The student)s

sh/zdent’s
writié/zgguiale
writirtg guide
for the arts
an/"ts and
social =scie1/aces
medal sciences

GORDON TAYLOR
LangunlJC
Lnrzgztnflc ani Ltm'1Jing Unit
nmiLz‘rz7'1zz'1zg
Facul~l'
Eaczxlry of rw 3, JVfonash
AtJS,
of/1 UniPersi~l'
A/Ionmla U1.'ive1':it_v

CAMBRIDGE
CAMBRIDGE
;.;UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 E

Syndicacc of
Published by the Press Syndicate ofthe
the University of Cambridge
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©Cambridge
© Cambridge University Press 1989

Firs: published 1989

First I939
Repfinted 1990, 1992,
Reprinted 1991, 199+

Printcd in Great Britain by the Bath Press,

Printed Prcss. A\"on
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B1-itisb
B1-irzlr-'1 Library cataloguiug in publication
Libra1f11catalagzzz'11g pzzblimtizm data
darn
Tavlor,
Taylor. Gordon
The student's
T!{e studcnfs writing
Writing guide
guidc
tOr
for the arrs
arts and social sciences.
scicnccs. For
1. Essays. Composition~
1. Composition — Manuals
Manlmls
I. Title
Titlc KASONDE, SusAN
KASONDE, SUSAN
8o3.4
808.+ and I1; REMY
}EREMY

Library
Lillmrjv of
qf Congress
Congyrm catalogzti11g
mmlcgz-aivzg in
1'1: publication data
darn
Taylor,
Taylor. Gordon.
Th.c
The student's
stuclcnfs writing guide
for
For the arts and
social scicnccs I Gordon Taylor.
sccial sciences
p. cm.
em.
Bibliography: p.
inclcx.
Includes index.
ISBN 00 521
52.1 )6o05
36005 6. ISBN 00 521 36905 33 (pbk)
1. English language-
r. language-— Rhetoric.
z.
2. Report
RCp0rt writing.
Arts - Authorship.
3. Arrs-
+-
4. Social sciences-
sticuccs — Authorship.
Aunlmrship.
I. Tirlc.
Title.
PEI_1.78.T38 1988
PE14-78.T38 1988
sos'
3o8'.o4-2
.o+z-— dcr9
clclg ss 1704-0
88 17040 CfP
ctr

36005 6 hard CO\'ers

ISBN 00 521 3600_i covers
ISBN o0 521
ISBN 521 36905
36905 33 paperback

CE
 3

Canter/in
Contents

Preface xi
Prefixes V
Sources
Source: of extracts
eximm used
med in the text xiii

1 Introduction
I

1r The main dements

ulements in academic
writing
Writing 1I
2 You and Y?Ur
yfpur writing
Writing cask
task 3
33 You and Y•pur
your subject maner
matter 7
4- You and y·~ur
4LYOu your reader I1
r2
55» Your langtlage:
langiiagcz form and
structure j!-5

Part I
I Reflectio#
Reflecting and Research

Reflectior~:
22 Rcfiectioti: asking questions
propcising answers
and propcfsing
11 Spcculativii thinking and Writing
Speculativtj writing 21
21

22. Choosing i3 topic 23

23
33 Kinds of g ~estion 16
question 26
44- Coming to
tc terms with an essay
topic 34
54-
55 Drafting
Drafiing a provisional opening 4-8
4.8

vi:
Vl!
 3
4

Contents
_ Contents
33 Interpretation: reading and Part LU
III Ljunguagei
Language
taking notes
I1 ‘problem’ of reading 52
The 'problem' 52. 7 You, your language
Eiang-uage and your
2 Evidence, interpretation and material
fact 56 I1 eiricl objective:
Subjective <'-fid
33 What an author does 62 the uses of l'
fthc :I’ and 'We'
‘We’ 143
14,3
author’s major motives 66
4- An author's 21 §Confusing ‘-.’OL1rS€lfWi'£h
Confusing ·rourself with your
5s Modes of analysis 73
75 Ematerial I4-6
material 14-6
66 An author's
author-‘s structural 33 Some verbs of enquiry: how to use

intentions 76 them I55

ISS I
77 Interpreting a difficult text 79 nor quoting rss
4- Quoting -— and not 158

Analyticaljanguage r:
8 Analyticallauguage 1:
Pm’: II The Dynamics of
Part ofrm
an Essay sentences §
+
4- Openings 1 Discriminat·ion
I Discrimination and confusion 161
r1 The
The constituents
constituents of
of an
an essay
essay 89
89 2 Elements of sentence structure 163
2z The constituents of an opening 91 33_Participant:s,
Participant.'i, processes and
35 The use and misuse of introductory Zcircumstariiies
circumstances 171
material 93
4- Setting our your case 96 9 Analyticalglanguage
Analytical language 2:z:
rhetorical ~trategies
rhetorical strategies
55 Middles 15A.nalysing
r Analysing \§ersus 186
\hsus describing r86
II Some
Son-re common problems 107 2{Defining
Defining If)o
r·,?o
22 The uses of outlines 111
:11 33 Comparing!
Comparingi and contrasting 197
33 Expanding
Expamding a case n2
112
+Summary
4- Summary rz8
:28 m Cohesion !Uld
10 end texture
Determina~)ts of cohesion and
r Deterrninsiits
6 Endings g texture 20"~
20¢?
11 Recapirulation 130
Recapitulation 22. arid improving text 210
Revising a1id 210
:z.zMoocl:
Mood: suggestion and
implication 131 II Conventions of academic
Conventiclns
33 Variations on a theme 136 vvriting
writing
I1 (uimre 218
Academic culture 218
22 to stylistic
A skeleton key to
conventions
CO1'1V€1'1tlU1'E$ 219
ZIQ

viii
Vlll
ix
1X
 3

Contents

Appendices
I1 22.7
Writing book reviews 227 Preface
I)?/'€fQ'/C3
22 Sample analyses of essay
topics 230
33 A revised manuscript 237

24-3
Index 243

This book has grown out of a writing course I have taught for
some years to students of the arts and soc lal Lal sciences. In both I
have tried to emphasise the close connections between writing in
these disciplines and grappling with the problems of knowledge
and understanding they present. Writing i; is not merely a skill we
employ to record our knowledge, but the ''ery very moment at which
understanding are all about. So,
we confront what learning and understan4ing
while the reader will surely find find plenty,
plenty§ of guidance on the
academic essay, a search in
practical issues that arise in writing an acad¢mic
simplified techniques that side-step the very
these pages for simplified
taxing work of coming to terms with kno\'fledge
knovirledge and method in
discipiines will be fruitless. My project
these disciplines proiect has been to clear
indicate
paths, not to in4icate short cuts.
stfudents’ writing
It has been my experience that many stUdents' Writing prob-
lems arise from uncertainty about what it is they are trying to
say and what it is they have to do. So possibie in
far as is possible
So<far
lcind, I have attempted to establish, in a
a general work of this kind,
some of the connections
variety of representative disciplines, sorr:-,e
between issues of content and the forms of pf language in which
conscicius that there are arts
the content can be realised. I am conscious
and social science disciplines which have :lot not received extended
treatment in the examples. But I trust d1at =.‘l1at in concentrating
attention on some of the most important 1:hingsthings that we do with
language
ianguage in academic studies I have been able to direct readers
been;able

X xi
Xl
 4

Preface

to the kind of thing to look for in the particular disciplines they

are studying.
Sout/res
Sources of extracts
The book is divided into three parts. I suggest the chapters of used in i-he
ribs text
Parts I and II be read through at least once in the order
presented. In this way the student will get a general idea of how
to approach the writing of an academic essay. Not everybody
approaches writing and learning in quite the same fashion, so it
is important that the suggestions in Parts I and II be interpreted
the individual reader. The chapters
in a way that works best for the::
of Part III contain in many instances extensions of themes
introduced earlier, but they can also be read as more or less
sclflcontained introductions to particular problems in the use of
self-contained
part,_grammatical
language. For the most part,. grammatical and other details of Dwight Bolinger, Language
Dwighr Language- - the Loaded Weapon.
VT/eapon. London and
language use are dealt with not in the manner of the conven- New York: Longman, 1980 ‘
tional guides to usage but as they arise in those contexts of Crane B1-inton,
Brinton, The Theflmztomy
Anatomy of 0fRs_volutz'02/1,
Revolution, revised and expanded
meaning we concentrate on as we write. It will therefore be edn. New York: Vintage Books (Random (Randofm House, Mfred Alfred A.
necessary to make good use of the index. Part III is not a I965
Knopf), 1965 3
comprehensive guide to the language of academic discourse. I R. N. Campbell and R. J. I. Wales, 'Comp
‘ComparativeJ.rative structures in
have chosen to treat only those features of language which English’. )T01'lf»"'VL6tl
Englisb'. Journal of 0fLinguz'n‘ies,§5:2
Linguistics, 5:2 ((I969),
!969), pp. 2!5-51 115-5r
students often question me about, those which in my estimation Harmondswprrh: Penguin, 1964
E. H. Carr, What is History? Harmondswprth:
cause most trouble, and those which (spelling apart) tutors most Manning Clark, A A Discovery of Australia. The
ofziustraiicl. ::Che Boyer Lectures.
Lectures
regularly draw attention to in their marking of essays. I Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corp(!ration, Corptiration, I976 1976
The book has been some time in the gestation. To John Iohn A. C. Ewing, A A Show Commentary on Ka1~t)s
Short CommcntaTy Kant’; (Critique of Pure
‘C1/itiquo_0fPu1"o
Clanchy, Brigid Ballard and Elaine Barry I owe many thanks for Ramon’.
Reason). Chicago: University of Chicago f;Press, \Press, 1938
and for commenting on drafts which they
their encouragement arid Immanuel Kant, Critique Critig/we of 0fPu1/e trans. F. Max MUller.
Pure Reason, n!ans. Muller.
have now probably forgotten. I. W. Mabbett helped me greatly New York: Anchor Books (Doubleday), 1966 51966
clarify my thinking on some of the material in chapter 3,
to clarity 3, and F. R. Karl and I.. L. Davies (eds.) The CollectedCollrtred Letters of ofjoseph
Joseph
the readers of the Cambridge University Press have made this a Conmol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983
Conrad. 1983
better book than it would otherwise have been. My students Norman Kemp Smith, A IO"§nt’s 'Critique
A Commentary to J(c.int)s ‘Critique of Pure
ofPure
have contributed much: not only have they let me use their work, Reason’,
Reason), 2nd
znd edn. New York: Humanitie:; Humanities Press, 1962 1962.
they have pushed me to understand certain things about writing Walter Nash, Dengnr
Designs in Prose. London: Longman, Loiiigman, 1980 £980
I would never have gleaned elsewhere. But it is on the person A. R. Radcliffe-Brown
Radcliffe~Brown and D. Forde (eds.) Afiirnn African System:
Systems of
Wl'10, as the psalmist says, can 'alway
who, ‘alway keep judgement’
judgement' and who Kimlaaip andMarriage.
Kinship arwifldlnrriage. London: Oxford University Press, 1950
has believed in this book when I didn't didn’t myself
rnyseif that I have W. G. Runciman, 'What ‘What is structuralism?'
structuralismP’ In Alan Ryan ((ed.) ed.) The
depended most -— my wife Angela. Philosophy of Social Explanation. London: Oxford University
0fSoci.al
Press, 1973 i

xii
Xll Xlll
X11}

§__.__..
 i
Sources of extracts

Sabine,A History ofPolitical

George H. Sabine,AHistory qfPolz'tieal Theory, 3rd edn. London: l1
George G. Harrap, 1963
I963
C. R. Seligman, G. R. Tucker and W. E. Lambert, 'The
CR. ‘The effects of
IInttoeiuistion
ntrodu,rtion
speech style and other attributes on teachers' teachers’ attitudes
njow do
How do II kn·)W
know what
what I1 think
think till
nu II
towards pupils’.
pupils'. Language in Society, 1:1 1:1 (1972),
(1972), pp. 131-4-2
131-42 What II say.
sée what
see saw.
V '* E. M. FORSTER
FDRSTER
Kant’: 'Critique
T. D. Weldon, Kant's ‘Critique of
qfPure Reason’, 2nd
Pure Reason', and edn. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1958 know what I'll
How do I kn-::Jw I‘ll say till I see
Iohn B. Whittow, The Penguin Dietianmy
John ofPhysical-Geqgmphy.
Dictionary ofPhysica/.Geography. wviiat I think.·
what think.‘ ANOAL
ANON.
1984.
London: A. Lane, 1984
Iohn M. Wilding, Perception, From Sense to Object. London:
John
Hutchinson, 1982

I1 writ
The main elements in academic writing
Ifwe
If Well we need to
we are to write well tot know (as Rwvell
well as we can) what
find out what, precisely, we are
we are talking about. In order to find
talking about we need to to write.
Write. Pushing olJrselves
ourselves to write
Write will
often reveal that we know more about a subject ect than we
We at first
first
supposed; it should just as often reveal reveafl large gaps in our
ourselves fairly sure of. In
understanding of matters we thought ourse!Ives
writing
writ.i.ng we into? being, Wt~
We bring knowledge into we record and preserve
fruit and the Pickle
it. Writing is the seed, the fruit pickle of our under-
standing. '
Most people in the English-speaking wo,[ld wotld used to think that
student’s and scholars
the studenrs scholar’s mind is an emptyibucket
ernptyibucket to be filled
filled by
books, lectures and tutorials. Nowadays
Nowaday1 physiologists and
doesn’t !work
psychologists tell us that the brain doesn't iwork in this passive,
accepting matter. On the contrary, to learnj learni and to write is, first,
first,
to make sense for ourselves ofofour expetience in terms of
our new experience ofour
our
old. So 1:0 be aware at the outset ~at,
S0 you need to that, even to subjects
you have never studied before, you can brirlg bririg certain preconcep-
tions, even prejudices, a certain amount :of éof disjointed know-
language -5 all of which can get
ledge, and a certain facility with language--
you started. The most baffling
baffiing of essay topics can soon yield
initiativti and begin to ASK
some meaning if you take the initiative: ASK
QUESTIONS — of
QUESTIONS- ofyourself,
yourself, of the essay topic, of ofyour
your books and

XlV
XIV II

1
lL
 §

Introduction ~~nd your writing task

You rind

lectures, of the school or department for whom you are writing academic readers. This means that will have to learn
that you viiill
the essay. To think of yourself as an active enquirer, rather than certain CONVENTIONS
CONVENTIONS of academic wriring writing which are, at
as a mere receptacle of ideas and knowledge or as a passive times, quite different from those you may be used to. to.
medium by which they are transmitted from your books to your •I Finally, the text of your essay npeds
needs to forge a coherent unity
essays, is essential to good essay-v.rriting. from the many diverse elements oflangu~ge
elemengts of languhge and thought that
essay-writing. Good academic writing
actually creates new knowledge and new meaning. go to make it. It is in many of ,the
the details iof your text that
lofyour
Now there is no single TECHNIQUE your purpose is realised. An essay is not iuerely
inerely a vehicle for
TECHNIQUE by which this can be
achieved. Rather, there seem to be four elements whose relation- ideas, but is itself (whatever the discipline)
disciplirie) a piece of
literature. 5
ships with
wim one another need to be balanced: the writer, the
object of the analysis or discussion (the content),
ofthe content}, the reader, and It is best to conceive of
ofessay—writing eritering into a debate.
essay-writing as entering
the formal properties of the language itself. Not everybody will You need to work out what your own ;mswer answer to the essay
balance these elements in quite the same way; Way; and this is as it question might be. You need to debate it with the books and
should be, since there is no such thing as a uniform, ideal other sources of information and ideas you YOlf use. And then you
academic English. Getting the balance right will depend partly need to convey the results of this engagerflent
engagement clearly to your
on how you, the writer, respond in particular circumstances and reader, bearing in mind that the reader reader--— because of what he or
partly on those traditions of expression and scholarship which knows — needs to be convinced fiat
she already knows- that your own answer
grow up within certain disciplines, schools of thought within is a reasonable one. Fundamental to this whole \\hole process is your
disciplines and within particular college and university depart- use oflanguage. This is the main evidence your tutors have to go
ments. on in making their assessment of your essc;y essaéy -— just as you have
These four elements of the writing situation-
situation - writer, subject mainly the evidence of language in your ibooks to judge the
matter, reader and the forms of language-
language — are reflected
reflected in four usefulness and value of oftheir authors’ work t:O
their authors' no you.
main characteristics of a piece of written language itself.
itself They The aim of this book is to show you hoist ho"~ to fit
fit together the
must all
all be handled together in the act of writing. Their elements introduced above, and to help yot~ success~
yoti participate success»
competing claims to attention are resolved in the choice of one fully in written academic debate. _But But first \\!e shall examine each
first viie
word in preference to another, in the structuring of a sentence, iittle more d4tail,
of our elements separately in a little detail, beginning
begiP.ning with
in the placing of an emphasis in the paragraph, and so on. The that bane of all writers'
writers’ lives-
lives — 'writer's bloclt'.
‘writefs blocli’.
four characteristics are these:
•Q Your own point of view must emerge, not as a mere opinion 22 You and your writing
Writing task p i
iusrrrnan JUDGEMENT.
but as a JUSTIFIED JUDGEMENT.
•0 You need to treat your subject matter as comprehensively and difficult task if they are
For most people writing is an extremely ditlicult
as precisely as the essay topic demands. You must read widely trying to grapple in their language with nevi
new ideas and new ways
and from the range of information and ideas create a unified
unified dowri to write lean
of looking at them. Sitting down can be an agonising
view. You must read carefully and do your best to make your doesn’t necessarily get easier with the passage
experience, which doesn't
language clarify the information and ideas you find
find in your of time and the accumulation of experience.
experiencei For this reason you
books. need to reflect upon and analyse your own éreactions
reactions to the task
w You must present your work in the appropriate fashion for
11 ofwriting.
of writing. That is to say, the task will become more manageable

22. 33
 E

Introduction You and your writing task

if you learn how to cope with your own particular ways of ing or breakfasting. The solutions are as enLlless
endless as the personali-
avoiding or putting off oh" the moment when you must set pen to ties, the family circumstances, the opportunities
opporthnities and the 'life-
‘life-
paper. styles'
styles’ of the writers themselves. Only you C:an
can work these things
that tbis
First of all, it is as well to be aware tbat this fear of
ofputting
putting pen Out, with the help (as tbe
out, the acknowledgements pages of great
to paper is very widespread, and not only amongst students. The numbers of books testify) oftbe
of the people yoc
yoti live witb.
with.
Ioseph Conrad describes his fear and lack of confidence
novelist Joseph confidence Having said tbis,
this, I hope I shall not be toought
thought too inconsis-
in quite harrowing terms: tent if I direct your attention to the historian E. H. Carr's Carr’s
excellent description of the way he
ofthe h§e works:
I am not more vile than my neighbours but this disbelief in
oneself is like a taint that spreads on everything one comes in Laymen-
Laymen — that is to
to say, non-academic friends or friends from
contact with; on men, on things-
things — on the very air one breathes. other academic disciplines-
disciplines — sometimes ask me how the
That’s why one sometimes wishes to
That's to be a stone-breaker. historian goes to work when he writes hi ;tory. The commonest
hl‘i[Ofy.
There’s no doubt about breaking a stone. But there's
There's there’s doubt, assumption appears to be that mat the historim
historian divides his work
Work
fear-
fear — a black horror, in every page one writes. into nvo
two sharply distinguishable phases cr cjr periods. First, he
spends a long preliminary period reading
readinghis his sources and filling
filling
Iust as tbe
Just the fear of writing is widely shared, even amongst his notebooks with facts: then, when this this? is over, he puts away
successful writers, so are the frustrations of confronting the his sources, takes out his notebooks and writes his books from
writing pad. Bertrand Russell, one of ofthe
tbe most accomplished and beginning to end. This is to me rne an unconvincing and
prolific of scholars and writers, has described in his auto-
prolific implausible picture. For myself,
unplausible rnyselfi as soon <';S
as I have got going on
biography how he would sit for days on end staring at his paper a few of what I take to
ofwhat to be the capital sources, the itch becomes
when he was working on the PrincipiaMathematica:
Principal; Mathemetica: 'it‘it seemed roo
too strong and I begin to to write-
write - not necessarily
necessatiiy the beginning,
that tbe
quite likely tbat the whole of tbethe rest of my life might be but somewhere, anywhere. Thereafter, rcading regarding and writing go
consumed in looking at tbatthat blank sheet of
ofpaper’.
paper'. Russell had no Writing is added i:o,
on simultaneously. The writing to, subtracted from,
‘method’ to which he could turn to get him started.
'method' reshaped, cancelled, as I go on reading. 1!he
onireading. Tihe reading is guided
Ifwe
If we could hazard a generalisation, it is this. Some degree of and directed and made fruitful by the writing:
fruitfulgby Writing: the more
motelI
Writing times alone by oneself, seems to be
routine, of regular writing write, the more I know what II am looking for, the better I
one ingredient that many writers findfind necessary. Even if nothing significance and relevano.\
understand the significance relevancii of what I :find.
ofwhat find. Some
happens, it might be a good idea to sit out an allotted period historians probably do all this preliminary writing in their
rather than go rushing off
before the paper ratber oii to tbe
the library or your Without using pen, paper or typeWTiter,
heads without typewriter, just as some
friends in search of inspiration. Most books on study skills people play chess in their heads without :·ecourse
recourse to board and
recotnrnend drawing up some kind of timetable for your work,
recommend chessmen: this is a talent which I envy, b.1tbut cannot emulate.
the most
and even tbe rnost arbitrary of rules (like soo
ofrules 500 words a day, even if But I am convinced that, for any historian worth Worth the name, the
all 500 have later to be scrapped or rewritten) can serve a useful
allsoo nvo
two processes of what economists call 'input'
ofwhat ‘input’ and 'output'
‘output’ go
Writers work
purpose. Many writers Work like tbis.
this. Otbers
Others have more specific
specific on simultaneously and are, in practice, parts of a single
routines. The economist John Iohn Maynard Keynes worked Worked in bed process.
lunch~tirne. Graham Greene, tbe
until lunch-time. the novelist, gets up each It seems to me that the procedure Carr describes -— reading a
morning and starts to write straightaway, before shaving, dress- bit, writing when the itch comes, reading further and then

+
4» 55
 s

Introduction . You ani:i

and your subject matter
rewriting --— is
rewriting is worth
worth taking
taking seriously
seriously because
because itit changes
changes the
the business of writing -— trying out and building
buildii1g up confidence
confidence in
nature of
nature ofthe problem from
the problem from one
one concerned
concerned vaguely
vaguely and
and generally
generally the phrases and arguments that will later be 'Yritten
‘\lIl'lII€I1 down. If you
Ifyou
with the
with the act
act of
of writing
writing toto the
the more
more "manageable
manageable oneone ofof writing
writing feel you lack confidence
confidence you might be tempted to shirk these
something. The
something. The critical
critical phase
phase of
of the
the Carr
Carr cycle
cycle is
is getting
getting the
the 'itch'
citch, discussions in favour of solitary ithinlcing.
thinking. ;It is better not to.to_
to tylvrite,
to write, and and for for this
this there
there isis indeed
indeed no no generally
generally applicable
applicable Informal discussion with friends and feL!owfeliow students is an
ne e. _ It is, I suppose, dependent in
nettle. It is, I suppose, dependent in the first instance onthe first instance on important preparation and a foil ifor
for the nttcessarily
necessarily individual
becoming intern-red in what you are
becoming interested in what you are reading. And becomingreading. And becoming and solitary business of
ofwriting.
writing. ,
lI1fi;_fCStCCl in
interested 1I'1 that,
that, as
as we
we shall
shall see
see in
in chapter
chapter 2, 2, is
is partly
partly dependent
dependent
On how
on ow well
Well you you ask
ask your
your questions
questions and and onon that
that part
part of
ofyou that
you that
you bring to choosing the essay topic in the first first place. 33 You and your subject matter‘
matter =
Thmk» then,
Think, T311611, ofof‘ the times when something in a book has Whilst nearly everybody suffers to some degree from 'writer's ‘writer’s
caught your
caught your attention
attention sufficiently
sufficiently to to make
make youyou insert
insert anan asterisk
a5t¢ris1<
block’,
block', we tend to vary in our ability to handle the four major
or underline the words. You may have been
or underline the words. You may have been stimulated to make stimulated to make aa elements of the writing process itself. We have h;tve seen that a good
marginal note or a note on a sheet ofpaper. This
marginal note or a note on a sheet of paper. This is the important is the ilnportanr piece of academic writing needs to achie\·e
achieve a certain balance
moment. Here
moment. Here is is the
the first
first faint
faint itch.
itch. Instead
Instead of of covering
covering it it over
over between these elements. So S0 what you need to do in order to help
yvith salve and a book mark, begin to sharpen
with salve and a book mark, begin to sharpen your ideas on it your ideas on it you achieve this balance is to decide which of the elements you
immediately. Even
immediately. Even half
half aa page
page which
which manages
manages to to deal
doal inin some
some
need to work at most. You might need to give most attention to
way with
way with thethe point
point andand take
take inin aa few
few snatches
snatches of of your
your other
other establishing your own point of view on the topic and feeling able
ofview
reading will
reading will suffice
suffice forfor aa nucleus
nucleus to to be
be worked
worked on on later.
later Writing
Writing to hold to it with some degree of con.fidencq.
confidencd. Or you might find find
begets writing.
begets writing. As As Goethe
Goethe writes
writes inin the
the Prelude
Prelude to to Faust:
Faust:
manipulating your language to get it to say) sayi something sensible
heated -
Only engage, and then the mind grows heated- without too many chewed-up pencil pencii ends a*dand torn-up sheets of
Begin it, and the work will be completed! paper is the big problem. It could be tharj thaii you find
find the main
difficulty
difficulty to be in structuring the essay in a doherent fashion out
cf:>herent
If you
If you do
do this
this from
from time
time to to rime,
time, your
your mind
mind will
will be
be working
working of the wads of notes you have taken,
talcen, in b4ng
being able to develop
constructively on
constructively on the
the essay
essay (even
(even in in periods
periods off
off duty)
duty) and
and your
your your ideas to 'fill
‘fill up'
up’ the two thousiand words required
nvo or three thousflld
attention will
attention vviil bebe shifted
shifted from
from the the act
act to
to the
the matter
matter when
when you
you or, conversely, to cut down your four tho~sandthoiisand words to the
come to
come to write
write thethe essay
essay as
as aa whole.
whole. You You will
will also
also have
have spread
spread the
rho required length. And then you might be so soyvorried ‘What
',vorried about 'what
load of
load of facing
facing that
that empty
empty sheet
sheet of of paper
paper over
over many
many smaller,
smaller, and
and they (the tutors) Want’
want' that you devote enprmous
enormous amounts of
more easily handled, instances. energy to pleasing the reader and being unndcessarily
unne!£essarily meticulous
There is,
There is, too,
too, the
the role
role of
of discussion.
discussion. Discussion
Discussion is is an
an essential
essential
in the conventional presentation of ofyour
your W0-§'l{.
work.
part of academic work both as an informal
part of academic work both as an informal preparation for preparation for
difficulties
This list of common difficulties does not exhaust the possi-
noF
writing and as writing’s final justification. The coffee
writing and as writing's final justification. The coffee lounge and lounge and bilities. Furthermore, overcoming one of them might also
Seminar room,
the seminar FOOII1, while
While quite distinct, are essential to the require attention to one or nvotwo of the others. So, while the list
architecture of
architecture of academe.
acaderne. But
But although
although thethe autocrats
autocrats ofofthe coffee
the coffee does oversimplify somewhat, it is laa good idea at this early stage
table do
table do not
not necessarily
necessarily deserve
deserve aa goodgood hearing
hearing inin the
the seminar
son-ijmf to decide Which
which of the writing probiems
problems apply most particularly
F0031» they
room, Ehfiy are at least preparing themselves for one asset of the to you. By identifying as well as you can youryouir own strengths and
6
7
 3
Introduction 5 You arid
and your subject matter

weaknesses, you will be in a position to make the best use of this valued or
valued or weighted
weighted differently different ~uthors
differently by different authors oror as
as aa result
result
book. of asking different questions. Such situation~
ofasking situationis call for analysis and
We turn now to the problems of coming to terms with the discussion,
discussion, in in which
which youryour own evialuations ~ill become
own evaluations beco.l)le increas-
increas-
subject matter in such a way that you will Will be able to develop ingly explicit, and in which descriptions,
ingly explicit, and in which descriptions, though present, playtpough present, play
confidence in establishing your own answer to the essay
confidence only a pan.part. Two of the more common o~mments
cfanunents written by
question. ’ tutors on students' essays are 'Too descriptive'
tutors on students’ essays are ‘Too descriptive’ and ‘Needs more and 'Needs more
The first,
first, and perhaps most important, thing to bear in mind is analysis'.
analysis’. - 2
‘right’ or the
that your tutor is not expecting in your essay the 'right' Now, it is important to be quite clear about the nature of this
‘correct’ answer to the question. It might be the case that there is
'correce process of
process judgement. It
ofjudgement. It is
is not
not uncommon
uncommon 1:o to see
see aa student
student write
Wrltfi
‘right’ answer, but it is not likely that all of your tutors are
a 'right' 'In
‘In my opinion ._.. ', and a tutor write beside
. .’, besiigie it We
‘We don't
don’t want
going to be in complete agreement among themselves on what it your opinion.'
opinion.’ Although this might seem to toi contradict what
What wasWAS
is. Hence your job is not to find the right answer in the books, said above about the importance of your own
said above about the importance ofyour ow-in judgement, it does judgement, it does
nor to find
find out what your tutor thinks is the right answer, but not.
not. What
What the the tutor
tutor is is objecting
objecting to to is is 'opinion'
‘opinion’ unsupported
unsupported by by
rather to use books and tutors to help you establish your best reason and evidence. ~ '
answer. This demands that you learn to exercise your faculty of In chapter we shall
chapter 22. We shall examine
examine closely
closely how ho' v, when
when youyou are
are first
first
judgement and to be as clear and explicit as you can about how coming to grips with an essay topic, it i; is quite necessary to
you form your own judgements. decide
decide what your provisional
what your provisional opinionopinion might might be.be. Your
Your opinion
opinion
ofjudgement
It is the manner in which we exercise this faculty of judgement at
at this
this early
early stage
stage of your work
of your work does does not not need
need to be justified
to be justified at at
that distinguishes academic enquiry at its best from much of the all. It can, as the philosopher Sir Karl Pop!per
Sir'Karl Popper says, be no more
everyday writing we We see around us and from much of the kind of than
than aa 'prejudice'. You must
‘prejudice’. You must bring your prejudices
bring your preJudices and and opinions
opinions
writing your school teachers will probably have taught you. to bear on your provisional
to bear on your provisional answer to answer to th~ question.
question. But,But, by by
Much of your learning so far will have required you to produce the time your reading and your writing arF
the time your reading and your writing aria finished, prejudice finished, prejudice
accurate and coherent descriptions of things you have observed, and
and opinion
opinion mustmust have have been convene~ into
been convertejti into aa reasoned
reasoned
things you have read and things you have been taught about. judgement, whicb significantly ~ifferent
which might be significantly idifferent from your
The questions, for the most pan, part, have been raised by your initial
initial reaction
reaction to to the
the essay
essay topic.
topic. We We ,fan see See how
110W initial
illitifli
of learning remain
teachers and your books. Now, these aspects oflearning prejudice and opinion are transformed ir\to irito judgement on a
important in colleges and universities. But what may be new to broad scale in this memoir by the Austraiiaign Australia'~ historian Manning
you is the increasing responsibility thrust upon you to ask your Clark: i
ANALYSE or DISCUSS
own questions and to ANALYSE DISCUSS (rather than just to I happened to have the good fortune to ofperience
esftperiencfi in
describe) the objects of your enquiries and the statements that childhood
childhood all all the
the conflicts
conflicts which
which were
were cer!tral
cergtral to
to the
the human
human
may be made about them. We begin to discover, for example, situation inin Australia. My mother came frPm frpm the old patrician,
that what we had taken to be well-accepted facts about the world landed
landed magnificoes
magnificoes in in Australia; my fathe~
Australia; my fathefr from
from the
the working
working
have an aura of uncertainty about them; they may turn out to be class
class first
first of London, then
ofLondon, then of
of Sydney.
Sydney. So,
S0, years
§years later
later when
when II
theories, interpretations or widely held beliefs rather than rock- read those words by Mam, ~The
by Karl Marx, ‘The history of all hitherto
‘facts’. We may discover, too, that facts about which there
solid 'facts'. existing society is the history of class struggles',
struggles’, childhood
may be no serious debate can nevertheless have their importance memories
memories mademade me me say
say 'and that's true,
‘and that’s true, teo' just as
tc o’ just as years
years of
of

83 9
 l
Introduction _ You and your subject matter
fill in the details for that
reading and observation later were to fill finally thrown into the waste paper basket
amended again and finally basket- -
proposition about human society and raise doubts about what What the whole process to be gone through ;igain. again. If you spend
it leaves out. -
inordinate amounts of time agonising over :choices ichoices of word
Word and
sentence structure, it may well be beithat
that you are aiming for a kind
Clark announces
Clark announces his his prejudice
prejudice in in favour
favour of of Marx's
Marx’s dictum,
dictum, aa whichis
of perfection and precision which is more than you can handle at
point ofview
point of governed by
view governed by his
his own
own childhood
childhood experience
experience and and not
not the time. Perfection and precision for tlieis:
thei:- own sakes are false
by any
by any academic
academic method.method. That That prejudice
prejudice is is absolutely
absolutely necessary
necessary goals in academic enquiry and writing (despite
(desp-lite what some books
to Clark's
to Clarks history,
history, but but by by itself
itself it
it is
is not
not enough.
enough. It It must
must be 13¢ say). You should cut and change
change; only where you have decided
complemented by
complemented by 'reading
‘reading and and observation'
observation’ expressedexpressed in in anan that the meaning and structure of your argument
arguinent is going to be
Ol)]CClIIVClY critical
objectively critical academic
academic discourse
discourse which which analysesanalyses the the perf-~ctionism, especially
significantly improved. A tendency to petfectionism,
significantly
‘details’ and comes to
'details' to terms with the 'doubts'. ‘doubts’. in relatively superficial
superficial aspects of
ofwriting, lack
writing, is often a sign of a laCk
In beginning
In beginning with with our our prejudices
prejudices and and opinions
Opinions and and then
thm confidence. Confidence
of confidence. Confidence cannot be built up by presenting a
gradually converting them through
gradually converting them through reading and writing intoreading and writing into perfectly grammatical exterior to your reader, but rather by
considered judgements, we are committing
considered judgements, we are committing a great deal of our a great deal of our trying out your ideas in the language that you can best muster on
own selves
own selves to to the
the answer
answer we we give.
give. We We mustmust be be prepared
prepared to to
the occasion. If
Ifyou
you feel that there is something wrong with that
mean what
mean what we we say.say. ButBut we we must
must also
also be be able
able to to feel
feel aa certain
certain first the idea you are tr)
language, scrutinise first trying
'ing to express.
CONFIDENCE in
CONFIDENCE in our
our yudgements.
judgements. This This confidence
confidence does does notnot lf, on the other hand, you are the kind ·::>f
If, of writer who rarely
come so
come so much
much from from 'within'
within’ us as from
us as from the the success
success withwith which
which changes anything and who, once the draft draft; essay is completed,
01-If language
our lailguagc formulates the judgement and backs it up. If you gladly forgets about it, you need to begin thinking very seriously
find it
find it extremely
extremely difficult
diflicult to to get
get words
Words onto onto thethe page,
page, thenthan what
what about what writing an academic essay !entails. ientails. Surveys of
IS probably at fault 1S your understanding ofwhat
is probably at fault is your understanding of what you are trying you are trying academic staff in Australian universities sb;ow shiow that the average
to say
to say or
or an
an insufficiently
insufficiently worked-out
worked.-our argument
argument to to support
support it. it, number of drafts they write of tbeir
their own papers
pfpers before submit-
Thls can
This Cari only be overcome by going back to to your books or by ting them to a journal for publication is bep.veen
between four and five.
five.
forcing yourself
forcing yourself to to clarify
clarify youryour point
point of of view
view by by writing
writing aa short
short You do not have the time to do so many rev~sions;
revisions; but you must
summary of ofit.
it. make the time to do some. It is only when! whenl you read over your
We have
We have noticed
noticed above above the the need
need to to take
take carecare that
that wewe mean
mean own work well after it has been composed tt~\at tlfat you Will
will be able to
what we
what we say.
say. But
But we we must
must similarly
similarly take
take care,
care, as as the
the March
March Hare
Hare see its shortcomings. This means that it is at!solutely
abisolutely necessary to
and the Mad Hatter crossly pointed out to
and the 'Mad' Hatter crossly pointed out to Alice, to say what we Alice, to say what we construct a timetable which provides that than you finish
finish the first
first
mean. There can be a yawning gulf between
mean. There can be a yawning gulf between the two into which the two into which Well before it is due to be handed in. Some
draft of any essay well
most of
most of us
us can
can easily
easily fall.
fall. When
When we we have
have put put ourour thoughts
thoughts and and f0rty~§eight hours between
authorities recommend that you leave forry-:eight
judgements into words, we need to look
judgements into words, we need to look at what is on the paper at what is on the paper throu~h it to prepare your
first draft and going throu
completing your first
to find
to find out
out whether
whether what What is is there
there does
does indeed
indeed say say what
what we we meant
meant Chapter 22 of this book is
second. This seems to me useful advice. Ch;;ipter
to say. explicitly devoted to showing you how to approach your work
Some academic
Some academic writers writers rarelyrarely feel
feel that
that they
they havehave got got their
$11611- so that you do not fall into the common pattern of finishing finishing a
lauguage to
language to say
say just what they
just what they intended,
intended, and and aa kind
kind of of secondary
secondary first draft the night before the essay is due. Some people can
first
writefs block'
'writer's block’ setssets in:in: the
the words
words areare amended,
amended, scratched
scratched out, out,
produce excellence in a firstfirst draft; but they are probably the

IO
I1
II
 >> E

Introduction You and your reader

kinds of
kinds ofpeople referred to
people referred to byby E.
E, H.H. Carr
Carr whowho can
can also
also play
play chess
chess such a way that the meciiurn h~ndwriting, spelling,
medium (paper, handwriting,
in their
in their heads.
heads. IfIf you
you dodo have
have diffirulty
difficulty in in managing
managing to to say
say what
what setting-out, etc.) does not draw attention
attentio-in to itself. There is,
you i1'l€&I1, you should pay particular attention
you mean, you should pay particular attention to Part III of this to Part III of this however, one problem of coiTLrnunicating
contjnunicating which will not go
book. away quite so easily. 3
If you
you decide that clarifYing
clarifying the relationship between you, This problem is that of deciding
clecidinlg whom you are writing for and
your subject matter
your subject matter and your and your language
language is is aa significant
significant problem,
problem, whom you are writing to. The academic es~;ay essay is in some respects
then it would be a good idea to study closely
then it would be a good idea to study closely what E. H. Carr what E,I-1_ Carr artificial task. Though you are
an artificial areiostensiblywriting
ostensibly writing to a relatively
says about
says about how how he he approaches
approaches the the writing
writing of of history
history (see(see p.
p. 5).
5)_ depersonalised 'academic
‘academic establishment')
establishment’, you are in effect
The essence
The essence of of Carr's
Carr’s approach
approach is is that
that writing
writing and and reading
reading (and,(and, writing fiirfor yourself. This is what asses:;ment
assessment is about. The
Wcffllght
we might add, thinking) go on 'simultaneously' ‘simultaneously’ in a cycle. cycle corrfuct
conflict thus engendered about the nature of your audience -—
Writing begets
Writing begets reading
reading andand reading
reading begets
begets writing.
writing. The The impli-
impli- department, tutor and self-self — makes the common
cornrnon injunction to
cation is
cation is that
that your
your knowledge
knowledge and and understanding
understanding are are formulated
forrntilargd
writers, 'Know
‘Know your audience',
audience’, only a pardy helpful truism. To
in your language, not merely ‘communicated’
in your language, not merely 'communicated' by means of by mam: qflg_n-
lan- make matters worse you are sometimes told to write as if a fellow
guage. In choosing our language we are
guage. In choosing our language we are choosing and estab- choosing and estab- sometimes to write for the
student were going to read the essay, some:times
lishing our
lishing our point
point ofofview on the
view on the subject
subject matter
matter andand our
our answer
pmswq to to 'educated
‘educated layman',
layman’, and sometimes to write for ·academics academics in a
the question
the question raised
raised byby the
the essay
essay topic.
topic. Each
Each timetime you
you go go round
round different but related discipline. In desperat:ion,
desperation, or as a short cut,
the cycle
the cycle of of reading,
reading, writing
writing and and thinking,
thinking, you you are
are gradually
gradually you may try to write to your tutor. _
Hnprovnlg your understanding of the subject matter and your
improving There are, however, certain dangers if you allow your tutor to
expression
expression of of that
that understanding
understanding in in English.
English. You You areare getting
getting dominate too much of your writing.Writing. Most of the dangers dmgers stem
away from that Mephistophelian voice
away from that Mephistophelian voice in you which says in you which says 'I ‘I
iteacher—srudent situ-
quite simply from the conventions of the teacher-student
understand this, but I ]11S[ can’t express it.’ Ifyou ca.ri’t
understand this, but I just can't express it.' If you can't express it, express it, ation: writing in order to 'pass'.‘pass’. You nay may be tempted into
the presumption
the presumption must must be be that
that you
you don't
don’t sufficiently
sufficiently understand
understand others’ work if you believii
plagiarising others' believG the tutor will not
it. recognise the source. While this approach may rpay solve the immedi-
ate problem, it is no way to learn to write and may well catch up
+
4- You and your reader with you sooner or later. Or you may begin to ape the super-
ficialincs of the jargon of a discipline b,;fore
ficialities before you have really
W hile grappling
While grappiing with the problems of understanding and grasped the meaning of the language. ‘By By rhusthus displaying a
knowing mamfllls you have another matter to attend to. This
l<nO“"_11g the material, certain familiarity with this 'in-language',
‘in-language’, rhany
many believe the tutor
is the
is the interpersonal
interpersonal or or communicative
communicative function
function ofofyour writing
your writing. will be taken in (which, of course, he or she shecan can be). But this kind
Wfltmg is not wholly a problem in communication,
Writing is not wholly a problem in communication, as we have as we haw of travesty is often only too transparent. The third temptation in
just seen; but now we must look at those aspects
just seen; but now we must look at those aspects of writing of writing
keeping tutors too much l.n in mind is to toaiy
toa Lly to their theoretical
which are
which are governed
governed by by the
the need
need toto present
present your
your ideas
ideas and
and your
your
predilections and opinions in the belief that this will earn you a
argument in
argument in aa way
way that
that will
will help
help to
to 'get
‘get them
them across'.
across’. InIn some
some
higher grade. This last deserves more diset:_ssion.
discussion.
senses communicating
senses comrnurucatuig successfully
successfully involves
involves little
little more
more than
than
It must first
first of all be acknowledged that, as any number of
learning and
learning exploiting certain
and exploiting certain conventions
conventions of of writing
writing andand
studies have shown, tutors can be quite unreliable in their
presentation.
presentation. In In this
this respect
respect the
the aim
aim to
to be
be achieved
achieved isis to
to write
write in
in assessments of written work. (Many departments
d€p3.iII'I1CI11IS recognise this
!2
I2
Is
IJ
 E

Introduction Your language: form and structure

Sifllfituffi

and use various techniques for improving reliability.) Different than

than your
your typing,
typing, itit is
is usually
usually better
better to to v.;rite
write your
your essays
essays by by
significantly in the grade they allow to a given
tutors can vary significantly hand
hand until your typing skills improve.) Goofd communication is
until your typing skills improve.) Good communication is
essay. This fact might encourage you to believe that the best way obtained
obtained in in part
part byby reducing
reducing to to aa minimum;
II1l1'1l1'I1UI1'1i what
what engineers
engineers callcall
flatter your tutor's
to get high grades is to flatter tutor’s opinions. It appears, 'noise'
‘noise’ inin the
the channel
channel -— anything
anything that that willwill distract
distract the
the reader
reader
however, that even an individual tutor may vary quite consider- from
from the
the object
object ofof concentration.
concentration. It _It is
is customary
customary for for manuals
manuals of Of
ably in the value he or she attaches to the same piece of work composition
composition to justify these
to justify these matters
matters in in terrris
terms of of courtesy
courtesy to to the
the
from one time to another. It is also the case that some tutors are reader.
reader. ButBut there
there is
is also
also aa simple
simpiei psychological
psychological factor. factor. IfIf your
your
flattered by having you attack their own work, since in order to
flattered reader's attention is constantly distracted
reader’s attention is constantly distractediby undecipherable by undecipherable
attack it you will need to have read it with care and attention. In handwriting,
handwriting, spelling
spelling mistakes
mistakes or or poor
poor referencing,
referencing, there there will
will
conflicts about the substance of
my own experience the genuine conflicts be less processing capacity
be less processing capacity in his got her brain to devote to
in his or her bnin to devote to the
the
an opinion occur mostly over the work Work of graduate students. substance
substance of of your
your essay. Like so
essay. Like so many
many of of the
the things
things wewe discu~ss
discuss
With undergraduates many such difficulties
difficulties turn out to arise CO1-mcction with writing, successful
in connection successfiil communication is a
from misunderstandings not so much about the substance of a matter of
matter of achieving
achieving an an optimal
optimal balance
balance in in aa given
given situation.
situation. It It is
is
RELEVANCE to the essay question
particular opinion as about its RELEVANCE even possible to make your presentation toe
even possible to make your presentation toe; perfect KY0“? C111‘perfect. If your cul-
quality
or about the qualiry of the student’s analysis of supporting
student's tural
rural background
background has has placed
placed great
great empha;is
Cmphagsis on on courtesy
courtesy and md
evidence. So before you assume a tutor is biased against you, do convention, it is quite possible that you will
convention, it is quite possible that you will expend aa dispro- expend dispro-
as much as you can to put into practice the concerns ofofthis
this book, portionate amount
portionate amount of of effort
effort on
on parading
parading inmaculate!y
iramaculateiy labelled
labelled
which seek to initiate you into the rites and conventions of headings, brightly polished typing
headings, brightly polished typing and crisply and crisply pressed
pressed foot-
foot-
academic debate. notes.
notes. The
The excellence
excellence of of the presentation m~~y
the presentation may make
make it it rather
rather too
$00
But where there is considerable disparity between your own clear
clear that
that you
you have
have neglected
neglected moremore imponant
imporpaiit aspects
aspects of of your
your
assessment of the value of your essay and the assessment the writing.
tutor makes, the best recourse is to argue it out with the tutor in
shouid be prepared to give particular
question. Any good tutor should 55 Your
Your language:
language: form
form and
and structure
structure
comments, to defend his or her judgement and to revise it if
warranted. It is this matter of detailed comment that the student So
50 far
far, wewe havehave seen
seen how
how aspects
aspects of of langtlage
langtiage enter
enter into
into such
such
should insist on whether the examiner seems biased in favour or probl:ms
problems as how you establish your pointiof view on aa topic,
as how you establi;h your point;of view on topic,
against. Marginal comment, a defence of the overall assessment, how you
yen comeco;-he to understand and express vour your subject matter,
and some help with what you need to do to improve, is what you and how you YQ11 establish a ‘line
'line of communication’ with your
commuPication'
first. Only then should you begin to worry about the
should seek first. reader.
reader Now Now we we look
look atat some
some problems
problems of!of? writing
writing which
which arise
arise
tutor who does not like your opinions. ' out
out of the nature of language itself. To malge language Work for
of the nature oflanguage itself. To make language work for
One matter on which
Which you should always submit to the wishes you 7 it
you, it is
is aa good
good idea
idea to
to learn
learn something
something
I
of
of its
its forms
forms and
and struc-
struc-
_

of your tutor concerns the conventions of presentation: the tures, just as

cures, just as cabinet-makers
cabinet-makers need need toto understand
understand the the properties
properties
FORMS of footnoting and referencing, and of head-
preferred FORMS of
of their
their timbers.
timbers. TheThe fmms
forms we we are
are concer:1ed
concerned with with operate
operate onon
ings, margins and type of paper, the quality of your proof- two
two levels - that of the sentence and that of larger units of
levels - that of the sentence and that of larger units of dis-
dis-
clarity of your handwriting or the
reading and spelling, the clariry courss like the paragraph and the essay a~
course as a whole.
Whole. There are
ofyour
accuracy of your typing, and so on. (If your handwriting is better ways
Ways in which we use words, grammar and discourse to

IS
15
14
I4-
 , E

Introduction Your languag'e:

language: form and structure

organise our diverse ideas into a coherent unity. Every piece of above. For example, an almost invariable sign that something is
academic writing should strive for this unity. wrong is a series of either very long
lohg or very short paragraphs -—
A well-organised piece of writing reveals that the writer has and this condition is easy to spot.
spot; But being able to locate and
established a pattern of relationships between the individual identify the symptom is often noti ·~ince local tinkering
not enough, -since
parts and between the parts and the whole composition. When with,
With, say, paragraph boundaries (running sb;ort shlort ones together or
we read, we are often dimly aware that the author of our book chopping long ones into parts) does not always get at the heart
has achieved this formal balance without our being able to say of the problem. This is the point at which we often have to
exactly how. When we write we are often uncomfortably aware decide to cross out the Wholewhole passage and st;rrt
Stzllt again.
haven’t achieved it. Sometimes we begin to realise that
that we haven't Far from seeking to improve the form for its own sake, our
our thinking and writing are just 'going ‘going round in circles'.
circles’. We rewriting gives us a chance to improve our understanding of the
start to repeat ourselves unnecessarily, contradict ourselves, or SUBJECT we are writing about. There are ;J.esthetes aesthetes who fiddle
fiddle
fail to show the connections between ideas. We become aware with the form of their work to gain purely formal satisfactions,
that, whenever we arrive at the end of a section of ofthe
the essay, or of and there should indeed be something of the aesthete in all
a paragraph or even of a sentence, we do not know where to turn writers. But the chance to rewrite is the chancechan l:e to conceive afresh
next or
next or how
how to to establish
establish aa connection
connection between
between what
what is is written
written what it is we are trying to say. And that means meiins searching for an
and what
and what isis to
to be
be written.
written. We
We become
become more
more andand more
more unable
unable to idea which becomes the new focus of attenrion, attention, a new unifying
decide between what should be included in the essay and what vision of
ofthe
the subject, around which the parts: partf: which once seemed
should be left out. Paragraphs become very, very long or very, so intractable will now cluster more or les:; less easily. In short, to
very short~
short. Sentences become long and convoluted, such that the heed the formal signals of distress gives us the opportunity to
end has quite forgotten the beginning. More or less random think of a better answer to the question. Th(: Thkéi satisfactions of this
mistakes in spelling, punctuation and some aspects of grammar are great. _
begin to creep in. Overall, we get that feeling that our writing Nobody, however, will deny the desire tQ get things more or
‘flow’, that some aspect of its structure has collapsed.
does not 'flow', less right the first
first time. If good structure depends, as we have
first difficulty we face is in learning to recognise when
The first finding that elusive <jmifying idea, good
seen, so critically on :finding
these symptoms are present. Sometimes they are not particularly structure therefore has its origins in your ver!y veriy first
first confrontation
apparent to
apparent to usus while
while we
we are
are writing,
writing, only
only revealing
revealing themselves
themselves with the essay topic. There are, of ofcourse, m~y questions which
course, rnany
when we read the piece over later. Sometimes our own sense of can only be faced and resolved as the occa:;ion occasion arises. But that
form is not sufficiently developed to enable us to see aspects of central issue of the overall organisation of your essay and its
our problem at all. We learn these things by having our writing major parts is not something that that; can be aC·;ded
acilded in as you 'write
‘write
criticised by others, and by absorbing gradually from our up' a draft. If you do recognise;in
up’ recognise in yourself
yoursdf the 'scissors-and-
‘scissors-and
reading a sense of what good writing 'feels' ‘feels’ like. It is therefore paste’
paste' syndrome and the other symptoms ,)f of poor structure in
often only
often only aa vague
vague sense
sense of
of discomfort,
discomfort, inin the
the first
first instance,
instzuice, that
that your essay-writing
CSSi1Y~\VII'l£li1g,1 you may well ineed
need to pay especial
cSp€Ci&l attention
alerts us to the situation in our own writing. to the way in which you come to terms withthe with the essay topic.
When this discomfort is felt, we may be able to go back over Form and structure enter into inost most aspects of writing. Even
our work and describe in some detail what is going wrong -— so, this book, it should be clear, is about mut:hmuch more than getting
perhaps by identifYing
identifying such particular symptoms as are listed the right words and granunatical
grammatical forms intcintcf the right places. To

I6 17
17

1-.
 3

Introduction

Well you will also need progressively to learn about

write well
yourself and the way
Way your own mind works, about the ways
Ways in Part]
Pm/T
which you attain to knowledge, and about the academic culture
in which you and your readers live. Dealing adequately with all
these claims to the attention demands that you gradually work
out for yourself a set of procedures and conditions that will not
efficiency but also open up new, more
only improve your efficiency
interesting and more subtle ways
Ways of approaching your work.
W01'l(_
find in this book various hints and recommendations
You will find
to reach that
about what you might take account of in trying to
Where you can even enjoy the taxing process of
happy state where
writing. The particular synthesis you make of the issues treated
here is, however, your own responsibility. The success with which Reflec;~ion
Reflection
all these matters are resolved will be apparent in the artefact that
Writing you preserve will always
emerges: every piece of your writing mad
and
remain an articulate testimony to your state of mind when you
What makes writing -— even if 'only'
wrote it. This is what ‘only’ another Research
academic essay -- an attempt to deal not only with a 'topic'
‘topic’ but
with knowledge itself, with other people and with yourself.

18
I8
 \ 2

2
Reflectioi/z:
Refiectiott: asking
questiom
question; and
P7’OPO.§7:7I2'§
proposind~ answers
I have always preferred to reflect
reflect
probltgm before reading on it.
upon a problem
JEAN
IEAN PIAGET

I1 Speculative thinking and writing

This is a chapter about thinking and reflection.
reflection. Itit comes first
first in
our consideration of essay-writing technique because it is the
first of the many activities in writing an es-say
first essay that you should
engage in. Many, if not most~ l·~ave the really hard
most, students leave
thinking until after they have done the reading or research. They
do this in the belief that one can't
can’_t think co,nstrl.lctively
cohstructively until all
the information is gathered and the writini~
writing of the finalfinal draft is
due to begin. This is not so, as the quota1iion
quotation above from the
Iean Piaget st;!ggests.
philosopher and psychologist Jean stiggests.
One of the most important abilities nee(~ed
neerlied to master essay-
essay~
scieneesl is the ability to ASK
writing in the humanities and social science:}
QUESTIONS of the essay topic itself as well,
QUESTIONS Weill as of the books you
will read. If you can develop a faciliiy
facility in ask,ing
asking questions and in
reflecting questio~s,
reflecting on likely answers to those questio i1S, it is possible for a
general shape for your essay (though not it~ precise content) to
become evident to you even before you ~ave have begun on any
detailed reading. The procedure is somethirig
something like this:
I1 Choose an essay topic because it interests you. Such a topic is
more likely to be one about which you might already have a
few questions or ideas.
22 Ask questions of
ofthe
the topic: try to work ot:-.t
out what it is driving at,
what is meant by various words or phrases
phrasei in it, and what kinds

-ZI
2I

b._.
 s
z

Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers _ . Choosing a topic

of connection there may be between the various issues it raises. discovering whether
discovering whether you you have
have actually
actually car!tured
capltured aa thought
thought and and
‘consulting’ of a few very basic
Do no more reading (or better, 'consulting' 2 Whcthm. it
whether it is
is any
any good.
good Improvement
Improvement ddes clcies not not emerge
emerge from from
source books) than is necessary to suggest possible answers to nothing,
nothing, but but byby changing
changing what what exists.
eitists. The ;ingle chief
The single chief value
value ‘ofof aa
your questions. speculative
speculative answer
answer in in aa short
short paragraph
paragraph is 1S not just that
pot ]1lSt that iti~ mi_ght
might
3 Propose to yourself a few likely answers to the question raised become
become the the foundation
foundation of the eventual
of the eventual an;wer
answer but but that
that 1tit giVeS
gives
by the topic and write them down in no more than a sentence r
you something to change, something to improve on by further
or two. Then choose which seems to be the best. Discussing reading, thinking and writing. This is what leads to better essays.
the topic with friends is very useful at this stage. spcculativs answer leads to a more efficient use of
Having a speculative
4. Develop this answer into a short paragraph which, so far as
4- in
time
time in a number of
a number ways. Your
of ways. Your reading iiaecomes quicker
reading lt>ecomes quicker and and
so (~asily-
you can, lists the reasons for choosing the answer you did or you
you don't
don’t lose
lose concentration
concentration on on a book
book so easily. Since
Since you have
you have
ofthe
some of the facts and ideas that you think might support it. aa better
better idea
idea of what is
of what is likely
likely toto be
be relevant,
relevant:, you you spend
spend less
less time
time
s5 Regard this paragraph as no more than a hypothesis about, a raking
taking mountains
mountains of notes that
of notes that eventually
eventually turn turn outout toto be
be quite
quite
proposal for, or a forecast of, your eventual answer. It might uselcss Thirdly,
useless. Thirdly you v()1_1 do not spend valuable hours towards the
well lay the foundations of the opening paragraph of your ‘ 1‘ v 2 E
end
end of the research period
of the research period hunting
hunting desperately
desperately through through the the
but it will need to be rested
essay, bur tested our
out (and probably changed)
library in the vain Micawber-like
Micawher-like hope that 'something
‘something will turn
reading ~» which should not begin until now.
by your detailed reading-
up'
up’ to
to show
show you you howhow to to write
write your your ans~-ver.
answer. Finally,Finally, there
there is IS
The aim of this chapter is to show you how to do these things. long-standing psychological evidence
longstanding psychological evidence that t_';ut onceonce youyou have have
You need to be aware at the outset that you may not :findfind it easy consciously
consciously articulated
articulated certain
certain issues
issues to to be be worked
worked on, your
011, YQUF
reflective questioning
to master and apply these techniques of reflective subconscious
subconscious mind mind will beaver av.ray
will beaver away at at "them
ihfim whilstWhllst Youyou are am
and exploratory writing. You may well be strongly tempted to doing
doing other
other things,
things, with
with the result that ev,~ry
the result every now now and@115 again
again an 9-I1
scurry back to the apparent security of your books and the answer or an improvement will pop to the
answer or an improvement will pop to the surface. (The philoso- ~~urface. (The philoso-
‘busy’ in the library, leaving the hard
deceptive sense of being 'busy' pher Bertrand Russell prepared preparedhimself himself fpr these happy occa- Occa-
thinking until a night or two before the essay is due. There are sions by carrying round a little notebook ir!
sions by carrying round a little notebook in which to Writs? these which to write 51655
two main reasons why you should resist this temptation. ideas
ideas down,
down, pages pages from which he
from which woujd later
he would later insert
insert in in anall
first is that hard preliminary thinking and writing leads
The first appropriate file.) file.) In this way Way you savej save}; ti~etime because ~our your
eventually to better essays. The second is that it makes you more subconscious
subconscious can can be working on
be working ongoneone essay Whtle your
essaylwhile your conscious
conscious
efficient in your work, and consequently saves you important
efficient attention is engaged on another. 3 -l _
time. The steps summarised above we shall no'Y noiiv treat in more detaiL detail.
it might seem that a procedure which asks you to produce a
It
draft paragraph which almost certainly will have to be changed,
z
2 Choosingatopic
Choosing a topic
and perhaps wholly scrapped, is academically worthless, not to
say inefficient. This is not so. You will remember we saw in Your
Your choice
choice of
of aa topic
topic on which to
on which to write
write should be governed
should be governfid
I - ' ' 7
chapter 11 that writing and thinking beget more writing and most importantly by your own personal interest and 'prejudice'.
‘Prejudice .
thinking. Now if ifyour
your thinking is not constrained by the need to Your
Your only
only guide
guide in this matter
in this matter is yourself. Some
1S yourselt. Some people
people think
think
write down what comes of it, it will usually be fairly undisci- that if
-nryou arc
you are too committed to 3 Sub;-;¢r
to a subject you will write an essay
plined, not to say idle and disjointed. Writing is your best way of Strongly influenced
which is too strongly influgnccd by youryour desire to entrench a

2.2
22 13
23
 3

Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers

Reflection: answers Choosing a topic
particular
particular point point of of view,
view, irrespective
irrespective of of evidence.
evidence. This This should
should such a topic, should you postpone the begi/ming
begiiiiung of Of your
Y0!-If work
W0fl<
not Worry you, provided that you draw
not worry you, provided that you draw an important distinction. an important distinction. until it is. Lecturers and tutors rarely addres!s
addresis their comments to
This is
This is aa distinction
distinction between
between your your interest
interest in in the
the subject
subject as as being
being the precise question or questions raised by ah essay topic. top1_C- This is 15
worthy of study and a cornrnitment
worthy of study and a commitment to be as detached as you canto be as detached as you can neglect — and may be
not necessarily neglect- gbe quite c]'eliberate,
deliberate, since they
when you
when you eventually
eventually come corne to to analyse
analyse the the evidence
evidence which which sup- sup~ do not wish to read many essays which lmiformly iiniforrnly echo the
ports one
ports one oror another
another answer
answer to to thethe question.
question. The The early
early stages
stages of of theysay
lectures. Hence nothing that they say is likely to be be of any more
preparing an
preparing an essay
essay dealt
dealt withwith in in this
this chapter
Chapter are are purely
purely private.
private. benefit to you than what is contained in an introductory
initial benefit
So choosing
So choosing aa topic, topic, likelike youryour first first reflections
reflections on on it,it, can
can be be book on the subject. Even if the classes do aCdress
acidress issues of direct
governed by as much self-interest and
governed by as much self-interest and prejudice as you care to prejudice as you care to fiealise tha'~
relevance to a topic, you must realise that the lecturer is not
allow. It would be much more a problem
allow. It would be much more a problem if you find that none of if you find that none of giving you the answer to the question bu;! bui his or her answer,
HHSWCY,
the topics on a list interests you. If that
the topics on a list interests you. If that happens, you should try happens, you should try which must be analysed in exactly the sa.Jh1e S2_'€I1C way as you will Will
to work
to Work one one out
out forfor yourself
yourself on on some
some aspectaspect of of the
the course
course that that analyse other answers in your written sources. Indeed, Indeed: if 1fY°‘1
you
does interest
doe~ interest you you and and then
then gain gain your your tutor's
tutor’s approval
approval of of it.
it. have done plenty of preliminary work before the classes take the
There are
There are some
some subsidiary
subsidiary issues issues whichwhich mightmight enter enter intointo youryour matter up, you will be in a much better pposition :>sition to assess the
choice of
choice of topic,
topic, andand which
which might might influence
influence you you in in favouring
favouring one one significance of
value, the relevance and the significance ofvl/hat
vrhat is said. .
over others
over others of of equal
equal interest.
interest. The The first first of of these
these issues
issues are are All this having been said, there are certainceitain other practical
somewhat negative ones. considerations to be taken into account. -Other pOther things being
One consideration
One consideration that that might
might weigh weigh heavilyheavily with with you you is is the
the unpcgpular topics may be
equal, in courses with many students unpcipular
reievance of a topic to the syllabus
relevance of a topic to the syllabus as a whole and to end-of- as a whole and to end—of- worth a closer look. This is because competi~ion
competition for the available
course examinations
course examinations in in particular.
particuiar. The The 'pragmatic'
‘pragmatic’ student student fierce ar~d
references in the library will be less fierce arid because the essays
might decide
might decide thatthat to to write
write on on such
such aa topic topic effectively
effectively kills kills two two freslijiness to the reader.
written on them will bear a relative fresllness
birds with one stone, a decision which justifies the argument Another rule of thumb is that, for some stu(~ents,
students, topics worded
‘What am
What arn II studying
studying for for if if not
not to to get
get mymy degree
degree or or diploma
diploma in in the
the wriiie on well than topics
in a very general way are often harder to writ)e
most efficient
most efficient way way possibld'
possible?’ There There is is nothing
nothing wrong wrong with with this this in which the issues are set out more precise~y.
precisely. General or 01‘ broad
bl'0?1d
argument provided
argument provided that that it it is
is not
not allowed
allowed to to override
override the the import-
import- topics leave to you so much more moire of the !questioning
Questioning process
ance of being interested in the
ance of being interested in the subject itself. Some recentsubject itself. Sorne recent questir§ns to ask. The more
itself and the evaluation of the best questi<jns
research into student performance in
research into student performance in universities suggests that universities suggests that clearly the questions are focused, the easiet
easieit it is to ‘E0 control
¢0I1tl'0l the
51¢
to be too ‘syllabus-bound’ eventually
to be too 'syllabus-bound' eventually works against academic works against academic R1: LFVANCE of the answers. Against this, i-;j
RELEVANCE iii must be said, topics
success. If
success. If you
you pursue
pursue your your interests
interests within within the the broad
broad scopescope of of which are very precise in their demands m4y rnziy not allow quite so
the courses
the courses you you areare taking,
taking, you you will will ultimately
ultimately performperform better better much scope for you to develop your owni point of view. The
than if
than if you
you keep
keep your
your gaze
gaze too too firmly
firmly fixed fixed on on thethe qualification
qualification at at price of safety may be a certain constriction of freedom.
the end
the end of ofit all. Bear
it all. Bear it it in
in mind
mind that that enthusiasm
enthusiasm for for aa subject
subject will will If you are asked not to choose a topic from a preparedprflpflrfid list but
be manifest
be manifest in in your
your writing,
writing, and and will will convey
convey itselfitself toto aa grateful
grateful botétom, much the same
to devise one for yourself, you face, at bottom,
reader. problems as those we We have already di::cussed.
discussed. They may,
For similar
For similar reasons
reasons you you should
should not not reject
reject an an interesting
interesting topic topic magnified; it is really much harder to
however, be considerably magnified;
because it has not yet been covered in
because it has not yet been covered in class. Nor, having chosen class. Nor, having chosen therri. Your interest in the
ask good questions than it is to answer them.

24 25
35

|_..
 1
Jet
§<f
X.

Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers < Kinds of question

subject is still paramount. Even so, it has to be weighed against questions. It is possible, nevertheless, that br
by learning to ring the
z
such practical and intellectual matters as the availability of \
ghangcs on the question words we use, var~ous
changes various lines
lH1CS of thought
sufficient
sufficient evidence or data relative to the broadness of the topic, and — an important consi~eration
will be opened up and- consideration for many of
the extent to which it allows theoretical or methodological =
us -— this will help overcome 'writer's
‘writer’ s blcick'.
blcick’. These question
<
questions of interest to the discipline to be asked of it, the wordsare'what',
words ate ‘what’, ‘Which’, ‘who’, ‘whom’, \.,there',
'which', 'who', 'whom', ‘viihere’, 'when',
‘when’, 'how',
‘how’,
amount of time available and the projected length of the paper. <
'why', 'to
‘why’, ‘to what extent'
extent’ and 'how far'.
‘how far’. .
Factors such as these need to be nicely balanced, so you must =

detail with your tutor before you finally

discuss them in some derail finally
What , j
ofyour
settle on the wording of your topic. Nor should you be afraid to
seek a change in the wording of the topic if your early investi- 'What'
‘What’ has a number of functions. Typically it asks for clarifi-
1
gations lead you into major problems. cation about some phenomenon that is beirg RE FERRED to, for
being REFERRED
gxampic 'What
example ‘What is expressionism?'
expressionism?’ This is a request to establish
the connection between,
between I a name (a word) and an object or
3 Kinds of question
phenomenon 'in‘in the world'
world’ which has been observed: we say the
An object, event, situation, concept or idea becomes an object of flflmfi refers to the object, as the names 'mor'ning
name ‘morning star' star’ or 'Venus)
‘Venus’
ENQUIRY because someone has raised an interesting or sig-
ENQUIRY < refer to a particular point of light in the sky. Some 'what' ‘what’
nificant question about it. The object does not have to be a 'new
nificant ‘new requests may seek a DESCRIPTION
Dnsoatrrlon of a2.E71Z1',t1-CT/11517’ object or idea
particular
discovery'.
discovery’. It might have lain around for years or centuries as a ¢ in answer to them:
‘fact’ or as part of
'fact' ofour
our accustomed intellectual furniture until the
VVhat
What was the character of the social philc;sophy which shaped
philcisophy Whifih Shapfid
thought strikes a fresh mind that there is about it an unresolved
the Poor Law Amendment Act of of18542
1834?
question with interesting implications. Indeed, far from having
st"t1dy— like a piece of
to wait until a novel object is brought in for study-like What is Rawls's
RaWls’s theory of justice?
ofjustice?
rnoon rock from an Apollo mission --W it is by raising new
moon
Other
Qther 'what'
‘what’ questions look for more ge1kralised
gzriemlised or universal
questions about existing objects of knowledge that we often
DEFINITIONS and THEORIES:
THEORIESI
uncover new objects whose existence was unknown.
Academic enquiry, as we have seen, proceeds in the first first What is justice? (this is the question Raw!s
Rawis asked)
instance by asking questions. Your essay topics are examples of What language ?' '~an any universally
VVhat is a dialect and what is a language?-
Iust as your tutors ask questions of you by the
these questions. Just applicable criteria be used to distinguish ·jhem?
to 'iheII‘l?
essay topics they set, so you must learn to ask questions both of
the essay topic itself and of the various books you use in your Definitions
Definitions are treated at length i__n
in chapter 9.
reading for the essay. It is the answers to these questions which,
when integrated in a coherent fashion, become an essay. Skill in
Who, whom T I
‘good.’ question is one which opens up
asking good questions (a 'good'
a fruitful line of enquiry) is something that comes with practice, These two words are
are also requests for an IDENTIFICATION,
foran 11> ENTIFICATION, this
knowledge and experience in the disciplines you are studying. groups of people. 'Whd
time, of course, only of people or groues ‘Virho’
coming up with really good
There is no method or formula for corning queries the identiry
identity of people who do things or who are the

2.6
26 27
27
 » -'»i'=‘,%J\£.=:=&';i=Z'

Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers Kinds
Kinds of
of question
question

AGENTS for some event. 'Whom'~

responsible AGENTS ‘Whom’, by contrast, raises ’\ How did
How did General
General Douglas
Douglas MacArthur hm~our his
MacArthurho1iour his promise
promise to
to
AFFECTED by an action or event,
a question about the people AFFECTED » 1 return to
to the Philippines? _.
<
1 .
‘affected’ or the 'patients'.
sometimes called the 'affected' ‘patients’. A question about How
* How does
does Shakespeare
Shakespeare achieve the integrcjtion
achieve the integrsition of
of plot
plot and
and
the
Ills? one
One will very often raise a question about the other. Notice, subplot in I(2'ng
King Lem’?
Lear?
‘whom’ question can be considerably
too, that the range of a 'whom'
widened by prefacing it with a preposition (e.g. (e. g. to, for, by, with,
With, A second
A second sense
sense of
of 'how'
‘how’ can be paraphrased
can be paraphrased asas 'in what
‘in what
amongst): ; _ respects'. This is more like the kind of description we co~si~ered
respects’. This is more like the lcind ofdescri ption we considered
, when
when discussing
discussing 'what'-
‘what’ — aa request
request for
for varicus
various charactenstiCS
characteristics or
or
\Vho
Y/Vho was ultimately responsible for the deportation ofJ ews in
oflews
U features: i
Lyons to Auschwitz?
How has
How has the
the decipherment
deciphetrnent of
of Linear
Linear BB tablets
tablets improved
improved our
our
To whom did Clement Atdee's
Attlee’s policy particularly appeal understanding of the Mycenaean religionr
5» understanding of the Mycenaean religion?
during the British election campaign ofofr945P
I945?
2 How does
How the structure
does the structure of
of society contrib ~te
society contrib ate to
to adolescent
adolescent
<
delinquency?
Where, when
Where>
Finally 'hoW
Finally ‘how’ may
may demand
demand an sxrtanaaflon, and
an EXPLANATION, and this
this sense
sense
‘Where’ and 'when'
'Where' ‘when’ query aspects of the LOCATION,
LOCATION, TIME TIME and of
of ‘how’ is often hardly distinguishable from ‘why’. Physical
'how' is often hardly distinguishable fi·om 'why'. Physical
DURATION of objects and events. Like 'who' ‘who’ and 'whom',
‘whom’, these scientists
i scientists commonly
commonly say they make
say they make nono distinction ben:veen 'hoW
distinction between ‘how’
questions do not commonly tum turn up in the essay topics under- i and 'why' questions, or if they
and ‘Why’ questions, or if they do, they do, they ~imit themselves
themselves to to
graduate students are asked to write
Write on. Nevertheless, they are 'how"
‘how’ questions, the answers
questions, the answers toto which are ~o be
which are be sought
sought in the
in the
invaluable questions to turn upon the topics you are set, sq, since
Since mechanisms of
mechanisms of nature rather than
nature rather humar~ will,
than humari will, intention
intention or or
your answer may well depend critically on whether certain con- motives. Humanities and social science stuplents wiil therefore
motives. Humanities and social science students will therefore
satisfied. If
ditions of place, time and duration can be satisfied. ifasked,
asked, for meet this
meet this sense
sense of'how'
of‘how’ in those disciplines
in those disciplines ,yhose
iivhose subject
subject matter
matter
i
example, tQto assess whether
Whether the
me 'pacification'
‘pacification’ programme in the and
and methods of enquiry more closely approiach those of
methods of enquiry more closely appro\!ch those natural
of natural
Vietnam War was a success, you might answer that it was, Was, but science: e
t
ofthe
l~elp to
only for a certain period and in certain parts of the country. Being
able to specify times and places reliably may be just as important How does
How the 'chunking'
does the ‘chunlcing’ of
of information
information lielp to explain
explain
individual
individual differences
differences in
in short-term memcfry performance?
short-term memdry performance?
in answering some academic questions as it is in a criminal trial.
‘where’ and 'when'
Asking questions about 'where' ‘when’ can also raise detailed How were the Himalayan mountains forn~ed?
fOI'Ili1CCl?
issues of distribution, extent, frequency, regularity and other
i How are
How are certain
certain aspects
aspects of
of social
social structun\
structurti affected
affected by the
by the
Lmportant topics in a variety of disciplines.
important dis ciplines. physical
physicai environment in which a society liliives?
yes? ’
In
In the
the examples
examples above
above it
it is possible to
is possible to detect
detect aa shifting
shifting about
about
How in
in the
the meaning
meaning of'how',
of ‘how’, even though each
even though each could
could be rewritten as
be rewritten as
t -
How’ can be interpreted
'HoW .
in _
a number of ways. First _
it can be a3 a 'why'
‘why’ question. In the first,
first, 'how'
‘how’ could simply be replaced by
DESCRIPTION of a PROCESS
request for a DESCRIPTION PROCESS (rather than of an 'why'.
‘why’. In the second,
In the second, 'how' might initially
‘how’ might irtitializy appear
appear toto reqmre
require
obiect or phenomenon):
object merely a description of processes. But the mswer
merely a description of processes. But the answer to this to this ques-
ques-

28 29
 l

Kinds of question
Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers

tion would need to examine why the Himalayas are formed as Functional explanations-
35 Functional explanations — what
what function
function p.oes
does something
something have,
have,
they are or, alternatively, what caused
Caused them to be formed as they
or
or what
what role
role does
does it
it play,
play, within larger ~iystem
within aa larger s.§yst€m of
of which
which itit is
is aa
part? For
part? For example,
example, 'Why
‘Why does
does the
the tone
tone of voice change
oiivoice change soso ofren
often
are. The third illustrates another sense in which 'how'
‘how’ can be
and
and so
so dramatically
dramatically inin T. S. Eliot's
T. S. Eliofs The
The Wftste
White Land?'
Land?’
‘Why’. This question can be paraphrased 'Why
interpreted as 'why'. ‘Why do
reflect the physical environ-
certain aspects of social structure reflect 44 Structural
Structural explanations-
explanations ~— what abstract a:~d
what abstract aitid universal
universal rules,
rules,
codes or
codes or laws
laws account
account forfor the
the relations
relations between
between features
features of
of aa
rnent in which a society lives?'
ment lives?’ An answer to this question would
RELATIONS between social
need to examine the underlying RELATIONS
system
system and which of
and which these rules
ofthese rules generate its structure~
generate its structure? For
For
example,
example, 'Why
‘Why is
is the
the industrial
industrial wealth
wealth of the First
ofthe First YVorld
World
structure and the environment rather than anything that could
inseparable from the rural poverty of the Third World?' World?’
properly be called a cause. (For another example of such an
(ii) under the list of explanation types below.)
explanation see (+) 55 Deduaive
Deductive explanations-
explanations - what
what combinations
combinations of of conditions
conditions or or
premisses allow us to infer a logical conciiJ.sion?
conclusion? For example,
of ‘how’ seek varying kinds of explanation.
All these uses of'how' 'Why
‘Why are utilitarians committed to opposing capital
punishment:'
punishment?’ I
Why

of ‘how’ has seemed to be rather complex, that of

If the meaning of'how'
To
To what
what extent,
extent, how
how much,
much, how far, how
hawfar, how sig1ijicant
sigmijicmzt
‘why is much more so. Why'
'why' ‘Why’ is a request for an EXPLANATION,
EXPLANATION, There
There are are many
many ways
Ways ofof asking
asking questions
questions that that call
call for
for aa JUDGE-
]'UDGE~
THEORY. One of the difficulties with expla-
and, very often, a THEORY. MENT,, ASSESSMENT or EVALUATION. Thlrse are Some of
MENT ASSESSMENT Or EVALUATION. Th;~Se are some them.
<>f‘ih¢m-
nations, however, is that there are quite a few different kinds. The
The simplest idea of evaluating to rank ia ph¢r10IT1¢11OI1 on
simplest idea of evaluating is to rank :a phenomenon OH a3
That is to say, there are various quite different ways of answering scale- say, cold to hot, useless to useful, l~ad to
scale - say, cold to hot, useless to useful, had to good —- which good- which
‘why’ question, depending on the disciplines that you are
a 'why' gives
gives some
some measure
measure of of degree.
degree. Those
Those questj)ons
questions that
that begin
begin 'How
‘How
studying, and even on schools of thought within disciplines. An ...
_ _ _’'will
will give
give you
you the
the criterion
criterion or
or scale
scale onon wf.\ich
wl-éich the
the phenomenon
phenomenon
explanation in anthropology can be a very different thing from has
has to to be
be assessed,
assessed, for
for example quantity ~n the
example quantity the case
case ofof 'how
°l10W
an explanation in history. And an approach to explanation which much''
much’, temperature
temperature in in the
the case
case of
of 'how
‘how ho r'
ho significance
signifiCHHC¢ in -111 the
I116
univer~
is acceptable to the department of anthropology in one univer- case of 'ho; significant', and so on. 'To wp.at
case of ‘how significant’, and so on. ‘To what extent’ and ‘how extent' and <how
sity or college might be discouraged in the anthropology depart-
depart~ far'
far’ are
are questions
questions that
that leave
leave to
to you
you the the task! of deciding
taskifof deciding the
the best
best
ment of another. Some of the commoner types ofexplanation are criteria by which to evaluate the issue in
criteria by which to evaluate the issue in question: qw~stiori:
the following.
‘ .. Mill's
Mill’s open-mindedness
open-mindedness wasWas too
too largt\
largii for
for the
the system he
system he
I1 Causal explanations-
explanations ~ what were the causes of some event or inherited’ (A.
inherited' (A. D.
D. Lindsay).
Lindsay). To
To what
what exter!t
exrerijt did
did John
Io]-in Stuart
Stuart
phenomenon? For example, 'Why‘Why did a militant movement M111 differ from early
Mill Qarlyutilirarian attitudes
utilitarian attitudes ~o state intervention
advocating votes for women
Women emerge in England during the in social and economic affairs? 1 i T
Edwardian era?'
era?’ To what extent do you believe the Australian mass media play a
22 Purposive explanations-
explanations —- what were the reasons, aims, key role in social control?
purposes or intentions of those responsible for some action,
etc? For example, 'Why
event, phenomenon, ere? ‘Why have social How
How far
far is
is the
the rise
rise in
in suicide
suicide rates
rates during times of
duringitimes of economic
economic
anthropologists traditionally paid so much attention to the prosperity attributable toto people's
people’s earlier experiences during
ofkinship?’
study of kinship?' economic recession?

JI
so
30 31
 5

Reflection: asking questions

Reflection: asking questions and
and proposing answers
proposing answers Kinds of question
How
How important
important isis the
the Porter
Porter to the main
to rl1e main plot of Shakespeare's
plot of Sha.kespeare’s This completes our sketch of the typical question qpestion words. It is
Macbeth? Is
Macbeth? Is he just comic ‘relief?
'relief'? important to keep in mind the fact that just j1.lst as these sorts of
In the first
first and last of these topics you are given a hint about the question (except for 'who', ‘whom’, 'wher.~'
‘who’, 'whom', ‘Where’ and 'when') com-
‘vi/hen’) €Om~
criterion
criterion toto be
be examined
examined -- qualities
qualities of
of open-mindedness
open-mindedness andand monly appear in essay topics set by the tutor, they must, in 1n turn,
comic ‘relief’. But when you ask evaluative questions yourself,
comic 'relief'. But when you ask evaluative questions yourself, be used by you on the essay topic itself. Hence, in the topic on
the most appropriate criteria must be supplied by you. the origin of cities given above, the first que~·tion
question that needs to be
asked of it is a 'what'
‘what’ question: 'What
‘What are ·:hesethese "two
“two common
the0ries”P’
theories"?'
Which
An essay topic phrased not as a question Cut but as a statement (or
‘Which’ is
Which' is used
used to
to do
do two
two related
related things-
things — to
to IDENTIFY
IDENTIFY and
and toto quotation) followed by an instruction (() to discuss, examine,
compel one
compel one toto DECIDE.
DECIDE. Identifying
Identifying is the counterpart
is the counterpart of
of refer-
refer~ analvse
analyse,
J v comment on, consider, account for, assess, etc. is reallv'
_ really
ring. Whereas with
ring. Whereas ‘what’ questions
with 'what' questions we
we have
have aa name
name and
and we
we wish
wish no different. (The differences in meaning between these instruc-
to know the object, identifying involves fitting a name to the
to know the object, identifying involves fitting a name to the tions are not especially significant-
significant A so SO do not take too seriously
object or description before us: those books on study skills which try to make fine fine distinctions
between them.) Such instructions arc are ope·n
open invitations to the
to capital punishment is favoured by
Which of the attitudes to writer to formulate from the statement or quotation quotauon the most
utilitarians?
fruitful question to ask. Hence it is be~.t best to to treat them thern as
Simple identification
Simple identification itself
itself involves little more
involves little more than
than pointing to
pointing to questions.
the desired object in a line-up. Interesting ‘which’ questions
the desired object in a line-up. Interesting 'which' questions areare Some topics allow you considerable latitude latitu to formulate your
raised when it is not easy to make a decision: Qwn question. For example, the widespread exercise in English
own
Which ofof the
the two
two common
common theories that attempt
attempt to account for
for literature in which the student is given a ;poem poem and asked aSi<<id toZ0
Which theories that to account
the origins of cities is the more plausible? comment on it (do a 'practical criticism’) is ap
‘practical criticism') as much a test of your
ability to ask fruitful and appropriate questions as it is 15 to write
Such aa question
Such question asks one to
asks one COMPARE and
to COMPARE and CONTRAST
CONTRAST the two
the two answers to them: 'What
‘What does this poem really reall)' mean?'
mean?’ ‘ls'Is it a satire
theories and make a choice between them. Choosing
theories and make a choice between them. Choosing requires one requires one or is it only pretending to be?’ ‘Why does so (nuch
be?' 'Why i'H\1¢h of
Of the
55¢ imagery
imaged’
to establish appropriate criteria according to
to establish appropriate criteria according to which the finalwhich the final _ _ , .; -
seem to be pulling in a different direction fn)m from the
C
‘ argument :
"argument"?'
33:1

decision is
decision is made: if II have
made: if have to
to decide
decide whether today is
whether today colder than
is colder than 'How
‘How is the conflict that seems to be going; going on resolved,
resolved., and is ES
yesterday II look
yesterday to the
look to the thermometer
thermometer readings, which give
readings, which give me
me aa this resolution successful?'
successful?’ 'Is
‘ls this poem a se;J.timental platitude?'
sentimental platitude.
measure according
measure according to to the
the criterion
criterion ofof temperature,
temperature, and and perhaps
perhaps Having formulated the most interesting question about the
also to
also to other measurements which
other measurements which areare criteria-
criteria - such
such asas the wind
the wind poem by which to guide the essay, you can then tlien ask lots of others
chill factor and
chill factor and humidity.
humidity. DECIDING
DECIDING is is therefore
therefore an an EVALUA-
EVALUA- which might help with the discussion ani and contribute to the
TIVE activity,
TIVE too, in
activity, too, in which
which one one isis explicitly
expiicitly required
required to to answer. ‘
COMPARE and CONTRAST the criteria on which
COMPARE and CONTRAST the criteria on which the evaluation the evaluation
is
is to
to be
be made.
made. The
The criterion
criterion to be used
to be used inin answering
answering the question
the question Wc are
We are now going
going to
to examine
examine the procedures you might
might adopt in
above
above is is plausibility.
plausibility. The
The next
next problem
problem is is to
to work
work outout how
how the systematic unpacking of an essay topic and the proposing of
plausibility can
plausibility be defined
can be defined forfor the
the purpose
purpose of of this essay.
this essay. an answer. Remember that the immediate purpose of this kind of
of

32
32.
33
 i

Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers

Reflection: 3». .-
Sit,-:‘ Corning to terrhs
Coming terrps with an essay topic
reflection is
reflection is not
not to
to write
write an an essay
essay but
but to
to do
do as
as much
much as as possible
possible to to sf
1., which you learn before
lvefimz you preseiit final drafr
present your firal draftlfor
for assess-
»(<<
prepare
prepare for for the
the writing
writing ofofan essay. Your
an essay. Your aimaim is
is to
to allow
allow aa free
free play
play ment. An 'essay',
‘essay’, in one of its early meanings, tria .
meaning4, is a trial.
of your
of your mind
mind on on the
the topic,
topic, trying
trying to to forecast
forecast as as we11
well asas you
you can
can 2
With one kind of question, for examflleexample 'Did
‘Did the White
i
the general line an essay might take. tg Australia policy become whiter between 19c!rI9CiI and 1921?',
I92-1?’, one
Oflfi has
The premium
The premium at at this
this stage
stage of of your
your work
work is is to
to bebe put
put onon no option but to choose either 'yes'
‘yes’ or 'no'!
‘no’§l The answer can be
i
thinking, on the analysis of likely possibilities,
thinking, on the analysis of likely possibilities, on 'bold conjec- on ‘bold conjecs hedged about with all sotts
sorts of qualifidtions,
qualifications, and that is
rures’, and
tures', and on on the
the knowledge,
knowledge, experienceexperience and and motherwit
motherwit you you 1 expected. But to respoqd
respond 'Maybe
‘Maybe; it did and maybe it dido't'
diClH’t’ is
i5
e
x
already possess. Only when some of these
already possess. Only when some of these things have clearly things have clearly 1
not to answer at all. The best thing to do is to try out an answer
failed should
failed should you you yield
yield toto the
the temptation
temptation to to open
open aa book,
book, andand ¢I and see whether it holds up. ‘
even then
even then itit should
should bebe aa general
general book book inin which
which youyou search
search forfor just
just W. question, irrespective of
The same principle applies to any ques-,;ion,
that information
that information you you need
need to to get
get your
your thinking
thinking to to bite.
bite. Thinking
Thinking whether it is framed in yes/no terms. The ifact
iiact that many essay
» @:*1i=»=111;‘;-=-,;r_;’.
is, as
is, as wewe saw
saw earlier
earlier inin this
this chapter,
chapter, aa difficult
difficult thingthing to to do,
do, .1-2‘:
-ma
d¢CiSi011 should
topics do not enforce such a clearcut decisicn 8110i-115-HOI C1611-ldfi
not delude
particularly if
particularly if you
you find
find formal
formal reasoning
reasoning in in something
something of of aa you:
vacuum not
vacuum not your
your natural
natural style.
style. It It can,
can, however,
however, be be practised.
practised.
Bear it in mind that your essay will be your ‘best’ answer, not an
an Hui-nan nature may be the foundation of politics, but the state
Human
Bear it in mind that your essay will be your 'best' answer, not
answer to be found pat in some book. Therefore, you might as is the key unit of
ofpolitical
political organisation. D lscuss the role of the
answer to be found pat in some book. Therefore, you might as 3’,
_<

well begin with yourself in confrontation with your chosen state.

well begin with yourself in confrontation with your chosen
1
topic. Here you are challenged to agree or disag:ee
clisag:-gee with the propo-
sition contained in the first
first sentence. You niiight
niUght agree that it is
necessary to separate 'foundation
‘foundationgof politic~' and 'unit
of politic?’ ‘unit of poli-
44. Coming to terms with an essay topic i mon~ important. Or you
organisation’ and that the latter is more
tical organisation'
4.1
4.I Making up your mind might not: you might argue that the state jean never be much
stategcan II1L1Cl1
more dian
than the sum of the individual
individtial hi-Hnan i1"1fl11lr¢8 that make
human patures IT1?~1<f> it
Your essay
Your essay will
will bebe your
your answer
answer toto aa question
question -- not not aa general
general up. Such a decision has to be made. ;
consideration of issues and facts that might
consideration of issues and facts that might pertain to some pertain to some Even the most innocent of questions that ktppear
Zappear to ask for fOr no110
aspects of the topic. Answering a question means
aspects of the topic. Answering a question means that you must that you must more than a straightforward description can\contain
canicontain the seeds of
be prepared
be prepared to to make
make aa decision
decision -~— no no matter
matter which
which question
question a controversy on which you will have to malflc }/'01-11' mind:
maJ.-!e up your 1'!11I1<IiI
<
Words are
words are used.
used. AndAnd anyany decision
decision runs
runs the
the risk
risk of
of embarrassing
embarrassing Q.

the person
person who who mademade it. it. You
You might
might show show considerable
considerable care,care, ho1~our his promise to
How did General Douglas MacArthur l'10l§§lO1JI
the
discretion andand caution
caution about
about how
how far far out
out on on aa limb
limb youyou are
are return to the Philippines? _
discretion
prepared to
prepared to go,
go, but
but climb
climb out
out on
on the
the limb
limb you
you must.
must. TheThe earlier
earlier With aa little
With little bit
bit of
of reflection
reflection you
you can
can proriose
ptoj?Ose aa worknw11i1<¢
workmanlike
you try
you try it
it out,
out, thethe less
less painful
painful and
and embarrassing
embarrassing it it is
is to
to have
have it
it description of the likely processes: MacArthur's
MacAr§thur’s strategic and
snap under you. The path to learning is littered
snap under you. The path to learning is littered with the bruised with the bruised tactical decisions; battles won and lost wi1:h
with politicians, other
bodies
bodies ofof crestfallen
crestfallen scholars.
scholars. Nobody
Nobody but but the
the scholar
scholar with
with the
the generals and the enemy; his method of workirig;
working; his character;
bruises and fallen crest takes much notice of that;
bruises and fallen crest takes much notice of that; but you owe it but you owe it field commander; and
his effectiveness as a field and;so
so on. But the very
to yourself
to yourself to to make
rnake as as many
many as as you
you can can ofof the
the mistakes
mistakes fromfrom fact that this list can grow so easily should Warn
warn you that some of

34-
34 35

.;.;,_ _
_.
 E

Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers

Reflection: terrns with an essay topic
Coming to terr[ls
1
desewemote
these things deserve EMPHASIS than others. That is to say,
more EMPHASIS phoneme,
phoneme, hermeneutic,
hermeneutic, existential)
existential) that that are
are rarely
yarely toto be
be found
foglnlih111 in
you must decide provisionally which of these factors -— or which
Which gvgfyday language. Indeed, it is
everyday 1S the more qommon words wot s_ that at
combination of them -- best explain MacArthur's
MacArthur’s success, and pose a problem, simply because their special; uses are more likely
which are less important. to
to be
be overlooked.
overlooked. 'Class', ilallgllageus 'democ!racy',
‘Class’, 'language', ‘d¢m°‘ir‘1cY’> 'comedy',
lcomfidyaa 'the ‘the
One of the popular images of an academic or a scholar is that market', 'structure', 'function', 'justice'
market‘ 3 ‘structure’, ‘function’, ‘justice’ arci‘ are! examples _
of.
terms
.
when you ask him a question you can never get a straight answer.
. .
whose
whose usesuses can
can vary
vary considerably
considerably in in d~fferent
different disciplines.
disciplines.
RS Moreover,
He responds with an 'on‘on the one hand'
hand’ and an 'on
‘on the other'.
other’. Moreover = they
they are examples of
are examples of terms
terms for :which there
foIiWhi¢h Yhfim are are no no
This is a caricature with a certain element of truth. As one generally accepted or conclusive definitions.'
definitionsé .g
burrows more deeply into a question it becomes harder and From this distinction between terms that than are of no particular
confidently. When
harder to answer a question simply and confidently. significance to a given discipline and
significance to a given discipline and termstiiat terms that are,
are, there
there follows
follows
Was wracked by the claims and counterclaims of Catho-
England was r. an important lesson to learn. If you do not kaiow the meaning
an important lesson to learn. If you do not know the mcamilg of of
llst
lic and Protestant dogma during the early seventeenth century, it \
1’ Word in your essay topic, look it
a word 1t up first
first inm an ordinary desk
x
‘con-
was said of one scholar, William Chillingworth, that he 'con- dictionary If
dictionary. If you
you have
have no no reason
reason to to belleve
believe it it is
is of
or special
special
1
tracted such a habit of doubting that by degrees he grew \ significance
significance to the discipline, you need not pursue the matter any
x
confident of
confident ofnothing’.
nothing'. While allowing that the answers to many further.
further. (In
(In particular,
particular, you
you should
should never never h)ther
b-other to to define
defile such sutgh
questions may be very complicated, you must nevertheless resist 1 words in the essay, since your reader does not want to know ow thee
ofmind.
succumbing to this state of mind. I\ Common definition
common dgfinitiflfl ofQfanan unproblematic word.) You have merely
>
<
used the dictionary to help
used the dictionary to help you interpret ,the
you imterpret ithe meaning
meaning of of the the
essay topic. If, on the other hand, you sm~pect
essay topic. If, on the other hand, you suspect the word does the word does
4&2 Problems of
4.2 qfmeaning
meaning and knowledge <
< haw some special
have significance, you must go ~o
gpggial significance, to your textbooks or
z
Most people findfind that, while it is easy enough to propose an to specialised dictionaries to find out
to specialised dictionaries to find out whagr the whaf the problems
problems with with
immediate tentative answer to some questions, othersOthers raise l defining
defining the term might be; your-interpretation of the
the term might be; your interpretc\tion of the meamng
meaning
knotty problems of meaning and interpretation that need to be of the essay topic as a whole might depen<l depend critically on which
first. This will happen particularly where the topic
dealt with first. definition
definition oror interpretation
interpretation of the term
ofthe you ~se.
gterm you ‘llsc.
makes use of terms with which you are not familiar, where it is We have seen already (p. 27) ihow how sonle
songie essay topics will Will
worded in a vague or ambiguous manner, and where you feel x almost soleiy demand discussion of the mea-fining of a term or set
almost solely demand discussion of the mea'ping of a term or set
little background knowledge of the issues it raises
you have so litrle x of terms:
ofterms: 5 i5
that to speculate about a likely answer is impossible. We shall
turn.
treat each of these situations in tum. What is
What is the
the difference
difference between literary lar~guage
between literary Iargguasfi and
and everyday
¢"¢FYdaY
language? 111115;;-are your discussion by clc?se
131-,guag¢; Illustrate cltéase reference to a few
selected texts. ' ,
Clamlfj/ing the meaning of
ClarifYing ofterms
terms
‘When you are considering the meanings of terms in your essay
When Your
Your questioning
questioning ofof the
the meaning
meaningfof of the
the two significant te~m~
two significant terms in
in
ofthem
topics, a major decision you have to make is whether any of them (qitcral-Y’ and 'everyday')
this topic ('literary' ‘¢v¢ryday’) is pretty well the quesnorung
questioning
have a special meaning or use in the discipline you are studying. of
of the
the meaning
meaning of of the
the topic
topic as Whole. b
as aa whole. la other
other top1cs
topics some
s0r116
This applies equally to what look like ordinary everyday words as formidable problems of definition need to be approached
formidable problems of definition need to be approached in m the
the
it does to those recherche terms (e. g. recherche, moiety, course
course of dealing with
qfdealing with other
other issues
issues raised in t'1e
raised in the question:
questioni

36 37
 1 \< 1
2

Rfifiectlonz asking questions and proposing answers

Reflection: 2 Coming to terms with an essay topic
C . ’ -ii
Western countries
I11 Western
'In countries the
the upper
upper class
ciass is
1S no longer
- no longer aa ruling
ruling
. --ii; , Human nature may be the foundation of politics, but the state
class.’ Discuss.
class.' D1SCfu55_
is the key unit of political organisation. D!iscuss
Diiscuss the role of the
What is
What is 'class'?
‘class’? What
VVhat grounds
grounds are are there
there for
for distinguishing
distinguishing 'upper ‘upper is state. ~
C1355’
class' from ‘ruling class’?
'ruling class'? How does the distinction fit
fit into any of
the widely canvassed theories of class?
the widely canvassed theories of class? Only by dealing withOnly by dgaling with t~ recognise the foro;
Here it is necessary to force of the word 'but' ‘but’ in
questions such as these can one say very
questions such as these can one say very much of significancemuch of significance it What the topic is driving at. The author of the propo-
assessing what
about Western
Western society:
society: whether
whether there
there ever
ever was
was anan 'upper
‘upper class'
class’ in in sition in the topic is suggesting
suggesting; that the problems of human h~ma~
about
all W t ' ' .
.55;
nature, though fundamental to politics,
poiitics, can s~t as1de
car; safely be set aside 1f if
res fits emhcouéiuies,
all Western countries, how it ruled, and whether Whether and in 111 whag
what I:;§_,;,

_ p ec s it
respects it has
‘as been
een replaced
replaced by = ruling
-
by aa 'ruling class , which
class' which - is . sig-
is ,
sig_
\
z
find out what 'political
we are to find ‘politicai organisation'
organisation’ really IS. is. Hence
nificantly different.
different. ‘The limitations of of dictionaries
dictionaries -- even even you have to work out for yourself wh~t~e~ t~e
yourselfWhether the p~op~~ed
proposed contra~t
contrast
nificantly The limitations 1‘

specialised ones ones -— will

will be be obvious
obvious in in dealing
dealing with
with issues
issucs like
like i (signalled by the 'but')
‘but’) between 'pohttes
‘politics’ "nd
and ‘political organi-
pohucal orgam-
specialised 2

these.
<
sation’ is one that you are prepared to defend. This leads,
sation' le~ds: ~s as we
7

There are are few

few less
less inspiring
inspiring beginnings
beginnings to to an
an essay
essay than
than 'Let
‘Let usus >
~k whether politics is the sum of the md1v~dual
saw, to deciding Whether individual
There 1
first human natures that make up the state, or whether there IS is an
first define our terms',
dgfing £1‘ terms’, particularly
Pflftifllliarly if that definition
ifthat definition is taken from <
organisational dimension which transcends the. de~ands of
the demands
aa_ standard
stan fir dictionary.
'
_ Ctionary. Ifthere
If IS" aa major
there is - problem
l'I1fl]O1‘ problem of . . or
ofdefinition
definition or x

interpretation, it it will
will have
have to
to be
be DISCUSSED,
DISCUSSED letting letting the
the issues
issucg
<
human nature. Reduced to its bare bones, you n:1~ht might mt_erpret
interpret
interpretation,
the question as asking whether you yo~ are . a trad1t10nal
traditional liberal/
liberalf
_ 3 \
cine rge during
th.
emerge during the the course
course of
of the -
the discussion. -
discussion. More is
More 15- said
. about
sald about \

thisis matter
matter in
in chapter
chapter 44. (p.
(p. 95)
95) and
and chapter
chapter 9. 9. conservative exponent of individualist vte:ws whether. yo~
views or whether you
s
K think the needs of the state must overridf override those of the mdi- indi-
afim
The meaning of army topic as a
an essay la whole 1<
viduals in it. All this rather deep philosophising hinges on your
:§1;ir1;};("I1€:l'11I;€
The meaning of ?Cf‘:,L1rESSgy topic is
an essay topic is not
not to
po be
b6~ClISfIOvV6I'€iCl
discovered simplysimply byby understanding the force of 'but' ‘but’ and the contr~st _it.
th? contrast it marks
CO
adding up, P_i asAit were,, thee meanings of 0 the individual words that t1-lat \ between politics and political organisati<?n.
orgmisation. So _n it 1s
is JUSt
just as
mpose it.
compose it. Ass we
we have
have noticed
noticed before,
before, the
the important
1_[1'1PQ1-{ant require-
;¢qu_ir¢_ important to underline the 'but'‘but’§asas it is tc! underline
underlme the more
ment
malt is ‘S that you
Y0“ try
FFY to
F0 understand
llflderstand the tutor's
tutor’s intent behind the substantive terms. T . .
topic. You should learn to ask yourself
topic. You should learn to ask yourself 'What is ‘What is the
the author
author of ofthis
this > You need also to look for the ambigu:;ries
ambiguities in essay toptcs. topics.
topic driving at in asking this question?’ (Remember
topic driving at in asking this question?' (Remember that essay that essay »
Sometimes these are accidental (do not asspme eve~ ~ssay
assiiine that every essay
s
topics are
topics are not
not drawn
drawn from
from some
some sort
sort of
of Bible,
Bible, but
but are
are formulated
fOi'1'nula[cd topic you see is well worded). But often ~{[Y rhdy test your a?1hty
ability to
by your teachers because they probably think that
by your teachers because they probably think that in them lies in them lies an
an pick up the ambiguity and to find find the realv!sue
real issue beneath It. it. Here
interesting or debatable issue on which they want
interesting or debatable issue on which they want to read your to read your is an example: _
judgement.
judgement. They They reflect
reflect your
your teachers'
teachers’ changing
changing interests
interests in in
ygllzgt tptiiglglptink wordidplfaile questions to ask, and so the topics of Why was George III accused of attempting to subvert the
what they think worthwhile questions to ask, and so the topics of
is usyifill an§niI(31111t€ crent ftom
from those
those of
ofyesterday.) While it it constitution? § -
today are often quite different yesterday.) While
is_ useful
_ poi-rant to underline what appear to be the
and important The ambiguity here hinges on thie
the question Word ‘VVhy’. There
word 'Wby'.
significant words words in in aa topic,
topic, this
this by
by itself
itself is
is not
not enough.
enough. The The
significant
topic on the nature of the state, mentioned earlier, is a good
two questions here, neither of which §-
are rwo it 1s
- 1t is Important
important to t?
topic on the nature of the state, mentioned earlier, is a good realise — is 'Wby
realise_ ‘Why did George III attempt 0 subvert the consti-
enough example:
tution?’ It would·
tution?' would be possible to choose one or the other or,
38
39

“_"Yl"..._ 1"_ _ ‘:t;;._. .

 Iii-(25315.-i.¥:f="i==’:I E

I =1:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers
Reflection: ii
Coming to tenns
terms with an essay topic
- ..__:\..
I§=;§§:%‘{e'€-i=35=I»>:'
.. -; ;
perhaps more interestingly, to tackle both. On the one hand, the ,, read any book on MacArthur. But I have ~ead §read books on, and
question could read 'What‘What were his accusers'
accusers’ reasons for saying memoirs by, other generals from Cromwdl Cromwell to Eisenhower. I
he had tried to subvert the constitution~'
constitution?’ On the other, it could have seen (as most of us have) many TV mOvies movies about modern
‘V\/hat (if anything) did George III actually do to try to
be 'What ..-1,,
war, and read newspaper articles. It is ir? such very general
.§<,.»
constitution?’ The first
subvert the constitution?' first looks the more fruitful :}:»
storehouses of the mind that we can look for\a foria few tentative ideas
interpretation; but by combining both we shall be able to to get our thinking going. The richer and rhore more articulate your
examine the gap that opens between any attempt George III initial 'personal response’, the better your library
‘personal response', iibrary research will
s
might have made to subvert the constitution and the strength of be. »
accusers’ denunciations of him. The use of the passive voice
his accusers' '»~/>_<~<~.*:, When we think of knowledge we do not only have in mind a
ofitnowledge
(‘was accused')
('was accused’) creates an indeterminacy. Who accused him? Was ,.<1¢ < store of information about a subject, thougp though that is 1S clearly part
it only contemporaries with their own political motives, or has $3 of it. Knowledge also includes knowing !low how to APPROACH
APPROACH
this chorus been joined by subsequent politicians and historians? 2
;. information. All disciplines develop
deveiop particular approaches to
1
You will notice that the way in which I have expressed my r their material, and these approaches cor:stitute coréstitute part of the
>)
interpretation of the question is already leading me towards a 1
definition of a discipline. If you look back
definition backat at the list of issues
!
defence of George III against his critics. raised about MacArthur, you will see that that it is made up of a
i
If, after plenty of the kind of consideration ofofthe
the topic we are number of approaches to, or CATEGORLks
carnoomzss of, the study of
discussing in this chapter, you cannot decide between a few generalshzp. There may be others (to be found in one's
military generalship. one’s
reasonable interpretations, you should consult your tutor. Do detailed reading), but that list is enough to get us going.
not forget, nevertheless, that such a consultation is not a A source of very broad categories that cap can help you organise
substitute for saying in the essay itself how you have chosen to $
your initial thoughts is the table of corltents contents in a general
interpret the topic and, if you can, why this seems the more introductory text or a book for 'preliminary
‘preliminary ;[eading'.
iieading’ . So we find,
find,
fniitfiil interpretation (see chapter+).
fruitful chapter 4-). F for example,
exarnplcj that social anthropology of khe
the 'British
‘British school'
school’
tends to approach the study of society usin~ using such categories as
Background knowledge kinship, family organisation and marriage, gpvernment and law,
%
Since each of us brings a partly idiosyncratic general knowledge » the production and exchange of food and goods ~oods (economics),
(economies),
possible to generalise
and experience to a given topic, it is not posSible a religion and magic, and the effect of the ph)"~cal
ofthe physiical. environment. A
about the point at which any one ofofus
us should open a book. But, short introduction to the study of literatu:fe
literatuie recommended to
<
in putting off any reading until we have worked out a few first-year
first-year students in my own university \ists iists in its table of
particular things we want to find
find out about, we can create mental contents diction, figurative
figurative language, narr4tive
narrzitive point of of‘ view,
offbrmal
space for the kind offormal analysis of the topic we shall study in eatamples c~f
irony, tone, pattern, and some examples (if genre -W epic and
the next section. Postponing detailed reading also gives us the mock heroiC.
heroic. I can think of other things tha-t
that this list
l1St could have
chance to articulate whatever general knowledge and experience included, so it is a good idea to coMPARE
COMPARE such books. Finer
abie to bring to the issue in question. The list of
we are able categories of analysis will be found in the body of the book itself
p.35 to account for how General
suggestions I put forward on p.J5 (e. g. the differing points of view a novelist might adopt in his
(e.g.
promise_to
MacArthur honoured his promise to return to the Philippines narrative), and these you will wili need to seize.
seize on as you develop
owes nothing to reading I have don~
done on MacArthur. I have never your ideas for the essay. These categories ae are not necessarily a

+O
4-O 41
+I

-:\-Ins-<-.»-a....,_......l __.
 E

Reflection: asking
Reflection: asking questions
questions and
and proposing
proposing answers
answers
Coming to tern~s
Corning ternis with an essay topic
template that
tem_rlate that can
can bebe slapped
slapped down
down toto cut
cut out
out an
an essay
essay on
on any
any
An example f I
topic.
tOplC. sh. _. -.

The mere
The mere listing
listing of
of categories
categories may
may ignore
ignore the
the complexity
complexity of of parr did the problems of
What part Central Eu;ope
Of(§¢I1l3_l'al Eui'OPC play
Play in the
thf
the relatiOns
the relations between
between them.
them. For
For example,
example, inin some
some societies
societies thethe §§'=I
origins of the Cold War?
ofthe ;
exchange of
e_xchange of certain
certain goods
goods in in certain
certain patterns
patterns has
has social,
social, poli-
poli- The one-sentence answer to the questiopquestioii may initially be
tical and
t:1cal and religious
religious (or (or ritual)
ritual) significance
significance as as well
well asas an an
phrased in such alternative terms as
ais these: ‘
economic function;
economic function; thethe diction,
diction, tone
tone and
and the
the implied
implied speaker's
spealcer’s
‘voice’ interact
interact in in very
very different
clififerent and
and complex
complex ways
ways in
in indi-
indi- II Qgnn-a1Europe’s
Central Europe's problems were wholly
whollyivrdsponsible.
responsible.
'~oice'
vidual poems. Hence an essay simply organised under these 22 Central Europe's
Europe’s problems played no (significant)
(significant) part.
VIdual poems. Hence an essay simply organised under these gt... .
categories may may distort
distort the
the subject
subject or
or miss
miss the
the dynamics
dynamics of of itsits 33 Central Europe's
Europe’s problems played some p lrt.
arr.
categories
uni:r.
unity. Even
which you
Even so,
you can
so, they
can get
they are
are aa necessary
get aa purchase
necessary part
purchase onon the
part of
of the
the subject
the process
process by
subject matter
matter ofof the
by Now, these possibilities can be represented in terms of the
which the K’
§,..
relations between circles, a representation called 'Euler ‘Euler circles'.
circles’.
essay. The important first
first step in analysing the to?ic
I°??lC is to decide
dficldc how
many major terms (or subjects) there seem to be. In this $115 example
¢X=1mPl@
4.3 Formal
4-3 meaning." the
Formal meaning: the logical
lqqical shape
shape of
ofpossible answer:
possible answers
.»-.,<.
I§’<‘=
:;~*;;.~ there seem at first
first to be two: 'origins
‘origins of Of the
Ihfi Cold
C0151 War'
W111’ and
:5 'problems
‘problems of Central Europe'.
Europe’. Each of these terms is repres represented
Bntfid
We shall
We shall now
now study
study the the ways
ways in in which
which categories
categories or or classes
classes of of 5,, .
i by a circle, which we shall label A and B respectively.
labelfl reSp¢Ct1V¢lY- OurOUT first
first
~ings can enter into various formal relations of meaning. There
things can enter into various formal relations of meaning. There answer will be represented as in Figurer:
Figure 1: ori$ins
origins of the Cold
C0161 War
WEI
is much
IS much to to bebe said
said for
for analysing
analysing essayessay topics
topics formally
formally since
since this
this and problems of Central Europe are cotermiinous
coterrrlinous (A = B). B)- This
Thifl
\.4/ /4-<
kind of analysis can often throw up for consideration
kind of analysis can often throw up for consideration alternative alternative 5? means that all the problems of Central Eu[ope Eutope contributed
contrlbfitfid to I0
answers which
answers which we we might
might not not otherwise
otherwise think think of.of. i? the Cold War and that there were no nu othn!
othzil causes of the Cold
I».
By _'formal
By ‘formal meaning'
meaning’ here here wewe areare thioking
thinking particularly
particularly of of the
the l‘
lair:
War The extreme alternative (see Figure
War. 2) i$
liligllrc z) 5% represented
fCPI@$<'1I1t¢¢l as
35 two
TWO
meanings of of aa few
few logical
logical expressions:
expressions: the the conjunctions
conjunctions 'and' ‘and’, _
meanmgs -- . conimon: Cer~tral
circles with nothing at all in common: Cerltral Europe's
Eutopfgs prob-
‘or’ and
'or' and 'if';
‘if’; the
the expression
expression of of negation
negation 'not';‘not’; and the funda~
and the funda- 2
lems and the origins of the Cold War are qui~e
ofthe quite separate issues, so
V ;:.»_ »»
mental expressions of quantity (the so-called
mental expressions of quantity (the so-called 'quantifiers') 'all' ‘quantifiers’) ‘all’ the former can be expressed as a 'nor-cause'
‘not-cause’ +fthe
of the Cold War.
WELF-
1' *
and ‘some’. By applying these logical ‘constants’
and_ 'some'. _By_ applying these logical 'constants' to our essay to our essay
topics and
top1cs and nngmg
ringing thethe changes
changes on on their
their likely
likely combinations,
combinations, we we -.-5:.-».=

can develop a number of useful ideas for an

can develop a number of useful ideas for an essay to explore. In essay to explore. In
9i
what follows I wish to direct your attention particularly to what

c~o
what follows I wish to clirect your attention particularly to what

0O @
2
can be
can be done
done with
with negation
negation (not)(not) andand quantification
quantification (all, (all, some).
some). s
z

!t
It can
can be
be very
very fruitful
fruitful toto ask
ask of
of the
the topic,
topic, oror some
some part
part of
of it,
it, what
what *4

is not
IS not the
the case,
case, asas well
well as as what
what is. is. And
And we we find,
find, too,
too, that
that what
what
cannot easily
cannot easily bebe demonstrated
demonstrated to to be
be universally
universally truetrue of
of all
all aspects
aspects
of the case may be true of all aspects of it
of the case may be ttue of all aspects of it under some circum- under some circum-
stances or
stances or conditions,
conditions, of of some
rams aspects
aspects of of itit under
under allall conditions
conditions, Figure 1I Figure
Elgar‘: 2
or ofsome aspects ofit
or ofsome aspects of it under under some conditions.
conditions. ' i<
E

42
4-2
43
4-3

~ . .._ ..._._.._> Z---»~ »

 l

Re fi ection.
' ~ asking
Reflection: ' questions
asking '
questions - answers
and proposing
and proposmg answm-S
*5».
term; with an essay topic
Coming to term:1
The general
The general answer
answer that
that Central
Central Europe's
Europe’s problems
problems played
played -ii
-i tr
_;-:-.,.- .-- E
some part in the origins of the Cold War can be repm-_5¢nt¢d
some part in the origins of the Cold War can be represented in in .6=5
._ ,.
two Quite logically
meanings. Figure
urope played some
distinct

part (i.e.
ways

that
with

they
two
two quire logically distinct ways with two quite separate
gieanings. Figure J.I
3.1 means
means thatthat all
all the
the problems
ate
(lulu:
problems of
a subset
separate
of Central
of
Central
causes),
s
Ii.
E\

it.=i.._
rigs,
;. 2--
(
Europe played some part (i.e. that they are a subset of causes),
i -;:f2:'"¥:-5. . Figure 3.2a 3.zb
Figure 3.2b 5.zc
Figure 3.2c

.~"‘:
'2 \
=
We have so far assumed that the term 'problems
‘problems of Central
or
pp
Europe‘ is a simple term. In fact terms consi:tting
Europe' consisting of a_a number of
words can be quite complex. It is helpful toto analyse
ahalyse th1s
this complex-
first place, there might be 'problems'
ity. In the first ‘problems’ that contnbuted
contributed
ii
‘.2
>2; Wat but which have nothing at aU
to the Cold War all to do w1th
with Central
51>
Figure Europe. What kinds of problem could thes•: these be? If they are not
Figure 3-l
3'1 3.2.
Figure 3.2
problems of Central Europe, they could b·o be problems of other
lss.
l parts of Europe (north, south, east or west). Smularly, Similarly, there
h'l the overlapping
while ' -
circles -
of Figure J.2 mean that some K1
l
might be problems not of Central or any other part ofEurope but
ofCentral
W
prolbfi ths
lems Ovgrlappmg
of Central c1rCl@$
Europe of
played F151‘-Fc
some
problems of Central Europe played some part part3-2but
butmean that of
that some
that some some
of its
its 3,
problems played no part. Let us, for the sake of illustration
r ofparts
of parts of the world which are not Europe a;: at all (say,
(say, the M1ddle
Middle
problems played no part. Let us, for the sake of illustration, .25§~.
alteignative answers can
East or Asia). These possibilities for altetlnat1ve
choosc Figure
choose Plgllre 3.2
3-1 as rho basis of
35 the ofour answer We are in a position
our answer. ositi 3 ,. . therefore be explored. Finally, if we look at! at; this list of possibly
20W
now to f0_$¢¢ that this
see that this gives
gives usus at
at least
least three
three related
related questions
quesfiiiong (:2
to
is<C1.1SS1I1 :1 relevant problems, , i
discuss our essay
in our essay_(A,x_‘l
(A, Ax XB B‘andB).
andB). A A first
first attempt
attempt at
at an
an answer
answer 1; _.
IlԤ ' '
might read
might read something
something likel1l(€ this,
this, in
in which
which the
the three
three questions
qucsijigng are
am 3. _.
.é,._ •0 Central Europe ‘
taken up
taken up in aa sentence
sentence each:
each: fa
K •0 other parts of Europe
a
•0 other parts of the world
abs problems
problems of of Central
Central Europe
Europe certainly
certainly played
played some
some part
Part in
in i
The i\ya
e origins ofthe Cold War. However, Central Europe
the origins of the Cold War. However) Central Europe had had .4
gé
sec that they all have one thing in ccPunon,
we can see coiimmon, namely that
many problems
many problems in in these
these years
years which
which had
had no
no bearing
bearing onon the
mg relevant pr~blems
they are regional problems. Might there b'( relevant problems
Cold
Cold War
War atat alL
an‘ Moreover,
MOrc°V@r¢ itit is
l$ arguable
arguable that
that it
it was
was not
not the
the 2. ‘not regwnal'
which are 'not regional’ m
in nature, but of son~e
some other kind.
kind?
problems of
problems of Central
Central Europe
Europe soso much
much as
as other
other factors
factors that
tha; were
Wm? sec-bnd answer. We can
We are now in a position to propose a sec·f>nd
central in causing the dispute between East and
central in causing the dispute between East and West. West S
(oi content) either by
give our formal analysis some substance (of
calling on general knowledge or, if this fail~,
failis, by domg
doing a b1t
bit of
NOW, degrees
Now, of 'sameness~
deg recs of ‘someness ’ can
can be
be represented
represented in- graphic
in .
graphic
form as
as in
in Figures
Figar“ 3.2a, - language reading. Using my own general knowledge, I develop the
form 3-211 3.2b
3-lb and 3.2c and in
H1 lan ' terms
in
following:
such as these: i guagti In terms
3.1.2 Central
Central Europe's
Europe’s problems
problems played
Playgd an
an overwhelming
OW,-Wymfm,-7,5 part.
an •0 Problems in the region of Central Europe-
Europe -~ as yet II do not
3.2.a
to specifY
need to specify these §
3'21’ Central Europe's
3.2.b E“I°P¢’5 problems
PF°bl¢m$ played
Plflyfld an important
imP01'!?antPartEi
part. i
•n Regional problems elsewhere I
3.z.c Central
3.2.c Central Europe's
Europe’s problems
problems played
played aa minor
minor part.
part,
-— in Asia, particularly China and Korea y
44
44
, 4-5
4-5

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Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers §%\ Coming to teri-its
terr:~s with an essay topic

— in southern Europe, i.e. the Balkan countries

-in \ a formal analysis of the possible answers an·r
an-Ed the shape of those
I• Non-regional origins of the Cold War answers, it must be said that this technique ~ends
iends itself better to
I0
— the ideological conflict
-the conflict between capitalism and communism some essay topics than it does to others -I —§at at least as a way of
— the
-the development of nuclear weapons
examining relationships between terms who~e
whope relations are to be
From this
From provisional outline
this provisional the paragraph
outline the paragraph below can be
below can be analysed in the way that 'problems
‘problems of Central Europe'Europe and
drafted: 'origins
‘origins of the Cold War'
War’ are placed before cs
es in the topic above.
,.
In the topic on General MacArthur, for example, you would
The
The problems of Central Europe certainly played some part in sf. - need to put forward a number of possible terms (such as we We did
ofthe
the origins of the Cold War, though by themselves not an E

on p. 35) before you could begin to carry Ollt

otlt the analysis of the
overwhelming one by any means. Central
Centrai Europe had so many 2
$31
2.
possible relations between them. Some m<~remtiare sample analyses,
problems at this time that it is not easy to
to distinguish those ., ._ ._ including ones on topics of this latter kind, ~re
hre briefly
briefly presented
that belonged to the aftermath of the Second World War from in Appendix 2.z. 5
those relevant to the Cold War. Those that are must be seen in
the context of important struggles between pro-communist
. *6
and anti-communist partisans in other regions, particularly the tr!‘ 4.4. Evaluative criteria
4.4 y
Balkan states, China and Korea. Furthermore, overlying the .\>*

problems of Central Europe was a quite separate, though As soon as you begin to make choices about following‘Following one line of
complementary, ideological war of ofwords enquiry rather than another suggested by your analysis of the
words between East and
West. Finally, its problems seem much less startling when set topic, you are implicitly making use of certa;In
certain criteria according
is
against that major factor in the origins of the Cold War
War-- the ‘X to which the choice is made. You saw me do ring this in proposing
doing
nuclear arms race between the USSR and the United States. an answer based upon Figure 3.2. 3.2., No atterr~pt
atterript was made at that
point to examine why I should choose this :proposal proposal rather than
There are aa few
There are few points
points to to make about what
make about what wewe have done so
have done so final stage in your lprelirninagy
another. The final reflection should
prelimina:ry reflection
far. First,
First, the paragraph above above isis not an answer
answer toto the question: 3:
far. the paragraph not an the question: therefore be directed towards a considera1fion
consideration of the terms in
it is
it one proposal for
is one for the
the shape ofof an
an answer
answer out
out of
of the
the many
many that
that which your choice might provisionally be jv~tified.
jiéstified.
our analysis made possible. (As an exercise you
our analysis made possible. (As an exercise you might like to might like to use
use It is useful to begin by asking yourself whatwl~at you mean by any
,,._.
the analyses
the analyses above
above to to Write
write aa proposed shape of
proposed shape of your own.)
your own.) of the very general evaluative terms throv.fn
throvétn up by the formal
Secondly, the
Secondly, the formal
formal analysis
analysis ofof this topic has
this topic has enabled
enabled usus to see
to see analysis of relations. In the Cold War Wat top-Ic,
topic, for example, it IS is
1%‘:-
that the
that the question
question could not be
could not be answered
answered adequately
adequately by by confining
confining necessary to ask how terms like 'some part', 'Pverwhelming part',
‘so,me part’, ‘éoverwhelrning part’,
2*
our attention
our attention to to the
the problems
problems of of Central
Central Europe.
Europe. Three
Three other
other ‘important part’
'important ‘minor part’
part' and 'minor part' are to he 'Pe understood. The
issues have
issues been raised:
have been raised: problems
problems elsewhere,
elsewhere, ideological
ideological conflict
conflict .,.
ti\ - proposed answer on p. p.4.6 assuming that Central
46 seems to be as.'!uming
and the
and the nuclear
nuclear armsarms race. The analysis
race. The analysis also
also helps us to
helps us see that
to see that Europe’s problems were 'not
Europe's ‘not an ovenvhelming'
overwhelming’ cause of the
5*‘
had, say, ‘development of nuclear weapons’ replaced
had, say, 'development of nuclear weapons' replaced 'problems ‘problems j$’5§: -. Cold War simply because it was just one arnongst amongst many others.
\
ofCentral
of Europe’ in
Central Europe' in the topic, the
the topic, the answer
answer would differ more
would differ more inin h
¢
That is to say, the criterion operating here :;eemsseems to be based on
emphasis ~ including the space allotted to discussing
emphasis- including tbe space allotted to discussing the various the various gimpie (perhaps simplistic) aritbmetic.
simple arithmetic. You will also notice that
origins - than
origins- than inin what
what is is included
included or or left
left out
out of
ofthe discussion.
the discussion. 2;
the 'major
‘major factor'
factor’ in that proposal was judged to be the nuclear
To conclude
conclude this account of of the
the way in which one can
can attempt
attempt -Er
To this account way in which one .2._.; arms race, so that by comparison Central Europe was of less
t; =
er
+6
4-6 i,
+7
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Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers Drafting a 1?rovisional
provisional opening

importance. To do this, however, is only to shift the problem. By cssay as early as you can, even though th(fre
the essay there will necessarily
'/g;i“I3=.5I‘-. . .
what criterion is the arms race to be judged as 'major'?
‘major’? What is 2
be many gaps of information or
be many gaps of information or analysis analysis thaf you
you cannot
cannot fill.
fill. II
‘major’ here? Such general 'quantitative'
meant by 'major' ‘quantitative’ judgements think 1 draft opening pflragrHPh or two 15 Sglpwor Y0 mflung
think a draft opening paragraph or rwo is s hperior to making
are certainly necessary; but by themselves they are not sufficient. outlines
outlines or jotting down
or jotting down rough
rough notes, since it! is
notes, since is only
only byby wri~ing
Writlng
Perhaps the most useful strategy in searching for ways Ways of continuous
continuous prose that you face the fptoblems §of getting straight
prose that you face the problems jOf getting straight
giving substance to such criteria is to try to derive~
derive, from either the RELATIONS between
the RELATIONS between the
the ideas
ideasiln Your h~ad.
in your h?ad- Outlines rend
Ol~1'd1{1¢s ten‘?
the wording of the topic or the few facts that you have so far i‘-:==§E - -.:- -
=ۤ%; to
to become
become lists
lists of
of headings
headings containing
containing only only ::he major
major issues
issues of
o
‘principle’ or a metaphor of some
assembled, an appropriate 'principle' content.
content. This can be valuable, but the“ valufii 1*“ Pamcuiafly in
This can be valuable, but their value' lies particularly 1“
kind. Many, if not most, explanations in the humanities and in sorting
sorting out
out the
the lengthy
lengthy main
main body
body of of the
‘£115 essay.
¢55?=§'Y- We
We have
ha“: not
not yet
Y“
the sciences are based on metaphors. War itself is a rich source of arrived
arrived atat this
this stage.
stage. Our
Our principal
principal aim aim nownpow is 15 to
to test
test the
the
them (e.g. cold war, class war, battle of the sexes, war of words, Outcomr; of
outcome Qfgut reflections and to give o·1rselves
our early reflections ourselves something
it.
political campaign, capturing the middle ground). By paying that
that can
can later
later be
be changed
changed and
and improved
improved upcn upon once once the
the serious
serious
K
attention to the kinds of explanatory principles and metaphors reading is begun. ’ ._ ._
used in the disciplines you study, it is possible to build up almost "2 Let
Let us
us now
now review
review the
the major jobs to
major jobs to be
be done
done m 111 commg
COFHIHE to
to
finding suitable criteria
by second nature a store of approaches to finding terms
terms with
with aa topic
topic before
before proceeding
proceeding to
to apply
apply them.
thcrn- Reflection
R6fl6CF10I1
to use in your essays. shguld yield these things:
should things‘. I I
g.
One way
way, of approaching the Cold War topic is, then, to
3% •I some appreciation of the meanings of the n;rms terms used in the thii
examine the implications of the term 'war' ‘War’ itself. Ask yourself
.tt._. = -.;= - topic and the ideas or entities
topic and the ideas or entities which to which th(fy refer,
refer, anan .
What conditions are necessary to cause a state of war -— hot or
what
cold. One answer to this question must surely be that while wars
W;
.3.
interpretation of
interpretation Of any
9-HY vagueness
vagueness or Gr ambigt~ity
9-mbigiilty in 1,“ the
thfi meaning
meaning
of the topic as a whole, and justfpsufficient
ofthe just sufficient packground
packgtound I l
significant problems in some
rarely break out if there are no significant -
knowledge
¥t
and
knowledge and a few basic categories in
a few basic categories in v.!hich to organise
V\%i11Ci1 to organise it it
region of the world, the existence of such problems does not
-X» to get you going (see 4.2); i j _
necessarily lead to war. (A more formal way of putting this is to
to examine, arising from thf formal analysis of
.5:-;
§»
1
•I a3 few proposals to
say that such problems are perhaps a necessary condition for war §< possible relations between the terms (see ·f-3); ._
ii--3);
to break out, but that they are not in themselves sufficient.) ~.’4{'~1‘FT suggcstions as to which criteria migh~
e, a few suggestions mighp be appropnate
approprlflfi to E0
Applied to the present case, it will be noticed that the state of help you decide among the various propofals
help you decide among the various prop0§alS (Sefi 4»-4»); (see 4-4);
cold war did not exist so much between the states of Central •0 aa decision
decision whether
whether youyou will
will answer
answer 'yes'
‘yes’ or
or jno'
gno’ toto a3 yes/no
YES/n0
Europe themselves as between the USSR and the Western allies. A question, whether you will agree or clisagpee With a1 stated
question, whether you will agree or disagfee with Srflttrd or
Of
Central Europe just happened to be the battleground on which implied proposition in the topic, or whiclf of
implied proposition in the topic» or Which‘ ofthe Pr°P°5a1s the proposals
-/\
the giants fought. This is about as far as we need to go in order to you
you have
have developed
developed youyou will
will provisionall:f
provisionalljgr argue
argue forfor
attempt a provisional opening paragraph. (seq .. r).
(see 4.1).
-2 \
My
My reflections
reflections (which
(which for
for the
the present
present purpose
purpose II shall try to
shall try to
5s Drafting a provisional opening i.
\
make as explicit as I can) on the topic 'What part did the
-6 make as explicit as I can) on the top1_¢ fwhat part digvthg
- rL: problems
‘revealing to yourself how far your _
The most fruitful way of revealing problems of
of Central
Central Europe
Europe play
play in
in the
the origins
origins ofthe
ofthe Cold
Cold War?'
at.
reflection has taken you is to try writing a provisional opening to·
reflection to - yield these results. V
-e=.--
i-‘-E

4.8 ' 4-9

Q
(

i
 Reflection:
Reflection: asking questions and proposing answers plrovisional opening
Drafting a piovisional
Meaning and interpretation Xi
st
‘ta
can exist without some conflict
conflict ofofideology zlntl threat of arms
ideology <md
‘Problems’ -- political
'Problems' political problems
problems or or problems
problems of of various
various kinds
kinds . :;_3%
§§
. between two belligerents. The problems of1Central
offientral Europe
with political
with political implications; Central Europe
implications; Central Europe- -- Poland,
Poland, Czecho-
Czecho- ‘E must be seen in that context. The collapse oi[ 01% the German Reich
slovakia, Hungary,
slovakia, Hungary, Austria, eastern Germany;
Austria, eastern Germany; 'origins'
‘origins’ -— inter-
inter» created a geopolitical vacuum of Central Europe,Eupope, the countries
CO1JI1El'l¢$
pret
pret this
this to mean the
to mean the closing
closing years
years ofof the Second World
the Second World War
War and
and 2
$2,. .. . of which had no effective government. Into ;this
ofwhich phis vacuum l
the later 1940s; Cold War % the standoff between
the later 1940s; Cold War- the standoff between the USSR on the USSR on poured the ideological interests of East and West, lWesr, symbolised
the one side and the USA and its Western allies on the
the one side and the USA and its Western allies on the other. Theother. The by the 'race
‘race for Berlin'
Berlin’ between the Russian and Western
.;§;=-
significance of
significance of 'what
Wvhat part . . . played’
part ... categorised initially
played' categorised initially in
in armies. Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Czechosiovakia, Hungary,
I-Iungilfys Austria
Allsma and eastern
broad quantitative terms.
broad quantitative terms. No
No otherother problems
problems with interpre~
with interpre- Germany were now simply a battleground cf of the new wnwar to
tation. establish viable governments favourable to East llast or West.
1 Central Europe seems to be important
imporranr mainly because the
Proposals
Prqpomls action that largely initiated the Cold War-War -— America's
.A.merica’s use of
CW’s
CW's origins solely/partly/not at
origins solely/partly/not at all
all due
due to CE’s problems.
to CE's problems. a>§s: the atomic bomb on Japan-
Iapan — ensured that there would be no
Eliminate 'solely'
E~i~ate ‘solely’ since
since few
few historical
historical events
events have
have aa single
single cause;
cause; 'race
‘race forT okyo'. Ar
for Tokyo’. At least for a time, superpower
superpcwver confrontation
l. :
2
in the Far East was avoided, and attention was free to focus on
eliminate 'not
ehmmate ‘not atat all'
all’ since
since CE
CE isis aa major
major frontier
frontier in
in the CW.
the CW.
Now break down ‘partly’ into ‘overwhelming’, ‘important’ and the rivalry in Europe.
Now break down 'partly' into 'overwhelming', 'important' and
'minor', and think up (or look up) other possible origins --
‘minor’, and think up (or look up) other possible origins My paragraph might be quite naive (since ii[am am drawing only
regiOnal problems
regional elsewhere (especially
problems elsewbere (especially Far
Far East),
East), nuclear
nuclear %< ¢7;<o=:§/i» on my general knowledge) and quite unable to withstandW1tl1St2.nCl the
weapons,
weapons, ideological rivalry between
ideological rivalry superpowers. Analyse
between superpowers. Analyse scrutiny of a tutor in politics. But that does ncgt
ncjt matter. Just now
possible relations between these factors. I am writing not for such a person but f,pr for myself, and to
illustrate for you some of the processes ofj reflection I went
ofrefiecnon
Criteria it
through.
Nature of war
Nature of war in
in general
general -—~ between combatants. The
between combatants. The main
main "=35>-f2:-1;:; .
combatants
combatants inin CW
CW areare superpowers,
superpowers, not Central European
not Central European
countries,
countries, which
which at this time
at this time had no really
had no really effective
effective governments.
governments.

Decision
Dealrion -.?
_ ,. __
- 5':
CE’s
CE's problems important but
problems important but quite
quite subordinate
subordinate to
to the
the other
other
main factors. 1‘
5.
Here, then, is my provisional paragraph:
ai-
The origins
The origins ofthe Cold War
of the Cold War are
are to
to be found in
be found in three
three major
major 1%.; -.
factors: regional problems (both in Europe and the Far East),
the Ideologtcal
the ideological confrontation
confrontation between
between Bast and West,
East and and the
West, and the
l._
nuclear arms race made inevitable by the dropping
nuclear arms race made inevitable by the dropping of the ofthe
atomic bomb on
atomic bomb on IJapan. Of these
apan. Of the second
these the second and
and third
third were
were the
the :

most important since no state ofwar —~ whether ‘hot’ or

most important since no state of war- whether 'hot' or 'cold'- ‘cold’ -
<

50
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2
s
SI
51

2
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 ‘K .
\
eserg
iv.
2?/‘~
iZZ
l§\ ·~roblem'
The ‘problem’ of reading

3 to
to interpret
from
interpret what
what aa book
book is
is saying
saying from
from your
your qwnclwn standpoint
standpoint and and
Interpretation:
Interpretation.‘ from that of the essay question you are attempung to
that of the essay question you are attem;pting to answer.
answer.
.- i's-- If reading is seen thus to to be part of a pr•pcessprpcess that includes
raking
reading and taking thinking
thinking and and writing,
writing, you
you should
should be be able to approach
able to approach the the task
task in in
notes ·W"· I s. an
a.r1 active
active frame
frame of of mind.
mind. Interpreting
Interpreting aa book book [s rather
rather like
like taking
taking
is
i§\ part
part inin aa conversation.
conversation. The The reader
readefi and and the
the <luthor
2iuth0r Of (if the book
the b00l<
‘ofthe word, and not
But be ye doers ofthe 1
5,3:
converse on a subject in which they
converse on a subject in which they have mutual, though ha\ e mutual, though
hearers only, deceiving your own all
somewhat
somewhat varying,
varying, interests.
interests. Some Some of of the skillsskills youyou might
might
selves. :1?;<.
STJAMES'S
ST )‘A.MES,5 EPISTLE employ
employ in any conversation which aims at resolving an issue
in any conversation which aims at re:;olving an issue can
can
be
be brought
brought into into play:
play: asking
asking questions
questions of 01;’ the
the text,
text, seeking
seeking
clarification
clarification on on aa point
point you
you haven't
haven’t fully
fully undefstood,
understood, judging judging the the
l relevance
relevance to your question of what the bool< says, looking
to your question of what the boof says, looking for for
,. evidence of
evidence of the
the author's
author’s moodmood or or attitu,[e
attitude to to the
the subject,
subject,
I1 ‘problem’ of reading
The 'problem' noticing whether and how one thing said squares up with what What
g. _, ._
was said earlier or what was said by
was said earlier or what was said by another: author, and so on.
another: author, and so on.
I.I CommfJn
Cammnn difficulties
diflicultizs N
The
The more
more thoroughly
thoroughly you you have
have reflected
reflected on on your
your essayessay topic
topic (see
(see
_l'=-
found in chapter 2,
Your essay, we f7und 2, is your 'best'
‘best’ answer to a chapter
chapter 2),2), the
the better
better prepared
prepared for for interpreting
interpreting the the books
books you you
question. It is not an answer to be found in some book. Nor is it will be, if only because you will have a good s~ock
will be, if only because you will have a good stock of questions in of questions
an answer to be found in some combination of books. It is not, l? your
your mind
mind andand on on paper
paper when
when you you go to t:~e library.
go to library. It It is
is this
this
on the other hand, an answer to be spun wholly out of ofyourselfas
yourself as 5,. preparation,
preparation, and the skills of interpretation; to bfi di5C115$¢d in
and the skills of interpretation! to be discussed In
a spider spins its web.
Web. The problem of reading for an academic .2‘
this chapter, that
this chapter, that should
should help
help toto give
give youyou th'f
thit independence
independence you you
essay is the problem of establishing the relationship between will
will need
need inin order
order toto avoid
avoid turning
turning your your ess4y
essly into into aa pastiche
pastiche of of
l9.,. _
ourselves and our books on a reliable and firm firm footing. Many other people's
people’s work. I
students pose the problem in words such as these: 'I ‘I know so Such
Such anan approach
approach should
should alsoalso help
help youyou tcf copecope withwith some
some of of
little about the subject and those who write the books know so the other problems of reading: j ·
much/in addition, these authors express their ideas much better
muchAn •s How do you stop your mind wandering Oj~ on paths of its
oififon
5.
than II can. How, then, can I be expected to give my own answer own,
own, no
no matter
matter howhow hard
hard you try to
you try to concfntrate?
concjentrate? ByBy
"/.z'L)(Fs“2e'?V,"\>!7*</K‘>I;~_
in my own words when it is all in the books? Much of the time I concentrating
concentrating less less on
on trying
trying to
to concentraFe
concentrate and and giving
giving your
' to struggle to merely understand what they say, far less give
\‘have
have
E attention to your own part in the conven!ation.
CO[1VCI':l3.tlOn.
your

ideas.’ Put this way the problem is misconceived

my own ideas.' rnis conceived because •0 How do you take rake notes more efficiently,
efficiently, s1p
so that piles of unused
such a student sees his or her role as being on the one hand to > paraphrases do not remain when your esJay essiay is complete? By
comprehend and reproduce what the books say while on the constantly
QQ115t3_|f}l;lY interpreting the RELEVANCE,of
nsrsvan cs of what your sources
i.-
‘original’. It is hard to reconcile such extremes. In
other to be 'original'. in this - say in the light of your developing argun~ent
say in the light of your developing argimient forfor the
the essay.
essay.
.5, •0 How do you read more quickly? By first of all slowing down
chapter the problem will be posed somewhat differently --— as a e first o E
notof comprehension, reproduction and 'originality',
problem not-of ‘originality’, and taking the time to build up a general'interpretation
generalfinterpreration of
INTE RP RETKTION. Reading is F
but as one of INTERPRETATION. an attempt by ypuyou what
what an author is DOING with his text.
an author is DOING with his text. i

52
S3‘
l. 53
l
Interpretation: reading and raking notes The 'Problem'
‘problem’ of reading

•0 How do you get away from the domination of the writer's

writer’s without
Without your your stopping
stopping to to clarify
clarify puzzling poi1~ts, to
putzling points, to enquire
enquire into into
language the connections between the book and the syllabus, or
the connections benveen the book and the sy~labus, or to
to assess
Ianguagc P‘/‘fir y0ur own? By putting his text away from
over your own? By putting his text away from you
you assess
and thinking about what he says before you make your notes.
notes, its
its relevance
relevance to to any particular question.
any particular question. What
What is is important
important in in this
this
•0 When should you copy an author's
auth0r’s words verbatim into your kind
kind of reading is to grasp the ‘plot’ and thelgeneral rhythm of
of reading is to grasp the 'plot' and the igeneral rhythm of
find an idea very well
notes? Not so much when you find the
the exposition,
exposition, rather rather as as wewe areare commonly
commonly sjupposed
sppposed to -to read
read aa
expressed as when you find
find something about it that you novel or
novel watch aa movie.
or watch movie. If If wewe look
look for
for anything
anythinlg in particular, it
in particular, it is
is
might Want to put under your interpretative microscope in
Hllghf want only for the beginning,
only for the beginning, the middle the middle and the
the end ~ which is why it
end- which is why it
the essay you are planning to write. is
is important
important to to read
read Whole
whole booksbooks rather
rather than
tlwgari (as
(as our typic~
our typical
Wlll be the purpose of
It will ofthis
this chapter to elaborate on these snap essays
essays minimally
minimally require require of us) just
ofus) just bits
bits of books. A
of books. book read
A book read m in
answers
a1'15“’¢Y5 if? Somfi C0m1_'n0n questions
to some common questions and
and to
to put
put before
before you
you some
some
this way can rightly be considered
this way can rightly be considered to be as disposable as to be as disposable as aa
of the various dimensions of interpretation. late-night television movie
latc~night television movie or or aa newspaper
newspaper article.
article. If If there
there is is
anything
anything that particularly engages
that particularly engages your
your attention
attention you you cancan mark
mark
it
it or note it
or note it briefly
briefly on on aa scrap
scrap of paper for
ofpapet late?‘ critical
for latev critical attention.
attention.
1.2
I.2 The importance of background reading
ofbmskgroumi Critical interpretation and evaluation St:.ch as We
we use use for
, Critical interpretation and evaluation such as for
T¢XEl>O0l<5 like this one necessarily emphasise the skills
Textbooks dill; of writing essays feeds on the half-formed
writing essays feeds on the half—formed images and experiencesimag;es and experiences
reading. It is wrong to get the idea, however, that mastering of
of general reading. Critical
general reading. reading must
Critical reading respond to
must respond to details.
details.
rmdmg-_ It _15 Wmng '50 get the Idea, however, that mastering :.'.><e;
these skills is all that you require to become a good reader. You General reading gives
General reading gives to these details a context which, though
to these details a context which, though
will probably notice that you have many more initial difficulties difficultigg difficult
difficult to to specify
specify or or quantify,
quantify, enriches tht~m., and
enriches them, and over
over time time
with reading
Wlth rcadmg 1n F-l105¢ disciplines Whose content or approach is
in those disciplines whose content or approach is
ii -§I}.=.II
helps them
helps them to to make
make sense.
sense. We We saw
saw earlier
earlier (p;
(pg 24-)
24.) the
the particular
particular
dangers
dangers of of becoming ‘syllabus-bound’. Y~?u
too 'syllabus-bound'. You cancan escape
escape these
.,.
new to you. Some recent research in reading tends to confirm Confirm the tim " ~ I'*7.*'§
becoming too these
coinmon-sense conclusion
common-sense COI1Cl11SlO1‘l that the more you know about abgut a dangers,
dangers, whilst simultaneously helping youristudies, by
whilst simultaneously helping your: studies, by choos-
choos~
Slll3]CCiI
subject the easier it is to read in it. The problem though is that
problem, though,
Z
‘.'.=‘.l-; 1:? ing background reading
ing background reading whichwhich is is broadly releyant to
broadly releiiant your course
to your course
.»:-2L '

we usually read academic works in order to learn about aséut the of

of studies. Many disciplines are now well iserved by
studies. Many disciplines are now well ;served by general
general
._ 37.,
content. There is no simple technique that can easily be applied books for
books the layman,
for the layman, autobiographies
autobiographies by, by, apd biographies of,
aind biographies of,
to the solving of this conflict.conflict. There is, is however,
however a general ,3. significant figures
significant figures in the advancement ofthat pranch of!
in the advancement of that pranch earning,
oflearning,
progranune that you can follow.
prograrnme and
and some
some textbooks
textbooks that that areare as readable as
as readable th~y are
as thiey are informative.
informative.
thTll;iie
The programme is this. You need first first to distinguish
distiriguish between
bfitwflcn 'Preliminary
‘Preliminary reading’reading' lists lists for
for certain
certain cours,is
coursds are are sometimes
sometimes aa
thee kindnd of close, critical reading you will need to engage in for guide, and
guide, and should
should be be treated
treated in the manneir
in the mannelr suggested
suggested above above
your essay-writing and simply beguiling the time mm; with a book -<<.
rather than as laborious treatises to be learne-~.
rather than as laborious treatises to; be learneiirl. Sonic publishers Some publishers
because you have a general interest in the subject. Secondly, it is
w»>.~<=1_,.,~¢:/~iQ\>»:'.-*r><ze~
have
have series
series of very short,
ofvery short, inexpensive books oh
inexpensiife books o~ major
major figures
figures and and
important to give as much time as you can to this general major topics
major topics in particular subject areas which make ideal
in particular subject areas which make back-
ideal back-
background reading of whole books, and not to confine confine your ‘~~1 ‘§”’.~‘”<7/ ‘#~ ground reading. Speed,
ground reading. Speed, enjoyment,
enjoyment, relative:
relativci superficiality
superficiality and and
reading to poring slowly over the central texts in your course. 4:011;-5¢_ satisfaction
satisfaction are the criteria whichl should giivern this
are the criteria which should govern this kindkind of of
Both kinds of reading are necessary because they help each other. other reading.
reading. None None of these criteria
of these criteria has of itself
haslof itself aoy
ahy public
public academic
academic
General background reading should be done clone by sitting in an standing. The
standing. The valuevalue of this reading
of this reading appears
appears only only through
through aa
. crystal
armchair and letting the book wash over you, you so to speak,
speak . _.<. crystal lightly in the way you reflect on an essay topic and impart
lightly in the way you reflect on an ess1y topic and impart
i
2
54-
5+ 55
§
 \§>%‘v\ rr
1

"

Interpretation: reading and taking notes .. 3...;

§=>;='r;-’.-'.".
EvidenCe,
Evidence, inrlerpretation
inrizrpretation and fact
is
writing, Back-
almost unconsciously a richer texture to your writing. Baek- certain premisses and
certain premisses and argues
argues its its way
Way to to aa concfusion-
conclusion — somewhat somewhat
ground reading is not time wasted. like a mathematical proof. The second is 'empirical',
like a mathematical proof. The second is ‘empirical’, and and in in this
this
case the author takes care to base his
case the author takes care to base his argufgnents on carefully argw)nents on carefully
2
2 Evidence, interpretation and fact y
constructed interpretations of
constructed interpretations empirical dat~l-
of empirical data? Such
Such worksworks referrefer
constantly
constantly to the primary sources so that thi-2 reader can
to the primary sources so that th'e reader can check
cheek
2.1
2.1 Primary, secondary and tertiary sources ‘K
them
them out out himself
himself if he or
ifhe or she
she wishes,
wishes, thoughthough they they maymay alsoalso have
have aa
Before we can bring tools of interpretation to bear on a text we strong 'theoretical'
‘theoretical’ component. l . E
first of all decide what kind of text it is and what we hope to
must first Tertiary
Tertiary sources,
sources, by by contrast,
contrast, are are thethe typical
typical course
course 'textbook',
‘textbook’,
s encyclopaedia,
gain from it. Some texts contain mostly data. Others contain i encyclopaedia, desk dictionary, handbook, 1§etc., which might
desk dictionary, handbook, etc., which might
either
either be be aa practical
practical 'how
‘how to' to’ book (like this pne) or or aa survey
survey of
discussions and interpretations of data, data in which the author is . generally
book §(like this -lane) of
arguing
arguing for particular point
FOI aa particular point of
of view.
view. AA third
third kindkind of of text
text generally held held koowledge
knowledge in in the
the field.
field. They They t<indtend to to bebe based
based not not
secondary sources~
~‘Z? %‘?3'7"
contains relatively little argument, much presentation of infor- infer- on
on primary
primary sources
sources but but onon secondary sources; and and present
present much much
mation and few references to the sources of ofthat
that information.
xi?
: of their information dogmatically
of their information dogmatically as received opinion. as received:opinion.
We shall call these three kinds of text primary,primary secondary and Like
Like most most boundaries,
boundaries, the the borderlines
borderlines bervveen between primary, primary,
. _ _ _ 1 g 3\
secondary
plelttiglry sources.
tertiary sources, Primary sources consist in the object Ol)]CClI observed; secondary and and tertiary
tertiary sources
sources can can become
become; blurredblurred in in certain
certain
thisis hasgs to be interpreted by you and by the writers Writers of your works. For
works. For example,
example, there there areare textbooks
textbooks which which are are very
very broad
broad in in
secon ary sources. They include the poem, novel or play studied
secondary 51f1_1(jliQd scope but which on some aspects of
scope but which on some aspects of the subject matter may lookthe subject matter may look
by literature students, the documents studied by historians, the very
very closely
closely at at primary
primary evidence
evidence and and argueargue fo1! one interpr~tati~n
foii one interpretation
Er-.~ t
painting or the composer's
composer’s score studied by art critics or musico- of
ofthe evidence over others. Similarly, there sire often
the evidence over others. Similarly, there <tire often secnons
sections m in
logists, the 'raw‘raw figures'
figures’ economists analyse, the survey data of secondary
secondary monographs which present inforirgation very much
monographs which present inforrr~ation very much in in
eirperimental results of the psychologist, and
the sociologist, the experimental textbook style.
textbook style. In In your
your reading
reading §you you shm,ldshould watch watch out out for for
shall ~o
\
so on. Now,N0W3Wh1lC
while this seems to be dear clear enough, the distinction
Cli$[i['|(jti()n transitions
transitions such such as as these,
these, forfor reasons
reasons we We shall lgo into
into below.
below.
benveen
bct‘”c¢n P1’1m1I'_Y Widence and secondary interpretation does
primary evidence and secondary interpretation does
And
And again,
again, the the same
same text
text may
may fall into nvo
fall; into two ·~ategories,
liategories, depend-
depend-
not work instance , anthropo-
Work so easily in some disciplines. For instance, anthropo _
l ing
ing on
on the the purpose
purpose with with which
which the disciplinejtreats it
the ldisciplineltreats it or
Or on
on your
your
logy students must accept much of an anthropologist's
21I1fi'lrOpOl0gi5t’$ ethno-¢thnO_ ?z~. own particular purpose. An example of
own particular purpose. An example ofthis islthe status of novels this islthe status of novels
“ii and
graphic data on trust, since the act of recording aspects of a social W2’ and other
other worksWorks of of literature
literature in in English
English and and Ifistory
liistory respectively.
respectively.
structure or a custom is itself its elfsomething
something of a secondary interpre- intcrpn-1-
(
In an Encrlish
In an English b
course a novel will usually
course a novel will usually beiireated be t!reated as
'I as aa primary
primary
3.
'Eflt10r1 on the part of the field
tation field anthropologist. Interpretative text.
text. But if the novel contained a portrayal oi the life or
But if the novel contained a portrayal of the life or politics
politics
written, aa histori~n
K’. -_‘ of
statements thereforelook very much like statements of fact
Statements can therefore-look of the
the times
times in in which
which it it was
was written, historian might might use use itit as
as aa
or pieces of ofevidence.
evidence. Even so, it is useful to make the attempt to s
(
secondary source- one writer's interpretatio
secondary source - one Writer’s interpretatio ofhis times. Even ~of his times. Even
>.=
distinguish where you can. can_ H.3}:.15‘ -.1 I ' so, if
so if the
the historian
historian were were to to switch
switclvhis his intereSt
intercht to to the
the history
history of of
Secondary
"4; _.
co~temporary
contemporary attitudes attitudes to to the
the government
government of the day,
ofthe day, thethe novel
novel
Sccondmy 50111Ӣ@S are the
sources are monographs with
the monographs with which
which the the library
library . ii:
filled,
shelves are mostly filled, and the articles in 21C2lClC1'l'1iCj()111'11315 and
academic journals could then
could then be be regarded
regarded as as aa primary
prirnary source.
source. Plato's Republic may
1’lato’s Republic may
E-5: ' V
books of 'readings'.
‘readings’. It is useful to distinguish two rypes types of Q constitute a primary source for an essay
constitute a primary source for an essay on Plato, but a secondaryon Ph.to, but a secondary
Eé source
secondary source. lhe first, which we shall call 'theoretical'
The first, ‘theoretical’, 2 source for for an essay on
an essay on theories
theories of of govemr1ent.
governnaent. The The issues
issues of of
consists almost entirely of abstract argument which starts fro~ from . interpretation
interpretation that arise from that same textirnay therefore vary
that arise from that same text may therefore vary
>
-‘J-;§£a‘:=E»:'i
57
56
X
 it
taking notes
Interpretation: reading and raking Evidence, int~rpretation
interpretation and
-and fact

considerably. This double life is led by many of the classic

secondary sources in a discipline: books which were written in You i
order to throw new light on a certain problem themselves
3
become the primary evidence on which later interpretations of
their authors'
authors’ thought are based. Tertiary
2
sources
,1. . .
2.2
2.2 qfthis
The consequences of this distinction fbr
for essay-writing
I .

To be able to recognise whether, for the purposes of ofyour

your essay, a . Secondary
source or part of a source is primary, secondary or tertiary will “>2
is s ources
determine how you treat it in your essay. The important ques-
tion you should always ask is 'Is ‘Is this statement (or series of
authot’s interpreta-
statements) a piece of primary evidence, an author's
tion of the evidence in which the reasoning is shown~ shown, or is it Primary
opinion?’ Two things follow from this distinction.
authoritative opinion?' data
First, if you have decided that all your essay topic requires is a
DESCRIPTION (seep.
DESCRIPTION (see p. 28
28 above), then you can rest fairly content /.’/JZ->3’
II Evidence p
with
With tertiary sources; if you attempt to justify a point of view (to
ofview 22 Evidence + interpretations _
‘discuss’ — as we said most topics require)~
'discuss'- require), then secondary and ‘fact’ +
33 Accepted 'fact' + interpretations
primarysources
primary sources are critical. Put anotherway~most
critical.I’ut anotherway,most academic essays
cannot be based upon the reading of textbooks alone. Not only »<'¢~e.
ft.
that, but your own essay-writingtechnique
essay~writingtechnique should, in general, be Figure 4 r.
modelled more closely on the way Way evidence and interpretation are 35.
The interpretations and opinions you read triad should be p~e­ pre-
handled in secondary sources than on the style of oftertiary
tertiary texts.
F?
s‘ sented
sentcd as such
Such in your
Your essay
Qggay (Smith conclujdes
COI1ClL1§ClC5 that
that....
. . , Sm1th
SITl1lTl'1
Secondly -— and this is of supreme importance because many ,.é. believes
believes that ... , Smith
that..., Smith interprets
interprets this
this to\ mean that.
togmean that...,.. , In
In
students have difficulty with it -— what is offered as (tertiary) §»
Smitgfs view
Smith's View ... , etc.).
etc ) A writer does not a!ways alwavs signal clearly
Clearll’
authoritative opinion or as interpretation
inteqoremtion in a book should not
when he
when he or
Or she
she passes
passes from the presentat~on
from the presentation of of evidence
evidence .to
z€~'-re»
normally be used uncritically as evidence in an essay, unless, of to
.lntcrprering
-
interpreting - -
or giving - '
an opinion, i you mu
so mugt ft learn to -
recogmse
iecogn ise
course, you are writing about the interpretations and opinions
the
the implicit
implicit signs
signs yourself.
yourself. Let
Let us
us examine
examine two two short
S110“ passages.
P355356-
of the scholars you are examining. Only primary evidence and ,1: .;- -.

well-established facts about which there seems to be no debate ii 1". K ,

statement (or theory) the truth of which - is ~ agreed
5 r on by % all. or .most
ost ~u?1orita~ive
uthorirativc
should be used in this way.* Something of these relationships Statement (or thwryl the truth llfwlfllch is iigmuill-ion bll'lall'or‘ti[ii~ o inion of lust
opinion. Hence it must be distinguished
opinion. Hence it must be distinguished from from the autbontat!VC
ant -,01‘1l=l s P _ d of1JUSt
opu:uon I
between you and your sources can be seen in Figure 4. up 3..
Schulz” Not everyone
some scholars. CvcWOn¢ agrees with W11Il"l this definition of a fact, b~t
tl‘1l5 definition but lt
it docs
oes help
1C p
explain
explain why some of
whv some ‘facts’ a~e
yesterday's 'facts'
ofycsterday’s are t<?day's ?i~ca··ded
~ today’s disca='decl theoncs: som~b~dy
' ' 1 Thetheories: $01T1@l9°dY
*- A fact should be distinguished from primary evidence, though both can be used
*A r Successfullyr challenged uniform
successfully - authontanve
authoriratne ' , opm1on.
OPIUIOH, only sure.\~ ' ay ' to
su1'c‘\_\a} to
die long-term outcomes of
to build an interpretation on. Facts are really the discover whether a statement is truly a fact is to compa··e several
discover whether a statement is truly a fact is to compare several authorities. To authormes. To
X
investigations into primary evidence. A fact can be defined
defined pragmatically as a ..-‘
:.,(=i§
shun cut
take a short cm by relying
rclving on a single textbook can be da dangerous.
1gcrous.

58 59
S9

/
 i

€./1.
~.:.~

Interpretation: reading and taking notes Evidence, in(erpretation

intierpretation and fact
ti:Z
first is from a popular book on the use of language
The first kinds of
kinds of experimental
experimental test.test. One
One kind of of test
test designed
designed to I0 study
$mdY
written by a distinguished linguist, Dwight Bolinger: how
how attention works is the ‘dual-task expermient’. Wildmg
attention works is the 'dual-task exFeriment'. Wilding
THINGS. About entities
This chapter is about the nature of THINGS.
reports
reports this
this in
in the
the first
first sentence,
sentence, and and wewe ,~an take
take itit on
on his
his
authority that such tests are used 'quite widel:r.
authority that such tests are used ‘quite widely’. He then goes on He then goes o~
and pseudo-entities. About reality, and the sorcery of words.
ofwords.
--; -in
_ in the way characteristic of disciplines whi<.!h
vvhidh carry out expen-
experi-
Carter’s
On 29 May 1976 the female employees at Carter's "-
Semiconductors in Ipoh, Malaysia, left their workbenches
Workbenches and ments-
ments — to to describe
describe anan experiment performefi by
experil11@HtiP°Yf°m‘-cid bl’ Taylor
TQYIOY andand toto
‘if; summarise
ran from the factory, terrified
terrified and shrieking that they had been summarise Taylor's
Taylor’s results.
results. This
This is is the
the evidence.
evidence. In In the
the fourth
fourth
is sentence
gentence ('Taylor
(‘Taylor concluded ... . . . ')
’) Wilding moves
movesawayaway from the
froniftiie
molested by a ten-foot ghost without a head. The worried
management called in a witch doctor who proceeded to evidence
gvidence and presents Taylor's Taylofs own interpretation of it. This is
,
sprinkle rice and water around the factory and sacrificed
sacrificed a goat .5;as interpretation is that judgements about
interpretation is that judgements about whether two lines orwr.ether two lines of
to appease the spirits of the dead. The workers went back to digits
digits are
are the
the same
same oror different
different are are notnot perform~d using t~e
performed using the s~e
same
as
their jobs and the ghost back to its limbo. Ghosts in Malaysia kind of strategy: one is 'holistic', the other 'senal'.
kind of strategy: one is ‘holistic’, the other ‘serial’. At this point At th1s pomt
$11??‘
are a restless lot. Every so often one will show up at a school Wilding
Wilding signals
signals his
his disagreement
disagreement with with Tayfor's
Taylofs interpretation
interpretanon
and frighten the daylights
daylighrs out of the pupils. There are
ofthe . _. of his evidence, and then goes
of his evidence, and then goes on to showiwhy on to show! why hehe disagrees,
d1S2.gf€¢51
-f.\ . -. -

clinical-minded people who claim that the yoWlgsters

youngsters are just I offering an alternative explanation:
6Xpl3_l'13t101'lI€ ‘
- =aw
;+; .
hysterical from overwork, but that of course is pure
speculation. ':l?§I‘
Dual
Dual processing
processing tasks
tasks have
have been
been used
used quite
quite widely
widely to ITO sru~y.
Sf\1¢_1Y_
it micro-attention.
The second paragraph of the extract begins with the recounting micro-attention. In an experiment by Taylor (I976) exammmg
In an experiment by Taylor (1976) sxamllmg
letter
letter matching, same-different judgement~
matching, same-different judgements werewere mademade of
Q5531‘

of certain facts. Now, since this is not what might be called an of

letters of straight line segment~\
ietters formed out of straight line segmenrsi (like those in
formed out (like those in
'academic'
‘academic’ book, the author does not give the source of these
- is digital
digital watches
watches andand calculators). Same judgements
calculators) . Same judt\ements were were made
made
facts, and so we must take it on trust that his version of ofthe
the story .. it;e
cquauy quickly, regardless of
equally ofhoyv segments had to
how many se:pnents to be
is accurate (and note this in our reference). Everything down to
matchfidj but 'different'
matched, ‘difierent’ judgements were sjower silpower as the number
‘Ghosts in
the last sentence, except the interpretative comment, 'Ghosts of segments by which two letters differed S~creased. Taylor
decreased.‘Tayl0r
lot’, will count as fact. The last sentence is,
Malaysia are a restless lot', concluded that same judgements were holiftic and different
concluded that same judgements were holistic and different I
however, interpretative. The author reports other 'clinical- ‘clinical- judgements were
judgements were carried
carried out
out segment
segment by segment. How~ver,
by se;gment. Howevcr, it If
minded’ people's
minded' peop1e’s interpretation of these events, and then offers docs not follow
does fouow that the segment
scgfngnt analyses 'rerewere necessanly
necessarily
his own whimsical and ironic interpretation of their interpreta- Gmjed out serially, since clearly if segment~
,=§
it ‘ carried segments are analysed in
tion. Hysteria from overwork is not fact or evidence but, as he parallel,
parallel, completion ofone difference sign;}l
completion of one difference sigrizil is
is adequate.
adequate to to
says, 'speculation'.
‘speculation’. That naturalistic interpretation is no less an SI trigger a response.
trigger a response. If the time to complete path companson
If the time to complete t:ach comparison
w-.-
interpretation than positing the existence of ghosts is: the facts varies
varies on
on different
diiierent trials,
trials, then,
then, the more su~h
the more suth comparisons
comparisons are flrfi
are that these people said mid they saw a ghost; one possible being made, the more likely it is
being made, the more likely it is that one that one ¥.rill finish
finish quickly
quickly and and
interpretation of this is that they did see a ghost. trigger a3 response. Hence responses will b(~ be slower when letters
The second extract is from a book on the psychology of differ
difier by
by only
only one
one segment
segment than than when
when the)·
thflll differ
differ by bl’ several.
§¢"cIaL
Iohn M. Wilding, is examining theories
perception. The author, John Obviously
Obviously same judgements could not be explained in
same judgements could not be explained in the
the
Which attempt to explain how attention works. Psychologists
which same way’ since time
sanm way, tin-16 to complete
¢Q;nP[¢1;¢ analysis of all dimensions
Cll.II1Bl'1Sl01'1S

conduct their enquiries by putting hypotheses through various would

would increase
increase asas the number of
the number of segments
segmentsto to bebe handled
handled
61
6I
60

-_/~.)J ;v 'Y»£¥.‘?
 i
Interpretation: reading and taking notes !hat an author does
Vlihat
VI.

increased, unless of course extra capacity is deployed

ofcourse depioyed for the We are then placed in the position of having,
having- to search out the
more difficult task. book again.
._ , .; ~,»_.~ ,
This is a good example of a secondary text. There are no Your notes should therefore attempt to bt; as intelligible an
assertions or generalisations which are not based on evidence interpretation of the text as you can make tfhem. iihern. This means
and interpretation. The p~ocesses
processes by which Wilding arrives at his ‘surface’ of an author's
getting away from simply processing the 'surfkce' author’s
spelled out in detail. In writing such as this,
own conclusion are speUed language onto the note-pad. You need to ke<;p keep up your end of
however, we are relying on the author to give an accurate the conversation and to question the text for its meanings. One
evidence — Taylor's
summary of the primary evidence- Taylofs experimental pro- way of testing whether you widi an interpretation
yoU have come up with
cedures and results. We are not given the results in detail. J?ut
But of the passage is toto put the book from you while you make your
since there is no question raised about the methods or results, we note. Unless you have tried (even subconsciously) to memorise rnernorise
should probably be justified in accepting Wilding's
Wilding’s account.
account; .
the text, most of the words and sentence structures that come
Students of psychology and similar subjects might usefully
-.:§>"l'_'_"
‘I to your pen should be your own. If they de do not come, either
compare the way in which Wilding constructs this piece of in part or at all, you will
wili need to study the text further --— not to
writing with that in which the authors of many introductory memorise but to interpret. y
texts present received knowledge in the discipline. author’s words into
Putting an author's intoi your ov.n
own is called 'para- ‘para-
Looking thus at the interplay between evidence, interpreta- phrasing’,
phrasing', and if you simultaneousiy shorteni
simultaneously shorten the length of the
tion and authoritative opinion in the kinds of source we consult author’s text, you are 'summarising'
author's ‘summarising? or making ‘precis’. Now,
makicg a 'precis'.
is the beginning of good, critical reading and a sound essay- to be aware that the moment yriu
it is important to quoting or
you stop quoring
writing technique. l author’s words you are paraphras:!ng,
copying the author's paraphrasing, and that every
l paraphrase you make involves you ‘in interpretation of the
in the intfrpretation
author’s meaning. Even in relatively slight ch~nges,
author's chi-Hinges, a bit of the
33 What
VVhat an author does
author is lost and a bit of your interpretatio4
interpretation is added. This is
There is a kind of note-taking commonly carried out with a inescapable. So it is best to bite the bullet aJ~darid to begin to see
finger of one hand on a line of text·
finger textrand fingers of the other
and the fingers your reading and note-taking not so much as 4 faithful record of
holding the pen on the notepad. The note-taking proceeds a few what the author wrote (for which quoting is ;he ihe only solution)
flicking from book to pad and
words at a time, with the eyes flicking as your considered interpretation of what t~e tghe author meant.
back again. This kind of note-taking comes rather close to the To paraphrase is to make concrete What yoii think the author
what yo1.!
i
‘automatic’ response of the copy-typist, who can transfer
'automatic' I
l means.
s!
short-circuit
symbols from one page to another, almost entirely short-circuit- If you lack confidence
confidence in your ability to im!erpret
interpret an author's
auth0r’s
centresiof
ing the centres of the brain which process the meaning of the Without greatly misrepresenting wliat
meaning without wf~at he or she s'ays, says,
text. Such activity in the library often gives us the se~se
sehse of being
being- you might need to work quite hard at what is to be said in the
of ‘working’. In fact, the productivity of such work
busy, of'working'. Work is not rest of this chapter. But if you keep it in mine~
ifyou mincl that your essay is
very high, since sooner or, or. later we are going to -have to go to be your 'best'
‘best’ answer to the essay question,
questitin, you will see it
through these notes and interpret them. When we do get round follows that your use of the sources must equally be your 'best' ‘best’
find that our notes, notwithstanding their
to this, we sometimes find interpretation of what they mean. You should try- try —— so far as you
faithful rendition of parts of the text, are somewhat incoherent. can --— to make your notes preliminary sketcht:s
sketches for some part of

62 .."l 63
W
 <

Interpretation: reading and taking notes What an author does

finished essay, just as <;m

the finished an artist sometimes
sonietimes makes pencil or Sin now, pay later
charcoal 'studies'
‘studies’ of the subject before composing it in paint.
you
you interpret
interpret its
its function to be
function to be quite
quite diffenpt
differcint -- WARNING
WARNING
Way of
The usual way ofrepresenting
representing what the author means is, as we
rather than exhorting. You use your experi(~nce
experience of the tvvo
YWO
have seen, to paraphrase his or her words in your own. What
contexts and your knowledge of language in rhe word play on
in the
paraphrasing does is to give your account of what the author is
'paf
‘pay’ to ascribe differing functions to these statements.
SAYING. The focus is entirely on the content of the author's
SAYING. auth0r’s
Similarly, two
Similarly, two statements
statements set
set side by side
side by side may
may inin certain
certain
‘message’. Though neCessary,
'message'. necessary, to concentrate exclusively on what
circumstances be easily interpreted:
the author is saying -—_ on the content -~ is t6 to miss most of the
important clues that enable you to establish your own
really iniportant He fell into the river. He got wet. ,
‘best’ interpretation.
'best' V
Another way of approaching the question 'What ‘What does the The first
first statement EXPLAINS
EXPLAINS why he got wet, .md
and this causes no
mean?’ is to
author meanr' -to ask what the author is DOING
DOING with his or her difficulty. In
difficulty.
language. Academic writing (you will remember from from‘ chapter r)
I) The winter of 1788-9
1788-9 was a very harsh one in France, inflicting
represent the truth.
does a great deal more than simply try to represep.t truth
untold misery
misery on
on the peasants.
peasants. The
The Revolution
Revolution broke out
out in
1n
about the subject under scrutiny: a point of view has to be
July r789.
Iuly 1789. 5 ;
established, the evidence must be assembled and turned into a
clarified, the reader must
coherent argument, meanings must be clarified, we
we might similarly
similarly interpret
interpret the
the first
first statemen
statementc to
to be explaining
explaining
be addressed, and the writings of others taken into. account. the second,
the second, ASCRIBING A cause of the Revolution. But
ASCRIBING A CAUSE of the Revolution. But were
were
Academic authors will usually be quite explicit about their major this to have been written '
aims in the introductory chapter of a book or in the opening
The winter of 1788-9
178 8~—9 was a very' harsh one in
veryharsh ,Frartce, inflicting
infrance, inflicting
paragraphs of ofaa chapter; but not many stop and tell you constantly
untold misery on the peasants. Nevertheless.jthe
Neverthelesagthe Revolution
what they are up to- to ~ partly because they themselves are not fully
broke out in July
Iuly I789.
r789.
conscious of ofwhat
what they are doing. Good writers (and don'tdon’t forget
that not all academics are good writers) will often litter their text we
we are
are immediately
immediately faced with aa puzzle.
faced with puzzle. Far: from
from ascribing
ascribing aa
with clues and signposts, but the reader must be able to find find and cause, the first statement is now t·p
cause, the first statement is now eonctnsn up be a counten-
CONCEDED be a COUNTER-
interpret them. Hence it becomes quite necessary to puzzle out coNDITION
CONDITION for the outbreak
for the outbreak of revolution: perhaps
OfI'CVOl1lt1OI'1Z perhaps the the impli-
impli-
what the authors of ofyour DO.
your books are trying to no. cation is that miserable peasants turn in on themselves and
cation is that miserable peasants turn in On th(~mselves and their
their
You are already familiar with this practice from everyday problems and are not expected to be found fonientingforr~enting revolution
language. Statements which appear on the surface to be rather on the streets. The signal of the change in in function from
. . - 1‘ ' 1‘ '
nomo different things. When you
similar we easily interpret as DOING 'ascribing
‘ascribing a cause' to 'conceding
cause’_to ‘conceding a countercond;ition'
countercopdition is 1S contained
see on a roadside billboard or in a newspaper wholly in the linking
Lmlung adverbial
adverbral 'nevertheless'.
nevertheless . You oumay speculate
spew-latfi
what
what other
other changes
changes ofof function
function and
and meaning
meaning would
would be be signalled
Slgflflllfid
Fly
\ .
. now,\ pay
‘ later
you will have no difficulty in recognising this to be ENCOUR-
by 'coincidentally',
‘coincidentally’, 'be
example' or
‘be that as it maf,
'incidentally'.
example’ ‘incidentally’.
may’, 'indeed',
‘indeed’, or even 'for
p
‘for

AGING or EXHORTING.
AGING EXHORTING. When you see a rather similar piece of There are three main kinds of motive and iJ.tention mtention you need
language, say on the billboard outside a church, to be able to recognise in 111 order to begin to interpret what an

6+
64- 65
[1
I • \
 l=

as./fl,W, ;y

Interpretation: reading and taking notes An auth~r's

1 Au authpr‘s major motives

author is doing. The first

first concerns the author's
author’s relationship should you make use of the index and the taHle taliale of contents to
to other writers; the second the author's
author’s ways of analysing hunt down those parts of the work that mTghtTE“especially
might'Oe-especially
_;_i =
the subject matter; and the third the structuring of the relevant to your essay. The author's .~ims provide the
autl'10r’s major aims
subject matter into a coherent sequence of ideas. We shall put context which enables you to make sense of ofthe idetail in the body
thejdetail
=L=. ..
them in terms of questions
questions you can ask the text. They are of the book, and provide the first
first clues as to how
h(>w you will begin
these: % to interpret the substance of what is said. Such discussions, it is
true, are often very general, abstract and theoretical. You might
•0 What is the author's
author’s main aim or motive in writing the work therefore find
find them difficult to follow. But some slow, careful
IT .
of it in which you are interested) with respect to
(or the part ofit reading here will produce enormous dividend;;
dividends in the speed and
what others have previously written on the subject? success with which you will be able to read ar~d interpret other
•0 What modes ofdiscourse
of discourse does the writer employ to analyse the parts of the
parts of the book.
book. And
And by by the
the same
same token,
token, ycjur reading of
yciur reading of the
the
subject matter itself, and how is this carried out? detail will help you understand more clearly ·!hose ‘€l'10SC general and
•0 What does the writer do to structure his or her analyses into a ii
ii puzzldd. (If this sounds
abstract points over which you initially puzzled.
coherent sequence ofideas?
of ideas? How are the parts fitted
fitted together circular, it is. But it is not a vicious circle: the general and the
in order to compose the whole?
Whole?
;< abstract help you see the significance
significance of the particular and the
i
The next three sections of
ofthis ofthese
this chapter will examine each of these concrete, and vice versa.) All academic Work work demands attention
in turn. “4 7'<17" < ’1‘ to both.
The most common motives which govern academic hcadernic writing
are these:
4.
4- An author’s
author's major motives
I/',.‘¢> '<\"*: f/ "'7 ’~W‘,*'_"/ »‘7
•0 AGREBING
AGREEING WITH, ACCEDING TO, DEFENl)ING
DBFENQING Or
or
An academic author has to have some overriding reason for CO N FIRMING a particular point
CONFIRMING poinn of view;
ofview;
putting pen to paper. Some of these reasons will be personal, but eo PROPOSING
PROPOSINGQHCW a new point of view;
ofviewj
they need not concern us. More importantly, the author hopes to % •o coN ct D IN o that an existing point of view l~as
c o N CEDING has certain merits
make a contribution to an ongoing debate in his or her disci- needs to be QUALIFIED
but that it nCeds certai~ important
QUALIFIED in certaiia
pline, and so the Workwork produced must be seen as part of that respects;
debate. The major aims of the Work work will usually be defined
defined in ..,., REFORMULATING an existing point of
•0 REEORMULATING view! or statement of it,
ofviewior
terms of what is already known and thought about the subject such that the new version makes a better explanation;
and what the Writer Wishes to add to the work of others. If you
writer wishes •0 DISMISSING a point of view or another pen~n's
ofview work on
pers»ion’s Work
look at the foreword or preface to your books you will some- account of inco~erence or by
its inadequacy, irrelevance, incoherence
ofits
find a writer apologising for producing yet another book
times find recourse to other appropriate criteria;
on the subject, but this apology will quickly be followed by a oo ntltctmo, REBUTTING or REFUTING
REJECTING, REBUTTING aerorrno anbther's
a.n‘other’s argument
justification for 'yet
‘yet another book'.
book’. 3 on various reasoned grounds;
This justification
justification will usually be worked out in more detail in oo RECONCILING
RECONCILING two positions which may se·:m seem at variance by
the first
first chapter (or, if the Work
work is a journal article, in the ‘higher’ or 'deeper'
appeal to some 'higher' ‘deepef principk;
principle;
opening
opeuing paragraphs). For this reason, your firstfirst task on opeuing
opening •e RETRACTING or RECANTING a previous position of one's one’s
a book is to study the preface and the opening
\\__
chapter.
opeuingclfapter. Only then _>§.. ..
own in the face of ofnew
new arguments or evidence.
£1
66 i‘ ‘ 67

§’
 i
Interpretation: reading and taking notes An am~or's
aut§i1or’s major motives

These major motives are not mutually exclusive: they can be few universal laws which determine the undeflying
unde ilying pattern of all
combined in various ways. If we skim through the opening events (including revolutions) and which hurflans
hurhans can do little or
Brinton’s The Anatomy of Revolution (first
chapter of Crane Brinton's (first to modify. It is the task of the schol~r
nothing to scholhr to
to uncover these
published in 1938 and revised in 1952 and 1965) we come to this finds comparatively !itt*
laws. This doctrine finds littli: favour in Anglo-
statement of aims on p. T7: American
Atnerican tr-aditions
traditions of scholarship;
scholarship, hence BriPton's
Brii1ton’s desire not to
Our aim in the following study is the modest one of tht~n, is an example of
have his proposal confused with it. Here, thiin,
attempting toto establish, as the scientist might, certain first
first the recommendation, made above, that_ y-hut y-bur reading of an
approximations of uniformities to be noted in the course of author's
auth0r’s general aims be slow and as thorough as possible.
four successful revolutions in modern states: the English don’t have the space to illustrate all
We don't ali :me
ithe major motives
16405, the American Revolution, the great
Revolution of the r64-os, listed above as they occur in the introductor:[
introductoryi chapters of books.
recent - or present-
French Revolution, and the recent- present »- revolution There is, however, an import~!
important point to keep
keel? in mind, now that
in Russia. Were we attempting to find an ideal type for we have listed them and asserted their imp<frtance
irnptirtance for the way
revolution, were we seeking a kind of Platonic idea of you come to terms with a book. It is this. These
Tliese motives will be
revolution, we might be fairly reproached with picking four found to govern not only whole works, but ip&l'[$parts of them, too.
nice neat revolutions which made almost too good a case, too Just
Iust as it is necessary to identify the major mc:tives
mcitives of the book as
ofthe
perfect a pattern. But we are making no such attempt. It a whole, so it is important to search for theni
thenl in chapters and in
should be very clear that not all revolutions, past, present, smaller sections of the text. We shall, for e;;ample,
example, see various
and future, will conform to the pattern here drawn. Our four from the body
motives in the extract fr?m Brir~ton's book quoted
bofdy of Brintoifs
‘typical’ in the sense the
revolutions are not necessarily even 'typical' below. '
‘typical’ has for literary critics or moralists. They are
word 'typical' This extract is taken from the second chapt:pr,
chapter, entitled 'The
‘The old
simply four important revolutions with which we have chosen regimes’. In it Brinton analyses those featuref
regimes'. featureis of the old regimes
to begin a work of systematization
to systernatization still in its infancy. that made them vulnerable to overthrow by rievolution.
rfvolution. The part
Brinton’s main purpose here is to·
Brinton's to PROPOSE
PROPOSE a new way of with which we econo~ic weaknesses. As
We are concerned examines econqinic
studying four famous revolutions of modern times: he is begin- witi--~ appropriate terms
you read it, try to label parts of the text witli
ning the search for uniformities in them, trying to systematise from the list of motives given on p. 67 abovt!-
abovti.
the course of these revolutions. Although this aim might not boun(~ to
As good children of our age, we are bound to start any such
now seem particularly new, weWe can infer from his words that in
study as this with the economic situation. ~1 of us, no matter
1938 it was a somewhat novel proposal. But rather than make an how little sympathy we may have withwim orgo~ized
organized Communism,
novel FY» Brinton feels the need immediately
issue of its novelty, imme iate y tto0 betray the extent of Marx's
Marx’s influence
influence in the!
thei social studies-
studies — and
DEFEND
DEFEND REIECTING the likely charge that
it. This he does by REJECTING of the influences
influences that worked
Worked on Marx-
Marx -— bV the naturalness
‘ideal type'
he is seeking in these revolutions an 'ideal type’ or 'Platonic
‘Platonic idea'
idea’ "What ha(~
with which we ask the question: 'What had economic interests
of revolution. to do with it all?'.
al1?’. Since Beard's
Beard’s study of dur
c-iur Constitution,
Now, you may not know what these two phrases mean. But if many American scholars have indeed seerr:ed
seen".-ied to feel
feei this is the
significance of what Brinton is propos-
you are to appreciate the significance only question they need ask.
ing, then
ing, then you
you must
must be
be prepared
prepared toto f:!~d
find out
out what
what itit is
is he
he is
is Now it is incontestable that in all four o::the
ofthe societies we are
rejecting. It is the doctrine, associated with Plato, that there are a studying, the years preceding the outbreak of revolution

68 69
l~rS¢w€,/¢on-&</
 ae¥l"?>" ‘
l
21 ..
Interpretation: reading and taking notes An aa’§1t.hor’s
athor's major motives

witnessed unusually serious economic, or at least :financial, financial, if :': ' : '
Davies in thetile/lmerimn S0ci0l%ic./al Review; (Volume xxvn)
American Sociological XXVII)
difliculties of a_aspecial
difficulties first two Stuarts
special kind. The first Smarts were in suggests that what provokes a group to at~ack atgtack a government is
conflict with their parliaments over taxes. The years
perpetual conflict not simply deprivation or misery, but 'an ‘an ~ntolerable
intolerable gap
just before 1640 resounded with complaints about Ship .5 between what people want Want and what they\get',
andgwhat they éget’ , and that
Money, benevolences, tonnage and poundage, and other terms economic ~epressions
revolutions often come during ieconomic iiepressions which
now strange to us, but once capable of ofmalcing
making a hero of a very follow on periods of generally risingliising standards
starlizlflffifi ofliving.
0f1iVi11g-
rich Buckinghamshire gentleman named John Iolm Hampden.
Harnpden. France in 1789 was a very striking exam.•Jle
exarnfple of a rich society
Americans need not be reminded of ofthe
the part trouble over with an impoverished government. The eighteenth century
taxation played in the years just before the shot fired fired at ,55 had begun to collect statistics about itself itself1 and though these
defied all the laws
Concord defied iaws of
ofacoustics.
acoustics. 'No‘No taxation without ‘ii would not satisfy a modern economist tht;y they enable us to be very
representation‘ may be rejected by all
representation' ali up~to~date
up~to-date historians as certain about the increasing prosperity ofieighteenth~century
ofieighteenth-century
in itself alone an adequate explanation of the beginnings of ofthe
the France. Any series of indices-
Frar;tce. indices — foreign trade,
trarle, population
American Revolution, but the fact remains th,at that it was in the M49,-p/ 5 ~$"\/e );, \"~‘)'- “1'/7, :'
growth, building, manufactures, agricukirral
agricultural production-
production -— will
2
1770s a slogan capable of
rnos ofexciting
exciting our fathers to action. In 1789 show a general upward trend all through i:he the eighteenth
the French Estates~
Estates-General,
General, the calling of ofwhich
which precipitated i century. Here are a few examples: wastelcnds
century: wastelands all over France
ft?\.
the revolution, was made unavoidable by the bad financial financial state ?
. . .-i- were being brought under the plow and i1 in the ilection
Election of
ofthe
of the government. In Russia in 1917 £917 :financial
financial collapse
coilapsc did not -3:;
g .
IMelun
‘Melun alone in two years from 1783 to 178) 178; uncultivated la..11d
land
perhaps stand out so prominently because the Czarist regime 14.,5oo to IO,ooo
was reduced from 14,500 1o,ooo arpent>;
awpentx; Rouen doubled its
all-round collapse in all
had achieved an allwround ail fields
fields of
ofgovernmental
governmental production of cotton cloth in a generatio:1;
ofcotton generation; the total French
activity, from war to village administration. But three years of .3; foreign trade had in 1787 increased nearly ~oo,ooo,ooo
ioo,ooo,ooo livres in
war had put such a strain on Russian finances finances that, even with a
the dozen years since the death
death“ of Louis }!V in !774-
ofLouis I774-.
the support of the Allies, high prices and scarcity were by 1917 .i‘1
Even in our imperfect statistics we We can .!fistinguish
iilistinguish
the most obvious factors in the general tension. short~term
short-term cyclical variations, and it seem)sseernés clear that in some
thegovernment
Yet in all of these societies, it is the government that is in respects 1788-89 was a bad year. It was, h{~wever,htjawever, by no means
financial difficulties,
financial difficuities, not the societies thttmselves.
themselves. To put the a deep trough year, as 1932 was waslfor co
for this corn Ifbusinessrnen
try. If businessmen
matter negatively, our revolutions did not occur in societies in eighteenth~cenrury
eighteenth-century France had kept chfrtS char-ts and made graphs,
with declining economies, or in societies undergoing \< the lines would have mounted with gratiffinggratifiying consistency
long-term economic misery or depression.
widespread and long~term through most of the period preceding thtl French Revolution.
ofthe
find in these societies of
You will not :find ofthe oid regime anything
the old Now this prosperity was certainly most uP-evenly uhevenly shared. The
like unusually widespread economic want. In a speciii.c specific people who got the lion's
lion’s share of it seemjto
seeméto have been the
instance, of course, the standard against which want or :5" merchants, bankers, businessmen, lawyer~, lawyers, peasants who ran
depression is measured must be the standard ofliving of living more or businesses —~ the middl~
their own farms as businesses-- niiddlge class, as we have
less acceptable toto a given group at a given time. What satisfiedsatisfied i
to call it. It was precisely these pros~erous
come to pros perous people who Rn in
an English peasant in 1640 164.0 would be misery and want for an 17305 were loudest against rhe
the 1780s the governblent,
government, most reluctant
English farm laborer in 1965.I965. It is possible that certain groups to save it by paying taxes or lending it mcney.money.
in a society may be in unusual want even though statistically Yet the notion persists that somehow cr or other the men who Who
‘society as a whole'
that abstraction 'society whole’ is enjoying an increasing-
increasing - made the French Revolution must have s-Iffered suffered serious
abstract“ 'national
and almost equally abstract- ‘national income'.
income’. James
Iames C. economic deprivation. A very distinguished contemporary
l

70 7I
 E
' '"
~:- ='-'l’:'£€:»:-:=2'=2 V

,.
Interpretation: reading and taking notes 1-i;<= if 1%
__ : Modes of analysis
1'!
scholar, C. E. Labrousse, has sought to to prove that there were be seen in second,-last paraf~raphs
in the third-last and second-last paragraphs of the extract
ofthe
sufficiently
sufficiently bad price squeezes on little
littie and middling men so ('it
(‘it seems .clear
clear ... however'; 'certainly
. . . however’; ‘certainly ...
. . . Ye'r').
Yegt’).
that they were spurred to revolution by actual want or at least s.
Notice, too, how Brinton deals deais with a fno ... but’ in
. . . but' m the
hardship. Despite his hard work, his general thesis is not <5: middle of the second paragraph. Our (jut note could talre
cciuld take this form:
wholly convincing. At best, his thesis needs restating along the Brinton ACCEDES to
ii
1, to the current viewwhikh
currerit view whifth REJECTS the
lines suggested by James
Iames C. Davies, and referred to on the
politics of taxation ('alone') sufficient '~xplanation
(‘alone’) as aaisufficient explanation of the
preceding page. American Revolution, but QUALIFIES this by insisting on its
sf, oUA§L11=1Es
avaiiable for
In America, of course, with an empty continent available
major importance.
l'I13.]O1’ IITIPOITEGHCE.
the distressed, general economic conditions in the eighteenth
'
century show increasing wealth and population, with A note of
ofthis exemplifies the point mad~
this kind exemplifies made on pp. 63—4- above
pp . 63-4
economic distress a purely relative matter. that your notes should try to be preliminary sketches for what

Brinton opens his account by ACCEDING to the view that

you might write in the essay itself.
._.».-,. . .. A final
final instance of how Brinton positi-)ns
positions himself on the
economic factors must be included in the analysis while DIS-
l controversies surrounding his topic is his DISMISSAL of Of C. E.
E-
MISSING the more extreme Marxist view that economic factors '3
>2 Labrousse, advocating that Labrousse's
Labrousse’s thesis be REFORMU-
REFORMU—
alone can account for revolution. We call this a DISMISSAL DISMISSAL
rather than a REBUTTAL or REFUTATION since no reasons are 3.
,2:
LATED
LATED onon the
the lines
lines of Ianies C.
of James C. Daviec;'s,
Davieifs, with
with which
which he
he
AGREES.
offered for rejecting this view: the most Brinton offers is the
of ‘only’ economic explanations.
criterion of the insufficiency of'only' ~.ac,./,

He begins the second paragraph not by PROPOSING PROPOSING a point 55 Modes of analysis i
of view, as it might seem to you, but by CONCEDING a
s
establi~hes- his position in
We turn now from how the author estabiiishes. in
particular interpretation of the economic plight of the four t respect of various points of view to the -fnodes
hlodes in which
Which he116
countries under examination. What gives away the fact that this s
i analyses the subject matter itself.
itself; The ful'pamental
funidamental modes of
is not the proposal for which he will be arguing is the phrase 'it ‘it is ; analysis are these:
incontestabie that ...
incontestable ...’.'. This might look like a very strong 4 "rn 120 RISING about and EXPLAINING h<~W
oo THEORISING hciw or why things are
proposal. But (like such terms as 'it ‘it cannot be denied',
denied’, 'it
‘it is true §
as they are; _
(
that’, 'certainly',
that', ‘certainly’, 'manifestly'
‘manifestly’ and 'there
‘there is no doubt')
doubt’) in fact it 3
•1 DEFINING tern-isterms and concepts by Nannie
NAMHfG them,
indicates that a major QUALIFICATION is to follow, signalled REFERRING to objects, CLASSIFYING iPdividuals into
CLASSIFYINGl:11CliVidll3.lS
‘however’, 'but',
by a 'however', ‘but’, 'yet'
‘yet’ or similar term. It is this qualification
qualification betw,~en and
classes, and by DISTINGUISHING between
that becomes the main PROPOSAL (or 'main ‘main point')
point’) in the COMPARING similar classes biyby means of!ASCRIBING
oifascluis mo
».;».; -
argument. Therefore, when you ·read read 'it
‘it is iincontestable that’
incontestable that' characteristics to them;
5.
your eye should begin looking for the 'but' ‘but’ to follow. Brinton Q‘ •v DESCRIB
DESCRIBING mo the characteristic features cfthe
of the objects being
supplies it at the beginning of the third paragraph. There he enquired into; - ; -
REFORM‘gLA'1“II<l£} the original point
makes his major point by REFORMULATING e- OBSERVING
on snavmo and IDENTIFYING the objects objetts tO
to be analysed;
of view: it is not so much the societiC"s
societies as their governments that $ •0 EVALUATING the adequacy of our observations, descriptions,
/
are in economic, particularly financial,financial, trouble. Two further definitions, explanations and theories in
definitions, in the light of criteria
ofcriteria
‘yes ...
examples of this 'yes . . . but'
but’ way of establishing a viewpoint can appropriate to each. 2

72 73
x
Interpretation: reading and taking notes Modes of analysis

The kinds of statement an author makes in order to analyse the Estates~General to alleviate
Estates-General to alleviate its
its ,:financial
lfinancial ;iplight.
plight. Then
Then he
hc
material are the answers to the common kinds of question, set EXPLAINS why
EXPLAINS why it it is that financial
is that financial collapse
cfollapse in; Russia was
in§Russia was not not so
so
26-31): 'what',
out in chapter 2 (pp. 26-32): ‘what’, 'which',
‘which’, 'who',
‘who’, 'how',
‘how’, obvious, concluding with a DESCRIPTIO~ DEs,oR1I>:r1o of the state of
'why', ‘to what extent',
‘why’, 'to extent’, etc. The technique to develop for reading Russian
Russian finances, which is
finances, which is offered
offered only
only implic[tly
implicitly as being also
as being also an
an
and taking notes is the ability first first of all to be able to identifY
identify EXPLANATION of that revolution.
EXPLANATION _
which ofofthese
these analytical modes the author is operating in at any VVhen seen in terms such as these these,1 Brinton's
Briniton’s paragraph is 15
given point in the text and, secondly, to be able to say how the
point-in something
something of of aa mess.
mess. England
England is briefly described
is briefly described without without
Identifying them is not always as
author goes about doing it. IdentifYing anything much being explained; explained; the American Arnerican and French
easy as it might seem, since there are parts of explanations and revolutions are briefly briefly explained without
wlithout anything much being
definitions of general ideas ,or
definitions ,0r concepts that look very like described; and Russia gets a bit of each. Wer,~ Were you to be reading
descriptions of particular events or situations. To make judge- further into the chapter,
chapter,'you you would need to keep this in mind in
ments about how the author performs these kinds of analysis is a order
order to see whether Brinton makes good these
to see whether Brinton makes good these deficiencies.
d¢fi€i¢I1Ci6$- In In
skill that takes some time to build up. It means gradually
gradualiy learning fact, the fourth and fifth fifth paragraphs of the extract do fill fili in some
to expect what the main ingredients of, say, an explma~ionexp,l_ana_tion_ or of
ofthethe nDESCRIPTIVE
Esc RI PTIVE detail needed on F ranee. -
Franccl.
definition are, and then to measure what the author does against
definition The
The third
third paragraph
paragraph opens,
opens, as as we
we saw,
saw, witli
with the the main
main proposal
proposal
it. This is one of the most important abilities to develop if you or proposition, couched in the analytical mode
or proposition, couched in the analytical mode of an interpreta- of an interpreta-
want to become a good, critical reader of academic work. tive OB SERVATION. The
tive OBSERVATION. rest of
The rest the paragraph
ofthe paragrap:1 is is largely
largely taken
taken up
up
Most of the analytical modes listed above can be seen at work with
with a problem of nsrmrrron. I-low is one to define
a problem of DEFINITION. How is one to define
in the second and third paragraphs of the Brinton extract. The 'economic
‘economic want'?want’? Brinton
Brinton refuses
refuses to to ASCRil~E
Ascmisn any any ofof the
the char-
char-
second paragraph begins with what we can call an OBSERVA- OBSERVA- acteristics of'economic misery' or 'deprivati(>n'
acteristics of‘econornic misery’ or ‘deprivation’ to his definition to his definition
TION. Brinton observes a 'fact'‘fact’ about the economic state of the of want. Indeed, he doesn't
ofwant. d0esn°t really ascribe any fharacteristics
pharacteristics at all
four countries on the eve of revolution. (Notice that this 'fact' ‘fact’ is to
to it.
it. Rather,
Rather, he prefers to
he prefers to define
define it in relati\~
it in relatiwie terms,
terms, COMPAR-
COMPAR-
‘interpretation’ of the situation being analysed-
equally an 'interpretation' analysed — see misery and want in 1640
11_q(;-misery
ING· 164.0 with its coum;erparts
countéerparts in 1965 I965 and
Thar this observation is 'incontestable'
p. 59 above.) That ‘incontestable’ is not only refusing to
refusing DISTINGUISI-I between them.
to DISTINGUISH them. '\fant',
‘V§7ant’, he he concludes
concludes
an indication, as we saw, that it will be qualified.
qualified. It is also an with the
with the help
help of
of Davies,
Davies, is is no
no more
more than than ¥ considerable
considerable gulf gulf
mat
indication that the author is giving his JUDGEMENT on, or
JUDGEMENT between
between ‘what people want and what they ge The
'what people want and what they get'. The description
iizsrnprion of of
EVALUATION of, its truth, an example of one piece oflanguage
EVALUATION of language the
the French
French economy
economy in in the
the succeeding paragfaphs is
succeeding paragiaphs is intended
illtcndcd as as
performing two separate functions simultaneously. a justification of this definition.
definition. And his disr\>issal
dismissal of Labrousse
Having made his observation and given his evaluation of it, in
in the
the final
final paragraph
paragraph is is implicitly based onl
implicitly based oni how
how thisthis historian
historian
DESCRIBE the economic circumstances of
Brinton goes on to DESCRIBE delines
defines 'want'
‘want’ and 'hardship'-
and‘hardship’.
England under the Stuart kings. Turning to America, he changes From this kind of reading it should be dear clear to you that the
his mode
mode. of analysis somewhat. Rather than give a similar various
various modes
modes of of analysis interact in
analysis interact in quite' complex ways
quitejcomplwt not
Ways _1f10i
description, Brinton makes an observation about taxation and only amongst themselves but also with With the major motives
‘adequate’ EXPLANATION
then debates whether this is an 'adequate' EXPLANATION of 'tile the examined in
examined in the previous section.
the previous section. To To these
these we we must
must nownow add add aa
American Revolution. With respect to France, he EXPLAINS EXPLAINS the consideration of what the author does to sequence
consideration ofwhat the author does to sequence and structure and structure
government’s calling the
onset of revolution as the result of the government's ideas into a coherent whole.

74-
74 75
 3
2
Z
Interpretation: reading and taking notes authofs Jtructural
An author's ltructural intentions

uniforrnities
uniformities in the four revolutions, we mig;ht might predict that this
author’s structural intentions
6 An author's
section on France will be followed by a trecitment treaitment of the other
The structure of a book is studied by identifying its parts, four countries at this level of generality in hi~ his argument. This is
between those parts, and understanding
clarifying the relations benveen what in fact happens, as the introductory sefltence sehtence on America
between the parts and the whole. The book, as we
the relations benveen indicates. That is to say Brinton ITEMISES
ITEMISES these t~ese four countries
have seen, will have an overall controlling motive, which Which is establishing support for his thesis. Exactlylthe
in establishi.t;lg Exactly ithe same structural
broken down into parts which are usually expressed in chapters pattern of GENERALISATION
GENERALISATION supported by i!temised iitemised particulars
which relate to each other in various ways as well as to that can be seen within the second paragraph. ,
overall motive. Similarly, the chapter will have a governing The fourth paragraph has four levels of generality. It begins
1 motive, toto which its parts-
parts - sections, subsections and paragraphs with Brint0n’s
Brinton's now familiar GENERALISATI,PN
GENE nan s.-rrrpn in respect of the
--- will contribute. Paragraphs, and even sentences, can also French economy. In the second sentence the th-e economy is PAR- PAR-
demonstrate these same principles of structure. One of the TICULARISED in terms of'statistics'.
TICULARISED of ‘statistics’. The third sentence makes
difficulties ‘of
difficulties of reading any moderately complex work is that of ·' still — statistics about ce1~ain
this more particular still- certain broad areas of
holding together in your mind the very general points whilst the economy, which he ITEMISES.I'IEMIsBs. The fourth, and most rnost par-
simultaneously keeping straight the variety of its detail. Some- itemisesspecifiic
ticular level in the paragraphs, itemises specif'c examples of these
times, there might be little point in worrying too much about ‘hard’ statistics. This is the rriost
trends with the 'hard' most particular level
the detail, for example when you are doing some background reached by any statement in the extract quoted. qucitetl. The next two
reading, as described on p. 54 5+ above. In reading for an essay, paragraphs 'ascend'
‘ascend’ through the levels to biiing b1;ing us back to the
however, you will usually need to fit fit aU
all the pieces of a text generality of the opening statements
statements-of of th!f second and third
together before you can decide what you need to concentrate on paragraphs. _
for the purpose of taking notes. You will notice a distinct symmetry in tb~ way Brinton has
Structuring
Structuring~ atext
text involves you, therefore, in deciding: carried out this structuring of the extratlt. extra<.~. The general is
gradually made more particular up to the gend of the fourth
the [end
•1 where the author is GENERALISING
GEN ERALISING and where he or she is
paragraph, at which point this trend is reilersed. ‘hour-
re\lersed. This 'hour-
PARTICULARISING;
PARTICULARISING;
glass’ structure is'
glass' is’quite
quite a common one and andican look~d for
lean be looked
•0 which statements or stretches of text belong together in the
in most of the books you read. l-Iowtfgver, Howt_fver, few authors
ITEMISING of points at any given level of particularity or
ITEMISING
generality. perform it with such transparent. precisioni Brinton does;
precision! as Bfinton
so do not expect to be able to structure evt!ry evtlry text as easily as
clearer by looking at the Brinton
Let us make this a little dearer this one. K
extract. The most general statement is made in the first first para- final point to be made on tile
There is one final cl~e matter of itemi-
iterni~
graph -— a statement about the importance of economic factors. sation. When you are reading you should alw:~ys alwéiys try to give -some
some
But this is by way of introduction. His real aEgurnenl;__
a_rgurnent_ begins sort of label to what is being itemised, anc~ and to keep a mental
with the second and third paragraphs, which are the next most count of the items as they come up. The mo~lt most common sorts of
general. A third level of generality is established in the last three label you can apply are ones like these: fact->, facts, factors, features,
paragraphs, which take up the case (or 'example')
‘exa.mple’) of France. characteristics, examples, illustrations, cases, ca~:es, reasons, con-
Knowing, as we do, the aims of the book to be the search for ditions, causes, results, arguments, premisses (the statements

76 77
 -.=.-.-.-.-.,~§
3
Q
>§
§
Interpretation: reading and taking notes Intcrpieting a difficult text
Interp,feting
i
5.-'.—;:n
which, when logically put together, add up to to a conclusion), and
Assigninglabels
so on. Assigning labels in this way helps you to distinguish the 7 Interpreting a difficult
difiicult text i
different
diff€II¢I1t levels
l6V6lS of
Of generality from each other, and also enables . it The approach to reading and taking notes notes; outlined above is
between the .elements
you to make the connections berv.reen elements of structure Ii relatiyely easy writer to
suitable for most books. Brinton is a relatiYely
be? applied ~ithour
1
author’s analytical modes of discourse. For example, a
and the author's follow, and this approach can be §/vithout too much
note on the fourth paragraph could take the form:form; /
difficulty to academic writing of this kind. H~wever,
difficulty I-Igbwever, you will at
Brinton’s DESCRIPTION
Brinton's DESCRIPTION of the growth in the E times be faced with texts that you.'have
youihave to L:[bour
labour over in great
~ighteenth-cenrury
eighteenth-century French economy ITEMISES
ITEMI$E$ three main :i detail if you are to understand them. These t:exts isexts are sometimes
,6
FEATURES
FEATURES- — agriculture (the amount of land under ‘classics’ in your discipline which, because of the quality of
the 'classics'
cultivation), manufacturing (cloth production in Rauen)
Rouen) and attention in some courses.
their thought, are given considerable attenti{?n
Y
foreign trade. ‘i
difficulty you migh1l
Because of their relative difficulty mighii be tempted not to
2
read the texts themselves, but to make
niake do with others' others’ commen-
J taries on them. They can, however, be apprdached
apprciached with a bit of
i
author’s motives
The account of an author's motives and intentions given in the'
the 3‘1 work, the rewards of which are inestimable
intstimable -wheniwhen you come to
last three sections is by no means exhaustive. First, we We have read the more straightforward works wbrks in yqur
your discipline. The
1
said ~othing
nothing of that aspect of an author's
author’s intentions which may >
techniques we have examined remain usefu_·;,usefuf, but now we shall
influencing the reader's
be particularly directed at influencing reader’s judgement by pay much closer attention to individual statements and to the
2
means of various rhetorical devices. Nor have we examined the thg X author's Words. In doing this we can ~ee
author’s use of words. list-re how, even with
author’s own degree of
ways in which we can assess the author's ofconfidence
confidence X difficult material, we can still bring an
very difficult aniauthor
!author to our own
in his or her ow?own arguments. You might, for example, have haw
r
terms and can invest what he or she says wit~ with our ov.rn own personal
‘modesty’, even defensiveness, with which
noticed the extreme 'modesty', i significance.
significance. . K
Brintdn sets out his airps
BrintOn aims in the paragraph quoted on page 68. 63_ Kant’s Critique of
Kant's Pure Reason (1781, I78;i)
0fPurz 1787i) is generally reck-
We have treated in this chapter only those things which are basic a
oned to be one of the more important and, a·fthe at the same time, one
to interpreting a text and taking notes on it. of the most difficult books in Western liter!ature.
literiature. Still, we can
Secondly, the terminology suggested to you for describing an K worry
Worry at the first
first three paragraphs of the see<fnd
pfthe secrind edition (r787) (1787) as
authors motives and intentions is only a basic vocabulary which
author's interpretationi My purp_l:>se
a useful exercise in interpretation. purple-se here is to try to
seeks to draw your attention to the main things to look for. re-create a microcosm of the situation you face when you have
There are many, many more such words that can be used to to talk e
difficulty understanding a text and turn to '·1econdary'
‘riecondary’ interpre-
about what an author is doing. You can build up your vocabu- v.:;.;$
2 tations to help you out. The Critique is a 'th~oretical'
‘theoretical’ secondary
lary of such terms best by noticing how the authors of your defined on p. 56
source, as defined 56 above, but one wl~ich
wliich is nevertheless a
books ~~e
use them when they are discussing the work of other primary source for those who wish to undersdmd
understand Kant's Kant’s thought.
scholars. It is
1S here that you will see these terms in action much
better than in a textbook such as this. You will also be doing Of the Difference between Pure and Empii-ical
Empirical Knowledge
;
something of great importance: learning to pay attention to experfence there can be no
That all our knowledge begins with exper:ence
academics'
academics’ language and the way Way they approach the business of doubt. For how should the faculty of knowledge be called into
Writing academic work.
writing ifnot
activity, if not by objects which affect our sense, and which
XX

78 . 79
 >K

and taking notes

Interpretation: reading a'nd ; lntcrpriiting a difficult
InterpJting difficult text
Ii

! 52

either produce representations by themselves, or rouse the independent of experience (a

ofexpericnce priori) as disti1hct
(aprioai) distinct from that which 1'
s
activity of
activity of our
our understanding
understanding to to compare,
compare, to to connect,
connect, or or to
to posteriori). - (T. D. Weldon)
is merely empirical (a posreriari).
Separate them;
separate them; and and thus
thus to to convert
convert thethe raw
raw material
material of ofour
our
sensuous impressions
sensuous impressions into into aa knowledge
knowledge of ofobjects, which we
objects, which we 2.
2. Kant here lays dovvn
down his famous principki
principle that
Ti?“ all
an our
Our
call experience? In in respect of time, therefore, no knowledge knowledge begins with
\Vith experience butbUt doesl'not
doesinot all arise oUt out of
within us
within us is.
isantecedent
antecedent to to experience,
experience, burbut all
all knowledge
knowledge begins
begins experience, i.e. there is no knowledge temp~~ rally before
tempeprally
with it_it- / experience but it is not all either causally dub
duh to or logically
But although
although all all our
our knowledge
knowledge beginsbegins with
with experience,
experience, it it based on experience.* Kant is here using experience to mean
But
does no~not follow
follow that
that itit arises
arises from
from experience.
experience. ForFor itit is
is quite
quite sense-experience. Towards the end of the stcond scgcond edition
does
possibleithat even ourour empirical
empirical experience
experience isis aa compound
compound of of version of the section Kant distinguishes bdtween
between relatively aDI
possible that even
that which we reCeivereceive through imPressions,
impressions, and of that which priori and absolutely a priori knowledge,
2 pviovi knovvlcdgfii thq
Fhli latter
Ian“ being not
our own faculty of knowledge (incited only by sensuous merely 'independent
‘independent of this or that experier,lce
ofthis experierice but absolutely
impressions), supplies
supplies from from itself,
itselfi aa supplement
supplement whichwhich we we do
do independent of all experience'.
experience’ . . . (A. C.liwing)
C. Eéwing)
impressions),
not distinguish
distinguish from from thatthat rawraw material,
material, until
until long
long practice
practice has
has * 'Throughout
‘Throughout the Introduction the term experien
cxpfirififl fe has
11115 (l¢\'¢" fim“ in
cYen at times
not
two quite distinct meapings,
one and the same sentence) nvo mea)1ing3, (1) as product of
roused our
roused our attention
attention and and rendered
rendered us us capable
capable ofof separating
separating oneone co-opcratively, anc!
sense and understanding acting co-operatively, ilflf (2)
ll) as
15 the
I11“ raw
"V" material
malicrlal
from the other. ofscnse’
(the impressions) of COmH1¢1T§flQ’» p.
sense' (Kemp Smith, Commen;;'ary, P- p).
51)-
It is therefore a question which deserves at least closer
investigation, and
investigation, and cannot
cannot be be disposed
disposed ofof at
at :first
first sight,
sight, whether
whether
there exists a knowledge independent of experience, and even 3. The aq~ument
3- argument ofKant's
ofKant‘s Introduction ... . . . st:irts
stzirts by defining
defining the
impressionsof
of all impressions of the senses? Such knowledge is called ait prioti, and through it
problem of metaphysical knowledge aiip'r1'0¢-'i',
priori, an!:f_
arid distinguished from empirical knowledge, which has leadsuptoteog
leads ical p
up to the logical roblcrn of the a
problem ti priofi S 3.'nthEUC
riori synthetic
its sources aBl posteriori, that is, in experience. judgement. In respect oftime
of time all knowledg~ begins with
alliknowledgp
follovi-§ that it all arises
experience. But it does not therefore follo\\1
The essence
The essence ofof Kant's
Kanfs distinction
distinction between
between purepure and and from experience. Our experience may be a ~om pound of that
ciompound
empirical knowledge
empirical knowledge is is summed
surnrned up
up in
in the
the first
first sentence
sentence of
of the
the which we receive through impressions, and) andlof of that which pure
second paragraph (not, you will notice, from ‘there can
second paragraph (not, you will notice, from 'there can be no ‘be no itselfflt The
reason supplies from itself. T116, question ~fs to
<}11¢$fiOT1 125 t0 whether
Whethfl or not
doubt’, in the first paragraph). But what does Kant
doubt', in the first paragraph). But what does Kant mean by mean by priori actually
any such a piiori actuallv exists, is one that 4an tian be ansvv'ered
answered
the contrast between knowledge ‘beginning with’
the contrast between knowledge 'beginning with' experience experience only after further enquiry.
enquiry (Norman Kerrfp Kenlp Smith)
and knowledge
and knowledge. 'arising
‘arising from'
from’ it?
it? All
All your
your note-taking
note-taking should
should t1" This statement is first
first made in the Introduction ttithenl the second edition. It is
so far
so far as
as possible
possible be
be guided
guided by
by aa question
question of
of your
your own,
own, and
and really. out ofkeepingwith
ofkeeping with the argument of . the lntro•iucrion
ofthe Introduction
. r in either edition. z
C5 below,
Cf. below‘ pp.
PP_ 39-"-+0,57,
39-.443, 57, 85,
85,168, 221, 245ff
168, 222, zt5lf(espcc1al ry pp.
(especial !J' pp. 278,
178, 288).
288).
this is
this is ours.
outs. Below
Below are
are three
three quotations
quotations from
from standard
standard com-
com-
mentaries on the Critique:
1.
1. It is
It is evident
evident that
that in
in point
point of
of time
time allall our
our knowledge
knowledge begins
begins Each of these three 'note-takers' fixes on Kan~'s
‘note-takers’ fixes Kan ifs main point-
point - the
with experience,
with experience, but
but not
not that
that itit is
is derived
derived from
from experience,
experience, distinction benveen
between knowledge 'beginning
‘beginning ,,!_ith'
uéith’ and knowledge
since the
since the latter
latter may
may bebe the
the indispensable
indispensable stimulus
stimulus which
which moves
moves ‘arising from'
'arising from’ experience. All three note the issue of time in the
the mind
the mind toto an
an activity
activity of
ofits own. Hence
its own. Hence itit is
is important
important to
to drawing of 05 this distinction, and also Kant\
Kant’.=; question whether
decide whether
decide whether wewe do
do possess
possess knowledge
knowledge whichwhich isis there is indeed an a:1pTiO1’i Beyond this, however, the
priori knowledge. Beyon.:l.
I ,-”
8o
So "" 8!
81

r
 E i
-/
2

Interpretation: reading and taking notes Interpr~ting

Interpreting a difficult text

Weldon’s seems to me the least

differences are considerable. Weldon's ‘experience’ in both
using 'experience' hath these senses here,§‘empirical
here, :'empirical experi-
helpful because he does no more than merely paraphrase Kant'sKant’s ence'
ence’ being defined
defined in his second pairagraph. But
paragraph. I;-ut he uses 'experi-
‘experi~
text. No interpretative comment is offered, such as Ewing does ence’, 'empirical
ence', ‘empirical experience',
experience’, 'raw
‘raw; material
material; of our
ourlsensuous
, sensuous
in his text and the footnote, and as Kemp Smith does in his impressions' ‘objects which affect our ser~ses'.
impressions’ and 'objects senses’. Kant doesn't
d0esn’t
foomote. does not ~ttempt
footnote. Moreover, Weldon doe,s attempt to say what Kant say so, but the last two may come, notriot as understanding
undFrstanding or pure
is DOING here, as the others do in their opening sentences. Of knowledge does from 'within
‘within us', in~pressions on our
us’,: but as inhpressions
the three I find
find Ewing the most helpful since he does try more senses from outside --— the external world. ll think I can now
explicitly to make sense of the main distinction. Kant’s meaning. My own gnote
construe Kant's note on the passage may go
Notice that this does not come from. Ewing's
Ewing’s own paraphras.e
paraphrase thus: Z
of Kant's
Kant’s words. On this score there is little to choose between
Kant is attempting to clarify the relative contributions
Contributions of our
the three secondary sources: experience of objects in the world and a pure 'faculty
‘faculty of
Kant begins
‘begins with ...
. . . arise from knowledge’,
knowledge', uncontaminated (as it were) b:' by experience, to our
Weldon begins with ...
. . . is derived from knowledge as a whole.
Ewing begins with _. ..
. . arise out of Kanfs assumption: we can't
Kent’: can’t have knowledge]
knowledge§ without first
first
Kemp Smith . . . arise from
begins with ... ‘prime’ it.
having had experience to 'prime' '
None of these variations lnakesinakes Kant's
Kant’s meaning any clearer to Kant's argument: but to say that e. precedes.k.
Kant’: precedesk. in time is not to
me. Weldon then· g?es
then goes on to introduce the notion of 'an ‘an say that e. causes
came: k. to arise [Ewing], because
becaus':: e. itself may be
indispensable stimulus which moves the mind' mind’ to describe the partly supplied by tbethe pure f. ofk. or 'under1randing'
‘understanding’ within witbin us.
ofexperience.
role of experience. This I findfind confusing, if not wholly mislead- One part of e.-
ofe. — 'raw material’ in the outsidt~
‘raw material' outsidti world acting on
ing, since I think of a 'stimulus'
‘stimulus’ as a cause of a 'response',
‘response’, which is senses ~ is the part that precedes l<nowl<iC1g¢-
our senses- ‘Empirical
knowttdge. 'Empirical
fairly clearly not Kant's
Kant’s meaning. (Weldon was writing in the experience', the product [Kerrtp Smith, quoted
experience’, by contrast, is lLl'1CP1‘C:I£2luCl'|:I<€ITip
1950s, when the stimulus-response
middle I950S, stitnulus—response language of behavi- by Ewing] of our independent understandiiiig
understandil1g (pure k.) acting
ourism was the current fashion.) Ewip.g's on the raw material of sense impressions, ar!d arid in this sense
EWipg’s comment indicates that_
that
knowledge is preceded by experience in time, but is neither 'arises from’ pure knowledge. The pure k. h~ calls a
‘arises from' priori
apriari
neither’
not logically based on it.
caused by it nor knowledge and empirical experience a paneiiiori
poste¥ori knowledge.
Kant finishes whether it can be sh[JWn
finishes by asking wbetber prinri k.
shbwn that aapriori
The next problem is the plethora of terms Kant uses. I cannot
exists. , ‘
be sure about the relationship between knowledge and experi-
ence until II am clearer about the meanings of each. It see111;s
seems from Summary: a latent anpriori
Smummy: priori knowledge within us, when incited
the first
first paragraph that 'facuity
‘faculty of knowledge',
knowledge’, 'understanding'
‘understanding’ ~enses, combines
by raw material from outside acting on our senses,
‘pure knowledge'
and 'pure knowledge’ (in the subheading) are very similar in with it to
to-produce expérience (a pbsteriori
-produce empirical experience pksteriori
meaning if ifnot
not synonyms. None of the commentators helps here knowledge)..
knowledge)
(though Kemp Smith uses the 'pure ‘pure reason'
reason’ of
ofthe book’s tide);
the book's title); NB. This formulation looks like a chemical reaction and Kant
nor does any ofofthem ntnithat
them note that Kant suggests that this knowledge uses the word 'compound' Ia). The apriorik.
‘compound’ (line 13). epriori k. within us
‘within us'
is 'within us’ (line 9). On experience, Ewing is helpful-
helpful — quoting chaaiged by experience -—
must be like a catalyst since it cannot be chat:ged
a later page of Kemp Smith's book.
Smith’s book- It seems to me that Kant is see later in the Introduction.

82 83
. 1: .::;.;§€
 l

Interpretation: reading ~d
and taking notes I‘ Interpreting a difficult text

'note~, since it is almost as long as

' Well, you say, this is hardly a ‘note’, I/‘»l><'7/P$1r~'»
weren't discovered until nearly forty years after Kant wrote
weren’t Wrote this,
the original text. But I thinkany
think any student of literature who has
i1 so the word was not available to him.) The language of my notes
so the ofmy
had to write a thousand-word essay on the fourteen lines of a effect~ a 'compound'
becomes, in effect, ‘compound’ of Kant's, t1e
ofKant’s, me three commenta-
sonnet will sympathise. Where I/Vhere the text is complex, one has to tors' and my own -—~ just as each commentator makes a new
tors’
i
expand before one can produce a summary. Moreover, this note, compound from the elements of his own language and Kant's.
ofhis Kant’s. In
with appropriate tidying up, could itself be part of an essay. As i this way one uses the techniques of intei!pretation
inteiipretation to avoid
e
final NB, I have used my more general reading of the
to the final i merely paraphrasing the primary text or becoming becoming dominated
<2
Introduction of the Critique (the 'whole')
‘vi/hole’) to help me see one and confused by by the secondary sources. My interpretation is, if
--ii;
aspect of the significance
significance of this part, and to justify
justifY my own i
not 'original',
‘original’, in important respects my own. I
metaphor of the catalyst. i_ _ g ' -1 To progress to the highest level of readirg
readinig by attempting an
Firially,
Finally, although I have had to make many judgements in extrinsic
extfinsic evaluation, say, of the justifiabilitfr
justifiabilit:r of the distinction
producing this interpretation, I have not given any overall between a1:» priori and a porrzriori
posteriori knowledge
knowledg·e as Kant draws it,
evaluation of Kant’s argument — such as the one based on lacK
Kant's argument- lack of would mean a lengthy discussion of the Critique of Pure Reason
0fPure
coherence offered by Kemp Smith, itself the result of his wider wider" and of many other books which tackle not just Kant but the
and deeper reading of the Critique. The interpretative }udge- judge- i\ problem of knowledge itself. Such an enterprise we We cannot
ments I have made are largely, though not wholly, within the. the 1% embark on here, but you will see that it would involve similar
framework of the three paragraphs quoted-quoted — what literary critics j llstification of a new
processes of interpretation welded into the justification
call the 'intrinsic'
‘intrinsic’ study of the text. This has involved judgements - argument. That really begins to take us awav away from the problems
ofvarious
of various kinds: of reading proper and back to those of writing.
writ ing.
•0 how Kant structures his argument;
•0 how elements of ofthe
the text function;
F~.>av.»w~ »;/_@.»s=
•0 how different parts of the text and the commentaries _"
ofthe ~ ll

compare;
comp are;
•0 what similarities there are between the meanings of different
difierent
terms and statements, and what differences
difierences of meaning there
are in the use ofofthe
the same term;
5
•0 what is implied by certain statements (e.g. if ifpure
pure knowledge 3
1

‘within us’,
is 'within us', sense impressions, by contrast, must come
from outside us; if understanding is 'pure'
ifunderstanding ‘pure’ then experience is
5.
‘contaminated’ in some sense), and so on.
perhaps 'contaminated'
'\

This last example indicates that I do bring my own language ail

from outside the text to help me interpret it. Other instances are
my met~phors
metaphors of 'priming'
‘priming’ (as one primes a pump), and the t r
1
‘catalyst’ in a chemical reaction, for which I seek justification
'catalyst' justification in
Kanfs own use of the word
Kant's Word 'compouod'.
‘compound’. (Chemical catalysts 5

34» '“"‘»~Vt.”O~I‘/-Yb»?*v$‘ 85
35