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Home / Hardware & Software / Von-Neumann vs Harvard Architecture

Table of Contents [ hide ]

1 GCSE Von Neumann Architecture (14-16 years)
2 A-Level Contemporary processors (16-18 years)
3 What is the von Neumann Architecture?
4 Characteristics of von Neumann Architecture
5 Advantages and Disadvantages of von Neumann Architecture
6 Von Neumann bottleneck
7 What is Harvard Architecture?
8 Characteristics of Harvard Architecture
9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Harvard Architecture
10 Modified Harvard Architecture
11 Summary and Facts

The term Computer architectures refer to a set of rules stating how computer software and
hardware are combined together and how they interact to make a computer functional,
furthermore, the computer architecture also specifies which technologies the computer is able
to handle.

Computer architecture is a specification, which describes how software and hardware interact
together to produce a functioning platform.

When a person thinks of the word “architecture”, the human mind will probably think of the
assembly of buildings or houses, moreover, with the same principle in mind, computer
architecture involves the construction of a computer system internally and externally.

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There are three main categories in computer architecture:

System design:
The system design is the hardware parts, which includes multiprocessors, memory
controllers, CPU, data processors, and direct memory access. The system design
can be considered to be the actual computer system.
Instruction set architecture:
This revolves around the CPU. It includes the CPU capabilities and functions,
furthermore it also includes the CPU’s data formats, programming language and
processor register types and instructions, which are used by the computer
programmers.
The CPU is the part in a computer, which makes a program run, whether it was the
operating system or an application like Photoshop.
Microarchitecture:
The microarchitecture in a system will define the storage element/data paths and
how they will be implemented into the instruction set architecture, the
microarchitecture also is responsible for data processing.

All these will gel together in a certain order to make the system functional.

What is the von Neumann Architecture?

In 1945, John von Neumann, who was a mathematician at the time, had delved into the study
that, a computer could have a fixed simple structure and still be able to execute any kind of
computation without hardware modification. This is providing that the computer is properly
programmed with proper instructions, in which it is able to execute them.

Von Neumann’s primary advancement was referred to as “conditional control transfer”, which
had allowed a program sequence to be interrupted and then reinitiated at any point,
furthermore this advancement had allowed data to be stored with instructions in the same
memory unit.

This was beneficial because if instructions were desired, they can be arithmetically modified in
the same way as the data.

The von Neumann architecture describes a design model for a stored program digital
computer that incorporates only one single processing unit and a one single separate storage
structure, which will hold both instructions and data.

The von Neumann architecture refers to one that keeps the data as well as the programmed
instructions in read-write RAM (Random Access Memory).

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Characteristics of von Neumann Architecture

As mentioned above, the von Neumann Architecture is based on the fact that the program
data and the instruction data are stored in the same memory unit. This can also be referred to
as the “stored program concept”.

This design is still used in the computer produced nowadays:

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is an electronic circuit, which executes instructions of the computer program.
The CPU can also be referred to as a microprocessor or a processor.

Within the CPU, there is the an ALU, CU, and the registers, which are described in more detail
below:

Control Unit:

Controls the operation of the ALU, memory, and input/output, instructing them how to
respond to the instructions from the program it had just read and interpreted from the
memory unit. The control unit directs the operations of the CPU by executing the
following jobs:
Coordinating and controlling activities of the CPU
Managing data flow between other components and the CPU
Acknowledging and accepting the next instruction

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Decoding instructions
Storing the resulting data back into a memory unit      

Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU):

Allows logical and arithmetic operations to be carried out such as addition and
subtraction.
(Logical operators are: AND, OR, NOT, XOR)              

Memory Unit:

Consists of RAM, which is partitioned out and consists of an address and its contents,
which are in binary form.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is a fast type of memory unlike hard drives, it is also
directly accessible by the CPU.
The existence of RAM in a CPU, allows it to function a lot quicker and hence more
efficiently.

Registers:

Small block in the CPU that consists of a high-speed storage memory cells that store
data before it is processed, all logical, arithmetic, and shift operations occur here.
The register consist of 5 components     
Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be executed
Accumulator (AC): Storage area where logic and arithmetic results are stored
Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address of a location of the data that
is to be read from or written to
Memory Data Register (MDR): Temporary storage location that stores data that
has been read, or data that still needs to be written
Current Instruction Register (CIR): Area where the current instruction is being
carried out. The operation is divided into operand and opcode.
Operand: Contains data or the address of the data (where the operation will be
performed)
Opcode: Specifies type of instruction to be executed

Buses:

These are a set of parallel wires, which connect components (two or more) inside the
CPU. Within the CPU, there are three types of buses, and these are all referred to a
system bus. The types of buses are: Data bus, Control bus, and Address bus.

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Data bus: This bus is referred to as a bi-directional bus, which means “bits” can be
carried in both ways. This bus is used to transport data and instructions between the
processor, memory unit, and the input/output.
Address bus: Transmits the memory address specifying where the relevant data needs
to be sent or retrieved from. (The address bus does not carry the data, only the address)
Control bus: This is also a bi-directional bus used to transmit “control
signals”/commands from the CPU (and status signals from other components) in order
to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer.

Input/Outputs:

Information passed from the user/information received by the user.

Advantages and Disadvantages of von Neumann Architecture

Advantages Disadvantages

The control unit retrieves instruction and

data in the same way from one memory unit. Parallel executions of programs are not
This simplifies the development and design allowed due to serial instruction processing
of the control unit

The above advantage would also mean that Only one “bus” can be accessed at a time.
data from memory and from devices are This results in the CPU being idle (as it’s
accessed the same way. Therefore faster than a data bus) This is considered to
increasing efficiency be the von Neumann Bottleneck

Although both instructions and data being

An advantageous characteristic is that stored in the same place can be viewed as an
programmers have control of memory advantage as a whole. This can however
organisation result in re-writing over it, which results in
data loss, due to an error in a program

If a defective program fails to release

memory when they don’t require it (or finish
 
with it), it may cause the computer to crash,
as a result of insufficient memory available

Von Neumann bottleneck

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As processors, and computers over the years have had an increase in processing speed, and
memory improvements have increased in capacity, rather than speed, this had resulted in the
term “von Neumann bottleneck”. This is because the CPU spends a great amount of time being
idle (doing nothing), while waiting for data to be fetched from the memory. No matter how fast
the processor is, this ultimately depends on the rate of transfer, as a matter of fact, if the
processor is faster, this just means that it’ll have a greater “idle” time.

Approaches to overcome this bottleneck include:

Caching:
Data which is more easily accessible in RAM, rather than stored in the main
memory. The type of data stored here will be the type of data, which is frequently
used.
Prefetching:
The transport of some data into cache before it is requested. This will speed access
in the event of a request of the data.
Multithreading:
Managing many requests at the same time in separate threads.
New types of RAM:
Such as DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access
Memory).
This type of RAM activates output on both the falling edge and the rising edge of the
system clock, instead of just the rising edge.
This can potentially double the output.
RAMBUS:
A subsystem connecting RAM controller, RAM, and the bus (path) connecting RAM to
the microprocessor and devices within the computer that utilise it.
Processing in Memory (PIM):
PIM’s integrate a processor and memory in single microchip.

What is Harvard Architecture?

Harvard architecture is named after the “Harvard Mark I” relay based computer, which was an
IBM computer in the University of Harvard.

The computer stored instructions on “punched tape” (24 bits wide), furthermore the data was
stored in electro mechanical counters. The CPU of these early computer systems contained
the data storage entirely, and it provided no access to the instruction storage as data.

Harvard architecture is a type of architecture, which stores the data and instructions
separately, therefore splitting the memory unit.

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The CPU in a Harvard architecture system is enabled to fetch data and instructions
simultaneously, due to the architecture having separate buses for data transfers and
instruction fetches.

Characteristics of Harvard Architecture

Both types of architectures contain the same components, however the main difference is
that, in a Harvard architecture the instruction fetches and data transfers can be preformed at
the same time (simultaneously) (as the system has two buses, one for data transfers and one
for instruction fetches).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Harvard Architecture

Advantages Disadvantages

The memory dedicated to each (data and

Due to instructions and data being instructions) must be balanced from the
transferred in different buses, this means manufacturer. Because if there is free
there is a smaller chances of data corruption memory data memory, it cannot be used for
instructions and vice versa

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Advantages
Instructions and data can be accessed the
same way
Harvard architecture offers a high
performance, as this architecture allows
simultaneous flow of data and instructions.
These are kept in separate memory and
travel via separate buses
There is a greater memory bandwidth that is
more predictable, due to the architecture
having separate memory for instructions
and data
Modified Harvard Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture vs. Harvard Architecture:
Von Neumann Architecture
Based on the stored program computer
concept
Uses the same physical memory address for
instructions and data
The processors require two clock cycles to
execute an instruction
The von Neumann architecture consists of a
simpler control unit design, which means
less complex development is required. This
means the system will be less costly
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Von-Neumann vs Harvard Architecture | Differences & Uses
Disadvantages
However this advantage (to the left) results
in a more complex architecture, as it
requires two buses. Which means it take
more time to manufacture and it makes
these systems more expensive
This architecture however, despite the high
performance, is very complex, especially for
main board manufacturers to implement
Though as mentioned above, to achieve the
advantage on the left, Harvard architecture
requires a control unit for two buses. Which
increases complexity and makes
development more difficult. All of which
increase the price of the system
Harvard Architecture
Based on the Harvard Mark I relay based
computer model
It uses separate memory addresses for
instructions and data
Processor requires only one cycle to
complete an instruction
Harvard architectures control unit consists
of two buses, which results in a more
complicated system. This adds to the
development cost, resulting in a more
expensive system
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Von Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture

Instruction fetches and data transfers Instruction fetches and data transfers can
cannot be preformed at the same time be preformed at the same time

Used in laptops, personal computers, and Used in signal processing and micro-
workstations controllers

Modified Harvard Architecture:

A pure Harvard architecture suffers from the disadvantage that the mechanism must be
provided to separate the load from the program to be executed into instruction memory and
thus leaving any data to be operated upon into the data memory.

However modern systems nowadays use a read only technology for the instruction memory
and read/write technology for the same memory.

This allows a system to allow the execution of a pre loaded program as soon as power is
applied.

However, the data will be in an unknown state, therefore it cannot provide any pre-defined
values to the program.

The solution to this is to provide machine language instructions so that the contents of the
instruction memory can be read as if they were data, as well as providing a hardware pathway.

Most adoptions of Harvard architecture nowadays is a modified form, this is to loosen the
strict separation between the data and the code, whilst still maintaining a high performance
concurrent data and instruction access of the original Harvard architecture.

The modified Harvard architecture is a variation of the original Harvard architecture. However
the difference between the two of them is, the modified architecture allows the contents of the
instruction memory to be accessed as data.

The three main modifications applied to a Modified Harvard Architecture are:

Split-cache architecture:
Very similar to the von Neumann architecture, this modification builds a memory
hierarchy with CPU caches for instructions and data at lower levels of hierarchy.
Instruction-memory-as-data architecture:
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This modification allows to access the content of the instruction memory as the
data. This can be carried because data cannot directly get executed as instructions.
(Though there is a debate to whether or not this actually can be named as
“Modified” Harvard architecture)
Data-memory-as-instruction architecture:
Executing instructions fetched from any memory segment, unlike Harvard
architecture, which can only execute instructions, fetched from the program
memory segment.

Summary and Facts

The von Neumann Architecture was a large advancement from the program-controlled
computers, which were used in the 1940’s. Such computer were programmed by setting the
inserting patch leads and switches to route data and control signals between different
functional sets.

Whereas nowadays, the majority of computer systems share the same memory for both data
and program instructions.

The CPU in a Harvard architecture system is enabled to fetch data and instructions
simultaneously, due to the architecture having separate buses for data transfers and
instruction fetches.

What is the von Neumann Architecture?

The von Neumann architecture refers to one that keeps the data as well as the programmed
instructions in read-write RAM (Random Access Memory).

Characteristics of von Neumann Architecture:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
Memory Unit
Registers:
Program Counter (PC)
Accumulator (AC)
Memory Address Register (MAR)
Memory Data Register (MDR)
Current Instruction Register (CIR)
Buses:

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Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
Input/Outputs

Advantages:

Less expensive/complex compared to Harvard architecture

Efficient

Disadvantages:

Von Neumann Bottleneck

Greater chance of data loss

What is Harvard Architecture?

The Harvard architecture is a computer system that contains two separate areas for
data and commands/instructions.
Harvard architecture is a type of architecture, which stores the data and instructions
separately, therefore splitting the memory unit.

Advantages:

Less chance of data corruption

High performance
Greater memory bandwidth

Disadvantages:

Complex
Expensive

Modified Harvard Architecture:

The modified Harvard architecture is a variation of the original Harvard architecture. However
the difference between the two of them is, the modified architecture allows the contents of the
instruction memory to be accessed as data.

The three main modifications applied to a Modified Harvard Architecture are:

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Split-cache architecture
Instruction-memory-as-data architecture
Data-memory-as-instruction architecture

References:

1. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/19737/harvard-architecture
2. https://tdck.weebly.com/uploads/7/7/0/5/77052163/03_-
_harvard_architecture_comparison.pdf
3. https://getrevising.co.uk/grids/von-neumann-architecture
4. http://differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-von-neumann-and-
harvard-architecture/
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture
6. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-organization-von-neumann-architecture/
7. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/32480/von-neumann-architecture
8. http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/det/3665/John-von-Neumann/
9. https://www.computerscience.gcse.guru/theory/von-neumann-architecture
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Harvard_architecture
11. https://www.edaboard.com/threads/harvard-vs-modified-harvard-
architechture.111764/

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