Chapter 2

23/7/2021
CIVE 2210
SOIL MECHANICS
LECTURER’S NAME:
NOORBAYA BINTI MOHD SALLEH
EMAIL:
noorbaya@iukl.edu.my
PHONE EXT:
880 (Noorbaya)
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CHAPTER 2:
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 3
Soil Particle Size

• Soils are generally called gravel, sand, silt or clay
depending on the predominant size of particles within
the soil.
• To describe soils by their particle size, several
organizations have developed soil-separate-size limits.
• Table 2.1 shows the soil-separate size limits developed
by the Massachusetts institute of Technology, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials and the U.S.
Army corps of Engineers and U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation.
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Soil Particle Size

Table 2.1 Soil-separate-size limit
Soil Particle Size

• Presently the Unified System is almost universally accepted. The
Unified Soil Classification System has now been adopted by the
American Society for Testing and Materials.
• Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz,
feldspar and other minerals.
• Sand particles are made of mostly quartz and feldspar. Other
mineral grains may also be present at times.
• Silts are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine
quartz grains and some flake-shaped particles that are fragments
of micaceous minerals.
• Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic
particles of mica, clay minerals and other minerals.
• For example, particles are classified as clay on the basis of their
size, as shown in Table 2.1. They may not necessarily contain clay
minerals.
• Clay are defines as those particles which develop plasticity when
mixed with a limited amount of water.
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Soil Particle Size

• Plasticity is the puttylike property of clays when they
contain a certain amount of water.
• Non-clay soils can contain particles of quartz, feldspar or
mica that are small enough to be within the clay size
classification.
Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity can be determined accurately in the laboratory.
• Table 2.2 shows the specific gravity of some common minerals found in
soils.
• Most of the minerals have a specific gravity that falls within a general range
of 2.6 to 2.9.
• The specific gravity of solids of light-colored sand, which is made mostly of
quartz, may be estimated to be about 2.65.
• The specific gravity of clayey and silty soils may vary from 2.6 to 2.9.
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Specific Gravity
Table 2.2 Specific gravity of important minerals
Soil Classification - Based on BS5930

Site Investigation (1999)
• Most classification systems divide soils into three main groups: coarse, fine
and organic as shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Major classes of engineering soils
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Field identification
• This stage is the process of describing and classifying soils takes place during
site exploration.
• It is important that adequate attempts are made during exploration to
describe the nature and formation of all the sub-surface materials
encountered.
• For the purpose of identification and classification in the field a series of
simple tests may be carried out as follows:-
• Particle size – identify the main groups by visual examination and ‘feel’ as
shown in Figure 2.1. Gravel particles (>2 mm) are clearly recognisable;
sands (0.06 mm < d < 2 mm) have a distinctive gritty feel between the
fingers; silts (0.002 mm < d < 0.06 mm) feel slightly abrasive but not gritty;
clays (<0.002 mm) feel greasy.
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• Grading – the grading of a soil refers to the distribution of sizes;
well-graded soil has a wide distribution of particle sizes, while a
poorly graded or uniform soil contains only a narrow range of
sizes.
• Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 shows the grading curve and typical
particle size distribution curve respectively.
• For a rapid estimate of particle sizes and grading a field settling
test can be carried out in a tall jar or bottle. A sample of the soil is
shaken with water in the jar and then allowed to stand for a few
minutes. The coarsest particles settle to the bottom first, followed
by progressively smaller sizes. Subsequent examination of the
nature and thickness of the layers of sediment will yield
approximate proportions of the size ranges.
• If over 65 per cent of the particles are greater than 0.06 mm, the
soil is classed as coarse, i.e. it is a SAND or GRAVEL.
• The term fine soil is used when over 35 per cent of the particles
are less than 0.06 mm. i.e. it is a SILT or CLAY.
• The basis for deciding composite types is given in Table 2.4.
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Figure 2.1 British standard range of particle sizes
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Figure 2.2 Grading curve
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Figure 2.3 Typical particle size distribution curve
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Table 2.4 Field identification and

description of soils
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Table 2.4 cont
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Table 2.4 cont
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• Compactness or field strength may be estimated using a hand spade or
pick, or by driving in a small wooden peg; the soil is then reported as
being loose, dense or slightly cemented as appropriate.
• Structure. Observation of structural characteristics are most useful and
are conveniently made in trial pits, cuttings and other excavations. The
following terms are used:-
i. Homogeneous – consisting of essentially one soil type.
ii. Inter – stratified – alternating layers or bands of different materials;
the ‘interval spacing’ between ‘bedding planes’ should be reported as
indicated in Table 2.5.
iii.Intact – a non fissured fine soil.
iv.Fissured – the direction, size and spacing of fissures of the soil type.
• Cohesion, plasticity and consistency. If its particles stick together, a soil
possesses cohesion and if it can be easily moulded without cracking, it
possesses plasticity. Both of these behavior depend on the moisture
content of the soil. It is helpful to record in the field the apparent
consistency of the soil as an indicator of cohesive or plastic behaviour.
After removing any particle over 2 mm, squeeze a handful of soil at its
natural moisture content and attempt to mould it in the hand and then
describe its consistency as follows:-
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i. Very soft – if it exudes between the fingers
ii. Soft – if it very easy to mould and it sticks to the hand
iii.Firm – if it moulds easily with moderate pressure
iv.Very firm – if it moulds only with considerable pressure
v. Hard – if it will not moulds under pressure in the hand
vi.Crumbly – if it breaks up into crumbs
• Dilatancy.
• Dry strength.
• Weathering.
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Table 2.5 British Soil Classification System for engineering purposes
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Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Coefficient of Gradation
Figure 2.9 Different types of particle-size distribution curves

(from slide no. 42)
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Table 2.5 cont
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Relationship between the plasticity index

and the liquid limit
Figure 2.13 Plasticity chart for the classification of fine soils

(from slide no. 49)
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Mechanical Analysis of Soil

• Determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a
percentage of the total weight (or mass).
• Two methods are generally used to find the particle-size distribution of soil:-
i. Sieve analysis – for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter
ii.Hydrometer analysis – for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in
diameter.
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Sieve Analysis
• Consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings.
• U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of openings are given in Table 2.6.
• The sieves used for soil analysis are generally 203 mm in diameter.
• To conduct a sieve analysis, one must first oven-dry the soil and then break
all lumps into small particles. The soil is then shaken through a stack of
sieves with openings of decreasing size from top to bottom (a pan is placed
below the stack).
• Figure 2.4 shows a set of sieves in a shaker used for conducting the test in
the laboratory. The smallest size sieve that should be used for this type of
test is the U.S. No. 200 sieve. After the soil is shaken, the mass of soil
retained on each sieve is determined.
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Sieve Analysis
Table 2.6 U.S. Standard sieve sizes
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Sieve Analysis
Figure 2.4 A set of sieves for a test in the laboratory
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Sieve Analysis
• When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking the lumps into individual
particles may be difficult. In this case, the soil may be mixed with water
to make a slurry and then washed through the sieves. Portions retained
on each sieve are collected separately and oven-dried before the mass
retained on each sieve is measured.
• Following are steps showing the calculation procedure for a sieve
analysis:-
i. Starting from the top sieve determine the mass of soil retained on
each sieve (i.e., M1, M2,…Mn) and in the pan (i.e., Mp)
ii. Determine the total mass of the soil: M1 + M2 + ….+ Mn + Mp = ∑M
iii.Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above each sieve. For
the 𝑖th sieve, it is M1 + M2 + …. + M𝑖
iv.The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑M – ( M1 + M2 + …. + M𝑖)
v. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is
σ 𝑀 − (𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + … . +𝑀𝑖)
𝐹= x 100
σ𝑀 (2.1)
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Sieve Analysis
• Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated (step
5), the calculations are plotted on semilogarithmic graph
paper (Figure 2.5) with percent finer as the ordinate
(arithmetic scale).
• This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution
curve.
Figure 2.5 Particle-size distribution curve

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Hydrometer Analysis
• Based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.
• When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at
different velocities, depending on their shape, size and weight.
• For simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and
the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by Stoke’s law,
according to which:-
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 2
𝜐= 𝐷
18𝜂
(2.2)
• Where:-
• 𝜐 = velocity
• 𝜌𝑠 = density of soil particles
• 𝜌𝑤 = density of water
• 𝜂 = viscosity of water
• 𝐷 = diameter of soil particles
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Hydrometer Analysis
• By knowing the amount of soil in suspension, L, as
shown in Figure 2.6 and t, we can calculate the
percentage of soil by weight finer than a given
diameter. Note that L is the depth measured from the
surface of the water to the center of gravity of the
hydrometer bulb at which the density of the
suspension is measured. The value of L will change
with time t; its variation with the hydrometer readings
is given in Table 2.7.
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Hydrometer Analysis
Figure 2.6 Definition of L in hydrometer test

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Hydrometer Analysis
Table 2.7 Variation of L with hydrometer reading –
ASTM 152-H hydrometer
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Hydrometer Analysis
• The results of sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis for finer
fractions for a given soil are combined on one graph, such as the
one shown in Figure 2.7.
• When these results are combined, a discontinuity generally occurs
in the range where they overlap. This discontinuity occurs
because soil particles are generally irregular in shape.
• Sieve analysis gives the intermediate dimensions of a particle;
hydrometer analysis gives the diameter of an equivalent sphere
that would settle at the same rate as the soil particle.
• The percentage of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size particles present
in a soil can be obtained from the particle-size distribution curve.
• According to the Unified Soil Classification System, the soil in
Figure 2.7 has these percentages:-
i. Gravel (size limits – greater than 4.75 mm) = 0%
ii. Sand (size limits – 4.75 to 0.075 mm) = percent finer than 4.75
mm diameter – percent finer than 0.075 mm diameter = 100 –
62 = 38%
iii. Silt and clay (size limits BEC
– less
204 SOILthan 0.075 mm) = 62%
MECHANICS 35
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Hydrometer Analysis
Figure 2.7 Particle size distribution curve – sieve

analysis and hydrometer analysis
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Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and Coefficient of

Gradation
• The particle size distribution curve (Figure 2.8) can be used
to compare different soils.
• These three basic soil parameters can be determined from
these curves and they can be used to classify granular soils.
• The three soil parameters are:
i. Effective size
ii. Uniformity coefficient
iii.Coefficient of gradation
• The diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer is defined as the effective size, or
D10. The uniformity coefficient is given by the relation:-
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𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 = (2.3)
𝐷10
• Where:-
𝐶𝑢 = uniformity coefficient
𝐷60 = the diameter corresponding to 60% finer in the
particle-size distribution curve
• The coefficient of gradation may be expressed as:-
𝐷230 (2.4)
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 𝑥 𝐷10
• Where :-
• 𝐶𝑐 = coefficient of gradation
• 𝐷30 = diameter corresponding to 30% finer
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Figure 2.8 Definition of D10, D30 and D60
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• The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the
range of particle sizes present in a soil but also the
distribution of various size particles.
• Three curves are shown in Figure 2.9.
• Curve I represents a type of soil in which most of the soil
grains are the same size. This is called poorly graded soil.
• Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes are
distributed over a wide range and is termed well graded.
• A well graded soil has a uniformity coefficient greater than
about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands and a coefficient of
gradation between 1 and 3 (for gravels and sands).
• Curve III represents such a soil, termed gap graded.
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Figure 2.9 Different types of particle-size distribution curves
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Example 2.1
The following are the results of a sieve analysis:-
U.S. Sieve No. Mass of soil retained on each
sieve (g)
4 0
10 21.6
20 49.5
40 102.6
60 89.1
100 95.6
200 60.4
pan 31.2
a) Determine the percent finer than each sieve size and plot a grain-size distribution curve
b) Determine D10, D30 and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve.
c) Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu
d) Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc
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Example 2.2
The grain-size characteristics of a soil are given here:-
Size (mm) Percent finer

0.425 100
0.033 90
0.018 80
0.01 70
0.0062 60
0.0035 50
0.0018 40
0.001 35
a) Draw the particle-size distribution curve

b) Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt and clay according to the MIT system
c) Repeat Part b using the USDA system
d) Repeat Part b using the AASHTO system
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Particle Shape
• The shape of particles present in a soil mass is equally as important as the
particle-size distribution because it has significant influence on the physical
properties of a given soil.
• The particle shape generally can be divided into three major categories:-
i. Bulky
ii. Flaky
iii.Needle shaped
• Bulky particles are formed mostly by mechanical weathering of rock and minerals.
• Geologists use such terms as angular, subangular, subrounded and rounded to
describe the shapes of bulky particles as shown in Figure 2.10. Example soil is
sand.
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Particle Shape
Figure 2.10 Shape of bulky particles
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Particle Shape
• Flaky particles have very low sphericity which is usually
0r less. These particles are predominantly clay minerals.
• Needle-shaped particles are much less common than
other two particle types. Examples of soils containing
needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and
attapulgite clays.
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Consistency of Soil
• In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Albert Mauritz Atterberg
developed a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying moisture contents.
• At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a brittle solid.
• When the moisture content is very high. The soil and water may flow like a
liquid.
• Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content, the nature
of soil behaviour can be broken down into four basic states: solid, semisolid,
plastic and liquid as shown in Figure 2.11.
• The change in volume of a saturated cohesive soil is approximately
proportional to a change in water content; the general relationship is shown
in Figure 2.12.
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Consistency of Soil
Figure 2.11 Atterberg limits
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Consistency of Soil
Figure 2.12 Consistency relationships
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Consistency of Soil
• The moisture content, in percent at which the transition
from solid to semisolid state takes place is defined as
the shrinkage limit.
• The moisture content at the point of transition from
semisolid to plastic state is the plastic limit.
• Transition from plastic to liquid state is the liquid limit.
These limits are also known as Atterberg limits.
• The two most important of these are the liquid and
plastic limits, which represents respectively the upper
and lower bounds of plastic states; the range of plastic
states is given by their difference and is termed as (2.5)
the
plasticity index (PI).
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
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Relationship between the plasticity index and the liquid

limit
• This relationship has been used in the British Soil Classification System to
establish the sub-groups of fine soil.
• Figure 2.13 & 2.14 show the plasticity chart used for this purpose.
• The A-line provides an arbitrary division between silts and clays, and vertical
divisions (of percentage liquid limit) define five degrees of plasticity:-
i. Low plasticity: LL < 35%
ii.Intermediate plasticity: LL = 35% - 50%
iii.High plasticity: LL = 50% - 70%
iv.Very high plasticty: LL = 70% - 90%
v.Extremely high plasticity: LL> 90%
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Figure 2.13 Plasticity chart for the classification of fine soils
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Figure 2.14 Plasticity chart
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• A given soil may be located in its correct sub-group zone
by plotting a point, having coordinates given by the soil’s
plasticity index and liquid limit.
• An explanation of the sub-group symbol is given in Table
2.8.
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Table 2.8 Sub-group symbols in the British Soil
Classification System
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Liquidity Index
• The relationship between the soil’s natural water content and its consistency
limits, i.e., its natural or in situ consistency, is given by the liquidity index (LI).
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 (2.6)
• Where :-
w = natural or in situ water content
i. LI < 0: soil is in semi-plastic solid or solid state
ii. 0 < LI < 1: soil is in plastic state
iii. LI > 1: soil is in liquid state
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Activity
• Skempton defined a quantity called activity, which is the slope of the line
correlating PI and percent finer than 2𝜇. This activity may be expressed as:-
𝑃𝐼
𝐴= (2.7)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• Where:-
A = activity
• Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling potential of clay soils.
• Typical values of activities for various clay minerals are listed in Table 2.9
(Mitchell, 1976).
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Activity
Table 2.9 Activities of clay minerals
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Determination Liquid Limit (LL)

• The apparatus as shown in Figure 2.15 consists basically of a
stainless steel cone 35 mm long with an apex angle of 300
and having a mass (including the shaft) of 80 g.
• The cone is mounted on a stand which will allow it to be
dropped and then held in position while its vertical
movement is measured.
• At the time of testing, the soil is remixed for 10 minutes and
a portion of it placed in the brass cup. Care must be taken
not to entrap air bubbles, and then the surface is struck off
level with the top of the cup.
• After placing the cup on the base of the stand, the cone is
lowered so that it just touches and main surface of the soil
paste, the dial gauge is then set and reading note.
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Determination Liquid Limit (LL)

• The cone is released to penetrate the soil paste for
exactly 5 s and relocked in its original position; a second
dial gauge reading is now taken.
• The difference between the first and second dial gauge
reading is now taken.
• The difference between the first and second dial
readings gives the amount of cone penetration (mm).
• The penetration procedure is repeated several times on
the same paste and an average penetration is obtained.
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Figure 2.15 Cone penetrometer for

liquid limit test
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Determination Plastic Limit (PL)

• For plastic limit tests, it is usual to prepare sufficient natural
or air-dried soil as a paste (approx. 20 g).
• The sample is then divide into two approximately equal (10
g) portions and each of these divided into four sub-samples.
• One of the sub-samples is taken and rolled into a ball and
then it is rolled on a glass sheet to form a thread of soil until
the diameter of the thread reaches 3 mm.
• The procedure of rolling and re-rolling is continued until the
thread starts to crumble just as the diameter of 3 mm is
reached; at this point the thread fragments are placed in an
airtight container.
• The same procedure is following with the other 10 g portion.
• The average of the two water contents is reported as the
plastic limit.
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Determination Shrinkage Limit (SL)

• For soils with very small clay content the liquid and plastic limit tests may
not produce reliable results.
• An approximation of the plasticity index may be obtained in such cases by
measuring the linear shrinkage and using the following expression:
𝑆𝐿 = 2.13 𝑥 𝐿𝑆 (2.8)
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 (2.9)

Percentage linear shrinkage, 𝐿𝑆 = 1 − 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
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Soil Classification
• At the present time, two elaborate classification systems that use the grain-
size distribution and plasticity of soils are commonly used by soils engineers.
i. American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHTO) classification system
ii. The Unified Soil Classification System
• The AASHTO system is used mostly by state and county highway

departments, whereas geotechnical engineers usually prefer to use the
Unified System.
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AASHTO Classification System

• The AASHTO classification system in present use is given in Table 2.10.
• According to this system, soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1
through A-7.
• Soils classified into groups A-1, A-2 and A-3 are granular materials where
35% or less of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve.
• Soils where more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified
into groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. These are mostly clay-type materials.
65

• The classification system is based on the following criteria:-
i. Grain size
• Gravel: fraction passing the 75 mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2
mm) U. S. sieve.
• Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2 mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the
No. 200 (0.075 mm) U.S. sieve.
• Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve.
ii. Plasticity: the term silty is applied when the fine fractions
of the soil have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
iii.If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are
encountered, they are excluded from the portion of the
soil sample on which classification is made. However, the
percentage of such material is recorded.
• The classification system is based on the following
criteria:-
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• To classify a soil according to Table 2.10, the test data
are applied from left to right. By process of elimination,
the first group from the left into which the test data will
fit is the correct classification.
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Table 2.10 Classification of

highway subgrade
materials
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• Figure 2.16 shows a plot of the range of the liquid limit
and the plasticity index for soils which fall into groups A-
2, A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7.
Figure 2.16 Range of liquid limit and

plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4,
A-5, A-6 and A-7
69

• For the evaluation of the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade
material, a number called the group index (GI) is also
incorporated with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This
number is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup
designation.
• The group index is given by the equation:-
(2.10
𝐺𝐼 = 𝐹 − 35 0.2 + 0.005 𝐿𝐿 − 40 + 0.01 𝐹 − 15 𝑃𝐼 − 10 )
• Where:-
F = percent passing the No 200 sieve
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
• The first term of Eq. (2.10) that is, 𝐹 − 35 ሾ0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 −
40)ሿ is the partial group index determined from the liquid limit.
• The second term that is, 0.01 𝐹 − 15 𝑃𝐼 − 10 is the partial
group index determined from the plasticity index.
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• Following are some rules for determining the group index:-
i. If Eq. (2.10) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0
ii. The group index calculated from Eq. (2.10) is rounded off to
the nearest whole number (for example, GI = 3.4 is rounded
off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
iii. There is no upper limit for the group index.
iv. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-
4, A-2-5 and A-3 is always 0.
v. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to
groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI, or
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)

(2.11
)
• In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade
material is inversely proportional to the group index.
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Example 2.3
The results of the particles-size analysis of a soil are as
follows:
Percent passing through the No. 10 sieve = 100
The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40
fraction of the soil are 30 and 10, respectively. Classify the
soil by the AASHTO system.
Solution:
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Example 2.4
Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200
sieve and has a liquid limit of 60 and plasticity index of 40.
Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.
Solution:
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Unified Soil Classification System

• The Unified Classification System is presented in Table 2.11. This system
classifies soils into two broad categories:-
i. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than
50% passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a
prefix of either G or S. G stands for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand
or sandy soil.
ii. Fine-grained soils with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve.
The group symbols start with prefix or M, which stands for inorganic silt,
C for inorganic clay or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used
for peat, muck and other highly organic soils.
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• Other symbols are also used for the classification:-
• W – Well graded
• P – poorly graded
• L – low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H – highly plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)
75
Table 2.11 Unified Soil Classification System

(Based on material passing 75 mm Sieve)
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• For proper classification according to this system, some or all
of the following information must be known:-
i. Percent of gravel – that is, the fraction passing the 76.2
mm sieve and retained on the No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm
opening)
ii. Percent of sand – that is, the fraction passing the No. 4
sieve (4.75 mm opening) and retained on the No. 200 sieve
(0.075 mm opening)
iii.Percent of silt and clay – that is the fraction finer than the
No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm opening)
iv.Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation
(Cc)
v. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil
passing the No. 40 sieve.
77

• The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are
GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM and
GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils
are CL, ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML and Pt.
• The group names of various soils classified under the
Unified Soil Classification System can be determined using
Figures 2.17, 2.18 and 2.19.
• In using these figures, the following information need to
be considered in a given soil:-
• Fine fraction = %passing No. 200 sieve
• Coarse fraction = % retained on No. 200 sieve
• Gravel fraction = % retained on No. 4 sieve
• Sand fraction = (% retained on No. 200 sieve) – (% retained
on No.4 sieve)
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Figure 2.17 Unified Soil

(gravelly and sandy soil)
79

(inorganic silty and clayey
soils)
80
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(organic silty and clayey
soils)
81
Example 2.5
Refer to Example 2.3. Classify the soil by the Unified Soil
Classification System. Give the group symbol and group
name.
Solution:
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Example 2.6
For a given soil, the following are known:-
• Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70
• Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30
• Liquid limit = 33
• Plastic limit = 12
Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification
System. Give the group symbol and the group name.
Solution:
83
42

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23/7/2021

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 3

Soil Particle Size

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 4

Soil Particle Size

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 5

Soil Particle Size

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 6

Soil Particle Size

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 7

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 8

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 9

Soil Classification - Based on BS5930

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 10

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 11

Figure 2.1 British standard range of particle sizes

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 13

Figure 2.2 Grading curve

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 14

Figure 2.3 Typical particle size distribution curve

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 15

Table 2.4 Field identification and

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 16

Table 2.4 cont

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 17

Table 2.4 cont

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 18

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 20

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 21

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Figure 2.9 Different types of particle-size distribution curves

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 22

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 23

Relationship between the plasticity index

Figure 2.13 Plasticity chart for the classification of fine soils

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 24

Mechanical Analysis of Soil

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 25

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 26

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 27

Figure 2.4 A set of sieves for a test in the laboratory

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 28

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 29

Figure 2.5 Particle-size distribution curve

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 31

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 32

Figure 2.6 Definition of L in hydrometer test

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 34

Figure 2.7 Particle size distribution curve – sieve

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and Coefficient of

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Figure 2.8 Definition of D10, D30 and D60

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 39

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient and

Figure 2.9 Different types of particle-size distribution curves

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 41

Size (mm) Percent finer

a) Draw the particle-size distribution curve

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 43

Figure 2.10 Shape of bulky particles

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 45

BEC 204 SOIL MECHANICS 46