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CIVE 2210
SOIL MECHANICS
LECTURER’S NAME:
NOORBAYA BINTI MOHD SALLEH

EMAIL:
noorbaya@iukl.edu.my

PHONE EXT:
880

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CHAPTER 3:
SOIL COMPACTION
BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 3

Soil Compaction
– Introduction and General Principles
• In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams,
and many other engineering structures, loose soils must be
compacted to increase their unit weights.
• Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soil,
thereby, increasing the bearing capacity of the foundations
constructed over them.
• Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures and increases the stability of
slopes of embankments.
• Smooth-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, rubber-tired
rollers, and vibratory rollers are generally used in the field
for soil compaction.
• Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by
removal of air, which requires mechanical energy.
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Soil Compaction
– Introduction and General Principles
• The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its
dry unit weight. When water is added to the soil during
compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles.
• The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the
moisture content increases (Figure 5.1).
• Note the at a moisture content, w = 0, the moist unit
weight (𝛾) is equals to the dry unit weight (𝛾𝑑 ), or
𝛾 = 𝛾𝑑(w=0) = 𝛾 1
• When the moisture content is gradually increased and the
same compactive effort is used for compaction, the weight
of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases. For
example, at w = w1 the moist unit weight is equals to:
𝛾 = 𝛾2

Soil Compaction
– Introduction and General Principles
• However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is
given by:
𝛾𝑑(w=w1) = 𝛾𝑑(w=0)+  𝛾𝑑
• Beyond a certain moisture content, w = w2 (Figure 5.1),
any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry
unit weight.
• This is because the water takes up the spaces that would
have been occupied by the solid particles.
• The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight
is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture
content.
• The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum
dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content is called the Proctor compaction test (Proctor, 1933).
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Figure 5.1 Principles of compaction

Standard Proctor Test

• In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a
volume of 943.3 cm3. The diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm.
• During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a base plate at
the bottom and to an extension at the top (Figure 5.2a).
• The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted (Figure 5.3) in three equal layers by a hammer (Figure
5.2b) that delivers 25 blows to each layer.
• The hammer weighs 24.4 N (mass approx. 2.5 kg), and has a drop
of 304.8 mm. For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction
𝛾 can be calculated as:

𝑊
𝛾= (5.1)
𝑉(𝑚)
where; 𝑊 = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
𝑉 (𝑚)= volume of the mold (= 943.3 cm3)

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Figure 5.2 Standard Proctor test equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer

Figure 5.3 Standard Proctor test using a mechanical compactor

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Standard Proctor Test

• For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil
is determined in the laboratory.
• During laboratory test, the dry unit weight 𝛾𝑑 can be
calculated as:
𝛾 (5.2)
𝛾𝑑 = 𝑤(%
1+
100
where; 𝑤(%) = percentage of moisture content

• The values of 𝛾𝑑 determined from Eq. (5.2) can be

plotted against the corresponding moisture contents to
obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil.
• Figure 5.4 shows such a compaction for a silty clay soil.
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Figure 5.4 Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

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Standard Proctor Test

• In the Proctor test, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight
is obtained when there is no air in the void spaces – that is,
when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Thus the
maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture content with
zero air voids can be given by:
𝐺𝑠𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 = (5.3)
1+𝑒

where; 𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 = zero-air-void unit weight

𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of soil solids
For 100% saturation, e = wGs, where w= moisture content:
𝐺𝑠𝛾 𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 1+𝑤𝐺𝑠
= 1
𝑤+
𝐺𝑠
(5.4)

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Factors Affecting Compaction

• The moisture content has a great influence on the degree of
compaction achieved by a given soil.
• Besides moisture content, other important factors that affect
compaction are soil type and compaction effort (energy per
unit volume).

(a) Effect of Soil Type

• The soil type – that is, grain size distribution, shape of soil
grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of
clay minerals present – has great influence on the maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture contents.
• Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for 35
different types of compaction curves as shown in Figure 5.5.

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Factors Affecting Compaction

Type A compaction curves
• Have single peak
• Soils that have liquid limit 30 – 70

Type B compaction curves

• Have one and one-half peak curve
• Soils that have liquid limit < 30

Type C compaction curves

• Have double peak curve
• Soils that have liquid limit < 30 or
soils that have liquid limit > 70

Type D compaction curves

• Do not have a definite peak curve
• Soils that have liquid limit > 70
• Are not very commonly found

Figure 5.5 Various types of compaction

curves encountered in soils
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Factors Affecting Compaction

(b) Effect of Compaction Effort
• The compaction energy per unit volume, E, used for the
standard Proctor test can be given as:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 X 𝑜𝑓 X 𝑜𝑓 X 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
𝐸=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑
or
(25)(3)(24.4)(0.3048 𝑚)
𝐸= 943.3 𝑥 10−6 𝑚3
= 591.3 x 103 N-m/m3 = 591.3 kN-m/m3

• If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed,

the moisture-unit weight curve will also change.
• This can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 5.6, which
shows four compaction curves for a sand clay.
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Figure 5.6 Effect of compaction energy on the compaction of a sandy clay

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Modified Proctor Test

• With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field
compaction, the standard Proctor test was modified to
better represent field conditions.
• This is referred to as the modified Proctor test (ASTM Test
Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180).
• For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is
used, with a volume of 943.3 cm3, as in the case of the
standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in
five layers by a hammer that weighs 44.5 N (mass = 4.536
kg). The drop of the hammer is 457.2 mm. The number of
hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of
the standard Proctor test.
• Figure 5.7 shows hammers used for the standard and
modified Proctor tests.
• A comparison of the hammers used in the standard and
modified Proctor tests is shown in Figure 5.8.
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Figure 5.7 Hammers used for the Figure 5.8 Comparison of standard (left)
standard and modified Proctor tests and modified (right) Proctor hammers
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Example 5.1
The laboratory test data for a standard Proctor test are given
in the table below. Find the maximum dry unit weight and the
optimum moisture content.
Volume of Proctor Mass of wet soil in Moisture Content
mold (cm3) the mold (kg) (%)
943.3 1.76 12
943.3 1.86 14
943.3 1.92 16
943.3 1.95 18
943.3 1.93 20
943.3 1.90 22

Solution:
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Field Compaction
• Most compaction in the field is done with rollers. There are four
common types of rollers:
1. Smooth-wheel roller (or smooth-drum roller)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired roller
3. Sheepsfoot roller
4. Vibratory roller
• Smooth-wheel rollers (Figure 5.9) are suitable for proofrolling
subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with sandy and
clayey soils.
• Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers (Figure 5.10) are heavily loaded
wagons with several rows of tyres which are closely spaced from
four to six a row which can be used for sandy and clayey soil
compaction.
• Sheepsfoot rollers (Figure 5.11) are drums with a large number of
projections which are most effective in compacting clayey soils.
• Vibratory rollers are very efficient in compacting granular soils.
Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil.
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Figure 5.9 Smooth wheel roller Figure 5.10 Pneumatic rubber-tired roller

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Figure 5.11 Sheepsfoot roller

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Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction

• When the compaction work in progressing in the field, it is useful to know whether or
not the unit weight specified is achieved. Three standard procedures are used for
determining the field unit weight of compaction:
1. Sand Cone Method
2. Rubber Balloon Method
3. Nuclear Method

1. Sand Cone Method

• Sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top
(Figure 5.12).
• The weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling the jar is determined.
• In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been compacted.
• After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted
and placed over the hole (Figure 5.13).
• Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar into the hole and the cone.
• Once the hole and cone are filled, the weight of the jar, the cone, and the remaining
sand in the jar is determined.
• Subsequently, the dry unit weight are determined from the calibration done in the
laboratory.

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Figure 5.12 Plastic jar and the metal Figure 5.13 Field unit weight by sand cone
cone for the sand cone device method
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Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction

2. Rubber Balloon Method
• The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the
sand cone method; a test hole is made, and the moist weight of the soil
removed from the hole and its moisture content is determined.
• However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing a rubber
balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel into the hole, from
which the volume can be read directly (Figure 5.14).
• The dry unit weight is then determined.

3. Nuclear Method
• Nuclear density meters are now used often to determine the
compacted dry unit weight of soil.
• The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground
surface (Figure 5.15).
• The dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be determined by
subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil.

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Figure 5.14 Calibrated vessel for the Figure 5.15 Nuclear density meter
rubber balloon method for
determination of field unit weight
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