacturing Policy 2018.
Uttarakhand “The Uttarakhand EV Manufacturing EV Usage
(UK) Promotion and Related Services Infrastructure
Policy” 2018.
the charging standards, government of India will provide subsides on
demand side for deploying charging stations.
Norms for chargers are essential for the advancement of EV supply
gear. All areas recorded here have developed norms for chargers. A few
nations (China, European Union, India) are ordering explicit guidelines
as a base prerequisite; others (Canada, Japan, United States) are most
certainly not. Moreover, EV charging building regulation policy is
applicable in EU and India. In contrast Canada, China and US are
regulating this policy in half of their states.
4.3.3. Regulation for public transport
Canada’s regulatory policy contains a 30% ZEV target by 2030 and
100% target by 2040. Germany has introduced regulatory policies for
zero-emissions vehicle adoption. The country’s municipalities offer in­
direct incentives for such vehicles in the form of access to free parking,
Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197
Various Initiatives References
• Aims to create conducive environment for transition to EV (Govt. of Karnataka (GOK),
environment from internal combustion engines. 2017)
• Attractive investments of rupee 31,000 crores in manufacturing of EVs.
• Charging Infrastructure at every 50 km on highway
• Stipend of ₹10,000 per trainee to encourage in-plant training by EV
manufacturer.
• Job opportunities to 55,000 persons both from demand and supply
• Increase number of EVs registered to 5 lacs. (Government of
• For suitable infrastructure maximum subsidy of ₹1 million per Maharashtra (GOM), 2018)
charging station to the first 250 stations.
• A grant of 15% of the whole price of the EVs will be given to the buyer
• To create jobs for 1, 00,000 persons.
• 1 lakh EV charging stations will be built by 2024. (Government of Andhra
• Government buses and commercial vehicles will be made electric by Pradesh (GOAP), 2018)
2024.
• 10% subsidy for the two electric car manufacturing firms.
• No registration fee on Electric vehicles.
• 10 lakh electric vehicles on roads in the next 5 years.
• 25% of all vehicles to be electric by 2023. (Delhi Government, 2018)
• Private charging stations across the capital.
• Road tax, registration fees and one-time parking fee will be waived for
all electric two-wheelers with an ‘Advance Battery’.
• Subsidy up to Rs 22,000 on purchase of e-two wheelers.
• Support the creation of jobs in driving, selling, financing, servicing and
charging of EVs.
• Govt exempts EV buyers from road taxes for the first three years. (Government of Karela
• Offers an incentive of ₹30,000 or 25% of EVs in the first year to (GOKA), 2018)
purchase of three wheelers.
• Mobility State Level Task Force has been established for the state’s e-
mobility plan.
• 100% electric buses by 2030 for intra-city, intercity and interstate (Telangana Government.
transport. Draft-EV-policy, 2018)
• Interest Free loans up to 50% of the cost to all state government
employees for purchase of EVs
• Only Electric vehicles will be allowed in high traffic density areas.
• Free Parking in public parking places and Toll exemption on State
Highways for EVs till 2025
• 1000 EV buses will be introduced by the State by 2030. (Policy, 2018)
• To create a capacity of 2000MWh for manufacturing or assembling of
EV battery in the state.
• Clean fuel and Renewable energy-based Charging/Battery Swapping
Station – for hydrogen powered fuel cells, or solar powered cells.
• 50% of annual interest reimbursement on the loan taken to buy land
for PEV Park.
• 100% Interest free loans to State Government employees for purchase
of EVs in the state.
• Offer term loans of Rs.100–500 million to micro, small and medium (GOUK, 2018)
enterprises (MSMEs) to manufacture EVs.
• Manufacturing plants that have a minimum of 100 employees will
benefit from government’s employee provident fund per company of
Rs. 20 million.
• The first 100,000 buyers of EVs in Uttarakhand will be exempted from
motor vehicles tax for duration of five years.
• Firms must also employ around 70 per cent of its staff from the state
itself to avail the incentives.
high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, and restricted traffic zones, which
do not exceed emissions of 50 g CO2/km (Tietge et al., 2016). Germany
has set itself a goal to achieve a battery density by volume level of
280–300 Wh/L by 2050. In regulation for ZEV mandate, countries for
instance; India, Europe, Japan does not have zero emission vehicle
mandate policy as compare to China who has ZEV strict policy target.
Similarly, in US, zero emission vehicle policy was implemented only in
few states (International Energy Agency, 2019). Moreover, in imple­
menting fuel economy standards, climate change plan target were
almost applicable in all the selected regions including India.
4.3.4. Policy for industry and R&D
Countries such as China, Japan, France, and Canada have policies for
funding projects and improving the battery technology and vehicle
research and development (Table 7), to attract industrialists and
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educational institutions towards EVs. China also introduced four year
pilot project program on new energy vehicle technology by providing
subsides in industrial policy. Similarly, Japan and Canada also providing
subsides to the concerned industries whereas this policy is not applicable
in US, EU, and India (International Energy Agency, 2019). Moreover,
land acquisition policy for manufacturing EV industries could be bene­
ficial for India to participate in India’s global trend of e-mobility move
2030.
4.4. Policy recommendations for India
Governments worldwide have played a vital role in introducing
positive social and environmental changes, be it through sound policy
making or by offering incentives related to encouraging EV develop­
ment. The Government of India should expend increasing efforts to steer
the country toward e-mobility technology including EVs.
Technological innovation will remain one of the keys to boosting
India’s production and deployment of EVs. Owing to the deficiency in
raw materials and scarce local production facilities, the cost of making
batteries has remained high. To counter this issue, the Legislature must
champion innovations like sodium batteries, mobile charging services,
and battery swapping technology, which will not just control battery
costs but also improve EV efficiency and driving range, thus making EVs
practical for consumers (Xu et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2015). However,
battery swapping models have not succeeded everywhere because of
techno-business dynamics, and the principle issues that need to be
addressed include business feasibility, standardization, and reliability
(Diwan, 2019). A standardized lithium-ion battery pack has not been
achieved anywhere, and the likelihood of such technology in India is
low. This is partly due to automotive OEMs controlling their design
strategies for battery packs as their central technology. Moreover, the
issue of financially viable business models is important because the
Government of India is shunning subsidies to develop a non-subsidized
and commercially stable model (Diwan, 2019).
Charging infrastructure is the biggest challenge for the development
of EVs. While the Government is working with private partners to set up
EV charging stations in certain territories, it is not pursuing this initia­
tive across the nation. Both battery technology and charging infra­
structure need to be improved to meet range, recharging, and
affordability. For the goal of 100% EVs, India needs a strong renewable
energy system for charging stations that could contain, for example,
power walls and privately owned subsystems (Chandra Mouli et al.,
2016). Furthermore, the Government should consider capping power
deals by retailers, while also offering endowments to these businesses.
Moreover, numerous capital investments should be made to support
indigenous production of EVs. In particular, the administration should
offer more sponsorships to Indian automakers and vehicle manufac­
turers (Babic and Carvalho, 2016). As of now, vast segments of the na­
tion’s automotive sector are awaiting FAME-II (Gupta and Saini, 2018).
For mass production and adoption of EVs and accomplishing the targets
set by different organizations, many policy preferences and initiatives
are anticipated that would be useful for moving India further toward e-
mobility as shown in Table 8. In order to accomplish the abundant
appropriation of EVs, several strategies are needed, especially to achieve
all EVs by 2030.
5. SWOC analysis
A strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (SWOC)
analysis was conducted, and the abridged results are presented in
Table 9. These data were used to reveal the factors behind the adoption
of EVs in India. The SWOC investigation examined relevant research by
considering India’s national legislative documents and reports, as well
as national studies aimed at providing a new technological platform that
could result in increasing EV penetration in Indian roads.
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Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197
5.1. Strengths
There is huge potential in India to increase the EV market share
through government subsidies and incentives for adopting EV technol­
ogy (Lieven, 2015). The Central government’s FAME scheme is consid­
ered as the most favorable step, and it covers four main areas, namely
demand creation, technology platforms, pilot projects, and charging
infrastructure. Budgets with cuts to the goods and service tax (GST) on
purchasing EVs from 12% to 5% and additional income tax deductions
on the interest paid for buying EVs in India have been proposed (Lieven,
2015). The substitution of conventional vehicles with EVs will not only
help reduce pollution but also provide technical advantages such as low
running maintenance costs, high-end technology, and noise-free driving.
5.2. Weaknesses
The weaknesses driving the slow consumer adoption of EVs were
identified as high cost, battery concerns, and lack of access to recharging
stations (Soltani-sobh et al., 2017). Beyond the cost, customers speculate
the range, i.e. how far they can go in an EV before their batteries are
drained (Deaton, 2018). The limited driving range on a single charge
and long refueling times are troubling to taxi drivers who might adopt
EVs. Moreover, questions such as, if a person drives 100 km in a day and
returns home to an unforeseen emergency, can they travel another 50
km, would arise. Such circumstances are major obstacles to the adoption
of EVs (Diyguru official site, 2019). Furthermore, despite the repeated
revisions of the FAME policies, lack of clarity about infrastructural
support, dependency on battery imports from other counties, and lack of
skilled labor hinder the adoption of EV technology.
5.3. Opportunities
The Indian market represents a wellspring of business opportunities
across the EV value chain for the entire EV fleet (two, three, and four
wheelers), EV leasing, e-bus (Intra-city) models, public charging sta­
tions, and other battery charging activities (swapping, storage, recy­
cling, bulk charging, battery at home charging, and solar integrated EV
charging) (Climate change news, 2017). Moreover, if manufacturing
industries in India start producing electric vehicles, batteries, and spare
parts in bulk, the upfront costs of vehicles will plummet and new job
opportunities will be created. For product and technology development,
government is providing 60% of R & D costs involved in projects under
TPEM in five research areas motor and drives, drive cycle and traffic
pattern, charging infrastructure, battery technology and electric tech­
nology (light weighting of EVs for range anxiety). This R&D subsidy will
help developers, automakers and suppliers by joint collaboration be­
tween them to reduce the cost of EV components (NEMMP 2020; Gov­
ernment of India (GOI), 2015a). We recommend providing more
incentives to R&D in the private sector.
5.4. Challenges
India’s EV sale faces huge challenges from the lack of government
stable policies, lack of support for charging infrastructure, local markets
that affect production, and unskilled workers. High costs of EVs and the
lack of charging stations must be overcome to increase the market
penetration of EVs. In comparison to example set by Norway which is
nearly the size of Maharashtra in terms of area, to ensure that all car
should be electric by 2025, have lot of challenges for a country like India
who has huge population and larger area. Norway’s policies are also
difficult to implement in India, because the nation can provide sub­
stantial subsidies thanks to its profits from oil related export. Moreover,
Norway incentives and subsidies on EVs in terms of tax exemption and
toll free are challenging because tax and non-tax are the two main source
of government revenue in India. Further details about these roadblocks
are discussed below.
V. Singh et al. Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 1180–1197

Table 7
Electric vehicle policy comparison with other countries.
Country Regulatory policy Financial policies Charging infrastructure Complementary policies References
Direct incentives Indirect incentives policy

Germany • Target of one million • Direct consumer • Municipalities can • Private financing of • Government projects Electro mobility
EVs on the road by incentives grant EVs special charging infrastructure showcasing electric in Germany
2020 and six million • Indirect consumer privileges • More than 90 million mobility concepts (GTAI), 2020 (
EVs by 2030 incentives • Special license plate euros & 80 million • Research and development EESI,2019)
• Exemption in road for EVs euros for public funding support for vehicle
tax for 5 to 10 years • Company vehicles and private financing manufacturers
for BEVs reduced taxable were invested • Government fleet targets
• Low-interest loans income and procurement
for company EVs incentives.
• Company vehicles • Electro mobility model
reduced taxable regions and the showcase
income regions for electric mobility
China • Target of 7 million • Fiscal subsidies and • HOV lane exemptions • National infrastructure • Regional finance policy for (Rietmann and
EV by 2025 tax incentives both • Expedited license promotion policy for EVs Lieven, 2019; (
• Dual-credit policy for nation and plate acquisitions EVs • R & D investment policy for Zhang et al.,
for manufacturer to region • Shanghai waived • Regional infrastructure “863” projects 2017)
fulfill new energy • Price subsidy, tax license plate fee promotion policy for • For the power system
credits exemption for BEV • Free parking in some EVs technology platform,
& PHEV regions • Recycling technology vehicle product, the core
policy of EV power component, basic
accumulator battery technology and the public
• EV charging support platform
infrastructure
development guide
2015–2020
United • Regulation policy of • Tax credit, rebate or • HOV lanes • Rebates and tax credits • Government funded (Global EV
States ZEV and target grants in forty • Toll wavier in some for installing charging projects for batteries, outlook, 2019)
mandate states states stations automotive controls, and
implemented in only • Over half of the • Free transport service • Standards for chargers efficient EV chargers
state level states have rebates, in Santiago is under process • Government fleet targets
tax exemptions, and • Registration privilege and procurement
tax credits incentives.
• Fiscal incentives • Lack of industrial policy
Norway • 85 g CO2 /km by • Registration tax • Free access to toll • Funding for charging • EU green public (Global EV
2020 for new cars exemption for BEVs roads for BEVs stations 2009–2010: procurement initiative for outlook, 2019)
• halve CO2 emissions and reduction for • Reduced ferry rates ~12 million euros low carbon emission
by PHEVs for BEVs • Funding for fast • No industrial policy, focus
2030 • VAT exemption of • Free parking in chargers 2013: ~0.7 on user behavior, raising
BEVs municipal parking million euros awareness, and charging
• Reduced company lots • Ongoing funding for infrastructure.
car tax for BEVs • Free charging at fast chargers • Support the introduction
public chargers • Subsidy for private of carbon neutral
• Access to bus lanes chargers up to 10,000 technologies in the transport
kroner or 60% of cost in sector
Oslo
Netherlands Regulation policy on • Registration tax, • Access to low • Charging points • Education and promotion (Global EV
CO2 emission road tax, and tax on emission zones in available per 1000 policy by Dutch outlook, 2019)
private use of municipalities vehicle in Netherlands government
company cars, • Installation of chargers • Research on electric drive
ownership tax on public –private technologies
• Large incentives on partnership • Green deals policies
EV purchase • Projects funding to
lower the charging infra
cost
Japan • Half of the • Tonnage and • Parking incentive at • State funded project for • MITI funded programs for (International
automobile vehicle acquisition tax some region infrastructure R& D Energy Agency
replace with EV by reductions • Toll tax exemption at • Quick-charging • 100% funding from the 2018)
2030 • Automobile tax some region facilities for BPEVs with MITI for standardized
• 80% reduction in reductions • No specific lanes nighttime energy projects
GHG emission • No fiscal incentives storage systems for load • Battery technology
• Target of 1 million for vehicle leveling were targeted development to produce
car by 2030 • Progressive fuel tax • Fiscal incentives for battery pack
policy chargers and targets are
available
Canada • Zero-emissions • Fiscal incentives for • Widespread rebates at • Incentives on chargers • Subsidies on industrial (Global EV
vehicles (ZEVs) purchasing ZEV registration/sale; are available policy outlook, 2019)
mandate policy • Tax rebate limited waivers on • Building regulation are • funds for R&D, improving
• Target of 30% ZEV • Direct subsidy of fees (tolls, parking under progress for electric capacity
sales by 2030 and 2500 to 5000 etc.) charging infrastructure
100% by 2040 dollars on EV • Green license plate for
purchase electric cars
(continued on next page)

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Table 7 (continued )
Country Regulatory policy Financial policies Charging infrastructure Complementary policies References
Direct incentives Indirect incentives policy

France Two million EVs by • Rebate system with • Free parking with low • 50 million euros • EV targets for government (Global EV
2020 a bonus up to 6,300 emission vehicle card, funding for charging and business fleets outlook, 2019)
euros but in Paris infrastructure • Subsidy for car rental and
• Progressive • Public-private taxi firmsR&D funding
company car taxes, partnerships Tax credit
BEVs exempted for home charging
equipment
India Indian government • 1.3 billion, to • Free parking at some • Draft proposal to set up • No industrial policy (Global EV
program FAME II and support demand- states an EV charging corridor • Limited projects funding on outlook, 2019)
mass scale shift to EV side incentives • Limited toll in capital region R&D
by 2030 • 50% discount on exemption • Limited charging infra
road tax in some • Green vehicle plate on private –public
states limited financing
• Registration tax and • No special, HOV lane
VAT rebates for EV
exemptions.

5.4.1. Charging infrastructure 6. Recommendations for faster adoption

India faces the lack of charging infrastructure, which leads to ques­
tions over the range an EV can offer. This has a direct impact on EV
adoption (India, 2018). Generally, the production of EVs has taken place
with battery components and national policies such as subsidizations,
tax exemptions, and fee rebates. Nonetheless, along with an ironclad
government mandate, we recommend a flourishing network of charging
infrastructure, which will play a vital role in the expansion of the EV
market share (EV Adoption official website, 2019).
5.4.2. Perceived costs
The purchase of high-cost EVs like Tesla is still impractical for low- to
mid-income groups (Roychowdhury, 2010). Moreover, after considering
purchasing cost, vehicle maintenance cost, battery cost, and overhead
charges, people will find it difficult to adopt EVs. People also compare
prices of EVs with conventional vehicles, which often have lower
upfront costs, and hence hold off on purchasing an EV.
5.4.3. Battery technology and supply issues
Some of the biggest obstacles facing EV adoption are battery life and
import (EV Adoption official website, 2019). Due to the unavailability of
lithium and cobalt in India, it is difficult to manufacture lithium-ion
batteries. The country has increased its dependency on China and
Japan for these materials. Thus, import of batteries can have a burden on
the nation’s economy by purchasing from other countries.
6.1. Advance long-term guidelines for the automotive industry
It is important to characterize the emission levels that will be rele­
vant after Bharat stage emission standards -VI, with the objective of
having the whole country conform to the strictest universal standards
for all vehicular segments by 2030. Such guidelines will empower the
industrial sector and help firms obtain the necessary testing facilities,
technologies, skills, and long-lasting investments.
6.2. Acceleration of “green mobility” in the public sector through
purchasing
Mandates for small portions of “green vehicles” within the total
number of new vehicles acquired by the State and Central governmental
agencies and public companies are important. Targets including EVs at a
proportion of 25% of all vehicles (AVs) from 2023 onward and 75% of
AVs from 2030 onward by both Central and State governments, as well
as 50% of AVs from 2023 and 100% of AVs from 2030 by metro mu­
nicipalities would help accelerate the growth of EVs (Climate change
news, 2017).
6.3. Improvement to Central government policies

With the current policy, India will only achieve 7% EVs by 2030,
5.4.4. Charging speed
according to a Bloomberg New Energy Finance report. To meet this
IC engine vehicle users can refuel within 5 min and do not have to
target, supportive actions must be taken by the States and the Center to
worry about the driving range due to the abundance of fuel stations
provide a matching amount in subsidies. Government EV policy for
(Roychowdhury, 2010). Thus, charging times that can last for hours may
instance; green license plate, toll concession, special parking, separate
make consumers hesitant to purchase an EV. Early adopters may be
lanes, free entry in jammed zones, road tax exemptions can be helpful
comfortable with timed charging overnight or while performing other
for the development of EVs in India as well as in other nations due to
activities. However, in times of emergencies, they will not be able to
insatiable greed and competitive behaviour. To draw parallels, the local
charge on time.
governments of Shenzhen and Beijing in China have started a matching
program for subsidies in which their benefits match those of the
5.4.5. Awareness of EV support
government.
People are not very aware of the benefits of EVs and associated
The Government of India must also engage State-owned power dis­
support schemes, which include incentives, educational programs to
tribution companies, municipal corporations, and public sector un­
improve familiarity with the new technology, and AC and direct current
dertakings as nodal agencies for developing charging infrastructure.
(DC) chargers, environmental benefits, and fuel savings. This makes it
This issue must be resolved, given the absence of clear responsibilities
difficult to assess the attitude of individuals toward EV adoption ac­
and administrative shortages hampering the advancement of EVs in
cording to age, sex, and education. The education of people through
India.
questionnaires, interviews, and ride-to-ride initiatives with EVs could
help to increase the adoption rate.
6.4. Research and development (R&D)

The government should encourage R&D by not only providing sub­

sidies for EV research projects, but also describing technical standards

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Table 8
Potential EV policy description, strength, and weakness in India.
Description Strength Weakness Recommendation

Industrial policy for EV:Development
ofvehicle technologyand
automotiveindustry support
• i.e.- driving range, battery
performance, vehicle options
Economic policy for EV:Level of
fiscalincentives and other‘benefits’
supportingEV adoptioni.e.- grants and
subsidies, free parking, toll waivers
Organizational-Charging infrastructurei.
e.- charging station roll out, transition
of public fleet
Educational - Utilization of
communications,promotional
andexperiential activitiesi.e.- vehicles
trials and road shows, online
information guides
• Presence of advanced technology Evolution
of hybrid cars in recent years of EV
development.
• 190 crores for technology development
introduce in the FAME-I (Government of
India (GOI), 2018a).
• NEMMP policy to facilitate R&D, vehicle
performance standard, pilot projects for
facilitating infrastructure creation
(NEMMP 2020).
• SIAM supporting system of EV policy on
new technological alternatives with
original equipment manufacturers (OEM)
on range anxiety (SIAM, 2017; CBIC,
2018).
• Niti Aayog has recommended offering fiscal
incentives to the EV. Manufacturers.
• Goods and service tax council (GST) set a
tax rate of 12% for EVs comparatively with
28% for ICE vehicles (Dutta, 2018).
• EV will be demarcated with green plate,
10% parking space in shopping malls,
restaurants and Govt buildings- Niti Aayog
draft policy (PRSI, 2018).
• No registration fee, don’t levy VAT, road
tax, free parking for 3 years and income tax
deduction are applied in UP, UK
(Government of India (GOI), 2015a).
• FAME covers hybrid, mild hybrid, plug in
EV with 895 crores (Government of India
(GOI), 2018c).
• For charging structure Rs.30 crore was
given under the FAME for two years
(2016–2017) by DHI report (Delhi policy,
2018).
• Charging point every 3 km with 100%
subsidy: Delhi new EV policy (Ola mobility
institute project, 2018).
• Govt to launch policy regarding charging
stations on the petrol pump whereas Indian
Oil Corporation has launched the charging
stations in Nagpur (PRSI, 2018).
The Govt is preparing a fresh policy including
the confederation of Indian industry for the
promotion of EVs to ensure smoother
transition and better cooperation from the
automobile sector by beginning with the
favorable ecosystems in nine polluted cities.
Additionally, throwing a 100 days challenge
to automakers for setting up manufacturing
facilities in India (Government of India (GOI),
2010b).
• No alternate working model against high
cost of lithium-ion batteries and surplus
recharge time.
• Insufficient availability of raw materials
and inadequate local production
• No design plan for the vehicle suitability
for hills.
• only a small number of fully electric
models
• Low performance-speed & acceleration of
EVs.
• Limited fund for private sectors.
• Lack of incentives through excise relief and
subsidies compare to other countries.
• No subsidy and incentive for hybrid and
imported vehicles.
• High upfront cost without benefits for
potential shift in market.
• Delay of FAME-II deferring e-mobility
2030.
• Limited benefit of free parking and toll
wavier and effective only in some states.
• Marginal progress only in the segment of
electric two wheelers, rickshaws and e
-buses.
• Resale incentives, free maintenance, free
insurance is not available.
• Lack of charging infrastructure.
• India has a little more than 350 open EV
charging stations and around 57,000
petrol pumps. Conversely, China had more
than 215,000 charging focuses introduced
toward the finish of 2016 (Chakaborty,
2019).
• Consumers fear for adoption of EV due to
charging facility.
• Lack of awareness regarding EVs slow
down the market.
• There are no such efforts has been to
advertise EV in the market through various
channels to aware people are available to
go green with e-mobility.
• Lack of experimental activities regarding
the EV subject in school/colleges/Govt
institutions except IIT’s (PIB official
website., 2019).
• Advance new vehicles standards
and procedures.
• Discount in battery cost
accompanied by performance
enhancement.
• Secure R&D grants for key
technologies.
• Better solar potential regarding
charging using solar energy.
• Better system to provide data on
driving and charging requirement.
• Express corroborations among
academia and private sector.
• Initiate new industry
manufacturing standards and
reduction or exemption of
materials import tariff.
Purchasing
• Electric vehicle purchase orders
and bulk pricing.
• Specific lane access for EVs.
• Develop policies and incentivize
based cab infrastructure.
• Governmental incentives to
encourage investment in EVs and
infrastructure all over India.
• Transportation tax, registration
tax, toll benefits, insurance
benefits, related EVs policies in all
states for early adoption.
Financial
• Encourage and provide seed
funding for EVs in newer market.
• Battery leasing-based models
should be initiated.
• Develop a resale market as it
impacts the consumers in broader
way.
• Government should share the cost
of market development along with
the private investors.
• Provide power wall, PPP model
and Private ownership.
• Provide subsidies for local
renewable projects.
• Investigate the potential of
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies
and policy supports.
• Demand valuation for charging
infrastructure with Provision
Standards.
• Organize technical support and
funding for grid progression.
• Deliver infrastructure for
companies like Tesla motors to
come in the Indian market.
• Create retail partnership for wider
coverage of the market.
• Advance customer service
• Upsurge public education and
awareness on EVs.
• Improve market penetration
policies for EVs for low end sector
which account for the largest
number of consumers in India
• There should be consistency in the
technology provided in terms of
purchaser interface.

and influencing current market demands. Moreover, India should
establish a large-scale R&D program aimed at the development of
attractive new vehicle designs and battery technology to bring down the
weight and costs of battery imports.
6.5. EV charging infrastructure
The principle issue with public transport EVs is charging during a
long journey, and thus battery swapping techniques could prove useful.
In India, there are over 460 toll plazas, where each vehicle waits for at

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Table 9
Overview of analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges
(SWOC).
Beneficial
Strength
Internal • No emission of nitrogen or
carbon and very low CO2
output.
• Low running cost for
maintenance and recharge
environmental friendliness.
• Most energy efficient.
• Smooth driving experience with
best-in-class technologies are
found in EVs.
• Low variable can reduce
dependence on foreign oil
import.
• Can decreases utility price
electric vehicles typically
charged at night when
electricity is cheapest to
generate.
• Government rebates, more R&D
can be done.
• Manufacturing facilities of
conventional cars can be used.
• Can facilitate to earn stronger
revenues and profits.
Opportunities
External • Greater opportunities for R&D.
More job opportunities.
• Availability of skilled labour at
economical price.Improve more
fuel efficiency of BEVs and
improve range for the HEVs.
• Provide training to traders and
unveiling more EVs in the
market.
• Optimize production process to
minimize losses.
• Improve the governmental aim
schemes for EVs and strengthen
infrastructure.
• Provide smaller incentives for a
longer duration to improve
acceptability.
Harmful
Weakness
• Weaker policy schemes to the
consumer as well as
manufacturers.
• High initial price around 30%
more than that of conventional
cars.
• Battery cost is too high.
• Limited range as compare to the
conventional cars (approx. 900
km on 1 full tank.
• Range of most modern electric
cars around 150 km.
• More Recharging time.
• Shortage of spare parts as
compared to conventional
parts.
• Low sale leads to low revenue
and profits.
• Designs are limited to attract
the consumers.
Challenges
• Lack of charging infrastructure.
• Lack of collaboration between
EV manufactures for example:
different charging plugs and
system used by different
manufactures.
• Lack of manufacturing facilities
hence most EVs being imported
which adds to cost.
• Lack of competition for the
segments hence lack of choices.
• Decreasing gasoline price which
compete to the EVs sale.
(speeds under 25 km/h) should be permitted on cycle lanes. This would
prevent road congestion and thus, increase road safety.
In urban areas, finding a parking spot is difficult. If specific parking
spots were reserved with charging facilities and free parking were made
available, drivers could be encouraged to adopt EVs. Governments
should utilize smart enticements for faster adoption of EVs, such as
designated toll booths, rebates in charging rates for EVs during non-peak
spells, authorizing driving on Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) traffic lanes, and
storage-integrated charging stations.
6.7. Public awareness and communication
On an average, people are unfamiliar with EV technology, unaware
of existing incentives, and uninformed about the range of benefits that
EVs provide. Thus, educational programs on EVs, social media adver­
tisements, road shows, and free test rides will prove useful to improve
awareness among the people regarding EVs.
Consumer’s behavioral intention plays an important role in adopting
EVs. Consumers’ environmental intention, control over the resources,
consultation opinions from surroundings, acceptance of new vehicle
technology have strong positive effect on purchasing and adopting EVs
(Tu and Yang, 2019). Similarly in terms of attitude towards EVs, con­
sumers strongly believe that the EVs are more advantageous at the in­
dividuals, pollution control and nations futuristic target of achieving all
EVs on road. In usage intention, adopters believe that the EVs are more
useful in operating cost and are simpler and convenient in technology
(Singh et al., 2020a, 2020b). The socio-demographic characteristics for
instance; age, gender, income, family size, education level and rela­
tionship status, also affect consumers intentions to accept EVs in India
and provide the reference for purchase which suits consumers demand.
6.8. Support contests among OEMs
One of the methods to promote EVs is by organizing a challenge with
various organizations and publicize it. The Government can initiate the
effort and have commercial organizations and others participate to
analyze the range of EV innovations and possible enhancements.
6.9. Future approaches with alternate technology and limitation
evaluations

Hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) or energy units

least two minutes to remit a payment. At such locations, battery swap­
ping could be implemented simultaneously.
Furthermore, innovative ideas could be used to implement battery
swapping and charging infrastructure in various locations such as
highway hotels, dhabas, and metro stations for rickshaws, as well as on-
call battery swapping services.
For example, Tesla swappable batteries, Gogoro energy network
(swappable battery infrastructure), replacement batteries of Israel and
Denmark, Swedish robotic swaps, and Aleees swapping battery system
for e-buses can help Indian EV market to resolve the problems associated
with battery. Moreover, Indian government also plan to frame efficiency
parameters to encourage standardised battery swapping options for
various segments (two-wheeler, three-wheeler, passenger cars, and E-
buses) by focusing on energy density, shape, and size (Economic times,
2020e). Though, sharing of battery packs is still a huge challenge for
OEMs to implement due to variation in vehicle models and battery
technology advancement. Individual OEM, however, can share same
battery design in various models for example; Tesla model X and S both
have the same configuration for their EVs (Adegbohun et al., 2019).
6.6. Special lanes for EVs
In several urban communities of India, cycle lanes are being devel­
oped alongside roads. Subsequently, moderately moving electric bikes
have struggled to gain attraction worldwide not because of high costs
but because of platinum, which is difficult to obtain. Additionally,
adoption of EVs has been hindered by the absence of infrastructure and
complications in hydrogen storage. Similarly, CNG technology is
generally not adopted because of the low availability of CNG gas sta­
tions, large fuel storage space, and poor performance. In order to
improve the adoption of such vehicles, a major initiative involving
hydrogen and CNG dispensing stations is needed. In the same vein, the
Indian Oil Corporation, Ltd. began working on a CNG infrastructure
project in Dwarka in 2010 . However, the high cost of hydrogen pro­
duction and the 3–5 greater costs of electricity production through
electrolysis in the fuel cell compared with fossil fuels discouraged this
initiative. Despite this, researchers worldwide are making strides in
hydrogen fuel cells technology for future use.
7. Conclusions
Various initiatives to promote the use EV are being undertaken in
India. These initiatives are being faced with challenges such as high cost,
problems with battery procurement and charging, restricted range of
EVs, poor incentive polices, and lack of awareness of the benefits of EVs
among potential consumers.
In this study, the most pertinent policies and technical aspects of EV
implementation in India were reviewed. The results revealed that State

1194
V. Singh et al.
governments were leading the way in terms of advertisements and
promotion of EVs with incentives like road tax relief, exemptions in
registration fees, and subsidies. A SWOC analysis was conducted to
evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges of EV
implementation, and the results showed that India will benefit from
central policies that provide incentives to support the national EV
market in terms of both supply and demand.
Given the traffic congestion and pollution levels of India, a sustain­
able and environment-friendly transportation infrastructure system
centered on EVs is essential. Government initiative of introducing, safe,
comfortable, sustainable and smart E-buses for public transport can
reduce the traffic congestion in major cities of India. These smart E-
buses are probably going to encourage individuals to leave their ICE
vehicles at home and thus make pollution free cities. However, to realize
this vision, the Central and State governments must ratify new policies
for EVs. Moreover, it should mandate OEMs to develop battery pro­
duction plants for EVs and provide support for fast charging infra­
structure. These policies will be critical to achieving the target of 100%
EVs by 2030.
This study covers literature available on government policies, EV
status, and development only in India. However, further research could
be done to evaluate EV trend by considering more than one country. In
this comprehensive review, quantitative analysis on policy to identify
which policy has a strong impact on EV market has been neglected, and
can be used in future research. Further investigation is needed to collect
EV statistics from small cities and municipality supporting adoption, or
if there are other EV policies that also need to be presented, but were not
comprised in this study.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Authors are especially thankful to the anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments and suggestions to improve the quality of the
paper. In addition, authors are also thankful to various agencies for
providing the Indian electric vehicle data.
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