energies

Article
Assessment of Overvoltage and Insulation
Coordination in Mixed HVDC Transmission Lines
Exposed to Lightning Strikes
Mansoor Asif , Ho-Yun Lee , Kyu-Hoon Park , Ayesha Shakeel and Bang-Wook Lee *
Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Hanyangdaehak-ro 55, Ansan 15588, Korea;
mansoor1991@hanyang.ac.kr (M.A.); hoyun05@hanyang.ac.kr (H.-Y.L.); herochin@hanyang.ac.kr (K.-H.P.);
ayeshash@hanyang.ac.kr (A.S.)
* Correspondence: bangwook@hanyang.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-031-400-4752




Received: 2 October 2019; Accepted: 3 November 2019; Published: 5 November 2019


Abstract: Many geographical constraints and aesthetic concerns necessitate the partial use of cable
sections in the High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission line, resulting in a mixed transmission line.
The overhead sections of mixed lines are exposed to lightning strikes. The lightning strikes can not
only result in flashover of overhead line (OHL) insulators but can enter the cable and permanently
damage its insulation if adequate insulation coordination measures are not taken. In this work, we
have analyzed the factors that affect the level of overvoltage inside the cable by simulating a fast front
model in PSCAD. It has been determined that surge arresters must be provided at cable terminals
when the length of cable sections is less than 16 km to limit the core-ground overvoltage within the
lightning impulse protective level (LIPL). The level of sheath-ground overvoltage is independent
of the length of cable; however, it can be limited within LIPL by lowering the sheath grounding
impedance to 1.2 Ω. Insulation coordination measures do not impact the likelihood of OHL insulators’
flashover. The flashover performance of OHL can be improved by lowering the footing impedance of
the second tower closest to the cable terminals, which is otherwise most likely to flashover.

Keywords: cable overvoltage; DC transmission; dielectric breakdown; electromagnetic transient

simulation; high voltage; insulation coordination; negative lightning strikes

1. Introduction
HVDC transmission found its first commercial application over five decades ago. The practicality
of HVDC projects at that time was limited due to high cost and technical challenges. HVDC transmission
projects were deemed suitable for either long distance terrestrial power transmission where they
would offer economy over the HVAC transmission, or submarine energy transmission where HVAC
transmission was excessively inefficient [1,2]. With the advancement in converter technologies HVDC
systems are becoming more and more cost effective and technically viable. Therefore, the application
of HVDC transmission has experienced a tremendous growth over the past two decades.
The use of cable section between overhead line sections is sometimes necessitated due to
geographical constraints or concern of visually polluting scenic landscapes. Such transmission lines are
called mixed HVDC transmission lines. Nearly 25% of the existing HVDC transmission projects fall into
this category. The lightning can strike the overhead sections of the mixed line. The resulting overvoltage
surge can not only cause the flashover of OHL insulators but can also travel towards the cable. If the
overvoltage inside the cable exceeds the lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) of insulation layers
of the cable a permanent failure of cable is possible [3–5]. Therefore, the possibility of such events
should be thoroughly analyzed, and overvoltage protection strategies should be considered.

Energies 2019, 12, 4217; doi:10.3390/en12214217 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

of such events should be thoroughly analyzed, and overvoltage protection strategies should be
considered.
Many researchers have studied the impact of lightning strikes on mixed transmission lines since
Energies 2019, and
the 1990s several resulting articles have attempted to address various aspects of lightning
12, 4217 2 of 24
transients in mixed HVDC as well as HVAC lines [6–16]. Many of these studies focused on specific
design aspects such as the shunt reactor on cable terminal, presence of surge arrester/sheath voltage
Many
limiter, OHL researchers
geometries have
andstudied the impact
tower footing of lightning
impedance. Othersstrikes on mixed
focused on thetransmission
modelling details lines sincesuch
the 1990s and several resulting articles have attempted to address
as corona, frequency dependent sheath grounding impedance as well as tower footing impedance. various aspects of lightning transients
in
In mixed HVDC study
our previous as well[15], as HVAC lines [6–16].
we presented Many theoretical
a thorough of these studies analysis focused on specific
supported by fast design
front
aspects such as the shunt reactor on cable terminal, presence
transient simulation regarding the transient behavior of mixed HVDC transmission lines. The of surge arrester/sheath voltage limiter,
OHL geometries
insulators of OHL andmosttower footing impedance.
vulnerable to flashoverOthers were focused
identified onandthe modelling
the reason detailsfor their such highas
corona, frequency
vulnerability was dependent
explained. sheath grounding impedance as well as tower footing impedance. In our
previousIn this paper wewe
study [15], presented
have analyzed a thorough
the maximum theoretical analysisstresses
overvoltage supported by fast front
experienced by the transient
cables’
simulation
insulation regarding the transient
layer by simulating behavior
a high of mixed
frequency HVDC
model of transmission
mixed HVDC lines. The insulators
transmission line of in OHLtime
most vulnerable to flashover were identified and the reason for
domain simulation software PSCAD (X4, v4.6.2). We have found that the core-ground overvoltage in their high vulnerability was explained.
a cableIn this paper we have
is dependent on the analyzed
length the of themaximum
cable. Due overvoltage stressesreflection
to the positive experienced by the cables’
coefficient at the
insulation
receiving end layer by simulating
boundary a highthe
of the cable, frequency model reflected
voltage surges of mixedfrom HVDC thetransmission
boundary have linethe in same
time
domain simulation software PSCAD (X4, v4.6.2). We have found
polarity as the incident surge and they superimpose resulting in amplification of voltage inside the that the core-ground overvoltage
in a cable
cable. is dependentovervoltage
Sheath-ground on the length on of thethe cable.
other hand Due aretoindependent
the positive reflection
of cable lengthcoefficient
due to at the
the
receiving end boundary
negative reflection of theatcable,
coefficient theirthe voltageend
receiving surges reflected
boundary. The from
surgethearrester
boundary must have the same
be provided
polarity as the incident
at the terminals of the surge
small andcables theyto superimpose
provide an adequate resultingprotection
in amplificationmarginoftovoltage insidemain
the cable’s the
cable.
insulation Sheath-ground
layer, whereas overvoltage
in longer on the the
cables other usehand
of a are
surgeindependent
arrester is of notcable lengthThe
necessary. duesheath-
to the
negative reflection coefficient at their receiving end boundary.
ground overvoltage can be limited within the lighting impulse protection level (LIPL) of the jacketThe surge arrester must be provided
at
bythe terminals
lowering of the small
the sheath groundingcablesimpedance.
to provide an adequate protection margin to the cable’s main
insulation
It haslayer,
been whereas
found that in longer cables thecoordination
the insulation use of a surge arrester isdo
measures not necessary.
not alter the The sheath-ground
transient behavior
overvoltage can be limited within the lighting impulse protection
of the mixed transmission line studied in our previous work [15]. The second tower closest to the level (LIPL) of the jacket by lowering
the
cable sheath
boundary grounding remains impedance.
most vulnerable to flashover despite the installation of a surge arrester at
cableItterminals
has been and found that thethe
lowering insulation coordination
sheath grounding measures
impedance. do not alter
However, the transient
the possibility behavior
of flashover
of the mixed transmission line studied in our previous
of the positive pole insulator can be eliminated by lowering the footing impedance of work [15]. The second tower closest to the
the
cable boundary tower.
aforementioned remains most vulnerable to flashover despite the installation of a surge arrester
at cableIn the terminals
following and lowering
sections we havethe explained
sheath groundingthe system impedance.
and details of However,
fast frontthe possibility
transient models, of
flashover of the positive pole insulator
results and discussion and finally the conclusion. can be eliminated by lowering the footing impedance of the
aforementioned tower.
In the Description
2. System following sections and Fast weFront
have explained
Transient the system and details of fast front transient models,
Models
results and discussion and finally the conclusion.
In this work we have considered a ±500 kV bipolar mixed HVDC transmission system shown in
Figure
2. System 1. A cable withand
Description finite
Fastlength
Frontup to 100 km
Transient Modelsis used for analysis. The sheath of the cable is
grounded at the terminals. Five towers closest to both of the cable terminals are represented in detail.
The In this work
overhead lineweishave considered
terminated witha ±500 kV bipolar
matching mixed HVDC
impedance at bothtransmission
ends to emulate systeman shown
infinite in
Figure 1. A cable
transmission line.with finite length up to 100 km is used for analysis. The sheath of the cable is grounded
at theFast
terminals. Five
front models towers closest tocomponents
of various both of the cable usedterminals
to representare represented
the mixedinHVDC detail. The overhead
transmission
line is terminated
system are described below. with matching impedance at both ends to emulate an infinite transmission line.

Figure 1. Fast front model of mixed High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission line for analysis of lightning
transients. A finite cable section is present between two overhead line sections terminating in matching
impedance to avoid reflection of voltage surge from remote ends of the transmission line (description
of symbols is provided in Table 1).
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 3 of 24

Fast front models of various components used to represent the mixed HVDC transmission system
are described below.

Table 1. Values of electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation model parameters.

Symbol Quantity Value

h Height of tower 47 m
lt1 Length of upper tower segment 4m
lt2 Length of lower tower segment 43 m
ZT Characteristic impedance of tower segments 139 Ω
rf Footing impedance 10 Ω
rsg Sheath-grounding impedance 10 Ω
cins Capacitance of insulator 2.75 pF
Larc Insulator arc inductance 5 µH
ltwr_span Length of tower span 350 m
vsheath Wave velocity on cable sheath 2.7 × 107 m/s
vcore Wave velocity on cable core 6.4 × 107 m/s
vOHPC Wave velocity on OHPC 2.8 × 108 m/s
vOHGW Wave velocity on OHGW 2.8 × 108 m/s
Zsheath Characteristic impedance of cable sheath 27.1 Ω
Zcore Characteristic impedance of cable core 72.7 Ω
ZOHGW Characteristic impedance of OHGW 541.8 Ω
ZOHPC Characteristic impedance of OHPC 465.3 Ω
vtwr Wave velocity on tower segments 2.55 × 108 m/s
lriser Length of riser section 50 m
K Leader coefficient 1.3 m2 /kV2 .s
E0 Critical leader inception gradient 600 kV/m
y Time of lightning strike 0.007 s

2.1. Tower
To emulate the overvoltage stress experienced by the insulators accurately, the vertical section of
the tower is split into two sections connected at cross arms as shown in Figure 2b.
Due to the relatively small structure of HVDC towers, the multistorey tower models [17–19] yield
inaccurate results. Therefore, we have represented the HVDC tower by a frequency independent
distributed parameter line model composed of single conductor. The characteristic impedances of
upper and lower tower sections are considered to be same [20,21].
Cross arms and braces retard the wave propagation on the tower. Therefore, the wave velocity of
the vertical tower section is 85% of the speed of light [22]. The characteristic impedance of the waisted
tower structure, shown in Figure 2, is calculated using Equation (1) [23].

1
  
ZT = 60 ln cot tan−1 T (1)
2

where,
T intermediate value →{r1 h2 + r2 (h1 + h2 ) + r3 h1 }/(h1 + h2 )2
h1 height from base to waist,
h2 height from waist to top.
r1 radius of tower at top,
r2 radius of tower at waist,
r3 radius of tower at base.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 4 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

Figure
Figure 2. Overhead section
2. Overhead sectionof
ofmixed
mixedHVDC
HVDCtransmission
transmissionline.
line.(a)(a) Structure.
Structure. (b)(b) Fast
Fast front
front model
model for
for
electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation (description of symbols is provided in Table 11 and
electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation (description of symbols is provided in Table and
Equation
Equation (1))
(1)) [15].
[15].
2.2. Footing Impedance of Tower
2.2. Footing Impedance of Tower
The level of overvoltage on the top of the tower and overvoltage stress experienced by OHL
The level of overvoltage on the top of the tower and overvoltage stress experienced by OHL
insulators is strongly dependent on the tower footing impedance. Therefore, prudently selecting a
insulators is strongly dependent on the tower footing impedance. Therefore, prudently selecting a
model of footing impedance is vital to obtaining reliable results.
model of footing impedance is vital to obtaining reliable results.
The impedance of high resistivity soil has strong frequency dependence [24,25]. However,
The impedance of high resistivity soil has strong frequency dependence [24,25]. However,
frequency dependent models have shown optimistic results regarding lightning overvoltage [14].
frequency dependent models have shown optimistic results regarding lightning overvoltage [14].
Moreover, the extent of frequency dependence of soil depends on resistivity which varies considerably
Moreover, the extent of frequency dependence of soil depends on resistivity which varies
according to the time of year. Therefore, to conservatively estimate overvoltage, we have represented
considerably according to the time of year. Therefore, to conservatively estimate overvoltage, we
the footing impedance by a fixed resistance rf [15,17,18].
have represented the footing impedance by a fixed resistance rf [15,17,18].
2.3. Insulators
2.3. Insulators
Suspension insulators shown in Figure 2 are comprised of twenty-nine disks of serially connected
Suspension insulators shown in Figure 2 are comprised of twenty-nine disks of serially
cap and pin type ceramic insulators (80 pF/disk). The air gap between arc horns is 5 m [26].
connected cap and pin type ceramic insulators (80 pF/disk). The air gap between arc horns is 5 m [26].
The flashover of an insulator is predicted using a leader propagation model (LPM). The time
The flashover of an insulator is predicted using a leader propagation model (LPM). The time
taken to breakdown is calculated by taking into account the physics of the discharge process and the
taken to breakdown is calculated by taking into account the physics of the discharge process and the
gap configuration [27]. The total breakdown time, tc is given by Equation (2):
gap configuration [27]. The total breakdown time, tc is given by Equation (2):
t𝑡c =
= t𝑡i +
+t𝑡s ++t𝑡l (2)
(2)
where,
where,
tii Corona inception
Corona time,
inception time,µsµs
tll Leader propagation
Leader propagationtime,
time,µsµs
tts Streamer
Streamer propagation time,
propagation time, µs µs

The corona
The corona inception
inception voltage
voltage is
is very
very small
small compared
compared to to the
the breakdown
breakdown voltage.
voltage. The
The corona
corona
inception time
inception time tti is
is negligible,
negligible, owing
owing to
to the
the swift
swift increase
increase in in voltage,
voltage, and
and is
is assumed
assumed to
to be
be zero.
zero. If
If the
the
i
voltage keeps increasing after the corona inception, a streamer begins to grow and cross
voltage keeps increasing after the corona inception, a streamer begins to grow and cross the gap after the gap after
time ttss,, in
time in Equation (3):
Equation (3): !
1 E𝐸
=
= 1.25
1.25
E𝐸50 − 0.95
− 0.95 (3)
(3)
𝑡ts
where,
where,
E50 Average gradient at the critical flashover (CFO) voltage, kV/m
E50 Average gradient at the critical flashover (CFO) voltage, kV/m
E Maximum gradient in the gap before breakdown, kV/m
E Maximum gradient in the gap before breakdown, kV/m
After ts a leader starts to develop, with an exponentially increasing velocity given by (4),
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 5 of 24

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24

After ts a leader starts to develop, with an exponentially increasing velocity given by (4),
𝑑𝐿 𝑉 𝑡
= 𝐾𝑉 𝑡 " −𝐸 # (4)
𝑑𝑡 = KV (t) 𝑔V−(t𝐿) − E
dL
(4)
0
dt g−L
where,
L
where, Leader length, m
gL Gap length,
Leader m m
length,
g
V(t) Gap length,
Voltage acrossm gap, kV
KV(t) Voltage across
Leader coefficient,gap,mkV2/kV2.s

K Leader coefficient, m2 /kV2 .s

E0 Critical leader inception gradient, kV/m
E0 Critical leader inception gradient, kV/m
K and E0 for cap and pin type suspension insulators under negative polarity stress are given in
TableK1.andLeader
E0 for crosses
cap and thepingaptype
aftersuspension
time tl andinsulators
the breakdownunderoccurs.
negative polarity stress are given in
TableThe breakdown
1. Leader crossesofthethegap insulator
after timeis emulated by a switch.occurs.
tl and the breakdown Equivalent capacitance cins, of the
insulator
The as shown in Figure
breakdown 2b is connected
of the insulator in parallel
is emulated by atoswitch.
the switch. The inductive
Equivalent characteristics
capacitance of
cins , of the
the arc path
insulator are represented
as shown in Figureby 2b an inductanceinLparallel
is connected arc connected
to theinswitch.
series with the switchcharacteristics
The inductive [28]. of
the arc path are represented by an inductance Larc connected in series with the switch [28].
2.4. Transmission Line
2.4. Transmission Line
The cables and overhead lines are represented using the frequency dependent (phase) model
The cables
commonly known andasoverhead lines are
the universal linerepresented
model (ULM). usingThe
the frequency
ULM can dependent
adequately (phase)
represent model
the
commonly known
transmission line foras the universal
a wide line model[29,30].
range of frequencies (ULM). The ULM can adequately represent the
transmission
The cableline and foroverhead
a wide range of frequencies
conductor are chosen [29,30].
to have a power rating of 660 MW/pole of the
The cable and overhead conductor
HVDC line. Midspan conductor sag for Overhead Power are chosen to have a power (OHPCs)
Conductors rating of as
660well
MW/pole of the
as Overhead
HVDC line.
Ground WiresMidspan
(OHGWs) conductor
is chosensag for
as 10Overhead
m. OHGWs Powerare Conductors
modelled (OHPCs)
using ½ as well
high as Overhead
strength steel,
1
Ground Wires (OHGWs) is chosen as 10
whereas Parrot ACSR 54/19 is used to model the OHPCs. m. OHGWs are modelled using 2 high strength steel, whereas
Parrot ACSR
The 54/19
500 kV is used to model
underground cablesthe OHPCs.
with a conductor cross section of 2100 mm2 are based on [31].
The 500 kV of underground 2 are based on [31].
The two cables the bipolarcables system with
area placed
conductor cross section
horizontally of 2100in
as shown mm Figure 3. The main
The two cables of the bipolar system are placed horizontally as shown in
insulation layer of the cable has a lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) of 2.7 p.u., whereasFigure 3. The main insulation
the
layer of
jacket hasthea cable
LIWLhas a lightning
of 0.2 impulse
p.u. To ensure withstand
reliability andlevel (LIWL) aofprotection
longevity, 2.7 p.u., whereas
margin the jacket
of 20% has a
should
LIWL
be of 0.2 p.u.
provided [5]. To ensure reliability and longevity, a protection margin of 20% should be provided [5].

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Underground
Underground section
section of
of mixed
mixed HVDC
HVDC transmission
transmission line
line (a)
(a) layout,
layout, (b)
(b) dimensions
dimensions and
and
electrical properties.
electrical properties.

Wave velocity
Wave velocityand
andcharacteristic impedance
characteristic of cable
impedance and overhead
of cable line conductors
and overhead are calculated
line conductors are
using the line
calculated constant
using the lineprogram
constant(LCP) of PSCAD
program and
(LCP) of are listed
PSCAD andinare
Table 1. in Table 1.
listed

2.5. Lightning
2.5. Lightning Strike
Strike
The Lightning
The Lightning strike
strike is
is represented
represented by
by aacurrent
current source
sourceconnected
connectedin
inparallel
parallelwith
withthe
theresistance.
resistance.
The parallel
The parallel resistance
resistance emulates
emulates the
the impedance
impedance ofof the
the lightning
lightning channel
channel [32].
[32].
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24

A lightning current waveform with an upwardly concave front, as shown in Figure 4, resembles
closely the records of lightning current wave-shapes given in [27,33]. The mathematical
representation
Energies of this waveshape can be seen in Equation (5):
2019, 12, 4217 6 of 24

𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡 , 𝑡 𝑡
⎧
⎪ /
A lightning current waveformi(t)=with an upwardly concave front, as shown in Figure 4, resembles
(5)
⎨𝐼 e − 𝐼 given
closely the records of lightning current wave-shapes e in, 𝑡[27,33].
𝑡 The mathematical representation
⎪
of this waveshape can be seen in Equation⎩ (5): /
constants of the wave shape listed in Table 2, have been derived according to [27].
+ Btn , t 200 < tnkA is 0.77% [33]. Therefore, the peak

The total probability of a lightning
 current

 At exceeding
i(t) =  −
(t−tn )
−
(t−tn ) (5)
magnitude of the lightning strike applied
 I eto OHGWs
t1
t > tntop is chosen to be 200 kA. The
− I2 e ort2the, tower

1
IEEE modelling guideline also recommends the same for insulation coordination studies [26].
constants of the wave shape listed in Table 2, have been derived according to [27].

(a) Normal (b) Zoomed

Figure4.4.Upwardly
Figure Upwardly concave
concave front
frontlightning
lightningcurrent
currentwave
waveshape [27].
shape [27].

Table 2. Lightning impulse current

/
parameters.
𝛾 ℎ + ℎ /2
𝐼 = (6)
Parameters of Strike 𝐴 1 − 𝛾OHPC
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 Strike OHGW/Tower Top Strike
Ip maximum shielding
The, peak current
failure current (IMSF) is20 kA
calculated 200 kA
by using an electro-geometric model
t
(EGM) 30 proposed by IEEE Std [34]. By solving Equation (6) based on the geometric8 µs
front (30%–90%) 3 µs model given in
tf effective front time 5 µs 13.33 µs
Figure 5, the IMSF is calculated to be 20 kA. Where, hm: Height of OHGWs, hp: Height of OHPCs, α, β
tt tail time 77.5 µs 200 µs
and γ Sare
m
as recommended
maximumbysteepness
IEEE Standard are as20follows.
kA/µs α: Shielding angle, β48= kA/µs
0.36 + 0.17 ln (43
− hp) ⇒ nhp ≤ 40 m, γ:wave-shape
1/β: the parameters
constant of the lightning impulse wave shape are listed
18.6 in Table 2.
11.171
A // 1.061 kA/µs 4.325 kA/µs
B // 3.257 × 10−17 kA/µs 9.247 × 10−14 kA/µs
tn // 8.653 µs 21.858 µs
t1 // 99.324 µs 257.004 µs
t2 // 0.1 µs 0.416 µs
I1 // 20.020 kA 200.324 kA
I2 // 2.0201 kA 20.324 kA

The total probability of a lightning current exceeding 200 kA is 0.77% [33]. Therefore, the peak
magnitude of the lightning strike applied to OHGWs or the tower top is chosen to be 200 kA. The IEEE
modelling guideline also recommends the same for insulation coordination studies [26].
   1/B
 γ hm + hp /2 
IMSF =  (6)
 
 A(1 − γ sinα) 


The, maximum shielding failure current (IMSF ) is calculated by using an electro-geometric model
(EGM) proposed by IEEE Std [34]. By solving Equation (6) based on the geometric model given in
Figure 5, the IMSF is calculated to be 20 kA. Where, hm : Height of OHGWs, hp : Height of OHPCs, α, β
 /
𝛾 ℎ + ℎ /2
𝐼 = (6)
𝐴 1 − 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

The,
Energies 2019,maximum
12, 4217 shielding failure current (IMSF) is calculated by using an electro-geometric model
7 of 24
(EGM) proposed by IEEE Std [34]. By solving Equation (6) based on the geometric model given in
Figure 5, the IMSF is calculated to be 20 kA. Where, hm: Height of OHGWs, hp: Height of OHPCs, α, β
and
and γγ are
areasasrecommended
recommendedby byIEEE
IEEEStandard
Standard are asas
are follows. α: α:
follows. Shielding angle,
Shielding β =β 0.36
angle, = 0.36+ 0.17 ln ln
+ 0.17 −
(43(43
h−ph) p⇒ h ≤ 40 m, γ: 1/β: the parameters of the lightning impulse wave shape are listed in Table
) ⇒ php ≤ 40 m, γ: 1/β: the parameters of the lightning impulse wave shape are listed in Table 2. 2.

Figure 5. Geometric model of tower for application of an electro-geometric model (EGM) to calculate
the shielding failure current (IMSF ).

2.6. Surge Arrester

The internal overvoltages in the line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC system are not expected
to exceed 1.5 p.u. for the maximum duration of 100 ms. The insulation of the HVDC cable is capable
of withstanding this stress and therefore protection does not need to be provided against internal
overvoltages [5].
The lightning strikes on the overhead sections of the line would expose the cable to overvoltage
stress, which can lead to permanent damage of the cable if the said overvoltage exceeds the LIWL
of the insulation layer of cable. The level of overvoltage in the cable resulting from lightning strikes
depends on several design parameters of the mixed HVDC transmission line.
Since there is no need to provide protection against internal overvoltage, a surge arrester with a
maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV) of 750 kV, i.e., 1.5 p.u. of the system voltage, and
the following protective characteristics will be employed if the voltage inside the unprotected cable
exceeds 2.25 p.u. [6].

• Lightning impulse protective levels (LIPL), V10 : 1130 kV (10 kA, 8 × 20 µs)
• Switching impulse protective levels (SIPL), Vss : 960 kV (3 kA, 30 × 60 µs)

The lightning impulse protection margin for this surge arrester can be calculated using Equation (7).

LIWL
 
PM = − 1 ∗ 100 (7)
LIPL

This provides a desired protection margin (PM) of 20% which is in accordance with the
recommended minimum level of 20% for HVDC cables [5].
Metal oxide surge arresters (MOSA) are used universally for providing protection against surge
voltages in a range of power system applications. However, the residual voltage across the arrester
is a function of both the rate of rise and the magnitude of the current conducted by the arrester.
The waveshape of the voltage impressed on the surge arrester can vary considerably depending on the
location of incidence of the lightning strike and on the characteristics of the lightning strike and of
mixed transmission line.
In order to emulate the characteristics of a real MOSA, a frequency dependent model proposed by
IEEE WG 3.4.11 shown in Figure 6 will be used in this paper [35].
The nonlinear V-I characteristic of an arrester is represented using two nonlinear resistors A0 and
A1 , shown in the Figure 7. The nonlinear resistors are separated by an RL filter, which offers very low
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 8 of 24
The nonlinear V-I characteristic of an arrester is represented using two nonlinear resistors A00
and A11, shown in the Figure 7. The nonlinear resistors are separated by an RL filter, which offers very
impedance to slow front surges, resulting in parallel conduction of the two resistors. However, for
low impedance to slow front surges, resulting in parallel conduction of the two resistors. However,
fast front
for fast surges
front the the
surges impedance
impedance of the RLRL
of the section become
section quite
become significant.
quite Therefore,
significant. more
Therefore, morecurrent
currentis
conducted by the nonlinear resistance ‘A0 ’.0 This results in a higher voltage across arrester terminals
is conducted by the nonlinear resistance ‘A0’. This results in a higher voltage across arrester terminals
because
because thethenonlinear
nonlinearresistor
resistor‘A‘A
0 ’0has a higher voltage for a given current than the resistor ‘A1 ’, as can
0 ’ has a higher voltage for a given current than the resistor ‘A11’, as
be seen in Figure 7. These V-I characteristics are obtained by modifying the characteristics proposed
can be seen in Figure 7. These V-I characteristics are obtained by modifying the characteristics
in [35] to match the V10 and VSS 10requiredSS in this study.
proposed in [35] to match the V10 and VSS required in this study.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Frequency dependent surge
surge arrester
arrester model.
model.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Residual voltage across non-linear resistors as
as aa function
function of
of the
the impulse
impulse current.
current.

The
The inductance
inductance ‘L the model
‘L000’ in the model represents
represents the magnetic
magnetic field
field in
in the
the vicinity
vicinity of
of the
thesurge
surgearrester,
arrester,
whereas the
whereas the capacitor
capacitor ‘C’
‘C’ represents
representsthe
theterminal-to-terminal
terminal-to-terminalcapacitance
capacitanceof ofthe
thearrester.
arrester.
parameters of
The parameters of the
the surge
surge arrester
arrester model
model can
can be
be calculated
calculated using
using Equations
Equations(8)–(12).
(8)–(12).
𝑑
L𝐿1 = 15d µH
= 15 µH (8)
(8)
n𝑛
𝑑
𝑅 = 65d Ω (9)
R1 = 65 𝑛 Ω (9)
n
𝑑
𝐿 = 0.2d µH (10)
L0 = 0.2 𝑛 µH (10)
n
𝑑
𝑅 = 100d Ω (11)
R0 = 100 𝑛Ω (11)
n
𝑛
𝐶 = 100n pF (12)
C = 100 𝑑 pF (12)
d
where,
where,
dd height of the
height arrester
of the [m]
arrester [m]
n
n number of parallel
number columns
of parallel columnsofofmetal
metal oxide inarrester
oxide in arrester
The parameters of the surge arrester model are listed in Table 3.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 9 of 24

The parameters of the surge arrester model are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Parameters of the surge arrester model

Components of Surge Arrester Model n = 1, d = 6 m

L1 90 µH
R1 390 Ω
L0 1.2 µH
R0 600 Ω
C 16.66667 pF

3. Results and Discussion

Lightning can strike the overhead power conductors (OHPC) or the overhead ground wire
(OHGW) and tower top as discussed previously. In this section we will present and analyze in detail the
overvoltage stresses experienced by the insulation layers of the cable resulting from lightning strikes.
We will further analyze whether these overvoltages exceed the lightning impulse withstand level
(LIWL) of the cable and whether insulation coordination measures are necessary. Various insulation
coordination measures will be analyzed. Finally, the impact of insulation coordination on transient
behavior of a mixed HVDC transmission line will be presented and analyzed in depth.

3.1. Overvoltage Analysis

The lightning strikes closest to the cable, i.e., on the transition tower will cause the maximum
overvoltage in the cable. The strike on the OHPC of the transition tower will enter the cable and cause
core-ground (CG) as well as sheath-ground (SG) overvoltage, whereas a strike on the tower top or
OHGW will result in sheath-ground (SG) overvoltage.

3.1.1. Lightning Strike on an Overhead Power Conductor

Core-Ground Overvoltage
Negative lightning strikes are most likely to occur [27]. A negative lightning strike on a negative
pole OHPC at twr1S will result in the constructive superposition of voltage, hence subjecting the
cable to the highest overvoltages. The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8. Only two towers are
represented in detail in this equivalent circuit. The OHPC can be seen to be isolated from the tower by
an open switch. Therefore, a negative lightning strike on a negative OHPC can initiate a voltage surge
ef1 travelling on the OHPC in the forward direction towards the cable and another voltage surge er0
traveling towards the DC source in the reverse direction as shown on the equivalent circuit in Figure 8.
A portion of the wave ef2 is refracted inside the cable, whereas the rest, er1 , is reflected backward at
boundary a. The wave ef2 travelling forward inside the cable will be again reflected and refracted at
the receiving end boundary ‘b’ of the cable. The magnitude of reflected and refracted waves can be
determined by a traveling wave theory as per Equations (13)–(15).

2 ∗ Zcore
ef2 = ef1 (13)
ZOHPC + Zcore

Zcore − ZOHPC
er1 = e f 1 (14)
ZOHPC + Zcore
ZOHPC − Zcore
er2 = e f 2 (15)
ZOHPC + Zcore
The simulation results for the resulting overvoltage at the boundary ‘a’, i.e., the entrance of a cable
according to cable length are shown in Figure 9.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 10 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Figure
Figure 8. An
An equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit of
of aa mixed
mixed HVDC
HVDC transmission
transmission line
line for
for analysis
analysis of
of direct
direct lightning
lightning
strikes
strikes on
on overhead
6.25 power
overhead power conductors
conductors (OHPCs)
−3.032 at
(OHPCs) at aa negative
negative pole
pole (only
(only the
the two
10 towers
two towers closest
closest to
to the
the
sending end 3.125
of the cable are
sending end of the cable are shown) −3.948
(description of symbols is provided in 10
Table 1). [15].
Table 1). [15].

It can be seen that, as the length of cable decreases, the magnitude of overvoltage increases. The
characteristic impedance of the OHPC is much higher than that of the cable core conductor, making
the reflection coefficient positive. Therefore, as the voltage surge travels from the cable to the OHPC,
the same polarity surge is reflected from their boundary ‘b’. In a shorter cable section, the reflected
wave arrives at the sending end very quickly and without sufficient attenuation. This same polarity
reflected voltage surge superimposes with the incident surge resulting in an increase in the
magnitude of the overvoltage. It can be seen that in the cable sections shorter than 12.5 km, multiple
reflections superimpose on the incident surge even before the tail of the incident surge reaches its
50% value.
On the other hand, in a 100 km long cable section, the reflected wave arrives just before 8.1 ms.
Figure 9. Core-ground
Core-ground overvoltage at the entrance of a cable according to the length of the cable.
The incident wave reduces to less than 10% before the arrival of the reflected wave. Moreover, due
to theItlonger
can bedistance,
seen that, theasreflected waveofiscable
the length highly attenuated.
decreases, theTherefore,
magnitude it can be seen that increases.
of overvoltage in longer
cable sections the maximum overvoltage depends only on the magnitude of
The characteristic impedance of the OHPC is much higher than that of the cable core conductor, making the lightning strike and
characteristics impedances
the reflection coefficient of the OHL
positive. and the
Therefore, as cable.
the voltage surge travels from the cable to the OHPC,
However, the maximum overvoltage
the same polarity surge is reflected from their boundary does not always‘b’. Inoccur at the
a shorter cableentrance
section,ofthethe cable.
reflected
Therefore, to determine the maximum overvoltage, the cables with the lengths
wave arrives at the sending end very quickly and without sufficient attenuation. This same polarity shown in Figure 9 are
divided
reflectedinto ten segments.
voltage The voltage
surge superimposes at the
with theboundaries
incident surge of each section
resulting in is
ancalculated.
increase inThe results are
the magnitude
presented in Figure 10.
of the overvoltage. It can be seen that in the cable sections shorter than 12.5 km, multiple reflections
To easily on
superimpose visualize the results
the incident surgeofeven
Figure 10, the
before theplot of the
tail of the maximum
incident surgeovervoltage
reaches itsalong
50%the length
value.
of theOncable
theisother
shown in Figure
hand, in a 10011.km
The location
long cable and magnitude
section, of thewave
the reflected maximum arrivesovervoltage
just beforein each
8.1 ms.
case is listed in Table 4.
The incident wave reduces to less than 10% before the arrival of the reflected wave. Moreover, due to
It can distance,
be seen that (a) 100 km cablecable sections, i.e., 100 km, 50 km (b)
in longer and 50 km cablethe maximum
the longer the reflected wave is highly attenuated. Therefore, it can25bekm,seen that in longer
overvoltage
cable sections occurs at the cable
the maximum entrance.depends
overvoltage The magnitude
only on theof the maximum
magnitude of theovervoltage decreases
lightning strike and
towards the center of the cable before
characteristics impedances of the OHL and the cable.increasing again near the receiving end of the cable. A close
comparison
However, of 100
the km and 90 overvoltage
maximum km plots in Figure
does not10aalways
showsoccur
that in
at the
the case of theofformer,
entrance theTherefore,
the cable. reflected
wave instantly superimposes on the incident wave upon its arrival, whereas
to determine the maximum overvoltage, the cables with the lengths shown in Figure 9 are divided in the case of the latter
into
there is a displacement between the incident and the reflected wave equal to
ten segments. The voltage at the boundaries of each section is calculated. The results are presented in 20% of the travel time
of the cable.
Figure 10. This leads to the decrease in amplitude of the incident wave before the arrival of the
reflected wave.visualize
To easily Therefore,thethe magnitude
results of 10,
of Figure thethe
maximum
plot of thevoltage
maximumcontinues to decrease
overvoltage along asthe
we length
move
away
of thefrom
cablethe receiving
is shown end. 11. The location and magnitude of the maximum overvoltage in each
in Figure
case is listed in Table 4.
Table 4. Maximum core-ground overvoltage in cables with different lengths.
(c) 25 km cable (d) 12.5 km cable
Cable Length (km) Maximum Overvoltage (p.u.) Distance from Sending End (%)
100 −2.141 0
50 −2.141 0
25 −2.141 0
12.5 −2.345 10
Energies 2019,
Figure12,9.
4217
Core-ground overvoltage at the entrance of a cable according to the length of the cable. 11 of 24

(a) 100 km cable (b) 50 km cable

(c) 25 km cable (d) 12.5 km cable

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

(e) 6.25 km cable (f) 3.125 km cable

In the shorter cable sections, i.e., 12.5 km, 6.25 km and 3.125 km, the maximum overvoltage
occurs at 10%
Figure 10.from the receiving
Core-ground end. This
overvoltage canequally
at ten be attributed
spaced to the shorter
intervals alongtravel timesofofthe
the length thecable
reflected
Figure 10. Core-ground overvoltage at ten equally spaced intervals along the length of the cable
wave, lower attenuation
(3.125–100 km). of the reflected wave and insufficient damping of the incident wave.
(3.125–100 km).

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Maximum
Maximum core-ground
core-ground voltage
voltage along
along the
the length
length in
in cables with different
cables with different lengths.
lengths.

Sheath-Ground Overvoltage
The impulse current flowing through the core of the cable induces a voltage in the sheath of the
cable. The voltage in the sheath of the cable stresses the jacket of the cable. If the voltage exceeds the
LIWL of the jacket (0.2 p.u.), it may rupture. Therefore, in this subsection we have presented a
detailed analysis of sheath-ground (SG) overvoltage considering the various factors that influence it.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 12 of 24

Table 4. Maximum core-ground overvoltage in cables with different lengths.

Cable Length (km) Maximum Overvoltage (p.u.) Distance from Sending End (%)
100 −2.141 0
50 −2.141 0
25 −2.141 0
12.5 −2.345 10
6.25 −3.032 10
3.125 −3.948 10

It can be seen that in longer cable sections, i.e., 100 km, 50 km and 25 km, the maximum overvoltage
occurs at the cable entrance. The magnitude of the maximum overvoltage decreases towards the
center of the cable before increasing again near the receiving end of the cable. A close comparison
of 100 km and 90 km plots in Figure 10a shows that in the case of the former, the reflected wave
instantly superimposes on the incident wave upon its arrival, whereas in the case of the latter there is a
displacement between the incident and the reflected wave equal to 20% of the travel time of the cable.
This leads to the decrease in amplitude of the incident wave before the arrival of the reflected wave.
Therefore, the magnitude of the maximum voltage continues to decrease as we move away from the
receiving end.
In the shorter cable sections, i.e., 12.5 km, 6.25 km and 3.125 km, the maximum overvoltage occurs
at 10% from the receiving end. This can be attributed to the shorter travel times of the reflected wave,
lower attenuation of the reflected wave and insufficient damping of the incident wave.

Sheath-Ground Overvoltage
The impulse current flowing through the core of the cable induces a voltage in the sheath of the
cable. The voltage in the sheath of the cable stresses the jacket of the cable. If the voltage exceeds the
LIWL of the jacket (0.2 p.u.), it may rupture. Therefore, in this subsection we have presented a detailed
analysis of sheath-ground (SG) overvoltage considering the various factors that influence it.
The voltage at the sending end terminal of the sheath resulting from a direct lightning strike on
the sending end OHPC is shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that the maximum overvoltage is the
same regardless of the length of the cable. This behavior is in contradiction with the length dependent
behavior of the CG overvoltage.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Figure 12. Sheath-ground overvoltage at the sending end terminal of the cables considering different
cable lengths.

The SG overvoltage along the length of the cable at equally spaced intervals is shown in Figure 13.
Compared to the CG overvoltage results shown in Figure 10, the incident wave takes much longer to
arrive at the receiving end. This is due to the lower wave velocity in sheath. Moreover, due to the
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 13 of 24

Figure 12. Sheath-ground overvoltage at the sending end terminal of the cables considering different
higher attenuation constant of the sheath, the surge voltage gets significantly attenuated away from
cable lengths.
the cable entrance.

(a) 100 km cable (b) 50 km cable

(c) 25 km cable (d) 12.5 km cable

(e) 6.25 km cable (f) 3.125 km cable

Figure 13. Sheath-ground overvoltage at ten equally spaced intervals along the length of a cable
Figure 13. Sheath-ground overvoltage at ten equally spaced intervals along the length of a cable
(3.125–100 km).
(3.125–100 km).
In the smaller cable sections (50 km, 25 km, 12.5 km, 6.25 km and 3.25 km) the opposite polarity
reflected surge arrives at the sending end within the time frame shown in Figure 13.
The sheath is grounded at both ends. Since the sheath grounding impedance is smaller than the
characteristics impedance of the sheath, the reflection coefficient is negative, resulting in the positive
polarity reflected waves. Therefore, the portion of the voltage surge reflected from the receiving end
terminal cannot cause the amplification of the voltage even in very small cable sections. The maximum
sheath voltage will always appear at the cable entrance regardless of its length.
The sheath-ground voltage along the length of the cable in cables with different total lengths is
shown in Figure 14. Contrary to the core-ground voltages seen in Figure 11, the SG voltage is maximum
at the cable entrance regardless of the cable length and reduces significantly at the receiving ends of
the cable.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 14 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

Figure 14. Maximum sheath-ground voltage along the length in cables with different
different lengths.
lengths.

3.1.2. Lightning Strikes

3.1.2. Lightning Strikes on
on an
an Overhead
Overhead Ground
Ground Wire/Tower
Wire/TowerTop Top
A
A lightning
lightning strike
strike on
on an
an OHGW/tower
OHGW/tower top top results
results in
in voltage
voltage surge
surge travelling
travelling along
along the
the OHGW
OHGW
in
in the
the reverse
reverse and
and forward
forward directions,
directions, along
along with
with part
part of
of the
the wave
wave travelling
travelling along
along the
the tower
tower in
in the
the
downward direction, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure
downward direction, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure 15. 15.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. An equivalent circuit
An equivalent of aa mixed
circuit of mixed HVDC
HVDC transmission
transmission line
line for
for analysis
analysis of
of aa lightning
lightning strike
strike
on the OHGW/tower top (only the two towers closest to the sending end of the cable
on the OHGW/tower top (only the two towers closest to the sending end of the cable are shown) are shown)
(description of
(description of symbols
symbols is
is provided
provided in in Table
Table1).
1).

When lightning strikes the OHGW/tower top far away from the cable, cable, the
the major
major portion
portion of
of the
the
surge travels through the towers and is is absorbed
absorbed by by the
the ground.
ground. Therefore, in this section we will
only consider the OHGW strikes at the transition tower. tower. A part of the voltage surge travels towards
the cable through
the through the
the riser
riser section
sectionresulting
resultingininsheath-ground
sheath-groundovervoltage.
overvoltage.The Thesimulation
simulationresults of
results
sheath-ground overvoltage at the entrance of the cable according to cable lengths are
of sheath-ground overvoltage at the entrance of the cable according to cable lengths are shown in shown in Figure
16.
Figure 16.
It can
It can be seen that SG overvoltage at the sending end terminal is the same in all cases regardlessregardless
of the cable length. Moreover, it can be noticed that the magnitude of the voltage in this case is about
four times
four timeshigher
higherthan
than that
that resulting
resulting fromfrom the OHPC
the OHPC strike.strike.
The SGThe SG voltage
voltage at spaced
at equally equallyintervals
spaced
intervals along the length of cable are shown
along the length of cable are shown in Figure 17. in Figure 17.
It can be noted again that the SG voltage decreases exponentially along the length of cable due
to a high attenuation constant. Moreover, even in the smallest cable sections, the reflected waves
cannot cause amplification of the voltage inside the cable due to the negative reflection coefficient at
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
boundary ‘b’ as shown in Figure 15. The comparison of voltage magnitude along the length of the
boundary
Energies 2019,‘b’ as shown
12, 4217 in Figure
cable in cables with different 15. is
lengths The comparison
shown of18.
in Figure voltage magnitude along the length 15
ofofthe
24
cable in cables with different lengths is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 16. Sheath-ground overvoltage at the sending end terminal of the cables considering different
Figure 16. Sheath-ground overvoltage at the sending end terminal of the cables considering different
cable lengths.
cable lengths.

(a) 100 km cable (b) 50 km cable

(a) 100 km cable (b) 50 km cable

(c) 25 km cable (d) 2.5 km cable

(c) 25 km cable (d) 2.5 km cable

(e) 6.25 km cable (f) 3.125 km cable

(e) 6.25 km cable (f) 3.125 km cable
Figure 17. Sheath-ground overvoltage at ten equally spaced intervals along the length of the cable
(3.125–100 km).
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 16 of 24

It can be noted again that the SG voltage decreases exponentially along the length of cable due to
a high attenuation constant. Moreover, even in the smallest cable sections, the reflected waves cannot
Energies
Energies 2019,
2019, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 16
16 of
of 24
24
cause amplification of the voltage inside the cable due to the negative reflection coefficient at boundary
‘b’ as Figure
shown in Sheath-ground
Figure 15. The comparisonatoften
voltage magnitude along the length of the cable in cables
Figure 17.
17. Sheath-ground overvoltage
overvoltage at ten equally
equally spaced
spaced intervals
intervals along
along the
the length
length of
of the
the cable
cable
with (3.125–100
different lengths
km). is shown in Figure 18.
(3.125–100 km).

Figure
Figure 18.
18. Maximum
Maximum sheath-ground
Maximum sheath-ground voltage
voltage along
along the
the length
length in
in cables
cables with
with different lengths.
different lengths.
different lengths.

3.2.
3.2. Insuation
Insuation Coordination
Coordination Requirement
Requirement
The
The stress
stress on
on the
the insulation
insulation layers
layers of
of the
the cable
cable must
must be
be limited
limited to to acceptable
acceptable levels
levels to
to prevent
prevent
the insulation failure under
the insulation failure under thethe influence
the influence of
influence of lightning
of lightning strikes.
strikes. If the CG overvoltage exceeds the
lightning strikes. If the CG overvoltage exceeds the
desired LIPL the surge arrester should be installed at the terminals of the cable between
desired LIPL the surge arrester should be installed at the terminals of the cable between the core andthe core and
the
the ground,
ground, whereas
whereas ifif the
the SG
SG voltage
voltage exceeds
exceeds thethe desired
desired LIPL
LIPL of
of the
the jacket,
jacket, the
the sheath
sheath grounding
grounding
impedance must be
impedance must be lowered. The schematic
lowered. The
The schematic of
schematic of the
of the surge
the surge arrester
arrester installed at the
installed at the cable
cable terminals
terminals isis
shown in Figure 19.
shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Location
Location of
of surge
surge arresters.
arresters.

3.2.1. Core-Ground Overvoltage

3.2.1. Core-Ground Overvoltage
The
The LIWL
LIWL of
LIWL of the
of theHVDC
the HVDCcable
HVDC cableinin
cable inthis
thiswork
this workisis
work is2.7
2.7p.u.
2.7 p.u.Surge
p.u. Surge
Surgearresters
arresters
arrestersasas
shown
as shown
shown in in
Figure
in Figure
Figure19 19
willwill
19 be
will
applied
be at
be applied
applied atcable terminals
at cable
cable terminals if the
terminals if CG voltage
if the
the CG inside
CG voltage the
voltage inside cable
inside the exceeds
the cable the LIPL,
cable exceeds
exceeds thei.e., 2.25
the LIPL, p.u.,
LIPL, i.e., ensuring
i.e., 2.25 a
2.25 p.u.,
p.u.,
protection
ensuring aamargin
ensuring protection
protectionof 20%.
margin
margin of of 20%.
20%.
The
The direct lightning strike has
direct lightning strike has been
been applied
applied at at the
the negative
negative OHPC
OHPC of of the
the sending
sending end end transition
transition
tower.
tower. Cable lengths in
Cable lengths
lengths in the range of
the range
range of 2.5
of 2.5 km
2.5 km to
km 100 km
to 100
100 (with an
km (with
(with an increment
an increment of
increment of 2.5
of 2.5 km)
2.5 km) are
km) are considered.
are considered.
considered.
The
The transient
transient voltage
voltage in in each
each case
case is
is measured
measured at at ten
ten equally
equally spaced
spaced intervals
intervals along
along thethe length
length of
of the
the
cable.
cable. The maximum overvoltage in each case is recorded and plotted according to the length of the
The maximum overvoltage in each case is recorded and plotted according to the length of the
cable
cable as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 20.20.
It
It can be seen that
can be seen that the
the overvoltage
overvoltage exceeds
exceeds 2.252.25 p.u.
p.u. only
only if
if the
the cable
cable length
length is is shorter
shorter than
than 16
16
km.
km. For
For cable
cable lengths
lengths greater
greater than
than 22.5
22.5 km,
km, the
the cable
cable overvoltage
overvoltage doesdoes not
not vary
vary byby changing
changing thethe
length
length of
of the
the cable.
cable. This
This implies
implies that
that the
the reflection
reflection of of the
the voltage
voltage surge
surge from
from the
the receiving
receiving end end of
of the
the
cable
cable takes
takes sufficiently
sufficiently long long toto arrive
arrive atat the
the sending
sending end end that
that amplification
amplification of of the
the voltage
voltage is is not
not
possible.
possible. InIn such
such cases
cases the
the maximum
maximum overvoltage
overvoltage always
always occurs
occurs at
at the
the sending
sending end end of of the
the cable
cable as
as
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Energies 2019,
can 12,be
also 4217 17 of 24
seen in Figure 11. Therefore, for this particular case of mixed HVDC transmission lines,
the surge arrester should always be installed at the terminal of cables shorter than 16 km.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

can also be seen in Figure 11. Therefore, for this particular case of mixed HVDC transmission lines,
the surge arrester should always be installed at the terminal of cables shorter than 16 km.

Figure
Figure 20. 20. Maximum
Maximum core-groundovervoltage
core-ground overvoltage according
accordingtoto
thethe
cable length.
cable length.

It3.2.2.
can Sheath-Ground
be seen that the Overvoltage
overvoltage exceeds 2.25 p.u. only if the cable length is shorter than 16 km.
For cable lengths greater than 22.5 km, the cable overvoltage does not vary by changing the length of
Overhead Power Conductor Strike
the cable. This implies that the reflection of the voltage surge from the receiving end of the cable takes
sufficiently It can
longbetoseen thatatinthe
arrive thesending
worst case
endOHPC strike, i.e., at the
that amplification of sending end transition
the voltage tower, SG
is not possible. In such
overvoltage is about 0.22 p.u., significantly higher than the desired LIPL of 0.1667
cases the maximum overvoltage always occurs at the sending end of the cable as can also be seen in p.u. However, the
magnitude of the overvoltage is independent of the length of the cable.
Figure 11. Therefore, for this particular case of mixed HVDC transmission lines, the surge arrester
The SGFigure 20. Maximum
overvoltage core-ground
at the terminal of the overvoltage according
sheath according to the to the cable
sheath length.impedance
grounding
should always be installed at the terminal of cables shorter than 16 km.
is shown in Figure 21. It can be seen that the maximum overvoltage can be limited to the desired
3.2.2. protective level ifOvervoltage
Sheath-Ground the sheath grounding impedance is limited up to 6.5 Ω.
3.2.2. Sheath-Ground Overvoltage

Overhead
OverheadPower
PowerConductor
ConductorStrike
Strike
It Itcan
canbebeseen
seenthatthatin
inthe
the worst
worst case OHPC
OHPC strike,
strike, i.e.,
i.e.,atatthe
thesending
sendingend endtransition
transition tower,
tower, SGSG
overvoltage
overvoltageisisaboutabout0.220.22p.u.,
p.u.,significantly higher than
significantly higher thanthe
thedesired
desiredLIPL LIPLofof0.1667
0.1667 p.u.
p.u. However,
However, thethe
magnitudeofofthe
magnitude theovervoltage
overvoltageis is independent
independent ofof the
thelength
lengthofofthethecable.
cable.
TheThe SGSGovervoltage
overvoltageatatthe theterminal
terminal of the sheath
sheath according
accordingtotothe thesheath
sheathgrounding
grounding impedance
impedance
is shown in Figure 21. It can be seen that the maximum overvoltage
is shown in Figure 21. It can be seen that the maximum overvoltage can be limited to the can be limited to the desired
desired
protectivelevel
protective levelififthe
thesheath
sheathgrounding
grounding impedance
impedanceisislimited
limitedup 6.5Ω.Ω.
uptoto6.5

Figure 21. Maximum sheath-ground overvoltage at the entrance of the cable resulting from a lightning
strike on the negative OHPC at the transition tower.

Overhead Ground Wire/Tower Top Strike

In the worst case OHGW strike, i.e., at the sending end transition tower, overvoltage is more
than five times the desired protective level. The maximum overvoltage in this case is also
independent of the cable length and occurs at the sending end of the cable. The SG overvoltage at the
terminal of the cable according to resistance of local ground is shown in Figure 22. It can be seen that

Figure
Figure21.21.
Maximum
Maximumsheath-ground
sheath-ground overvoltage at the
overvoltage at theentrance
entranceofofthe
thecable
cableresulting
resulting from
from a lightning
a lightning
strike
strike ononthe
thenegative
negativeOHPC
OHPCatat the
the transition
transition tower.
tower.

Overhead Ground Wire/Tower Top Strike

In the worst case OHGW strike, i.e., at the sending end transition tower, overvoltage is more
than five times the desired protective level. The maximum overvoltage in this case is also
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 18 of 24

Overhead Ground Wire/Tower Top Strike

In the worst case OHGW strike, i.e., at the sending end transition tower, overvoltage is more than
five times the desired protective level. The maximum overvoltage in this case is also independent of
the cable length and occurs at the sending end of the cable. The SG overvoltage at the terminal of the
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24
cable according to resistance of local ground is shown in Figure 22. It can be seen that the maximum
overvoltage
the maximum can beovervoltage
limited to the
candesired protective
be limited to thelevel if sheath
desired grounding
protective level resistance
if sheath is limited up
grounding
to 1.2 Ω.
resistance is limited up to 1.2 Ω.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24

the maximum overvoltage can be limited to the desired protective level if sheath grounding
resistance is limited up to 1.2 Ω.

Figure
Figure 22.22. Maximumsheath-ground
Maximum sheath-groundovervoltage
overvoltage at
at the
the entrance
entranceof
ofthe
thecable
cableresulting
resultingfrom a lightning
from a lightning
strike on OHGWs at the transition tower.
strike on OHGWs at the transition tower.

3.3.3.3.
Insulation Coordination:
Insulation Coordination:Impact
Impactand
and Analysis
Analysis
Figure 22. Maximum sheath-ground overvoltage at the entrance of the cable resulting from a lightning
3.3.1. Core-Ground
3.3.1. Core-Ground Overvoltage
Overvoltage
strike on OHGWs at the transition tower.
TheThesurge arresters
surge arrestersare
areinstalled
installedatatboth
bothterminals
terminals of the
the cable
cableas
asshown
shownininFigure
Figure19.
19.The
The direct
direct
3.3. Insulation Coordination: Impact and Analysis
lightning
lightningstrike is applied
strike at theatOHPC
is applied of the sending
the OHPC end transition
of the sending tower. The
end transition maximum
tower. overvoltage
The maximum
overvoltage
along the along
length of the
cable length
is of
shown
3.3.1. Core-Ground Overvoltage cable
in is shown
Figure 23. in Figure 23.
It can be seen that the overvoltage exceeds the desired protective level of the surge arrester only in
The surge arresters are installed at both terminals of the cable as shown in Figure 19. The direct
the case of the smallest cable. However, it is still within the LIWL of the insulation. Therefore, damage
lightning strike is applied at the OHPC of the sending end transition tower. The maximum
to the cable is unlikely.
overvoltage along the length of cable is shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23. Core-ground overvoltage along the length of the cable with a surge arrester installed at the
terminals.

FigureFigure
It can 23. Core-ground
23.beCore-ground
seen overvoltage along
that theovervoltage
overvoltage along the
thelength
exceeds the of of
thethe
desired
length cable withwith
a surge
protective
cable arrester
level of the
a surge installed at the only
surgeinstalled
arrester arrester at
in the terminals.
theterminals.
case of the smallest cable. However, it is still within the LIWL of the insulation. Therefore,
damage to the cable is unlikely.
It can be seen that the overvoltage exceeds the desired protective level of the surge arrester only
in the case of the smallest cable. However, it is still within the LIWL of the insulation. Therefore,
3.3.2. Sheath-Ground Overvoltage
damage to the cable is unlikely.

3.3.2. Sheath-Ground Overvoltage

 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 19 of 24
The SG overvoltage along the length of the cable resulting from a direct lightning strike on the
negative OHPC at the transition tower is shown in Figure 24. Despite the presence of surge arresters,
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24
3.3.2.the
Sheath-Ground
SG overvoltageOvervoltage
exceeds the desired protective level of 0.16 p.u. in all cases.
The energy dissipation in surge arresters installed at both ends of the line is shown in Figure 25.
The
The SGSG overvoltage
overvoltage along
along the
the length
length of
of the
the cable
cable resulting
resulting from
from aa direct
direct lightning
lightning strike
strike on
on the
the
It can be seen that energy dissipation in the receiving end arrester is larger than the sending end
negative
negative OHPC
OHPC at at the
the transition
transition tower
tower is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 24.
24. Despite the presence of surge arresters,
regardless of the length of the cable. Moreover, energy dissipation becomes higher with the decrease
the
the SG
SG overvoltage
overvoltage
in the length of the exceeds
cable. the
exceeds thedesired
desiredprotective
protectivelevel
levelof
of0.16
0.16p.u.
p.u. in
inall
allcases.
cases.
The energy dissipation in surge arresters installed at both ends of the line is shown in Figure 25.
It can be seen that energy dissipation in the receiving end arrester is larger than the sending end
regardless of the length of the cable. Moreover, energy dissipation becomes higher with the decrease
in the length of the cable.

FigureFigure 24. Sheath-ground

24. Sheath-ground (SG)
(SG) overvoltage
overvoltage alongthe
along thelength
lengthof
of cable
cable with
with aasurge
surgearrester
arresterinstalled
installed at
the terminals. at the terminals.

The energy dissipation in surge arresters installed at both ends of the line is shown in Figure 25.
It can be seen that energy dissipation in the receiving end arrester is larger than the sending end
regardless of the length of the cable. Moreover, energy dissipation becomes higher with the decrease in
Figure 24. Sheath-ground (SG) overvoltage along the length of cable with a surge arrester installed
the length of the cable.
at the terminals.

Figure 25. Surge arrester energy according to the length of the cable.

3.3.3. Flashover Performance of Overhead Line Insulators

In our previous research [15] we determined that the negative pole insulator of twr2S is most
vulnerable to flashover in cases of direct lightning strike on the negative OHPC on twr2S, whereas the
positive pole insulator is most vulnerable in cases of indirect lightning strike on the OHGW or tower
top. In this section, we have analyzed the impact of insulation coordination measures on the flashover
performance of twr Figure
Figure 25. Surge arrester
25.
2S insulators. arrester energy
energy according
according to
to the
the length
length of
of the
the cable.
cable.

3.3.3.
3.3.3. Flashover
Flashover Performance
Performance of
of Overhead
Overhead Line
Line Insulators
Insulators
Strike on Overhead Power Conductors
In
In our
our previous
previous research
research [15]
[15] we
wedetermined
determined that that the
thenegative
negativepole
poleinsulator
insulator of
oftwrtwr2S2S is
is most
most
vulnerable
vulnerable to flashover in cases of direct lightning strike on the negative OHPC on twr2S, whereas the
to flashover in cases of direct lightning strike on the negative OHPC on twr 2S , whereas the
positive
positive pole
pole insulator
insulator is
is most
most vulnerable
vulnerable inin cases
cases of
of indirect
indirect lightning
lightning strike
strike on
on the
the OHGW
OHGW or or tower
tower
top.
top. In
In this section, we
this section, have analyzed
we have analyzed the
the impact
impact of
of insulation
insulation coordination
coordination measures
measures onon the
the flashover
flashover
performance of twr2S insulators.
performance of twr2S insulators.

Strike on Overhead Power Conductors

Energies 2019, 12, 4217 20 of 24

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

Strike on Overhead Power Conductors
A lightning strike is applied to a negative OHPC at the subsequent tower, i.e., twr2S. The
A lightning strike is applied to a negative OHPC at the subsequent tower, i.e., twr2S . The flashover
flashover performance with or without a surge arrester at the cable terminals is shown in Figure 26.
performance with or without a surge arrester at the cable terminals is shown in Figure 26.
In our previous study [15] negative pole insulators of twr2S and twr3S were found to be most
In our previous study [15] negative pole insulators of twr2S and twr3S were found to be most
vulnerable. It can be seen in Figure 26 that the presence of a surge arrester at the cable terminal has
vulnerable. It can be seen in Figure 26 that the presence of a surge arrester at the cable terminal has
virtually no impact on the insulator voltage. The insulator flashover occurs at both towers regardless
virtually no impact on the insulator voltage. The insulator flashover occurs at both towers regardless
of the presence of a surge arrester.
of the presence of a surge arrester.

(a)

(b)

Figure 26.
Figure 26. Lightning
Lightning strike
strike onon the
the negative
negative pole
pole OHPC
OHPC at
at twr
twr2S
2S.. (a)
(a) Voltage across negative
Voltage across negative pole
pole
insulators of twr2S and twr 3S. (b) Leader propagation between insulator arc horns of twr2S and twr
insulators of twr2S and twr3S . (b) Leader propagation between insulator arc horns of twr2S and twr3S.3S.

Strike
Strike on
on Overhead
Overhead Ground
Ground Wire/Tower
Wire/TowerTop
Top
In
In our
our previous
previous study study [15][15] we
we determined
determined that that in
in cases
cases of of lightning
lightning strike
strike on
on the
the top
top of
of various
various
towers, the plus pole insulators were most vulnerable to flashover. In the case
towers, the plus pole insulators were most vulnerable to flashover. In the case of the lightning strike of the lightning strike on
the top of twr , the plus pole insulator of twr always experienced a flashover.
on the top of2Stwr2S, the plus pole insulator2Sof twr2S always experienced a flashover. The sheath The sheath grounding
impedance ‘rsg ’ was assumed
grounding impedance ‘rsg’ wastoassumed
be constant,
to bei.e., 10 ohms
constant, in10
i.e., that
ohmsstudy. We have
in that study. however,
We haveconcluded
however,
that a low value of ‘r ’ is necessary in order to achieve the desired protective
concluded that a lowsgvalue of ‘rsg’ is necessary in order to achieve the desired protective level for the level for the sheath of
HVDC
sheath of cables.
HVDC cables.
The
The flashover performance
flashover performance of of the
the twrtwr2S2S insulator
insulator considering
considering varyingvarying sheath
sheath grounding
grounding
impedances is shown in
impedances is shown in Figure 27. Figure 27.
It
It can
can be
be seen
seen thatthat lowering
lowering the the sheath
sheath grounding
grounding impedance
impedance has has virtually
virtually no no effect
effect on
on the
the
flashover
flashover performance of a plus pole insulator. Due to the much higher characteristic impedance of
performance of a plus pole insulator. Due to the much higher characteristic impedance of
OHGW
OHGW compared
comparedto tothe
thesheath
sheathgrounding
groundingimpedance,
impedance, anyanychange
change in in
itsits
value
valuehashas
a marginal
a marginaleffect on
effect
the reflection
on the coefficient
reflection coefficient at the boundary
at the boundary of of
thethe
cable. The
cable. The impact
impactofoffooting
footingimpedance
impedanceofoftwr twr2S2S on
on
flashover performance of its plus pole insulator is presented
flashover performance of its plus pole insulator is presented in Figure 28. in Figure 28.
It can be seen that by lowering the tower footing impedance to 6 ohms the flashover of the
insulator can be prevented. Lowering the footing impedance increases the reflection coefficient at the
boundary c in Figure 8, resulting in an increased damping of voltage on the top of the tower.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24
Energies
Energies 12,12,
2019,
2019, 4217 PEER REVIEW
x FOR 21 21
of of
2424

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 27. Lightning strike on the top of twr2S. (a) Voltage across positive pole insulators of twr2S
Figure
Figure27.27.Lightning
according Lightningstrike
to sheath onon
strike the
thetop
grounding ofoftwr
top twr2S. (a)
impedance. Voltage
2S . (b)
(a) Leaderacross
Voltage positive
across
growth pole
positive
betweenpoleinsulators ofoftwr
insulators
insulator gap twr
of twr
2S
2S 2S
according
according
accordingto sheath grounding
to to sheath
grounding
grounding impedance.
impedance.
impedance. (b) Leader growth between insulator gap of
(b) Leader growth between insulator gap of twr2S accordingtwr 2S

according
to sheathtogrounding
sheath grounding
impedance.impedance.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 28.28. Lightning
Lightning strike
strike onon
thethe
toptop
of of
twr twr . (a)Voltage
2S .2S(a) Voltage across
across insulators
insulators ofofthethe positive
positive pole
pole of of
Figure
twr
twr 28. Lightning
according
according
2S to strike
to
footing onimpedance.
footing the top of twr
impedance. (b)
(b) 2S. Leader
(a) Voltage
Leader across between
propagation
propagation insulators
between of
the
the the positive
insulator
insulator gap pole
gap
of ofoftwr2S
twr
2S 2S
twr2S according
according
according to totofooting
footingfooting impedance. (b) Leader propagation between the insulator gap of twr2S
impedance.
impedance.
according to footing impedance.
Energies 2019, 12, 4217 22 of 24

It can be seen that by lowering the tower footing impedance to 6 ohms the flashover of the
insulator can be prevented. Lowering the footing impedance increases the reflection coefficient at the
boundary c in Figure 8, resulting in an increased damping of voltage on the top of the tower.

4. Conclusions
Lightning strikes on the overhead section of the line subject the components of mixed HVDC
transmission line to tremendous overvoltage stresses. These overvoltage stresses can cause flashover
of OHL insulators and can cause cable insulation to fail permanently if they exceed the LIWL of the
insulation layers.
The following outcomes have been drawn from this paper.

1. The maximum core-ground overvoltage increases with a decrease in the length of the cable.
This behavior is experienced due to a positive reflection coefficient at the receiving end boundary
of the cable. For cables, shorter than 16 km, the magnitude of overvoltage is expected to exceed
the LIPL of the cable. Therefore, surge arresters should be installed at the terminals of such cables.
2. The maximum sheath-ground overvoltage is independent of the length of the cable due to the
negative reflection coefficient at the receiving end boundary of the sheath.
3. The sheath-ground overvoltage can exceed the LIWL of the jacket significantly for high sheath
grounding impedances. The SG overvoltage can be limited within the LIPL of the jacket by
limiting the sheath grounding impedance up to 1.2 ohms.
4. As concluded in our previous work [15] the sending end subsequent tower “twr2S ” is most
vulnerable to flashover in the case if OHPC as well as OHGW strikes. The flashover due to
OHGW strikes can be prevented by limiting the footing impedance of twr2S to 6 ohms.

The presence of surge arresters on cable terminals does not impact the flashover performance of
OHL insulators.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A. and B.-W.L.; methodology, M.A.; software, M.A. and A.S.;
validation, M.A.; resources, K.-H.P. and H.-Y.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.; writing—review and
editing, B.-W.L.; project administration, H.-Y.L.; funding acquisition, B.-W.L.; supervision, B.-W.L.
Funding: This work was supported by the Korea Electric Power Corporation, Republic of Korea (Grant number.
R17XA05-3). The APC was funded by Korea Electric Power Corporation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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