CHAPTER ONE.

SCREENING.
 Screening is a separation technique of a mixture of various sizes of solid particles into several fractions, based on size and
shape difference.
 It consists of forcing the mixture through a screen of a specific size aperture.
 Small capacity plane screens are often called as sieves.
 By vibrating or oscillating a screen, particle smaller than a given aperture pass through, thus being separated from the
remaining mixture.

SCREENING.

 a method of separating solid particles according to size alone.

 it refers to the separation of solid material on the basis of size using screen of known opening.
 in screening, a mixture of solid particles of various sizes is dropped on a screenin surface/screen ( a surface provided with
suitable openings) which acts as multiple go and no go gage.
 the material that passes through a given screen/screening surface is called undersize or minus (-) material while that remains on
the screen/screening surface is called oversize or plus (+) material.
 a single screen can make a single separation of material charged into two fractions.
 these are called unsized fractions as only the upper limit and lower limi of the particle sizes they contain is known and other
limits not known.
 the material can be separated into size fractions in which both the maximum and minimum particle sizes are known, by
passing it through a series of screens of differents sizes.
 screening is commonly adopted for dry particulate solids and occasionally for wet particulate solids.

materials for screens.

 metal bars, woven wire cloth, silk bolting cloth, perforated or slotted metal plates
 importance of screening operation.
 remove the fines from a feed material before a reduction equipment such as jaw crusher, ball mill or rod mill
 prevent an incompletely crushed material (oversized) from entering into other unit operations.
 produce a commercial or process grade material to meet specific size limits.
 remove the fines from a finished product prior to shipping.
TYPES OF SCREENING ANALYSIS
 two methods of screen analysis: differential and cumulative.
differential analysis

 the screen analysis in which the weight of the fraction material retained on each screen is reported in a tabular or graphical
form as a function of the mesh size/screen opening.
1. the fine particles are generally specified according to their screen analysis
2. a screen analysis of a material is carried out by using testing sives
3. a set of standards screens is arranged serially in a stack in such a way that the corsest of the screens is at the top and the
finest of the screens is at the bottom.
 the analysis is carried out by placing the sample on the top screen and shaking the stack in a definite manner, either manually
or mechanically for a definite lenth of the time.
 the material remained in each screen is removed and weighed
 for reporting the screen analysis, the amount of material retained on each screen is expressed as the weight fraction of the total
sample as a function of the mesh.
 the screen analysis of a sample is reported either in a tabular form or graphs
 as the particles retained on any one screen are passed through the screed immediately above it, two numbers are nedded to
specify the size, one for the screen through which fraction passes and the other for the screen on which that fraction retained.
 hence, the notation 10/14 means through 10mesh and on 14 mesh.
 an analysis is reported in a tabular form in this manner is called a differential analysis.
 Quantity of oversized in the over
flow/quantity of oversized in the
feed.
q
 screening equipments.

1. grizzlies.
 The grizzly is a simple device consisting of a grid made up of metal bars, usually built on a slope, across which the material is
passed.
 The path of material flow is parallel to the length of bars.
 The bars are usually so shaped that the top is wider than the bottom.
 The grizzly is often constructed in the form of a short endless belt so that the oversize is dumped over the end while the sized
material passes through.
 In this case bar length is transverse to the path of materials.
 The grizzly is used for coarsest and rough separations.
 Trommel or revolving screen is a cylinder that rotates about its longitudinal axis.
 The wall of the cylinder is made of perforated steel plate or sometime the cloth wire on a frame, through which the material
falls as the screen rotates.
 The axis of cylinder is inclined along with the feed end to the discharge end.
 Sizing is achieved by having smallest opening screen at the feed end with progressively larger opening screens towards the
discharge end.
 This type of sorter is simple and compact with no vibration problem. But the capacity of cylinder sorter is lesser than the
vibrating screen of same size.
 Although it is an accurate sizer, it does not perform well with friable material or in cases where particle degradation is
undesirable because tumbling produces some autogeneous grinding.
 The speed of rotation of the trommel is kept within the limit at which the material is carried from bottom to a distance equal to
the radius of cylinder before it starts tumbling. The inclination of cylinder sorter for dry granular materials is kept up to 125
mm/m.
 Changing the speed of operation and the inclination of cylinder can change the capacity, bed depth and efficiency of these
screens. Effective screening area (not the total surface of cylinder) is calculated by multiplying the length of cylinder by 3 1 of
the diameter.
 This is generally a single decked machine.
 It has horizontal plane motion, which is circular at feed end and reciprocating at the discharge end.
 The drive mechanism is at the feed end and is either a V-belt or direct coupling.
 The shaft that imparts motion to the screen is a counter balanced eccentric.
 The shaft moves about a vertical axis. At the discharge end most rotary screens have linkage to the base frame, usually a self-
aligning bearing.
 Gyratory screens operate with screening surface nearly horizontal.
 The vibratory screens are agitated by an eccentric unit.
 When materials to be separated are put on a vibratory screen, because of its vibration, materials are also agitated and separated
during their transit over the screen.
 The eccentricity is usually of two types,
(1) a shaft to which off centre weights are attached, and
(2) a shaft that itself is eccentric or off centred.
 In the later case the eccentricity is balanced by a fly wheel for providing uniform vibration.
 Most vibrating screens are inclined downward from the feed end.
  Vibration is provided to the screen assembly only, and the body and other surrounding structure are isolated from vibration.
Generally, upto three decks are used in vibrating screens.
 The capacity of vibrating screen is higher than any other similar sized screen and is very popular for cleaning and grading of
granular agricultural products.

Horizontal Screen
 Horizontal screens are special case of vibrating screen.
 These are designed for operation with low head room.
 They operate absolutely flat without the aid of gravity.
 All sorting, stratification and material transportation' take place on the strength of a sharp forward thrust which imparts motion
to particles with a missile like trajectory, while the return stroke pulls the deck out from underneath the bed.
 Effectiveness of these screens is higher because material is kept on the screen for a longer period in comparison to inclined
screens.
Other Screens
Various other types of screens used for cleaning and separation are listed
below:
1. Rotex screens
2. Hummer screens
3. Circular vibrators
4. Symon's rod deck screens
5. Resonant vibrant screens
6. Centrifugal screens
 CHAPTER TWO
MIXING
mixing and agitation
 agitation is the establishment of a particular flow pattern within the liquid, usually circulatory motion within a container.
 Mixing is a unit operation in which two or more materials are interspersed in space with one another.
 mixing is random distribution, throughout a system, of two or more initially separated ingredients.
objectives of mixing
 to increase homogeneity of material in bulk
 to bring about intimate contact between different species in order for a chemical reaction to occur
 to enhance heat and mass transfer
 to change the texture
 dispenses a liquid which is immiscible with the other liquid by forming an emulsion or suspension of few drops.
 suspends relatively lighter solid particles.
reasons for agitating liquids
 the suspension of solids within the liquid;
 the dispersion of a gas within the liquid;
 the dispersion of a second liquid as droplets (i.e. the formation of an emulsion);
 the promotion of heat transfer from a heat transfer surface to the bulk liquid;
 the mixing of two or more liquids
Theory of solid mixing

 As opposed to mixing of miscible liquids, the mixing of particles is often a readily reversible process.
 A mixture of miscible liquids leaving a mixing unit retains or even improves its mixedness during the transport process, while
a well-mixed batch of particles can be separated almost completely at a subsequent process stage.
  Particles change their relative positions in response to movement and the subsequent rearrangement maybe more random.
 Powder mixing occurs when any particle changes its path of circulation.
 Three mechanisms have been recognized in solids mixing: convection, diffusion, and shear.
 In any particular process one or more of these three basic mechanisms may be responsible for the course of the operation.
 Other mechanisms such as segregation can also be involved during particle motions.
 Depending on the equipment used, mixing mechanisms can receive other classifications

Convective, Diffusive and Shear Mixing

 During convective mixing, masses or groups of particles transfer together from one location to another, while in diffusion
mixing, individual particles are randomly distributed over a surface developed within the mixture.
 In shear mixing, groups of particles are mixed through the formation of slipping planes developed within the mass of the
mixture. Shear mixing is sometimes considered as part of the convective mechanism.
 In convective mixing, a circulating flow of powders is usually caused by the rotational motion of a mixer vessel, an agitating
impeller (such as a ribbon or a paddle), or gas flow. This circulating flow contributes mainly to a macroscopic mixing of bulk
powder mixtures. Large portions of the total mix are moved at relatively high rates, and changes at a microscopic scale are not
expected. Therefore, pure convection tends to be less effective, leading to a final mixture, which may still exhibit poor mixing
characteristics on a fine scale. Convective mixing is beneficial for batch mode operations but gives unfavorable effects for
continuous mode mixing.
 Diffusive mixing (or random wall phenomenon) is caused by the random motion of powder particles. The rate of mixing by
this mechanism is low compared with convective mixing, but diffusive mixing is essential for microscopic homogenization. It
has been concluded that diffusion is the best mechanism for axial mixing, similar to diffusion of particles in gas and liquid
phases. Pure diffusion, when feasible, is highly effective, producing very intimate mixtures at the level of individual particles
but at an exceedingly slow rate. A trough mixer with a ribbon spiral can give almost pure convective mixing, while a simple
barrel mixer gives mainly a form of diffusion mixing. These features of diffusion and convective mixing mechanisms suggest
that an effective operation may be achieved by combining both, in order to take advantage of the speed of convection and the
effectiveness of diffusion.
 Shear mixing is induced by the momentum exchange of powder particles having different velocities (differential velocity
distribution). Shear mixing is developed by the formation of slipping planes in the bulk material; the originally coherent
particle groups are gradually broken along these planes. The velocity distribution develops around the agitating impeller and
the vessel walls due to compression and extension of bulk powders. It is also developed in the powder layer in rotary vessel
mixers and at blowing ports in gas-flow mixers. Shear mixing can enhance semi-microscopic mixing and be beneficial in both
 batch and continuous operations. In free-flowing powders, both diffusive mixing and shear mixing give rise to size
segregation (or de-mixing), therefore, for such powders, convective mixing is the major mechanism promoting mixing.
 Powder mixing proceeds in a mixer where the three mechanisms described above take place simultaneously.
 The characteristic curve of mixing is the plot of the degree of mixedness M (on a logarithmic scale) against the mixing time t
(on a linear scale).
 The mixing time is the time measured from the start of mixing in a batch mode operation, whereas it corresponds to the mean
residence time (the powder volume in a mixer divided by its volumetric flow rate) in a continuous operation.
 The characteristic curve of mixing is useful for the performance evaluation of mixers.
 Convective mixing is dominant in the initial stage (I) and the mixing proceeds steadily by both convective and shear
mechanisms in the intermediate stage (II).
 In the final stage (III), the effect of diffusive mixing appears and the dynamic equilibrium between mixing and segregation is
reached.
 The degree of mixedness at this state is called the final degree of mixedness, M ∞. Various powder mixers exhibit a variety of
patterns in the characteristic curve of mixing. Operating conditions and powder properties significantly influence the value of
M∞.
 In comparison with fluid mixing, in which diffusion can be normally regarded as spontaneous, particulate systems will only
diffuse as a result of mechanical movement provided by gravity, shaking, tumbling, vibration, or any other mechanical mean.

Factors influencing mixing

• Nature of the surface

• Density of the particles

• Particle size

• Particle shape

• Particle charge

• Proportion of materials
classification of mixing equipments
 1. low or medium viscosity liquids(liquid-liquid and solid-liquid)

 paddler mixer
 turbine mixer
 propeller mixer

2. high viscocity liquid and pastes(solid-liquid and some liquid-liquid).

 multiple paddle agitator

 planetary pan mixer,spiral mixer
 Z blade/sigma blade mixer
 continuous paste mixer and other mixer- roller mills, colloidal mills, tumbling etc.

3. dry powder or particulate solids.(solid-solid0

 tumbling mixers
 ribbon mixers
 vertical screw mixers.

TYPES OF MIXING EQUIPMENT.

1. Tumbler Blender - for dry mixing

 This mixer produces rhythm when it tumbles.
 Drum Tumbler mixer is usually for powders and solids, but in some cases, liquids are also accommodated. The movement of
the tumbler rotates the solids up and down. Gravity plays a role in mixing the products and drum baffles aren’t even needed at
times to break solids into smaller particles.
 Tumbler blenders include V-Blenders, Double Cone Blenders and Octagonal Blenders.

2. Ribbon Blender - This mixer is for bulk solid and powder blending.
It has a blender configuration that completely de-lumps powders through its long, intersecting, ribbon-like paddles. Although it is very
effective in mixing and attaining homogeneity, it is more expensive than paddle mixers and is much more difficult to maintain.

Nevertheless, Ribbon blenders are used in some pharmaceutical industries to achieve the most accurate portions of powders mixed.

3. Paddle Mixer - For solids, wet-dry mixing, viscous/slurry liquid mixing.

A central shaft axis holds the paddle blades. It is commonly used in dry mixing, but can accommodate liquid-solid mixing as well.

4.Agitator - Liquid-liquid mixing or liquid-gas mixing

In top-load washing machines, you can see agitation in the move. In the center is an agitating blade that remains stationary while it
agitates the water in the washing machine as it rotates.

Agitators used in industrial processing of food and beverage has the same principle and configuration. Impellers are attached to the
central axis shaft that rotates the liquid or at least cause agitation to the liquids.

Blending thick substances is a sore for Agitators. These type of equipment is not recommended for very viscous products. Agitators
lend themselves to a range of functions such as blending miscible liquids, dissolving a gas into a liquid, connecting or dispersing
liquids which are unable to mix, suspension of solids in liquids and heat transfer in agitated liquid.

There are two types of agitators: axial and radial - which, as their names suggest, comes from the angle the impeller blade contacts the
plane of the rotation.

Axial Flow Impellers

The blade creates an angle that’s less than 90 degrees with the plane rotation. Because of this, the locus of flow happens along the axis
of the impeller.

Radial Flow Impellers

Radical flow blades are parallel to the axis of the impeller. This causes radial flow impeller releases flow beside the impeller radius in
distinctive designs.

5.Emulsifiers - for immiscible liquids

Oil and water are two substances that are definitely not miscible. In cases that require a completely emulsified and homogenized
mixture of these such as in making lotion, sunscreen, lipstick and in many cosmetic mixing applications, an Emulsifier is used.

This is a special mixing equipment that not only uses pressure to completely mix liquid-liquid substances, but also incorporate high
shear and isolated vacuum-filled equipment. Vacuum emulsifier homogenizers incorporates the action of a centrifugal force, driving
materials into the workhead to break them up into smaller particles.

In the case of milk and cream, cream is composed of large fat molecules which separate from milk due to the huge difference in
molecule size; emulsification breaks cream molecules down so they are similar in size to milk molecules.

6. Homogenizers - Combines liquid-liquid mixtures, solid-liquid mixtures

This mixer applies extreme force, shear and pressure on the liquid or materials to homogenized the mixture.

Ginhong offers a variety of choices for homogenizer. They have listed products that goes for either continuous or batch production
units. On a budget? Don’t you worry because they also carry homogenizer units for small-sized companies running on a budget.

7. Heavy Duty Mixers - Mixes viscous and pasty substances.

Imagine running a your single shaft mixer with very thick slurries such as pasty ingredients, putty and wax compounds. This would
surely cause your mixing equipment to buckle and fail. Thankfully, heavy duty mixers such as planetary and multi-shaft mixers are
designed for mixtures reaching very high viscosity ranges above 750,000 centipoises

application of mixing
1. liquid blending
2. solids suspension
3. gas suspension
4. dissolving solids
5. preparation of
 emulsion
 pastes
 creams

CHAPTER THREE
EMULSIFICATION
 An emulsion is a suspension of one phase in another in which it is immiscible. One of the phases exists as discrete droplets
suspended in the second, continuous, phase, and there is an interfacial layer between the two phases which is occupied by
some necessary surfactant material.
TYPES OF EMULSIONS
(I) Ordinary emulsion systems / Primary emulsion systems / Simple emulsion systems (i) o/w type  oil dispersed in water oil
 dispersed phase water  continuous phase (ii) w/o type  water dispersed in oil water  dispersed phase oil 
continuous phase
(II) Special emulsion systems (i) Multiple emulsions  w/o/w  type o/w/o  type (ii) Micro emulsion
Micro emulsions Micro emulsions are liquid dispersion of water and oil that are made homogeneous, transparent and stable by the
addition of relatively large amount of a surfactant and a co-surfactant. They appear to represent a state intermediate between
thermodynamically unstable emulsions and solubolised systems. Unlike emulsions, they appear as clear transparent solution, but
unlike solubilised systems micro- emulsions may not be thermodynamically stable. Microemulsions containing droplets (w/o or
o/w types) with the globule size 10 to 200nm and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase varies from 0 to 0.
Explanation of sub types.
 In oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions, droplets of oil are suspended in an aqueous continuous phase. These are the most versatile of the
emulsion types; they exist in many forms (mayonnaises, cream liqueurs, creamers, whippable toppings, ice cream mixes), and their
properties can be controlled by varying both the surfactants used and the components present in the aqueous phase.
 Water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions are typified by butter, margarines, and fat-based spreads in general. These depend for their stability
more on the properties of the fat or oil and the surfactant used than in the properties of the aqueous phase, and because of this, there
are fewer parameters which can be varied to control their stability.
 The third of the emulsion types is water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w), which is, in effect, an o/w emulsion whose droplets themselves
contain water droplets (i.e., are w/o emulsions). These are the most difficult emulsions to produce and control, because the water
droplets contained in the oil droplets must be stable, as must the oil droplets contained in the continuous aqueous phase.
 The fourth type of the emulsion is oil-in-water-in-oil (o/w/o) emulsion which is a double emulsion system in which the dispersed
phase is an oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion and the continuous phase is oil or plastic fat. Because of its limited application in food
products, comparatively limited work has been done on the o/w/o emulsions
EMULSIFYING AGENTS
 Emulsifying agents are soluble in fat and water to allow uniform dispersion of fat in water.
 Emulsifying agents are also called emulsifiers and present in the food like butter, mayonnaise and salad dressing. These have
one hydrophilic and one lipophilic part. These agents surrounds the oil droplets in water and reduces the tension between the
two liquids thus impart stability.
Classification of emulsifying agents
 These can be classified on the basis of chemical structure and mechanism of action.
 Under chemical structure category are synthetic, natural, auxiliary agents and finely dispersed solids.
 In the category of mechanism of action comes the monomolecular, multimolecular and solid particle films.
 Natural emulsifying agents are derived from plant and animal tissues and mostly in the form of hydrated lypophilic colloids.
These emulsifiers make the protective sheath around the droplets, give droplets a charge so that they repel each other and swell
to step-up the viscosity of the liquid.
 Natural ones are derived from vegetables, animals, semi synthetic and synthetic agents. Although natural agents are
inexpensive, safe and nontoxic but these are slow in action. So large quantity of emulsifier is required for proper action. Also
the natural emulsifiers need preservatives as these are subjected to microbial growth. The animal derivatives are stronger than
 the plant ones. The best example of this is lecithin and cholesterol. Some people are allergic to these so must be consumed
after knowing the derivatives.
 Both semi-synthetic and synthetic emulsifying agents are strong and require no preservative as these are not prone to microbial
growth.
Properties of emulsifying agents
 An emulsifier consists of water soluble hydrophilic parts and waterinsoluble, oil-soluble lipophilic parts within its.
 When an emulsifier is added to a mixture of water and oil, the emulsifier is arranged on the interface, anchoring its hydrophilic
part into water and its lipophilic part into oil
 On the interface surface of water and air and of oil and air, the hydrophilic part and the lipophilic part are adsorbed and
arranged around the interface.
 The interfacial tension is reduced by the emulsifier. That is, the force to separate the oil and water is thus weakened, resulting
in the easily mixing of oil and water.
There are many important properties of emulsifiers which are applicable in many foods.
1. Surface Active Agent
 When a water droplet is in the air, surface tension, a force to reduce the surface area acts on the surface of the water,
resulting in spherical water droplets.
 When water and oil are present in a container, they do not mix together even after stirring and separate into two layers.
When two immiscible substances are in contact, the contact surface is called interface.
 Interfacial tension, a kind of surface tension acts on the interface so that the two substances separate from each other.
 As interfacial tension increases, the force to separate two substances becomes stronger. Surfactant weaken interfacial
tension and changes the properties of an interface. Events almost impossible under ordinary conditions are made possible
by these effects.
 Interface is not only present between water and oil, but also in the boundary among various immiscible substances, and as
foods are generally composed of carbohydrates, protein, fats and oils, water and air, they include many interfaces.
Surfactant for food is called food emulsifier which distinguishes it from other surfactants for industrial use
2. HLB
 The hydrophilicity and lipophilicity are different among emulsifiers, and the balance between the two is called HLB value.
 The value ranges from 0 to 20.
  An emulsifier with higher lipophilicity shows a lower HLB whereas higher hydrophilicity has high HLB, and the
behaviors and functions to water depend on this HLB.
 All compounds that have hydrophilic parts and lipophilic parts are not always useable as an emulsifier.
 When hydrophilicity is too great, such compounds disperse into water and the ones with great lipophilicity would disperse
into oil. When the hydrophilicity and lipophilicity are well-balanced, the emulsifier exhibits sufficient effects.
3. Micelle
 Because an emulsifier has opposite properties; hydrophilic and lipophilic, its solution does not become a simple aqueous
solution but a colloidal solution, of which properties greatly vary depending on its concentration.
 In an extremely-diluted solution, there is no special change, but the emulsifier gathers on the interface and the surface
tension is reduced as an increase of its concentration
 As further increase of the concentration, a uniform mono molecular layer is made on the surface and the surface tension
drops to the minimum.
 A further increase of the concentration causes micelle formation, micelles formation occurs when the excess molecules, in
which the lipophilic groups are positioned face to face gather and there is no change in the surface tension.
 The concentration to start micelle formation is called critical micelle concentration (cmc) and the properties of the solution
change greatly with a change of this concentration.
 Similar changes appears on the interface of oil and water, when the interfacial tension reaches the cmc point. When the
concentration exceeds cmc, spherical micelles appear at first and disperse into water. A further increase in the
concentration causes rodshape micelles. Finally, lamellar micelles with higher structures called liquid crystal are produced.
4. Solubilization
 When a small amount of insoluble substance is incorporated in an emulsifier micelle, semi-transparent solution is produced.
This phenomenon is called solubilization.
 Solid monoglyceride has a large capacity of crystallization which affects its performance.
 It also makes a liquid crystal which has intermediate characteristics between solid crystal and liquid.
 The form varies with the kind of emulsifier, temperature and its concentration.
 In practical use, it is-necessary to select a suitable emulsifier with consideration to conditions, including temperature and food
constituents.

Functions of Emulsifying Agents

  The use of food emulsifier began with the production of margarine as monoglyceride and lecithin. These compounds were
commonly called emulsifiers. After that quite different functions were found and emulsifiers have since been used in starchy
foods such as breads, and dairy products like ice cream.
 Nowadays, emulsifiers are also used in Japanese-foods like Tofu and minced fish products. Generally speaking, an emulsifier
is as a compound with emulsifying effects, however, actually it has various functions. For example: To modify oil crystal and
prevent water spattering in cooking. In ice cream, an emulsifier does not promote emulsification, but rather destroys emulsion
to stabilize foam and to make a product with smooth texture and shape keeping property. In bread, an emulsifier reacts with
proteins to make a smooth easy-rising dough with no relation to emulsification. It also acts on starch to make bread soft.

Preparation of Emulsion

Emulsions are made by vigorously churning a mixture of the necessary oil and water with a high-speed mixer or ultrasonic
vibrators. Simple mechanical stirring results in unstable emulsions. Oil and water have a tendency to separate. A suitable stabilizing
agent is usually added to achieve a stable emulsion. An emulsifier or emulsifying agent is the name of the stabilizing ingredient. In
the beginning, the emulsifier is combined with the oil and water.
Soaps, detergents, long-chain sulphonic acid, and lyophilic colloids such as gelatin, albumin, and casein are examples of
compounds that can operate as emulsifiers.

Properties of Emulsion

 Emulsions exhibit all of the properties of a colloidal solution, including Brownian movement, Tyndall effect, and
electrophoresis.
 The addition of electrolytes containing polyvalent metal ions coagulates the globules, demonstrating their negative charge.
 In emulsions, the size of the dispersed particles is bigger than in sols. It has a range of 1000 to 10,000 Ă. The size, on the other
hand, is less than that of particles in suspensions.
 By heating, centrifuging, freezing, and other means, emulsions can be separated into two liquids. Demulsification is the term for
this procedure.

EQUIPMENTS 
 The preparation of emulsion requires certain amount of energy to form the interface between the two phases, and additional
work must be done to stir the system to overcome the resistance to flow.
 In addition, heat often is supplied to the system to melt waxy solids and /or reduce the viscosity of the oil phase. Because of
the variety of oils used, emulsifying agents, phase-volume ratio and the desired physical properties of the product, a wide
selection of equipment is available for preparing emulsions.
1. Mortar and pestle
 It consists of a glass or porcelain mortar and a pestle.
Advantages:
(i) Small quantity emulsions can be prepared in the laboratory.
(ii) Low cost
(iii) Simplest operation among all other instruments.
Disadvantages
(i) Generally, the final particle size is considerable larger then in other equipments.
(ii) It is necessary for the ingredients to have a certain viscosity prior to trituration in order to achieve a
satisfactory shear.
2. Agitators / Mechanical stirrers
 An emulsion may be stirred by means of various impellers (propellers: produce axial movements; turbines produce radial
and tangential movements) mounted on shafts, which are placed directly into the system to be emulsified.
 For low viscosity emulsions propeller type can be used but for higher viscosity turbine type is used.
 The degree of agitation is controlled by the rotational speed of impeller, by the patterns of the liquid flow and the resultant
efficiency of mixing are controlled by the type of impeller, its position in the container, the presence of baffles, and the
general shape of the container.
Advantages:
(i) Agitators are used particularly for the emulsification of easily dispersed, low-viscosity oils.
(ii) (Can be used for small-scale production and laboratory purpose.
Disadvantages:
Continuous shaking tends to break up not only the phase to be dispersed but also the dispersion medium, in this
way, impairs the ease of emulsification.
3. Colloid mill
  The principle of operation of the colloid mill is the passage of the mixed phases of an emulsion formula between a stator and a
high speed rotor revolving at speeds of 2000 to 18,000 rpm.
 The clearance between the rotor and the stator is adjustable, usually from 0 inch upward. The emulsion mixture, while passing
between the rotor and the stator, is subjected to a tremendous shearing action which effects a fine dispersion of uniform size.
 The shearing forces applied in the colloid mill usually raises the temperature within the emulsion. Hence, a coolant is used to
absorb the excess heat.

Advantage
(i) Very high shearing force can be generated.
(ii) Very fine particles can be prepared.
(iii) Particularly useful in preparing suspensions containing poorly wetted solids.
(iv) Useful for the preparation of relatively viscous emulsions.
4. Homogenizers
 Impeller type of equipment frequently produce a satisfactory emulsion; however, for further reduction in particle size,
homogenizers may be employed.
 Homogenizers may be used in one of two ways:
(i) The ingredients in the emulsion are mixed and then passed through the homogenizer to produce the final product.
(ii) A coarse emulsion is prepared in some other way and then passed through a homogenizer for the purpose of
decreasing the particle size and obtaining a greater degree of uniformity and stability.
 The coarse emulsion (basic product) enters the valve seat at high pressure (1000 to 5000 psi), flows through the
region between the valve and the seat at high velocity with a rapid pressure drop, causing cavitation; subsequently
the mixture hits the impact ring causing further disruption and then is discharged as a homogenized product. It is
postulated that circulation and turbulence are responsible mainly for the homogenization that takes place.

B3 / Emulsion / AS
12
Sometimes a single homogenization may
produce an emulsion which, although its particle
size is small, has a
tendency to clump of form clusters. Emulsions
of this type exhibit increased creaming
tendencies. This is
corrected by passing the emulsion through the first
stage of homogenization at a high pressure (e.g.
3000 to 5000
psi) and then through the second stage at a
greatly reduced pressure (e.g. 1000 psi). This
breaks down any
clusters formed in the first step (it is a two stage
homogenizer).
5. Ultrasonic devices
The preparation of emulsions by the use of
ultrasonic vibrations also is possible. An oscillator
of high frequency
(100 to 500 kHz) is connected to two electrodes
between which placed a piezoelectric quartz plate.
The quartz
plate and electrodes are immersed in an oil bath
and, when the oscillator is operating, high-
frequency waves flow
through the fluid. Emulsification is accomplished
by simply immersing a tube containing the
emulsion ingredients
into this oil bath.
Advantages
Can be used for low viscosity and extremely low
particle size.
Disadvantages
Only in laboratory scale it is possible. Large scale
production is not possible.
Example: Pohlman Whistle
Commercial products may be prepared using
ultrasonics based upon the device known as the
Pohlman
whistle. In this apparatus, the premixed liquids
are forced
through a thin orifice and are allowed to
impinge upon the
free end of a knife-edge bar which is made to
vibrate.
Ultrasonic waves are produced and areas of
compression and rarefaction are formed. Shock
waves are
produced by the collapse of bubbles which
produced a shear
effect, thereby producing fine particle size
factors can affect the stability and formation of an emulsion.

1. Surfactants: Surfactants are substances that lower the surface tension between two immiscible liquids, allowing them to mix. They
play a crucial role in stabilizing emulsions by forming a protective layer around the dispersed droplets, preventing coalescence. The
type and concentration of surfactants used can significantly affect emulsion stability.

2. Emulsifying agents: Emulsifying agents, such as gums, proteins, or phospholipids, are substances that help stabilize emulsions by
promoting the formation of a stable interface between the dispersed phase and the continuous phase. The choice and concentration of
emulsifying agents can impact the emulsion's stability and viscosity.

3. Temperature: Temperature can influence emulsion stability by affecting the viscosity and phase behavior of the emulsion
components. Changes in temperature can cause phase separation, coalescence, or flocculation of the emulsion droplets, leading to
instability. Some emulsions are more stable at specific temperature ranges.

4. Mixing and processing conditions: The intensity and duration of mixing or processing steps used to create the emulsion can affect
its stability. Proper mixing can help achieve a fine and uniform droplet size distribution, leading to improved stability. Aggressive
mixing can, however, lead to droplet coalescence and destabilization.

5. pH: The pH of the emulsion can influence the charge and solubility of the emulsion components. This, in turn, can affect the
electrostatic repulsion between the droplets and the stability of the emulsion. Optimal pH conditions may vary depending on the
specific emulsion system.

6. Droplet size and distribution: The size and distribution of the dispersed droplets in an emulsion can impact its stability. Smaller
droplet sizes generally result in better stability due to increased surface area and reduced gravitational forces. The control of droplet
size and distribution is crucial during emulsion formulation.

7. Electrolytes: The presence of electrolytes, such as salts, can influence emulsion stability by affecting the ionic strength and
electrical double layer around the droplets. High concentrations of electrolytes can destabilize the emulsion by reducing electrostatic
repulsion and promoting droplet aggregation.
8. Oil-to-water ratio: The ratio of oil phase to water phase in an emulsion can affect its stability. Emulsions with higher oil phase
content can be more challenging to stabilize. Increasing the oil phase content can lead to increased coalescence and phase separation,
resulting in an unstable emulsion.

CHAPTER FOUR
FILTRATION
 Filtration is a process whereby solid particles present in a suspension are separated from the liquid or gas
employing a porous medium, which retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass through.
 filtration is the removal of insoluble solids from suspension ( or feed slurry) by passing through a porous
material( or fliter medium).
 When the proportion of solids in a liquid is less, the term clarification is used.
 The suspension to be filtered is known as slurry. The porous medium used to retain the solids is known as filter
medium.
 filter media promotes the formation of the filter cake, once formed it becomes primary filter medium.
 material for construction of filter media—cotton, wool, porous carbon and plastic polymers materials
 filter aids are the porous substances which are arranged into slurry or deposited on the surface of the filtered
material. they are employed to improve filtration characteristics of highly compressible rigid lattice structure which
allows liquid to pass through but retain solid particles e.g diatomaceous material, diatoms, charcoal, cellulose fibres
and paper pulp.
 The accumulated solids on the filter are referred as filter cake & the clear liquid passing through the filter is
filtrate.
 The fine apertures necessary for filtration are provided by fabric filter cloths, by meshes and screens of plastics or
metals, or by beds of solid particles.
 In some cases, a thin preliminary coat of cake, or of other fine particles, is put on the cloth prior to the main
filtration process. This preliminary coating is put on in order to have sufficiently fine pores on the filter and it is
known as a pre-coat
Criteria for choice of filter medium: There are three criteria for choice of filter medium.
1. Size of particle retained by the medium.

2. The permeability of the clean medium.

3. The solid holding capacity of the medium and the resistance to fluid flow of the used medium

factors affecting the rate of filtration

1. pressure drop across the feed inlet and outside filter medium
2. the crossectional area of filter medium
3. viscosity of filtrate liquid
4. the resistance of filtrate cake and filter medium

Types of filtration

Based on the mechanism, following four types of the filtration are known.
1 Surface filtration:.

 In surface filtration, the fl uid is forced through a porous medium (filter medium) that retains the particles on its surface.
Particles larger than the openings of the porous surface are retained. The familiar laboratory operation of filtration through
filter paper is an example of surface filtration.
 Filter media include paper, cloth, porous ceramic, sintered glass or metal, membranes etc

Surface fi ltration processes fall into two categories:

1. Dead-end fi ltration (also known as frontal fi ltration or cake fi ltration): the direction of suspension fl ow is normal to the fi lter
surface. The particles are stopped (come to a dead-end) on the fi lter surface and accumulate as a ‘ cake ’ The familiar laboratory fi
ltration operation is an example of deadend fi ltration.
2. Cross-fl ow fi ltration (also known as tangential fi ltration, Murkes, 1988 ):

The direction of suspension fl ow is parallel (tangential) to the fi lter surface The retained particles are carried forwards by the fl
owing

suspension

2. Depth filtration:
 This filtration mechanism retains particulate matter not only on the surface but also at the inside of the filter. This is aided by
the mechanism entanglement. It is extensively used for clarification. Examples are ceramic filters and sintered filters.
 the mixture flows through a thick layer of porous material of fibrous (glass wool, rock wool) or particulate (sand) structure.
The solid particles of the mixture are retained as a result of collision with the fibers or particles of the filter medium or by
adsorption.
 The passages available to flow are much larger than the retained particles.
 Retention is probabilistic and not absolute. This kind of filtration occurs in air filters, sand-bed fi lters or the familiar oil fi lters
in cars.
 the solid particles are entrapped over the entire depth of the filter medium. The size range of the particles retained is very wide,
from 0.1 μ m (microorganisms) to 0.1 mm (dust and fi ne powder). the removal of a particle in depth filtration depends on the
probability of the particle coming within the effective range of action of the retaining surface.

.3 Ultra filtration:

 Ultra filtration is a pressure-driven membrane transport process that has been applied, on both the laboratory and industrial
scale.
 Ultra filtration is a separation technique of choice because labile streams of biopolymers (proteins, nucleic acids &
carbohydrates) can be processed economically, even on a large scale, without the use of high temperatures, solvents, etc.
Shear denaturation can be minimized by the use of low shear (e.g., positive displacement) pumps.

Following types of ultra filtration membranes are used prominently:

• Asymmetric skinned membranes made from synthetic polymers by the "phase-inversion" methods.

• Inorganic membranes, utilizing inorganic porous supports and inorganic colloids, such as ZrC*2 or alumina with appropriate
binders.
• Melt-spun, "thermal inversion" membranes.

• "Composite" and "dynamic" membranes with selective layers formed in situ.

.4 Cake filtration:

 By this filtration mechanism, the cake accumulated on the surface of the filter is itself used as a filter.
 A filter consists of a coarse woven cloth through which a concentrated suspension of rigid particles is passed so that they
bridge mkthe holes and form a bed.
 Example is cake made from diatomite.
 This cake can remove sub micrometer colloidal particles with high efficiency.

Rate of Filtration

The analysis of filtration is largely a question of studying the flow system. The fluid passes through the filter medium, which offers
resistance to its passage, under the influence of a force which is the pressure differential across the filter. Thus, we can write the
familiar equation:

Rate of filtration = driving force/resistance

Resistance arises from the filter cloth, mesh, or bed, and to this is added the resistance of the filter cake as it accumulates. The filter-
cake resistance is obtained by multiplying the specific resistance of the filter cake that is its resistance per unit thickness, by the
thickness of the cake. The resistances of the filter material and pre-coat are combined into a single resistance called the filter
resistance. It is convenient to express the filter resistance in terms of a fictitious thickness of filter cake. This thickness is multiplied by
the specific resistance of the filter cake to give the filter resistance. Thus the overall equation giving the volumetric rate of flow
dV/dt is:

dV/dt = (AΔP)/R

As the total resistance is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid, we can write:

R = μr(Lc + L)
Where, R is the resistance to flow through the filter, Δ is the viscosity of the fluid, r is the specific resistance of the filter cake, Lc is the
thickness of the filter cake and L is the fictitious equivalent thickness of the filter cloth and pre-coat, A is the filter area, and ΔP is the
pressure drop across the filter.

If the rate of flow of the liquid and its solid content are known and assuming that all solids are retained on the filter, the thickness of
the filter cake can be expressed by:

Lc = wV/A

where w is the fractional solid content per unit volume of liquid, V is the volume of fluid that has passed through the filter and A is the
area of filter surface on which the cake forms.

The resistance can then be written;

R = μr[w(V/A) + L)] (7.6)

and the equation for flow through the filter, under the driving force of the pressure drop is then:

dV/dt = AΔP/μr[w(V/A) + L] (7.7)

Eq. (7.7) may be regarded as the fundamental equation for filtration. It expresses the rate of filtration in terms of quantities that can be
measured, found from tables, or in some cases estimated. It can be used to predict the performance of large-scale filters on the basis of
laboratory or pilot scale tests. Two applications of Eq. (7.7) are filtration at a constant flow rate and filtration under constant pressure.

1 Constant-rate Filtration: In the early stages of a filtration cycle, it frequently happens that the filter resistance is large relative to
the resistance of the filter cake because the cake is thin. Under these circumstances, the resistance offered to the flow is virtually
constant and so filtration proceeds at a more or less constant rate. Eq. (7.7) can then be integrated to give the quantity of liquid passed
through the filter in a given time. The terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (7.7) are constant so that integration is very simple:

dV/Adt = V/At = ΔP/μr[w(V/A) + L]

or

ΔP = V/At x μr[w(V/A) + L] (7.8)

 From Eq. (7.8) the pressure drop required for any desired flow rate can be found. Also, if a series of runs is carried out under different
pressures, the results can be used to determine the resistance of the filter cake.

2 Constant-pressure Filtration: Once the initial cake has been built up, and this is true of the greater part of many practical filtration
operations, flow occurs under a constant-pressure differential. Under these conditions, the term ΔP in Eq. (7.7) is constant and so,

μr[w(V/A) + L]dV = AΔPdt

and integration from V = 0 at t = 0, to V = V at t = t

μr[w(V2/2A) + LV] = AΔPt

and rewriting this

tA/V = [μrw/2ΔP] x (V/A) + μrL/ΔP

t / (V/A) = [μrw/2ΔP] x (V/A) + μrL/ΔP (7.9)

Eq. (7.9) is useful because it covers a situation that is frequently found in a practical filtration plant. It can be used to predict the
performance of filtration plant on the basis of experimental results. If a test is carried out using constant pressure, collecting and
measuring the filtrate at measured time intervals, a filtration graph can be plotted of t/(V/A) against (V/A) and from the statement of
Eq. (7.9) it can be seen that this graph should be a straight line. The slope of this line will correspond to μrw/2ΔP and the intercept on
the t/(V/A) axis will give the value of μrL/ΔP. Since, in general, μ, w, ΔP and A are known or can be measured, the values of the slope
and intercept on this graph enable L and r to be calculated.

Filtration Equipment

The basic requirements for filtration equipment are:

- mechanical support for the filter medium,

- flow accesses to and from the filter medium and
- provision for removing excess filter cake.
 In some instances, washing of the filter cake to remove traces of the solution may be necessary. Pressure can be provided on the
upstream side of the filter, or a vacuum can be drawn downstream, or both can be used to drive the wash fluid through.
Types of Filters

1. Plate and frame filter press:

 In the plate and frame filter press, a cloth or mesh is spread out over plates which support the cloth along ridges but at the same
time leave a free area, as large as possible, below the cloth for flow of the filtrate.
 The plates with their filter cloths may be horizontal, but they are more usually hung vertically with a number of plates
operated in parallel to give sufficient area.
 Filter cake builds up on the upstream side of the cloth, which is the side away from the plate.
 In the early stages of the filtration cycle, the pressure drop across the cloth is small and filtration proceeds at more or less a
constant rate.
 As the cake increases, the process becomes more and more a constant-pressure one and this is the case throughout most of the
cycle. When the available space between successive frames is filled with cake, the press has to be dismantled and the cake
scraped off and cleaned, after which a further cycle can be initiated.
 The plate and frame filter press is cheap but it is difficult to mechanize to any great extent. Variants of the plate and frame
press have been developed which allow easier discharging of the filter cake. For example, the plates, which may be rectangular
or circular, are supported on a central hollow shaft for the filtrate and the whole assembly enclosed in a pressure tank
containing the slurry. Filtration can be done under pressure or vacuum. The advantage of vacuum filtration is that the pressure
drop can be maintained whilst the cake is still under atmospheric pressure and so can be removed easily. The disadvantages are
the greater costs of maintaining a given pressure drop by applying a vacuum and the limitation on the vacuum to about 80 kPa
maximum. In pressure filtration, the pressure driving force is limited only by the economics of attaining the pressure and by
the mechanical strength of the equipment.

2 . Rotary filters:

 In rotary filters, the flow passes through a rotating cylindrical cloth from which the filter cake can be continuously scraped.
 Either pressure or vacuum can provide the driving force, but a particularly useful form is the rotary vacuum filter.
 In this, the cloth is supported on the periphery of a horizontal cylindrical drum that dips into a bath of the slurry.
  Vacuum is drawn in those segments of the drum surface on which the cake is building up. A suitable bearing applies the
vacuum at the stage where the actual filtration commences and breaks the vacuum at the stage where the cake is being scraped
off after filtration. Filtrate is removed through bearings.
 Rotary vacuum filters are expensive, but they do provide a considerable degree of mechanization and convenience.
3. Centrifugal filters:
 Centrifugal force is used to provide the driving force in some filters. These machines are really centrifuges fitted with a
perforated bowl that may also have filter cloth on it. Liquid is fed into the interior of the bowl and under the centrifugal
forces; it passes out through the filter material.
4. Air filters:
 Filters are used quite extensively to remove suspended dust or particles from air streams. The air or gas moves through a
fabric and the dust is left behind.
 These filters are particularly useful for the removal of fine particles. One type of bag filter consists of a number of vertical
cylindrical cloth bags 15-30 cm in diameter, the air passing through the bags in parallel. Air bearing the dust enters the
bags, usually at the bottom and the air passes out through the cloth.
 A familiar example of a bag filter for dust is to be found in the domestic vacuum cleaner. Some designs of bag filters
provide for the mechanical removal of the accumulated dust. For removal of particles less than 5 μm diameter in modern
air sterilization units, paper filters and packed tubular filters are used. These cover the range of sizes of bacterial cells and
spores.

application of filtration in food industries.

Application of filtration in cane & beet sugar industries;

• The sugar industry in developed countries has been under pressure for some time due to high-energy and labor costs, and
environmental challenges. Many technologies are being constantly explored to improve sugar yields and quality with reduced energy
consumption.

• Membrane filtration technology offers economic and technical advantages, when used either as a standalone process or in
combination with other more established technologies such as ion exchange and chromatographic separators.

• Ultra filtration/ Micro filtration process in cane sugar production acts as a pretreatment prior to other separation technologies by
removing impurities from the raw juice, including starch, gums, waxes, proteins and polysaccharides.

Application of filtration in starch & sugar industry:

In a very short duration, cross flow membrane filtration has become a mainstream unit operation in the starch and sweetener industry.
Membrane filtration processes, namely reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and microfiltration by their versatility have gained acceptance.
Microfiltration of saccharification tank liquor removes unliquified starch, polysaccharides, proteinaceous matter and other impurities.
The process has been successfully applied to sweeteners derived from various starch sources–corns, wheat, tapioca, potatoes or
cassava. The process eliminates use of diatomaceous earth (kieselgur) in rotary vacuum filters, while at the same time producing a
superior quality product. Microfiltration is used for clarification of maltodextrins, depyrogenation of dextrose, final filtration of
dextrose and fructose syrups. Reverse osmosis is used for concentration of dilute sugar streams and in some cases as a pre-
concentration step prior to an evaporator.

CHAPTER FIVE
MEMBRANE SEPERATION
 A membrane may be defined as “an interphase separating two phases and selectively controlling the transport of materials
between those phases”.
 A membrane is an interphase rather than an interface because it occupies a finite, though normally small, element of space
 Membrane separation is a process of separating food components by using semi-permeable membranes, basing on the
molecular size and molecular weight of the components.
 The driving force of the separation process is, for example, differences in concentration or pressure between the two sides of
the membrane.
 Membrane separation processes can remove much smaller substances, such as viruses and dissolved ions, from the water.
 Membrane separations represent a new type of unit operation.
 membrane acts as a semi permeable barrier and separation occurs by the membrane controlling the rate of movement of
various molecules between two liquid phases, two gas phases, or a liquid and a gas phase. The two fluid phases are usually
miscible and the membrane barrier
prevents actual, ordinary hydrodynamic flow.

principles of membrane separation

The separation is accomplished with the application of a driving force on the solution or feed to pass through the specific
membrane. in membrane separation process the feed separated into two fractions;
 permeate: .The fraction of feed that permeate through a membrane
  retentate:. The fraction of a feed stream that is retained over (does not permeat) through membrane.

MEMBRANE MATERIAL
• Membranes may be composed of natural or organic pollymers e.g. modified natural cellulose polymers and its derivatives,
polyamides,polyolefines,polycarbonate, polysulfones and fluorine substituted hydrocarbons.
 synthetic polymers (plastic materials)
 inorganic ceramic materials based on oxides of silicium, zirconium, titanilum and aluminium

principles requirements of membrane

 high permeate flux
 chemical stability and inertness
 good mechanical strength
 thermal stability
 good retention capacity
  resisatance against microbial action
 affordable cost
 long service life.
mode of membrane filtration
there are two mode of membrane filtration
1. dead end
2. cross flow
1. dead end
 here the feed flow is perpendicular to the membrane surface
 this causes a large reduction in flux
2. cross flow
 here the flow of a solution is parallel to the membrane surface
 this causes a turbulence and produces shear.
factors controlling membrane processing
1. membrane properties
2. feed properties
3. hydrostatic effects.

Factors Membrane properties Feed properties Hydrostatic effects

Pore thickness porosity tortuosity Compact concentration viscosity temperature transmemb Cross flow
size ion rane
change increase increases increase increase increase increase increase increase increase increase
Effect on increase decrease increase decrease decrease decrease decrease increase increase Increase
flux

classification of membrane based on the driving force

1. pressure driven membrane
  microfiltration
 ultrafiltration.
 Nanofiltration
 reverse osmosis
2. potential driven membrane
 electrodialysis
 electro osmosis
3. concentration driven membrane
 dialysis
pressure driven membrane
The different membrane processing methods are as follows.
1. Reverse osmosis (RO). Concentration of solution by removal of water
2. Nanofiltration (NF). Concentration of organic components by removal of part of monovalent ions like sodium and chlorine
(partial demineralization).
3. Ultrafiltration (UF). Concentration of large and macro molecules
4. Microfiltration (MF). Removal of bacteria, separation of macromolecules
1. REVERSE OSMOSIS
 It is a membrane separation process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which the membrane separates the solvent (generally
water) from other components of a solution.
 The solvent flow is opposite to the normal osmotic flow.
 The membrane pore size is very small allowing only small amounts of very low molecular weight solutes to pass through the
membranes.
mechanisms
 by exerting a hydraulic pressure greater than sum of osmotic pressure difference and the pressure loss of dilution through the
membrane, that can cause water to diffuse in the opposite direction into less concentrated solution.
 the greater the pressure applied, the more rapid diffusion
 concentration of various solutes either dissolved or dispersed in a solution can be achieved by reverse osmosis.
  the process is used to produce relatively pure water or a concentrated solution of microsolutes from a given salt solution.
 the membrane configuration is usually cross flow
 operation pressure; 30-60 bar
 here water is permeating material referred to as permeate and the remaining solution concentrated with solutes is retentate.
 it is a high efficiency technique for dewatering process streams

Applications
Broadly used to separate water from low molecular weight solutes (salts, aroma compounds etc.),
which have high osmotic pressure.
• Concentrate and purify fruit juices, enzymes, fermentation liquors and vegetable oils;
pre-concentrate juices and dairy products before evaporation.
• Concentrate wheat starch, citric acid, egg white, milk, coffee, syrup, natural extracts and
flavors.
• To clarify wine and beer (De-alcoholization for low alcohol wines and beers)
• To determine and purify water from boreholes or rivers or desalination of sea water.
• Water and waste water purification.
• Concentration of whey during cheese manufacture
RO materials and equipment
• Polymer having high permeability for water, high rejection for soluble salts and
durability.
• Cellulose acetate is outstanding being inexpensive.
• Polyacrylonitrile, polyamides, polyurethanes are also used, but they have low
temperature resistance and low pH range.
• Polysulphones and ceramic materials can withstand high temperature and wider pH
range.
• Operating pressure ranging from 40 to 80 bar @ 450 to 2400 lit/h of flux

2. NANOFILTRATION (NF)
• New class of pressure-driven membrane processes that lies between RO and UF
• Pressure range: 10-50 bar (lower pressure than RO)
• Rejects ions with more than one negative charge (such as SO42-, CO32-)
• Also known as loose reverse osmosis
 pore size between 0.1-10nm i.e 0.001-0.01um
 the mass transfer mechanisms is diffusion.
 membrane permeates; certain ionic solutes ( such as sodium and chloride), monovalent ion, as well as water
 membrane retain; larger ionic species, including divalent and multivalent ions and more complex molecules.
Applications
• Removes materials having molecular weight between 300 to 1000 Da.
• Employed for pre concentration for RO.
• Removal of inorganic salts Na, K, Cl, urea, lactic acid
• Partial demineralization
• Membranes that leak particle species with a radius in the nanometer range
 Reduction of salty taste as well as reduction of salt from cheese making
Pretreatment for electro dialysis, ion exchange
• Acid removal
 Separation of dispersed particles such as colloids, fat globules etc.
3. ULTRAFILTRATION
 Ultra-filtration is similar to reverse osmosis with low pressure of operation.
 In UF, the membrane pore size is larger allowing some components to pass through the pores with the water.
 It is a separation/ fractionation process.

Dia-filtration is a specialized type of ultra-filtration process in which the retentate is

diluted with water and re-ultra filtered, to reduce the concentration of soluble permeate
components and increase further the concentration of retained components.
 Equipment
• U.F. membranes have higher porosity.
• They operate under low pressure (0.05 to 10 bar @ 2400 lit/hr of flux).
• Polymers like polysulphones, polyamides, PVC, polystyrene, polycarbonates and
polyethers are normally used.
 lies between microfiltration and Nanofiltration in terms of pore size which can range from 1-100nm i.e 0.1-0.01microns
 allowe for the concentration of high molecular weight proteins, macromolecules and other small, suspended solids.

Applications of ultrafiltration
• Most commonly used to pre concentrate milk prior to preparation of other range of dairy
products
• Concentration of sucrose and tomato paste.
• Separation and concentration of enzymes, other proteins or pectin.
• Treatment of water to remove bacteria and contaminants greater than 0.003 µ dia.
• To selectively remove lactose and salts from the whey.
• Removal of protein hazes from honey & syrups.
• Pretreatment for RO to prevent fouling by organic and colloidal materia
4. MICROFILTRATION
• Microfiltration (MF) designates a membrane separation process similar to UF but with
even larger membrane pore size allowing particles in the range of 0.2 to 2 micrometers to
pass through.
• The pressure used is generally lower than that of UF process.
• MF is used in the dairy industry for making low-heat sterile milk.
 seperates the colloidal and suspended particles in the range of 0.05-10 micrones
 it is used for bacterial removal, fermentation broth clarification and biomass clarification and recovery
 used as a pre treatment before ultra filtration.
application in food industry
 clarification of beer and wine i.e for removal of yeast, microorganisms.
 removal of oil droplets and fat globules.
 removal of suspended solids and fats present in the brine used in fish processing.
 pre filtration of waste water streams generated in food processing.
application in dairy industry
 for making low heat sterile milk
 removal of bacterial from milk
 pre treatment of cheese whey
Table 12.1 Applications of membrane filtration
Advantages of Membrane separation
• Basically membrane concentrations occur at ambient temperatures.
• Loss of heat sensitive nutrients and characteristics are insignificant.
• Sensory and nutritional qualities of foods remain unaltered.
• Simple installation with low operation costs and labor.
• In contrast to conventional concentration by evaporation, no requirement of steam
boilers.
 easy to operate
 environmentally safe.
 no requirement of chemicals.
Limitations
• Change in concentration of feed affects the flux.
• Higher capital cost involvement than evaporation,
• Limited to maximum concentration to 30 per cent total solid.
• Fouling of membranes may adversely affect the efficiency and time of operation.
 the turbid water cannot be used.
 there may be risk of bacterial abundance as water carries numerious bmicroorganisms.
 membrane filter can crack easily.
 require high differential pressure.
 clogging can occur
 only liquids are sterilized by this methods.
 glass filters are breakable and can break quickly.

CHAPTER SIX
CENTRIFUGATION
 Centrifugal separation or centrifugation is a process in which two heterogeneous mixtures of phases are separated from
each other by the application of centrifugal force. The phases may be solid, liquid or gas.
 The basic principle governing the separation of the heterogeneous phases is the density difference.
 The slurry when allowed to rotate along an axis inside a bowl, the force exerted on each particle varies.
 The force variation is due to difference in mass or density, the distance of particle from the axis of rotation and the rotational
speed
 Suppose a particle of mass ‘m’ kg moves in a circular path, the tangential velocity at any point in the path is ‘v’ m/s.
 If the particle is at r distance from the axis of rotation,
 the angular velocity will be 𝜔 = 𝑣 /𝑟 rad/s
 The angular acceleration, 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔 2 m/s2 .
 The centrifugal force is the product of mass and angular acceleration. So, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔 2
 Since, 𝜔 = 𝑣/ r , 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟 ( 𝑣/ 𝑟 ) 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2/ 𝑟 Normally, the angular velocity is expressed as 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛 /60 , where, ‘n’ is the
revolution per minute. Putting the above relation in Fc
Principle of Centrifugation
 In a solution, particles whose density is higher than that of the solvent sink (sediment), and particles that are lighter than it floats to
the top.
 The greater the difference in density, the faster they move. If there is no difference in density (isopycnic conditions), the particles
stay steady.
 To take advantage of even tiny differences in density to separate various particles in a solution, gravity can be replaced with the
much more powerful “centrifugal force” provided by a centrifuge.
 A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a potentially
strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward).
 The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to
move outward in the radial direction.
 At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center.
 In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube,
while low- density substances rise to the top.

Centrifugal filtration
 The filtration process is accomplished by allowing the slurry through a porous medium.
 The rate of separation depends on the particle size of the slurry, the pore size of the filter medium and the pressure differential
at both side of the filter medium.
 Moreover, the rate of filtration drastically changes with the thickness of the cake formed during filtration.
 Instead of induced pressure differences in the process, centrifugal force is applied in some cases.
 The filtration process that uses centrifugal force is called centrifugal filtration.
 In almost all the centrifugal filters, the filters are attached concentrically to the cylindrical bowl and the flow of liquid is
horizontal unlike normal filtration process.
 The centrifugal filters can be batch or continuous types.
Batch centrifugal filters
 A cylindrical bowl perforated at the wall is suspended by a cylindrical shaft.
 The whole unit rotates with the rotation of the central shaft.
 The rotating unit is stationed inside a stationary casing
 The perforated wall is lined with the filter medium of required pore size as per requirement.
 The filter medium gets physical support by the wall; thereby tearing of filter medium is avoided.
 The slurry is fed from the top to the rotating bowl, necessarily from the centre.
 Due to rotation, the slurry take a trajectory path, eventually the vertically moving slurry moves in horizontal direction and
meets the filter medium perpendicularly.
 The particles greater than the pore size of filter medium cannot pass through the medium and get deposited at the inner wall of
the medium, which is called as cake.
 The thickness of the cake increases radially with time and the pressure differential decreases which reduces the rate of
filtration.
 The clear filter passes through the medium and collected from the outer casing.
 When the filtration decreases drastically due to deposition of cake, the wash liquid may be sprayed to the cake at high speed
for removal at the bottom outlet provided
 Sometimes hydraulically operated cutting knives are used to remove the cakes from the system. In the batch process the cycle
time varies from 3-30 m
Continuous centrifugal filters
 The continuous filtration system is a slight modification of batch system.
 The bowl is made conical instead of cylindrical.
 The advantage of inclination is felt by splitting the force into two components viz. vertical and horizontal.
 The vertical force pushes the slurry from bottom to top and discharge the solids from the lid of the bowl.
 The horizontal force purges the liquid phase to filter out from the bowl.
 In this way when the mixture is pushed up the concentration of solids increases.
 One disadvantage of this continuous process is its severity of forces on the product due to relatively high speed of rotation,
thereby causing the damage to the product.
 One common use of this continuous system is in sugar industries where sugar crystals are separated from the syrup.
Application of centrifugal separation
 The application of centrifugal separation is enormous because of its increased rate of separation.
 Dairy industry is one which utilizes the principle of centrifugation since the inception of this technology.
  Here is the list of some applications of centrifugal separation processes adopted in food processing.
i. Separation of milk fat from whole milk to get cream and skim milk is an age old process.
Centrifugal separators are used for this purpose.
ii. In cheese industries, milk after coagulation, the separation of curd and whey is done in
centrifugal clarifier. The difference between the separator and clarifier is that, the clarifier
does not have intermediate holes for upward climbing of liquid.
iii. In fruit processing industries, the pulp is separated to get clear juice.
iv. Separation of starch from starch suspension is done by centrifugal separator.
v. Yeast after growth in growing medium is separated from medium by centrifugal separator.
vi. Centrifugal separation is a preferred method during edible oil processing, at different stages
of refining. The oil is separated from the aqueous phase by mechanical separators.

CHAPTER SEVEN
SOLID LIQUID EXTRACTION AND EXPRESSION.