Particle Characterization: 06 August 2021 10:24

1.
Particle Characterization
06 August 2021 10:24
Shape of Particles
 Sphericity
Sphericity of various types of particles

Types of Particles Sphericity (∅) Surface shape factor
ሺૃሻ
Sphere 1 1
Cylinder 0.873 1.145
Cone 0.79 1.265
Cube 0.81 1.235
Hemi-sphere 0.84 1.190
Coarse particles 0.60 - 0.78 1.25-1.66
 Surface Shape Factor 'λ': It is reciprocal of the sphericity.
 Volume Shape Factor 'a':
 Equivalent Diameter
• For Pressure Drop
For concentric cylinders
Particle Size Distribution
New Section 1 Page 1

Particle Size Distribution
Number of particles 'N' is given by
or,
So, Total Surface Area of particles 'AS' will be
And, Specific Surface Area of particles 'AW' will be
Types of Particle Diameters
ഥ ࡺ)
 Arithmetic mean diameter (ࡰ
ഥ ࡽ)
 Quadratic mean diameter (ࡰ
ഥ ࢂ)
 Volume mean (cubic) diameter (ࡰ
ഥ ࢃ)
 Mass mean diameter (ࡰ
 Volume surface mean (Sauter) diameter (ࡰࡿ )

ഥ ࡿ)
 Volume surface mean (Sauter) diameter (ࡰ
Separation of solids
• Screening
 As the mesh number increases, the mesh size decreases.
 Taylor screen
ۛۛ
The next below screen will be √૛ times smaller than the previous upper screen.
• Screen Effectiveness 'E'
E = Recovery X Rejection
 If yA is the mass fraction of desired material in feed

 If yB is the mass fraction of desired material in product
 If yC is the mass fraction of desired material in reject
 If larger (coarse) particles are required, then the oversize is the desired product whereas, if it is desired that the product must contain particles of
below a particular size only, then the undersize will be the final product.

If A, B and C are the flow rates of feed, product and reject in kg/s.
 Recovery = Desired material in the product / Desired material in the feed
If yB and yA are mass fraction of desired material in product and feed, then total desired material in product and feed are B X yB and A X yA.
Thus,
Similarly,
Undesirable material in the reject is equal to undesirable material in feed minus undesirable material in the product.
Thus,
So,
or,

This has came from the material balance over the screen which is as shown below:
Effect of feed rate on the screen effectiveness
At less flow rate than FC, the effectiveness or efficiency increases with feed rate as at lower flow rates the possibility of screen opening w.r.t. total screening
surface is more. It increases the attempts for undersize materials to pass through the screen.
However, beyond FC the passing of undersize particles through screen decreases as they have less chance to access the screen opening.
Hence, effectiveness decreases rapidly.
Industrial Screening Equipments
There are a number of types of mechanical screening equipment that cause segregation. These types are based on the motion of the machine through its
motor drive.
1. Grizzlies

1. Grizzlies
They are most rugged types of industrial screens. The material consists of large % of coarse particles is separated using grizzly screen. These are usually
used for screening large sizes of rocks of 20 - 300 mm and above. They consist of a set of parallel bars usually made of steel and of
trapezoidal in cross-section with wider cross section placed upwards to prevent clogging of material between the bars. The bars are set with a slope
of 20 - 50 with the horizontal, depending on the nature of material to be treated.
They can be stationary or moving types. Stationary grizzlies are the simplest, requiring no external power supply and needs little maintenance. The
disadvantages are inefficiency, blinding, difficult to change the opening between bars, separation is not effective and in case of coal screening,
breakage of oversize particles. The moving grizzlies are mainly used to increase capacity and to reduce headroom.
2. Vibratory Screens
They are one of the most popular ones used in chemical industry. They can handle large tonnages of material, possess high efficiency, provide good
accuracy of sizing, require less maintenance per ton of material handled and also provide a saving in weight and installation space. They can handle a wide
variety of materials starting from 480 mesh to 4 mesh.

Generally, vibrating screens consist of a plane screening surface which is made to vibrate rapidly by some mechanism. The screening surfaces are set in a
multi-deck fashion (single or up to four decks) either horizontally or inclined. Its steeper inclination results in optimum separation of fine materials.
The material to be screened is introduced at the top of the upper screen. The particles retained by this screen are recovered at the toe of the screen slope
and the particles passing through the screen either fall on the lower screen for further separation or are collected separately at the bottom.
The material to be screened is introduced at the top of the upper screen. The particles retained by this screen are recovered at the toe of the screen slope
and the particles passing through the screen either fall on the lower screen for further separation or are collected separately at the bottom.
Benefits
• No dead areas
• Smooth and quiet operation
• Exact sizing
• High output
• Simple structure
• Easy maintenance
• Low energy consumption
• Full-enclosed structure
• High screening efficiency
• Long life
3. Gyratory Screens
They are box like machines either square or round with a series of decks, each with its own screen and with its own discharge spout. Depending upon the
end product, up to four decks can be used to obtain the desired degree of fineness.
The screen separator designed specifically for high capacity separation by size of dry materials, and for wet separations when oversize materials
constitute a large % of the feed.

These decks are given gyratory motions of up to 1450 cycles/min. Generally, the gyratory motion is gentler and is ideal for more fragile products.
Applications of these are in food, chemical, minerals, pharmaceuticals, etc. industries.
4. Trommels
They are revolving screens usually cylindrical or conical in shape, open at both ends and are normally inclined at 5-10 0 with the horizontal. They are rotated
about their axis at around 15 - 20 rpm.
Trommels have relatively low capacity and low efficiency. They are however quite efficient for coarse size particles from 6-55 mm and screening can
be carried out dry or wet.
Factors affecting the operation of trommels
• Length and diameter of screen
• Speed
• Slope of screen
• Screen opening
• Feed rate
• % of oversize in feed
• % of moisture in feed
5. Banana Screens

5. Banana Screens
These screens are used in many mining industries like diamond, coal, copper and platinum. It is fairly new screen with multi-slope concept. It is
capable of achieving higher throughput per screen area. The slope angle progressively decreases towards the discharge end. For a double deck
screen two different slopes of 25 and 15 are used.
Stage 1: High velocity
The feed section (highly inclined) of a banana screen causes high velocity material flow which serves to quickly remove fine material.
Stage 2: Medium velocity
Midway along a banana screen, the resultant thinner bed stratifies quickly. The remaining fine material is screened out effectively.
Stage 3: Low velocity discharge
The lower screen slope slows the material down. More efficient screening of near size material occurs here.
Summary

2. Size Reduction of Solids
07 August 2021 09:51
It refers to the process of converting the object from one physical dimension of higher order to another dimension of smaller order. Moreover, size reduction
is the operation carried out for reducing the size of bigger particles into smaller ones of desired size and shape with the help of certain external forces.
The size reduction or comminution is usually carried out to increase the surface area of the material. This will maximise the area of solid in contact with the
liquid or gas phase around it which enhances reaction, dissolution, catalytic effect etc. and is therefore desirable.
However, the very small particles are more difficult to handle, more dangerous in terms of toxic effect and explosive hazard and have other problems such
as increased resistance to flow through them.
There are different mechanisms by which size reduction may be achieved:
Impact - particle break by a single rigid force
Compression- particle disintegration by two rigid forces
Shear- produced by a fluid or by particle-particle interaction
Attrition- arising from particles scraping between two surfaces
Non-mechanical introduction of energy – Thermal shock, explosive shattering, cryogenic crushing, ultrasonic grinding
In a comminution process, big rock is crushed into pieces by colliding against the grinding media (such as steel balls, rods etc.) or with other particles
or with machine. As the size reduction proceeds, the number of particles increases thus requiring more number of collisions per unit mass.
There is hardly any equipment that is capable of automatically adjusting itself to the varying requirements of contact or collision. In commercial

There is hardly any equipment that is capable of automatically adjusting itself to the varying requirements of contact or collision. In commercial
operations therefore, it is desirable to conduct the size reduction process at least in three different stages such as:
Coarse size reduction – 50 to 250 mm or more
Intermediate size reduction – 25 to 75 mm
Fine size reduction – 5 to 15 mm
 Temperature sensitivity
The heat generated by grinding can result in loss of heat sensitive components. In some cases cryogenic comminution may be necessary – cooling during
milling using liquid nitrogen or ice e.g. in milling spices or size reduction of meat.
Reduction ratio (R) It is defined as the ratio of the average size of feed to the average size of product.
Thus, R = (DFeed/DProduct) The value of R for coarse crusher is 3 to 7, whereas fine grinders have reduction ratio as high as 100.
 Internal structure of feed
Every true solid material has a specific crystalline structure. That is, the atoms in the crystal are arranged in a definite, repeating geometric pattern and there
are certain planes in the crystal called cleavage planes along which breakage occurs when sufficient pressure is applied on the rock.
When the material is broken into segments during comminution, the shape of the segments formed depends on its crystalline structure. For example, galena
breaks into cubes and mica into flat scales.
Laws of Crushing(Comminution)
1. Kick's Law: It states that the work required for crushing a given quantity of material is constant for a given reduction ratio irrespective of the original
size. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
where,
E = Energy required for crushing M kg of material
KK = Kick’s constant
(DF /DP) = R (reduction ratio)
Thus, comminution energy depends only on the reduction ratio and is independent of the original size of the feed.
Limitation

The energy required for reducing a 200 mm particle to 50 mm size will be the same as that for reducing a 2 mm particle to 0.5 mm. In fact, higher
amount of energy is required for reducing fine particles to still finer size than for breaking down large pieces of rock.
 Kick’s law can be applied to coarse crushing where the feed size is quite large and the reduction ratio is quite low.
2. Rittinger's Law: It states that the work required for the size reduction is directly proportional to the new surface created.
where,
SP, SF = Specific surfaces of product and feed respectively.
KR = Rittinger’s Constant
The reciprocal of KR is called the Rittinger’s number. Thus, (E/M) = (SP – SF) / Rittinger's number
This law can also be written as:
Limitation
The mechanical losses (due to friction and inertia) in the grinding equipment are not accounted in Rittinger’s law. These mechanical losses of the crusher
can be predicted by running the crusher empty without any charge. Thus,
Overall energy efficiency = (Energy required to create new surface) / (Total energy supplied)
Theoretical effectiveness = (Energy required to create new surface) / (Total energy supplied minus that required for running empty mill)
 Rittinger’s law is applicable mainly to that part of the process, where new surface is being created and holds most accurately for fine grinding where the
increase in surface per unit mass of material is predominant.
Both Kick’s and Rittinger’s law have been shown to apply over limited ranges of particles size, provided KK and KR are determined experimentally by tests
in a machine of the type to be used and with the material to be crushed. They thus have limited utility.
3. Bond's Law: The work required to form particles of size dP from a very large particle size is proportional to the square root of the surface to volume
ratio (SP/VP) of the product. It is applicable to a feed size of 0.05 - 50 mm.

Here, Kb is Bond's Constant.
Kb depends on the type of material crushed and the machine used. It is defined by using work index 'Wi' as the gross energy required to reduce a very
large particle to a size such that 80 % of product is able to pass through a 100 µm or 0.1 mm screen. Thus,
or,
Size Reduction Equipments
The principal types of size-reduction machines are as follows:

The selection criteria are such that the equipment should:
• Produce materials of desired size and shape
• Accept maximum input size expected
• Have large capacity
• Not choke
• Pass unbreakable materials without causing damage to itself
• Small power per unit weight of product
• Resist abrasive wear
• Have prolonged service life
• Easy and safe to operate
• Easy access to internal parts for maintenance
Crusher are slow-speed machines for coarse reduction of large quantities of solids.
The main types are jaw crushers, gyratory crushers, smooth-roll crushers and toothed-roll crushers.
The first three operate by compression and can break large lumps of very hard materials, as in the primary and secondary reduction of rocks and ores.

The first three operate by compression and can break large lumps of very hard materials, as in the primary and secondary reduction of rocks and ores.
Toothed-roll crushers tear the feed apart as well as crush it, they handle softer feeds like coal.
1. Jaw crushers: Based on human jaw, one fixed plate, one moving. One jaw, the fixed, is nearly vertical and does not move. Other jaw, the swinging
jaw, reciprocates in a horizontal plane. It makes an angle of 200 to 300 with the fixed jaw. As the material moves down the crushing action increases.
2. Gyratory crushers: It consists of two vertical conical; shells, the outer shell having its apex downward direction while the inner cone is positioned with
its apex upward. The inner shell acts as crushing head, which is in the form of a truncated cone and is mounted on a oscillating shaft.
3. Roll crushers: They are of 2 types:
 Single roll crushers: Single-roll toothed crushers may contain one roll working against a stationary curved breaker plate.
Entering the crusher through the feed hopper, the feed material is struck by the teeth of the revolving roll. While some breakage occurs here by impact,
the rotation of the roll carries the material into the crushing chamber formed between the breaker plate and the roll itself.
 Double roll crushers: Two or more heavy steel cylinders revolve towards each other. Force applied to the product is mainly compressive.
An overload compression spring protects the roller surfaces from damage. The distance between the surfaces of the rollers is termed as nip.
• Size reduction ratios are normally below 5
• Capacity is affected by speed, nip, diameter and length of the rollers
• Roll speeds range from 50 to 300 rev/min

• Roll speeds range from 50 to 300 rev/min
• Maximum size of product is approximately equal to diameter of roll.
Forces acting on the spherical particle
Here, AN is the angle of nip.
Capacity of crushing rolls(kg/h) 'Q' = 60࣊NbρD1D3
where,
b = breadth of roll face, m

N = number of revolutions per minute, rpm
ρ = density of the material to be crushed, kg/m3.
 Toothed-roll crushers: They are more versatile than smooth-roll crushers, within the limitation that they cannot handle very hard solids. They operate
by impact, compression and shear, not by compression only as do smooth roll, and therefore reduce much larger particles.
4. Ball mill: A rotating (tumbling) or vibrating chamber is filled with steel balls or rods.
Feed material is subjected to impact and shear due to the movement of the balls or rods. Shear predominates at low speed while impact becomes more
important at higher speeds (if speed is too high, balls can be carried around the periphery and grinding ceases).
Finer product is produced by smaller balls, higher ball density or longer residence time (lower feed rate).

Finer product is produced by smaller balls, higher ball density or longer residence time (lower feed rate).
A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic raw materials and paints.
Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the grinding medium. Industrial ball mills can operate
continuously, fed at one end and discharged at the other end.
The grinding works on the principle of critical speed. The critical speed can be understood as that speed after which the steel balls (which are
responsible for the grinding of particles) start rotating along the direction of the cylindrical device; thus causing no further grinding.
Factors affecting the product size:
• Feed Rate
• Properties of the feed material
• Weight of balls
• Diameter of the balls
• Slope of the mill
• Discharge freedom
• Speed of rotation of the mill
• Level of material in the mill

• Level of material in the mill
The actual operating speed of rotation can be 50 - 75 % of the critical speed (NC).
5. Hammer mills: They are among the oldest. Then also these are most widely used crusher.
A high speed motor carries a number of hammers around its periphery, inside a close fitting case. The individual hammers could weight as much as
100-150 kg. Reduction is mainly by impacts as the hammer drives the material against the breaker plate (shear may also have role under c͞ hoke feeding
conditions).
6. Rod mills: They are useful for sticky materials which would glue balls together.
7. Ultra fine grinders: Many commercial powders must contain particles averaging 1 to 20 µm in size with substantially all particles passing a standard
325-mesh screen that has opening 44 µm wide. Mills that reduce solids to such fine particles are called ultrafine grinders.
 The fluid used is either superheated steam or compressed air. It produces essentially uncontaminated product, thus, these are used extensively in
industries such as paints, cosmetics, drugs, etc. It can handle safely heat sensitive and explosive materials.

Fluid energy mill
Advantages
• 6000 kg/h feed milled per hour
• No contamination
• Inert gases can be used to minimize oxidation
• Effective in producing huge surface area
• Suitable for thermo-laible substances
Disadvantages
• Quite expensive
• Not suitable for soft, and fibrous materials
Summary

3. Classification of solids
07 August 2021 12:22
Most processes, which depend on differences in the behaviour of particles in a stream of fluid, separate materials according to their terminal falling
velocities, which depends mainly on density and size. Thus, in many cases this method is used to separate a mixture of two materials into its
constituents, or to separate a mixture of particles of the same material into a number of size fractions.
Complete separation will not be possible as terminal falling velocities of the largest particles of B of density ρB may be greater than those of the
smallest particles of A. The maximum range of sizes that can be separated is calculated from the ratio of the sizes of the particles of the two
materials which have the same terminal falling velocities.
The term classification is used to designate separation of solid particles based on the difference in their terminal settling velocities in the fluid.
The basic criterion therefore required for separating two materials by classification is that their terminal settling velocities in a given fluid must not be
equal. Particles (say A and B) having the same terminal settling velocity in a fluid are called equally falling particles. The ratio of sizes of A and B
when they are equally falling is called the settling ratio. If the particles are spherical, the expression for settling ratio can be derived as:
Since, the particles are equally falling,

 j = 0.5 for fine particles, where Stoke's law is applicable
 j = 1 for coarse particles, where Newton's law is applicable
These particles cannot be separated by classification using that particular fluid. A large settling ratio is therefore desirable to permit separation of
material having wide size ranges.
Classification Equipments
1. Settling Tanks: Material is introduced in suspension into a tank containing a relatively large volume of water moving at a low velocity. The
particles soon enter the slowly moving water and, because the small particles settle at a lower rate, they are carried further forward before they
reach the bottom of the tank. The very fine particles are carried away in the liquid overflow.

2. Spitzkasten Classifiers: They runs like this. A series of conical vessels of increasing size is set up in the direction of flow. As the slurry enters
the first vessel, the coarse particles get trapped, and the overflow continues on to the next, where more separation takes place. This particular
settling chamber is unique because one can adjust the flow rates in between each vessel in order to provide the necessary degree of
separation.
3. Elutriators: Elutriator consists of a vertical tube in which fluid is passed at a controlled velocity. The particles are introduced, often through a
side tube, and the smaller particles are carried over in the fluid stream while the large particles settle against the upward current. Further size
fractions may be collected if the overflow from the first tube is passed vertically upwards through a second tube of greater cross-section, and
any number of such tubes can be arranged in series.

4. Double Cone Classifiers: This classifier consists of a conical vessel, with a second hollow cone of greater angle arranged apex downwards
inside it, so that there is an annular space of approximately constant cross-section between the two cones. The bottom portion of the inner
cone is cut away and its position relative to the outer cone can be regulated by a screw adjustment. Water is passed in an upward direction
and overflows into a launder arranged round the whole of the periphery of the outer cone.
Sedimentation

Sedimentation
Separation of a suspension or a slurry into a clear liquid, lying above a solid residue, i.e. liquid is essentially free from particles. It consists of a thick
sludge containing a high concentration of solids. Therefore, it is a process of phase separation.
Sedimentation is effectively used in water treatment process where suspended solids from water is removed using gravity. Solid particles entrained
by the turbulence of moving water may be removed naturally by sedimentation in the still water of lakes and oceans.
The sedimentor is a:
Thickener: If the concentrated sludge is the desired product.
Clarifier: If the clear liquid from the suspension is the desired product.
Gravity separation can obviously be applied only to those particles which have density greater than water.
Goals of gravity sedimentation:
1) Produce a clarified effluent.

2) Produce a highly concentrated solid sludge stream.
A preliminary study of phenomenon is usually performed in a laboratory on a sample of the slurry in the batch sedimentation test.
Advantage
• It has excellent reproducibility.

• It has excellent reproducibility.
Disadvantages
• The method cannot be used for emulsions (the material does not settle) or for very dense materials that settle quickly.
• The method depends on the ambient temperature that affect viscosity
• Orientation of non-spherical particles also influences the results.
• The technique cannot be used for mixtures of differing densities.
Factors those influence sedimentation:
• Density: Greater the density of the particles, faster particles settle
• Size: Larger the particles are, the faster they settle
• Temperature: Lower the temperature of the water is, the higher the viscosity, so the slower the particles settle
• Turbulence: More turbulent the flow is, slower the particles settle
• Stability: Instability can result in a short-circuit flow, influencing the settling of particles
• Bottom scour: During bottom scour, settled particles are re-suspended and washed out with the effluent
• Flocculation: It results in larger particles, increasing the settling velocity.
The solid particles settle under two different conditions – free and hindered settling.
If particles fall in a gravitational field through a stationary fluid and their movement is not affected by the walls of the container as well as other
particles, the settling is termed as free settling. It occurs if particle concentration is < 1%.
On the other hand, when fall of a particle through the stationary fluid is impeded by the presence of other particles, the process is called hindered
settling.
If a clarified liquid (as free from particles as possible) is produced then this is called the clarifying capacity of the sedimentor. If the overflow liquid
must be free from particles, then the upward velocity of the liquid must be always less than the settling velocity of particles. Thus, for a given
throughput, the clarifying capacity depends on the diameter or cross-sectional area of the tank.

4. Conveying of Solids
07 August 2021 12:22
Transportation of particulate solids is an integral part of most of the process industries involving solids, which, in general, are difficult to transport. The
appropriate selection of transportation equipment for solids is thus important and largely depends on capacity requirements, material characteristics and
whether the solids are to be transported horizontally, vertically, or on an incline.
Mechanical Conveyors
Mechanical conveyors are used both for short as well as long distances. For transporting solids at the rate 12500 – 60000 kg/h within 10-20 km distances,
mechanical conveyors have been found to be more economical than transport by rail or road vehicles. These are:
1. Screw Conveyors
They are one of the oldest type of conveying equipments, operated horizontally or at a slight incline (up to 200) and are extensively used for transporting
finely divided solids; sticky materials; and semisolid materials including food waste, municipal solid wastes, and boiler ash. These are generally used for
transporting over short distances, which may be about 40 m in the horizontal and 30 m in the vertical direction.
Advantages
• Simple design

• Compactness requiring little headroom
• Convenient intermediate unloading
• Tightness of conveying space which is of special value with dusty, hot or odorous materials
Disadvantages
• High power consumption
• Substantial rubbing and crushing of the conveyed material
• High wear on the screw and the trough
• Load accumulation in the bearings
2. Belt Conveyors
They are the most commonly used powered conveyors because they are the most versatile and the least expensive. Product is conveyed directly on the belt
so both regular and irregular shaped objects, large or small, light and heavy, can be transported successfully. Belt conveyors can be used to transport
product in a straight line or through changes in elevation or direction.
The width of the belt varies from 0.3 m to 3.0 m and the number of idlers varies accordingly. The idlers must be so spaced that there will be no
sagging of the belt between them. This spacing varies from about 1.5 m for narrow belts down to 1.0 m for the widest belts.

sagging of the belt between them. This spacing varies from about 1.5 m for narrow belts down to 1.0 m for the widest belts.
Applications
• Distribution of moulding sands and removal of wastes
• Fuel supply systems of power stations
• Underground and surface transport of coal
• Delivery of ores and coke in metal making industries
• Transport building materials, fossil minerals, grain, sand and gravel
The capacity of belt conveyors depends upon:
• Width and speed of the belt
• Friction between the surface of belt and the solids
• Angle of repose of solid particles
• Angle of inclination of the belt
• Stickiness of solid particles
• Shape, size and specific gravity of the solids
3. Apron Conveyors
Apron conveyors are similar to belt conveyors except that the solids are carried in a moving through (called apron, by virtue of its shape)
that is formed of articulating sections of wood or metal (steel) instead of a continuous flexible belt.

The apron is the load carrying element of the apron conveyor. It may be made in different configurations such as flat open, flat closed or
corrugated with or without side walls.
Apron conveyors (horizontal and inclined) are widely employed in chemical, coal processing and metal making industries and also in thermal power plants.
While being conveyed, the material may be subjected to operations like hardening, tempering, cooling, washing, painting, assembling etc., which is an
additional advantage. Unlike belt conveyors, apron conveyors can handle heavier, lumpy and abrasive materials (ores, stones etc.).
The length of a single conveyor can be as large as 2 km and they provide large throughput capacities (more than 2000 m3/h) due to the high strength of
hauling chains and the use of intermediate drives.
Apron conveyors are having appreciable weight of apron and chains and consequently their higher cost and more careful maintenance is required.
4. Bucket Conveyors
They are usually used when there is not enough space for a horizontal conveyor. Bucket elevators consist of buckets mounted on a single or double chain.
The buckets are loaded at the bottom of the apparatus and dumped through a chute at a higher level.

Employed for lifting solids vertically upwards or over a steeply inclined path (at 60-800 with the horizontal).
Types of bucket elevators
Bucket elevators are classified into three types. They classified according to the bucket spacing and mode of discharge. They are:
1. Centrifugal Discharge elevators – buckets are spaced. Used in transporting Grain, Coal, Sand, Clay, Sugar and dry Chemicals.
2. Continuous Discharge elevators – buckets are very closely spaced. Used in transporting lime, cement and dry chemicals
3. Positive Discharge Elevators – buckets are spaced and the return belts or chains are snubbed back beneath the upper sprocket to invert
them for positive discharge. Used in handling light, fluffy, dusty and sticky materials. The feeding is done by the scooping or digging by the buckets.

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1.

Sphericity of various types of particles

 Surface Shape Factor 'λ': It is reciprocal of the sphericity.

 Volume Shape Factor 'a':

• For Pressure Drop

For concentric cylinders

Particle Size Distribution

New Section 1 Page 1

Number of particles 'N' is given by

So, Total Surface Area of particles 'AS' will be

And, Specific Surface Area of particles 'AW' will be

Types of Particle Diameters

 Volume surface mean (Sauter) diameter (ࡰࡿ )

New Section 1 Page 2

 As the mesh number increases, the mesh size decreases.

• Screen Effectiveness 'E'

 If yA is the mass fraction of desired material in feed

New Section 1 Page 3

 Recovery = Desired material in the product / Desired material in the feed

New Section 1 Page 4

Effect of feed rate on the screen effectiveness

Industrial Screening Equipments

New Section 1 Page 5

New Section 1 Page 6

• Smooth and quiet operation

• Low energy consumption

• High screening efficiency

New Section 1 Page 7

Factors affecting the operation of trommels

• Length and diameter of screen

New Section 1 Page 8

Stage 1: High velocity

Stage 2: Medium velocity

Stage 3: Low velocity discharge

New Section 1 Page 9

There are different mechanisms by which size reduction may be achieved:

Impact - particle break by a single rigid force

Compression- particle disintegration by two rigid forces

Shear- produced by a fluid or by particle-particle interaction

Attrition- arising from particles scraping between two surfaces

New Section 1 Page 11

Coarse size reduction – 50 to 250 mm or more

Intermediate size reduction – 25 to 75 mm

Fine size reduction – 5 to 15 mm

 Internal structure of feed

E = Energy required for crushing M kg of material

(DF /DP) = R (reduction ratio)

New Section 1 Page 12

SP, SF = Specific surfaces of product and feed respectively.

This law can also be written as:

New Section 1 Page 13

Size Reduction Equipments

The principal types of size-reduction machines are as follows:

New Section 1 Page 14

• Produce materials of desired size and shape

• Accept maximum input size expected

• Have large capacity

• Pass unbreakable materials without causing damage to itself

• Small power per unit weight of product

• Resist abrasive wear

• Have prolonged service life

• Easy and safe to operate

• Easy access to internal parts for maintenance