LIMITS

Department of Mathematics, FPT University

Hanoi
2022
Table of Contents

1 A Preview of Calculus

2 The Limit of a Function

3 The Limit Laws

4 Continuity

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The Tangent Problem

How to find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point
P (1; 1)?

The slope of the secant line P Q is

x2 − 1
mP Q = .
x −1
The slope of the tangent line is said to
be the limit of the slopes of the secant
lines, that means
x2 − 1
lim mP Q = m, lim = 2.
Q→P x→1 x − 1

The equation of the tangent line

through (1; 1) as y = 2x − 1.

The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line through
P with slope
f (x) − f (a)
m = lim .
x→a x−a
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The Velocity Problem

Investigate the example of a falling ball

Suppose that a ball is dropped from upper observation deck of the CN Tower in
Toronto, 450m above the ground.
Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds. If the distance fallen after t seconds is
denoted by s(t) and measured in meters, then Galileo’s law is expressed by the
following equation
s(t) = 4.9t2 .

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The Velocity Problem

Time interval Average velocity

change in position 5≤t≤6 53.9
average =
time elapsed 5 ≤ t ≤ 5.1 49.49
s(5.1) − s(5) 5 ≤ t ≤ 5.05 49.245
= = 49.49 m/s.
0.1 5 ≤ t ≤ 5.01 49.049
Thus, the (instantaneous) velocity after 5 ≤ t ≤ 5.001 49.0049
5s is v = 49 m/s.

We define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at the time t = a to be the
limit of these average velocities

f (a + h) − f (a)
v(a) = lim .
h→0 h

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The Limit of a Function

In general, we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be

sufficiently close to a but not equal to a.

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One-sided Limits

We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be

sufficiently close to a and x less than a.

Similarly, the "right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L" and we

write
lim+ f (x) = L
x→a

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One-sided Limits

Example
lim g(x) ̸= lim+ g(x)
x→2− x→2

lim g(x) =?
x→2

lim g(x) =?
x→5−

lim g(x) =?
x→5+

lim g(x) =?
x→5

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Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on both

sides of a, except possibly at a itself.
Then,
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be

made arbitrarily large positive by taking
x sufficiently close to a, but not equal
to a.

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Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on both

sides of a, except possibly at a itself.
Then,
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be

made arbitrarily large negative by taking
x sufficiently close to a, but not equal
to a.

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Infinite Limits

Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided limits:

lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞.

x→a− x→a+

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Infinite Limits

Definition
x = a is called the vertical asymptote of f (x) if we have one of the following:

lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞.

x→a− x→a+

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The Limit Laws

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
x→a x→a
1 lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
2 lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
3 lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a

f (x)
 lim f (x)
4 lim = x→a if lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

Using the limit laws, we have

h in
1 lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) 4 lim c = c
x→a x→a x→a

2 lim x = a 5 lim xn = an
x→a x→a
√ √ p q
3 lim n x = n a 6 lim n f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a x→a

Theorem
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim− f (x) = L = lim+ f (x).
x→a x→a x→a
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The Limit Laws

Theorem (The Squeeze Theorem)

Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be defined for all x ̸= a over an open interval containing
a. If
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)
for all x ̸= a in an open interval containing a and

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

x→a x→a

where L is a real number, then lim g(x) = L.

x→a

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The Limit Laws

Example
1
Show that lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

Solution. Note that we cannot use

1 1
lim x2 sin = lim x2 · lim sin = 0
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x
1
since lim sin does not exist.
x→0 x
1
However, since −1 ≤ sin ≤ 1, we have
x
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 .
x
Taking f (x) = −x2 and h(x) = x2 in the
1
Squeeze Theorem, we obtain lim x2 sin = 0
x→0 x
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The Limit Laws

Quiz question
Choose one correct answer (TRUE or FALSE) for the following statements.
lim f (x)
1 If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 then
x→3
does not exist.
x→3 x→3 lim g(x)
x→3
2 If lim [f (x)g(x)] exists, then the limit must be [f (a)g(a)].
x→a

Cô đính chính lại câu trả lời của câu đố 1 này nhé: Đáp án là False. Chẳng hạn, ta chọn

f (x) = (x − 3)2 , g(x) = x − 3.

Khi đó,
lim f (x) = 0, lim g(x) = 0.
x→3 x→3

Tuy nhiên, áp dụng the limit laws,

lim f (x)
x→3 f (x) (x − 3)2
= lim = lim = lim (x − 3) = 0.
lim g(x) x→3 g(x) x→3 x − 3 x→3
x→3

Sorry tất cả các em vì sự sai sót này của cô.

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Continuity

Definition
A function f is continuous at a point a if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied
1 f (a) is defined,
2 lim f (x) exists,
x →a
3 lim f (x) = f (a).
x →a
A function is discontinuous at a point a if it fails to be continuous at a.

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Continuity

Example
The figure shows the graph of a
function f . At which numbers is f
discontinuous? Why?

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Types of Discontinuities

Definition
If f (x) is discontinuous at a, then
1 f has a removable discontinuity at a if lim f (x) exists. (Note: When we state that
x→a
lim f (x) exists, we mean that lim f (x) = L, where L is a real number.)
x→a x→a
2 f has a jump discontinuity at a if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist, but
x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) ̸= lim f (x). (Note: When we state that lim f (x) and lim f (x) both
x→a− x→a+ x→a− x→a+
exist, we mean that both are rel-valued and that neither take on the values ±∞.)
3 f has an infinite discontinuity at a if lim f (x) = ±∞ and or lim f (x) = ±∞.
x→a− x→a+

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Types of Discontinuities

Example
Classify discontinuous points of the following functions:
x2 − 4
1 f (x) = .
x−2
(
−x 2 + 4 if x ≤ 3
2 g(x ) =

4x − 8 if x > 3.
x+2
3 h(x) = .
x+1

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Continuity over an Interval

Definition
A function f (x) is said to be continuous the right at a if lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a
A function f (x) is said to be continuous the left at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−

Definition
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
number in the interval.

If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand

continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from
the left.

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Continuity

Theorem
If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following functions
are also continuous at a:

1 f +g 4 fg
2 f −g f
3 cf , cg
5 if g(a) ̸= 0.
g

Remarks
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their
domains:
Polynomials
Rational functions
Root functions
Trigonometric functions.

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Continuity

Theorem (Composite Function Theorem)

If f (x) is continuous at L and lim g(x) = L then
x→a
 
lim f [g(x)] = f lim g(x) = f (L).
→a x→a

Theorem
If x is close to a then g(x) is close to L; and since f is continuous at L, if g(x) is
close to L, then f (g(x)) is close to f (L).

This theorem is often expressed informally by saying a continuous function of a

continuous function is a continuous function.

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Continuity

Theorem (The Intermediate Value Theorem)

Let f be continuous over a closed, bounded interval [a, b]. If z is any real number
between f (a) and f (b), then there is a number c in [a, b] satisfying f (c) = z in the
figure below.

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Continuity

Example
Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 between 1 and
2.

Solution. Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. This function is continuous over [1, 2].
We now look for a solution of the given equation that is, a number c between 1
and 2 such that f (c) = 0.We have

f (1) = −1 < 0 and f (2) = 12 > 0.

By using the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a number c ∈ [a, b] such
that
f (c) = 0.

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Limits at Infinity

Definition
Let f be a function defined for every x > a. Then lim f (x) = L means that
x→∞

∀ε > 0, ∃M > 0 if x > M then |f (x) − L| < ε.

Definition
The line y = L is called the horizontal asymptote of f (x) if we have one of
the following:
1 lim f (x) = L,
x →+∞
2 lim f (x) = L.
x →∞

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Quiz questions

1. If f (1) > 0 and f (3) < 0 then there exists a number c between 1 and 3 such
that f (c) = 0.
A. True B. False
2. Which is the equation expressing the fact that "f is continuous at 2"?

A. lim f (x) = 2. C. lim f (x) = 0.

x→2 x→2
B. lim f (x) = f (2). D. lim f (x) = f (2).
x→+∞ x→2

3
x −1
3. Let f (x) = . The horizontal asymptote of f (x) is
x3 + x2 − 2
A. y = 1 B. y = −1 C. y = 0 D. None of them
4. lim cos x =?
x→+∞
A. Infinity B. −1 C. 1 D. Does not exist

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 THANK YOU!

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