Introductory Calculus

Jacob Lee

• General
– Calculus provides the answers to two fundamental questions regarding the graph of a function f : the slope
of the line tangent to a given point in f and the area of the region bounded by f between an interval.
Though this may seem trivial right now, these two ideas let us derive countless important results.
– This guide is intended to be a study guide containing all possible topics and techniques you need to know
for single variable calculus.
– Make sure to learn to use your calculator efficiently to fully understand calculus!

• Limits I
– Let f be a real valued function. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, or lim f (x) = L, if,
x→a
∀ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that if x is within δ of a (with x ≠ a), then f (x) is within ϵ of L. We write
this as 0 < ∣x − a∣ < δ Ô⇒ ∣f (x) − L∣ < ϵ.
– The definition of lim f (x) does not concern itself with what happens at x = a, only with what happens near
x→a
x = a. In other words, the value of f (a) is irrelevant when determining lim f (x).
x→a
– Limit Rules: Let f and g be functions with lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M. Then, lim (f + g)(x) =
x→a x→a x→a
L + M, lim (f g)(x) = LM, lim (cf )(x) = cL, and lim (f /g)(x) = L/M for c ∈ R and M ≠ 0.
x→a x→a x→a
– One-sided Limits: We say that f (x) has limit L as x approaches a from the left, denoted lim− f (x) = L, if,
x→a
for every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that 0 < a − x < δ Ô⇒ ∣f (x) − L∣ < ϵ. We say that f (x) has limit
L as x approaches a from the right, denoted lim+ f (x) = L, if, for every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
x→a
0 < x − a < δ Ô⇒ ∣f (x) − L∣ < ϵ.
– Let f be a real-valued function. Then lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L. If lim f (x) = L,
x→a x→a x→a x→a
then the limit exists at a.
– Squeeze Theorem: Let a ∈ R and let f, g, h be real-valued functions such that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) ∀x in an
open interval containing a. If lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x) = L as well.
x→a x→a x→a
– Noteworthy Limits: many of these are quite intuitive, perhaps even “obvious” However, they are mention-
worthy and are the key to solving countless more complex limits. ∗ lim c = c ∗ lim xn = an ∗ lim ex = 0
x→a x→a x→−∞
sin(x)
∗ lim+ 1
=∞ ∗ lim−
1
= −∞ ∗ lim 1
= 0 ∗ lim 1
= 0 ∗ lim ln(x) = −∞ ∗ lim = 1 ∗ lim1−cos x
=0
x→0 x x→0 x x→∞ x x→−∞ x x→0 x→0 x x→0 x
arcsin(x) x x x
∗ lim x
=1 ∗ lim e −1 =1 ∗ lim a −1 = ln a ∗ lim (1 + x1 ) =e
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x x→∞

1
 – Limits Techniques: when there are radicals in an expression and you are asked to find the limit of the
expression where the denominator turns out to be 0, then multiply by the conjugate. Applying substitution
is a great way to compute limits. When there are absolute values and you are asked to find its limit, then
break it into cases.
• Continuity
– Continuity: a function is continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper,
meaning that the graph does not have any jumps or holes. Rigorously, left f be a real-valued function. We
say that f is continuous at a point a ∈ Dom(f ) if lim f (x) = f (a). If a is on the boundary of Dom(f ), then
x→a
consider one-sided limits instead. If f is continuous at every point in its domain, then f is continuous. If
f and g are continuous at a, and c ∈ R, then f + g, f g, and cf are all continuous at a. Further, if g(a) ≠ 0,
then f /g is continuous at a; this result comes from limits.
– Intermediate Value Theorem: If f is a continuous, real-valued function defined on an interval [a, b], with
f (a) ≠ f (b), and y ∈ R on the interval (f (a), f (b)), then there exists some c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = y.
– Boundedness Theorem: Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Then there exists some value
M ∈ R such that f (c) ≤ M ∀c ∈ [a, b].
– Extreme Value Theorem: Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Then, f attains a maximum
on [a, b]; that is, there exists a real number c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for any x ∈ [a, b].
• The Derivative
– The Background: similar to its definition on a circle, a secant line of the graph y = f (x) is any line that
intersects the graph in at least two distinct points. If P = (a, f (a)) and Q = (b, f (b)), then the slope of the
secant is f (b)−f
b−a
(a)
. A tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)), where a ∈ Dom(f ), is a
line l, not parallel to the y-axis, passing through (a, f (a)) that does not intersect the graph at any other
point. However, this definition of a tangent line has a flaw that the “tangent” line can go “through” the
graph of y = f (x). Thus, we redefine it: the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P = (a, f (a)) is
the line passing through P with slope lim f (a+h)−fh
(a)
, or lim f (b)−f
b−a
(a)
, provided that this limit is defined.
h→0 b→a
f (a+h)−f (a)
– The derivative of the function f at a, denoted f (a), is f (a) = lim
′ ′
h
, provided this limit exists.
h→0
– If the derivative of a point exists, then we say that f is differentiable at that point. We say that f is
differentiable if it is differentiable at every point in its domain. The derivative of function f, denoted by
f ′ (x), is a function that outputs the derivative at any point x of function f , given x is in its domain. The
derivative of f (x) has many notations, including f ′ (x), D(f ) (operator notation), f˙(x) (derivative of a
vector), df , d f (x) (differential notation).
dx dx
– When derivatives are undefined for f (x) at x = a: firstly, differentiability implies continuity, but the converse
is not true. If f is not continuous at a, then f ′ (a) is undefined. Second, if the graph of y = f (x) has a “sharp
corner” at (a, f (a)), then the derivative f ′ (a) is undefined. Lastly, if the graph of y = f (x) has a vertical
“tangent line” at (a, f (a)), then f ′ (a) is undefined. Note that there are some other exotic rare cases where
a function’s derivative is undefined (e.g. the Weierstrass function has too many “wiggles”).
• Derivative Computation Methods
f (a+h)−f (a)
– Although we can use the definition of a derivative (i.e. f ′ (a) = lim h
) to compute derivatives, it is
h→0
largely impractical and oftentimes futile. Hence, we use other various computation methods.

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 – Linearity: (f + g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x), (cf )′ (x) = cf ′ (x)
– Power Rule: d n
dx
x = nxn−1 ∀n ∈ C
– Product Rule: (f g)′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)
f ′ f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
– Quotient Rule: ( ) (x) =
g (g(x))2
– Chain Rule: (g ○ f )′ (x) = g ′ (f (x))f ′ (x)
1
– Inverse Function Rule: (f −1 )′ (x) = ′ −1
f (f (x))
– Trig Functions: dx d
(sin x) = cos x, dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x, dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x, dx
d
(cot x) = − csc2 x, dx
d
(sec x) =
sec x tan x, dx (csc x) = − csc x cot x
d

1 1 1
– Inverse Trig Functions: d
(arcsin x) =√ d
, dx (arccos x) = − √ d
, dx (arctan x) =
dx
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 + x2
– Exponential and Logarithm: for any constant a ∈ R, d
dx
(ex ) = ex , d
dx
(ln x) = x1 , d
dx
(ax ) = ax ln x, d
dx
(loga x) =
1
x ln a
– Implicit Differentiation: when curves are not defined as a function, but rather implicitly as the graph of an
equation involving x and y, you can use implicit differentiation without solving for y. The main thing is to
d
note is that dx y = y ′ when taking the derivative with respect to x.
• Applications of the Derivative

– There are an innumerable amount of ways you could apply the concept of the derivative. In the grand scheme
of things, derivatives let us find the slope of a line tangent to a point on a function, and they also represent
the rate of change of f. However, there are countless more ways it could be applied in mathematics, as we will
see. Further, derivatives have many applications in other subject areas, including physics, chemistry, biology,
economics, psychology, geology, and more. Listed below are some extended techniques and applications that
uses differentiation.
– Maximum and Minimum: Let f is a continuous function on [a, b]. If f achieves its maximum at c ∈ (a, b),
and f is differentiable at c, then f ′ (c) = 0. If f achieves its minimum at d ∈ (a, b), and f is differentiable at
d, then f ′ (d) = 0.
– Rolle’s Theorem: If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and f (a) = f (b), then there exists
c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
– Mean Value Theorem: If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], with a < b, and f is
f (b) − f (a)
differentiable on (a, b), then there exists some real number c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = . The
b−a
Mean Value Theorem is arguably the most important theoretical result of the derivative; it is used to prove
countless results in calculus.
– Increasing & Decreasing: Let f be a continuous differentiable function on the interval [a, b]. If f ′ (x) > 0
∀x ∈ (a, b), then f is strictly increasing on [a, b]. If f ′ (x) < 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b), then f is strictly decreasing on
[a, b]. If f is strictly increasing, we can say that f monotonically increasing, and vice versa. If f ′ = 0 on an
interval I, then f is constant on I. We can know more about roots of functions using this idea.
– Concavity: If f ′′ (x) > 0 ∀x in some interval I, then f is concave up on I. If an interval is concave up, then
the “bulge” of the graph is pointed down and tangent lines are below the curve, whilst secant lines are above

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 the curve. If f ′′ (x) < 0 ∀x in some interval I, then f is concave down on I. If an interval is concave down,
then the “bulge” of the graph is pointed up and tangent lines are above the curve, whilst secant lines are
below the curve. If the concavity of f changes at some point x, then (x, f (x)) is an inflection point of the
graph of f ; (a, f (a)) is an inflection point only if f ′′ (a) = 0, but the converse is not true.
– Critical Points: If f is a function defined on [a, b], and f (c) for c ∈ [a, b] is an extreme value (a maximum
or minimum) of f on [a, b], then one of the following must be true: f is differentiable at c ∈ (a, b) and
f ′ (c) = 0, c is on the boundary of [a, b] and c = a or c = b, or the derivative is undefined at c ∈ (a, b) and
f ′ (c) is undefined. The points where one of these conditions are met are called critical points; maximum
and minimum values of f can only be reached on critical points.
– Let f be a function. f has a global maximum, or absolute maximum, at c if f (c) ≥ f (x)∀x ∈ Dom(f ). f has
a global minimum, or absolute minimum, at c if f (c) ≤ f (x)∀x ∈ Dom(f ). f has a relative maximum, or
local maximum, at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that f (c) ≥ f (x)∀x ∈ (I ∩ Dom(f )).
f has a relative minimum, or local minimum, at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that
f (c) ≤ f (x)∀x ∈ (I ∩ Dom(f )).
– The First Derivative Test: let c be a critical point on f. If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then
f (x) is a local maximum. If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f (x) is a local minimum. If f ′
does not change sign at c, then f (x) is neither a local maximum nor minimum.
– The Second Derivative Test: let f be a twice differentiable function and f ′ (c) = 0. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f (c) is
a local maximum. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f (c) is a local minimum.
– Position, Velocity, and Acceleration: P ′ (x) = V (x) and V ′ (x) = A(x). Velocity is a vector, whilst speed is
strictly magnitude: speed = ∣velocity∣. If v < 0, then the object is moving to the left, and if v > 0, then the
object is moving to the right. If A(x) and V (x) have the same signs, then the particle is speeding up, and
if A(x) and V (x) have the opposite signs, then the particle is slowing down.
– Linear Approximation: the tangent line approximation of a function f near a is f (a) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a).
In other words, near the point (a, f (a)), we have ∆y ≈ f ′ (a)∆x. Local linearization at a and the derivative
near = a are almost the same. If the curve is concave up, then the linear approximation is too low. If the
curve is concave down, then the linear approximation is too high.
– Optimization: optimization is an important application of derivatives, being applied in nearly every field
of science. We can use the derivative tests and properties of critical points to quickly determine when the
dependent variable is optimized—maximized or minimized.
– Related Rates: we can take the idea of interpreting the derivative as a rate of change a step further: we
can use the dependent relationship between two quantities to determine a relationship between their rates
of change. When given a situation, it is a good idea to take the derivative with respect to time of a relevant
equation involving the dependent quantities.
• Limits II
– End Behavior: if there is a vertical asymptote at c, then lim± f (x) = ±∞. if there is a horizontal asymptote,
x→c
ax
then lim f (x) = constant. Another useful idea: for a, b ∈ R, lim x = ab .
x→±∞ x→∞ b
– Limits Towards Infinity: the graph of a function f has a horizontal asymptote at L if lim f (x) = L or
x→∞
f (x)
lim f (x) = L. Let h(x) = g(x)
where f and g are polynomials. Then lim h(x) is 0 if deg(g) > deg(f ), ∞,
x→−∞ x→∞
or undefined if deg(f ) > deg(g), or the ratio of the leading coefficients of f and g if deg(f ) = deg(g).

4
 – Limits at Infinity: the graph of a function f has a vertical asymptote at x = a if lim+ f (x) = ±∞ or
x→a
f (x)
lim− f (x) = ±∞. The vertical asymptotes of a rational function g(x)
where all the corresponding common
x→a
roots of f and g are canceled out, are the roots of g.
– L’Hospital’s Rule: suppose f and g are differentiable. Suppose that lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, or that
x→a x→a
f (x) 0
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞. In other words, the limit lim is an indeterminate form of type
x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0
∞ f (x) f ′ (x)
or . Then lim = lim ′ if the limit on the right exists.
∞ x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
– You can apply L’Hospital’s Rule multiple times
– Indeterminate Forms:
∗ Indeterminate Products (0 × ∞): suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ∞ (or −∞). Then the limit
x→a x→a
lim [f (x)g(x)] is not clear. This is because for any n ∈ R, n ⋅ ∞ = ∞ and n ⋅ 0 = 0. A technique to
x→a
f (x)
evaluate this type of indeterminate forms is to rewrite the product f (x)g(x) as 1
, which converts
[ g(x) ]
g(x)
the limit into 00 , or 1
, which converts the limit into ∞
∞
. We can then use L’Hospital’s Rule.
[ f (x) ]
∗ Indeterminate Differences (∞ − ∞): suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ∞ (or −∞). Then the limit
x→a x→a
lim [f (x)−g(x)] is (again) not clear. The numerical struggle still persists, albeit we cannot try to resolve
x→a
that by writing this as a difference of limits. To evaluate this limit, we must rewrite the difference to
0 ∞
forms such as , , or 0 × ∞, and then apply L’Hospital’s Rule.
0 ∞
∗ Indeterminate Powers 00 , 1∞ , and ∞0 : if the limits are of the type 00 , 1∞ , and ∞0 , then we apply the
natural logarithm of it (or make it exponential form), and e to the power of that result is our limit.
• Integral
– The key motivation behind integration is to find the area of the region bounded by a curve. The main idea
behind doing so is to split the area into infinitely thin slices to fit the area perfectly. We say that the “area
b
under the curve y = f (x) from a to b” is ∫ f (x) dx, where f (x) is the integrand, dx indicates that f (x)
a
is a function with respect to x, called the variable of integration.
– “Area under the curve”: let [a, b] a closed interval, and suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] such that
f (x) ≥ 0∀x ∈ [a, b]. The area under the curve y = f (x) on the interval [a, b] is the area of the geometric
figure bounded by y = f (x) between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)), x = a between (a, 0) and (a, f (a)), x = b
between (b, 0) and (b, f (b)), and the x-axis between (a, 0) and (b, 0). If the area is “under” the curve where
f (x) ≤ 0∀x ∈ [a, b], it is minus the area of the geometric figure with the same bounds.
– Riemann Sums: Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval: x∗i ∈ [xi , xi+1 ]. A Riemann sum
n
of the function f over the interval [a, b] with partition P is r(f, P, x∗i ) = ∑i=1 f (x∗i )(xi+1 − xi ). When
n
x∗i = xi ∀i, the left Riemann sum is Ln = ∑i=1 f (xi )(xi+1 − xi ). When x∗i = xi+1 ∀i, the right Riemann
n
sum is Rn = ∑i=1 f (xi+1 )(xi+1 − xi ). When x∗i = xi = 12 (xi + xi+1 )∀i, the midpoint Riemann sum is Mn =
n
∑i=1 f (xi )(xi+1 − xi ). The trapezoidal sum is Tn = 12 (Ln + Rn ).
– Let f be a continuous function defined on [a, b]. Let Lba (f ) = sup{l(f, P)∣P is a partition of [a, b]} be
n−1
called the lower Darboux integral, where l(f, P) = ∑ mi (xi+1 − xi ) and mi = inf{f (x)∣x ∈ [xi , xi+1 ]}.
i=0

5
 Let Uab (f ) = inf{u(f, P)∣P is a partition of [a, b]} be called the upper Darboux integral, where u(f, P) =
n−1
∑ Mi (xi+1 − xi ) and Mi = sup{f (x)∣x ∈ [xi , xi+1 ]}. Thus by definition, Lba (f ) ≤ Uab (f ). If Lba (f ) = Uab (f ),
i=0
then
b n
b−a b−a
∫ f (x) dx = La (f ) = Ua (f ) = n→∞
lim ∑ [f (a + ⋅ i)] ( )
b b
i=1 n n
a

is the definite integral of f over [a, b].

– Properties of Definite Integrals:
∗ If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].
∗ If P and Q are any two partition of [a, b], then l(f, P) ≤ u(f, P), and l(f, P) ≤ u(f, Q).
b
∗ For any constant c, ∫a c dx = c(b − a)
b b b b b
∗ For any functions f and g, ∫a (f + g) = ∫a f + ∫a g, ∫a cf = c ∫a f.
b c b
∗ For any function f and any a < c < b, ∫a f = ∫a f + ∫c g
b b
∗ If a < b, then ∫a f = − ∫a
• The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
– Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I: Let f be a continuous function on [a, b]. Define a function g by
x
g(x) = ∫ f (t) dt ∀x ∈ [a, b]. Then g is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b), and g ′ (x) = f (x) over
a
[a, b].
– Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II: Let f is a continuous function on [a, b] with antiderivative F.
b
Then ∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
d f (x)
– A Corollary: suppose f is differentiable and g is continuous. Then ∫ g(t) dt = g(f (x))f ′ (x) (chain
dx 0
rule).
– The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus says that differentiation and integration are inverse processes. This
is a remarkable fact, providing us with a systematic method to find areas, volumes, and lengths of curves,
marking itself as the important theorem in calculus and one of the greatest accomplishments of the human
mind.
• Integration Methods
b
– We can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to compute the definite integrals of the form ∫a f dx.
However, we first need to be able to find a function F such that F ′ = f.
– Let f be a function. A function g is called an antiderivative of f if g is differentiable and g ′ = f.
– Antiderivatives are also called indefinite integrals, expressed as F = ∫ f where f is an antiderivative of F. It
b
b
can also be said that ∫ f = F + C for any constant C. Hence, ∫a f (x) dx = (∫ f (x) dx) ∣ by the Fundamental
a
Theorem of Calculus.
– If F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of the same function f, then F1 − F2 = c for some constant c ∈ R.
– Trivial Result: ∫ f ′ = f + C.

6
 – Linearity: ∫ (f + g) = ∫ f + ∫ g, ∫ cf = c ∫ f

– Because ∫ 0 dx = C for any constant C, we must add C, the constant of integration, to any indefinite
integral.
xn+1
– Power Rule: ∫ xn dx = + C (n ≠ −1), and ∫ x−1 dx = ln ∣x∣ + C
n+1
bx
– Exponential and Logarithm Functions: ∫ ex dx = ex , ∫ bx dx =
ln b
– Trig Functions: ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C, ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C, ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C, ∫ sec x tan x dx =
sec x + C, ∫ csc cot dx = − csc x + C, ∫ csc2 dx = − cot x + C, ∫ sec x dx = ln ∣ sec x + tan x∣ + C, ∫ csc x dx =
− ln ∣ csc x − cot x∣ + C, ∫ tan x dx = ln ∣ sec x∣ + C, ∫ cot x dx = ln ∣ sin x∣ + C
dx 1 x dx x dx 1 x−a dx
– Other Functions: ∫ 2 = tan−1 ( ) , ∫ 2 = sin−1 ( ) , ∫ 2 = ln ∣ ∣,∫ 2 =
√ x +a 2 a a a −x 2 a x −a 2 2a x+1 x ± a2
ln ∣x + x2 ± a2 ∣

• Techniques of Integration I
– U-Substitution: If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is continuous on I,
then ∫ f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = ∫ f (u) du. This is essentially chain rule for derivatives in reverse. The general
technique for the substitution method is to substitute for the term inside the “ugly” expression. Make sure
to solve for du in terms of dx; After all substitutions, there must be no x terms remaining. When we do a
substitution of variables on a definite integral, we must also change the limits of integration. This method
is sometimes called the “U-substitution”
– Integration by Parts: ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du. Integration by parts is essentially “undoing” the product
rule: (uv)′ = uv ′ + u′ v Ô⇒ uv ′ = (uv)′ − u′ v, and thus ∫ uv ′ dx = ∫ ((uv)′ − u′ v) dx = uv − ∫ u′ v dx.
Sometimes, you should apply integration by parts multiple times. When applying integration by parts on
definite integrals, uv must be evaluated at the limits of integration.
– Substitution Methods: In all substitutions, it is important that if we substitute for x in ∫ f (x) dx, then we
have to substitute for dx too. Suppose we have ∫ g(x) dx. We make a substitution of the form x = f (u),
and consequently dx = f ′ (u) du. Our integral becomes ∫ g(f (u))f ′ (u) du. This sort of substitution, which
in hindsight is the opposite of U-substitution, sometimes make things work out nicely. When performing
this substitution, it is important to consider the range of f (u) with respect to g(x).
– Partial Fractions: When you are given a rational function, consider performing partial fraction decomposition
and splitting up the function to make it easier to integrate. The Heaviside’s Cover-up Method can be a
useful method here. A preliminary step of long division may be necessary if the degree of the numerator is
greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator. Splitting the rational functions into fractions also
work really great. When the denominator is irreducible, consider splitting the integral and complete the
square to produce other expressions such as the derivative of arctan x.
– Remark: there is no quotient rule equivalent in integration because there is no need (f/g = f * 1/g) and it
would be superfluous.

7
• Techniques of Integration II
– Trigonometric Substitution: Generally, consider using a trigonometric substitution when we see a term of
the form 1 ±√ x2 . Some unusual substitutions may be used to integrate other expressions. For an expression
of the form a2 − x2 , √ substitute x = a sin θ, −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, and use the identity, 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ. For an
expression of the form a2 + x√2 , substitute x = a tan θ, −π/2 < θ < π/2, and use the identity, 1+tan2 θ = sec2 θ.
For an expression of the form x2 − a2 , substitute x = a sec θ, 0 ≤ θ < π/2, or π ≤ θ < 3π/2 and use the identity,
sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ.
– Trigonometric Integrals: Oftentimes, these techniques still cannot be used to solve trigonometric integrals.
∗ Odd Powers: when there are odd powers of sine or cosine, we can use the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 to
express the remaining terms in terms of the other and finish with u-substitution.
∗ Even Powers: when there are even powers of sine or cosine, we can use the half-angle identities sin2 x =
1
2
(1 − cos 2x) , cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x) and finish with u-substitution on 2x.
∗ Powers of Secant and Tangent: when there are powers of secant and tangent, we can use the identity
sec2 x+tan2 x = 1 and the relationships between the derivative of tan x and sec x. The method for solving
integrals with cosecant and cotangent is essentially the same.
∗ Other obscure trigonometric integrals can be solved using other identities such as the product-to-sum
identity.
– Absolute value integrals: when faced with absolute value signs inside integrals, split the absolute values into
cases using multiple integrals with different limits of integration.
– Numerical Integration: oftentimes, integrals cannot be explicitly evaluated. Thus, we use another evaluation
technique—approximating via numerical methods—by computing the approximate area under a curve. We
are going to use the Riemann Sums introduced earlier. For simplicity, we partition [a, b] into subintervals of
equal length, so that each rectangle will have width b−a
n
. So the approximation from the left endpoint of each
n−1 n
interval is ∑i=0 f (xi ), the approximation from the right endpoint of each interval is b−a
b−a
n n ∑i=1
f (xi ), the
b−a n f (xi )+f (xi+1 )
approximation with the Trapezoid Rule is n ∑i=0 2
, the approximation using the midpoints of
n−1
∑i=0 f ( i 2 i+1 ) , and the approximation with the Simpson’s Rule using parabolas is
b−a x +x
each interval is n
n−1 xi+1
∑i=0 ∫xi qi (x) dx where xi = a + i ( b−a
n
).
– We cannot integrate all continuous functions, as many functions do not have closed form antiderivatives. In
fact, the majority of elementary functions cannot be integrated.
– General Strategy: first, try simplifying the integrand by algebraically manipulating the expressions or
using trigonometric identities. Second, look for an “obvious” substitution. Third, classify the integrand
according to its form: product of powers of trigonometric functions Ô⇒ trigonometric integration involving
substitution, rational functions Ô⇒ partial fractions, multiplication of functions Ô⇒ integration by parts,
radicals Ô⇒ trig substitution. Fourth, if the other steps fail, look for clever substitutions, split into cases,
and use numerical methods,
• Improper Integrals:
– An improper integral is an extension of the notion of a definite integral to cases that violate the usual
assumptions of that type of integral. Some examples are shown below.
– If the limit of an improper integral is defined and not ±∞, then an improper integral is convergent. Otherwise,
an improper integral is divergent.

8
 – Improper Integral Type 1: let f be a continuous function and a ∈ R such that (a, ∞) ⊆ Dom(f ). Then
b
∫a f (x) dx = lim ∫a f (x) dx, provided that the limit is defined. Let f be a continuous function and b ∈ R
∞
b→∞
b b
such that (−∞, b) ⊆ Dom(f ). Then ∫−∞ f (x) dx = lim ∫a f (x) dx, provided that the limit is defined. If
a→−∞
b a
both ∫a f (x) dx and ∫−∞ f (x) dx are convergent, then we can split the integral ∫−∞ f (x) dx as ∫−∞ f (x) dx+
∞ ∞

∫a f (x) dx.
∞

– Improper Integral Type 2: let f be a function, continuous on (a, b], such that lim+ f (x) = ±∞. Then
x→a
b b
∫a f (x) dx = lim+ ∫c f (x) dx, provided that the limit is defined. Let f be a function, continuous on [a, b),
c→a
b c
such that lim− f (x) = ±∞. Then ∫a f (x) dx = lim− ∫a f (x) dx, provided that the limit is defined. If f has a
x→b c→b
c b
discontinuity at c, where a < c < b and both ∫a f (x) dx and ∫c f (x) dx are convergent, then we can split the
b c b
integral ∫a f (x) dx as ∫a f (x) dx + ∫c f (x) dx.
– Comparison Theorem: suppose that f and g are continuous functions with f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ a. If
∫a f (x) dx is convergent, then ∫a g(x) dx is convergent. If ∫a g(x) dx is divergent, then ∫a f (x) dx is
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

divergent.
• Applications of Integration
b
– Definition: the integral ∫ f equals the area of the region below the curve y = f (x), above the x-axis, and
a
between the lines x = a and x = b.
– Areas of Regions: let f and g be continuous functions on [a, b], with f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]. Then
b
the area between the graphs of f and g and the lines x = a and x = b is ∫ (f − g). The area is the same
a
when f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ 0. If an area is bounded by multiple curves you can break up the region into smaller
regions by finding the curves’ intersection point. When working with invertible functions, it may be easier
to consider the area in terms of y instead of x.
– Volumes: the volume of a solid between the planes x = a and x = b, with cross-sectional area given by the
b
function A(x), is ∫ A(x) dx. This can be thought of as “summing the areas” over the interval [a, b]. The
a
volume of the solid of revolution given by revolving the graph of y = f (x), on the interval [a, b], around
b
the x-axis is π ∫ (f (x))2 dx. This is the Washer method. The volume of the solid of revolution given by
a
b
revolving the graph of y = f (x), on the interval [a, b], around the y-axis is 2π ∫ xf (x) dx. This is the Shell
a
method.
– Cross Section Volumes:
– Length of a Curve: the length of the graph of y = f (x) from the point (a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)) is
b√
given by ∫ (f ′ (x))2 + 1 dx.
a
– Net Change Theorem: the definite integral of F ′ over [a, b] gives the net change of the original function F
b
over the interval: F (b) = F (a) + ∫ F ′ (x)dx. This integral represents the accumulation function, which can
a
be modeled to real life settings.

9
 – Rectilinear Motion: among many applications of integration in physics is rectilinear motion. The total
t2 t2
distance traveled is ∫ ∣v(t)∣ dt, while the total displacement is ∫ v(t) dt. The average velocity of a
t1 t1
1 t2
t2 −t1 ∫t1
particle is v(x) dx.
– Average Value: the average value of a continuous function f along an interval [a, b] (with a < b) is
1 b
∫ f (x) dx.
b−a a
– Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
• Differential Equations
– A differential equation is an equation which involves a function, the function’s derivative(s), and an inde-
pendent variable. Often, a differential equation will come with an initial condition; for example, a condition
of the form x = x0 , y = y0 for some constants x0 and y0 .
– Slope Fields: Representing first-order differential equations geometrically in a slope field can provide us with
information about the nature of the differential equation. We can find the solution curves using the initial
condition. In order to graph a slope field, draw short tangent lines with the corresponding slopes at each
point.
– Euler’s Method: the Euler’s method can be used to numerically approximate the solutions of a differential
equation. Approximate values for the solution of the initial-value problem y ′ = F (x, y), y(x0 ) = y0 , with step
size h, at xn = xn−1 + h, are yn = yn−1 + h ⋅ F (xn−1 , yn−1 ), for n = 1, 2, 3, ⋯.
– Uniqueness of Solutions
– Separable Equations: a two-variable function f (x, y) is called separable if we can write f (x, y) = g(x)h(y)
where g(x) is a function that depends solely on x, and h(y) is a function that depends solely on y. To use
separation of variables to solve the differential equation y ′ = f (x, y), where f is separable, we rearrange
dy
dx
= f (x, y) = g(x)h(y) as h(y)
dy
= g(x) dx. We then antidifferentiate both sides, combine the constants, and
apply the initial condition.
– Applications:
∗ Exponential Model: if the rate of change of a quantity P with respect to t is proportional to its size
at any time, then dPdt
= kP, and P is growing at a constant relative rate. This is the law of natural or
exponential growth. The solution to the differential equation dPdt
= kP, P (0) = P0 is P (t) = P0 ekt . For a
population that is decreasing by m, dt = kP − m works well.
dP

∗ The Logistic Model: to account for the decrease in relative growth rate as P approaches the carrying
capacity M, and the eventual decrease in population, we form a logistic differential equation: dP dt
=
kP (1 − M ) . The solutions to the logistic equation is P (t) = 1+Ae−kt where A = P0 . The inflection
P M M −P0

point is half the carrying capacity.

• Infinite Sequences and Series I
– A sequence is a list of numbers. A sequence can be denoted by {an }kn=1 = {a1 , a2 , ⋯ak } where the subscripts
indicate the index of each term in the sequence. Sequences need not have to have a closed form, and can be
defined recursively: a geometric sequence {an }∞
n=1 can be stated as ak = rak−1 ∀k ≥ 2.
– Convergent and Divergent Sequences: we say that an infinite sequence {an }∞
n=1 converges to L, or lim an = L,
n→∞
if for any ϵ > 0 ∃N ∈ Z+ such that for any n > N, we have ∣an − L∣ < ϵ. If a sequence does not converge, then
it diverges.

10
– Infinite Series: the series corresponding to the finite sequence {an }kn=1 is the finite sequence of partial sums
of the initial terms of the sequence. The final term ∑ki=k ai is the sum of the series. The series corresponding
to the infinite sequence {an }∞n=1 is the infinite sequence of partial sums of the initial terms of the sequence.
The sum of the series is lim ∑ki=1 ai . For many series, we can find the value that it converges to by telescoping
k→∞
the sum.
– Geometric Sequence and Series: A sequence is a geometric sequence if there exists a real number r such that
n
ak+1 = rak , ∀k ≥ 1. The sum of a finite geometric series is a(rr−1−1) when r ≠ 1. and the sum of an infinite
a
geometric sequence is 1−r for ∣r∣ < 1.
– Monotonic Sequence Theorem: A sequence {an }∞ n=1 is called monotonically increasing if ak ≤ ak+1 ∀k ≤ 1.
A sequence {an }∞
n=1 is called monotonically decreasing if ak ≥ ak+1 ∀k ≥ 1. Strictly monotonic sequences are
of the same nature. A bounded monotonic sequence converges.
– Divergence Test: if {an } is a sequence such that lim an ≠ 0 or lim an does not exist, then ∑ an diverges.
n→∞ n→∞
The converse of this result is not true.
1
– A p-series is defined as ∑n=1 p where p > 0 is a real number. If p = 1, this is the harmonic series. The
∞
n
1
p-series ∑k=1 p diverges if 0 ≤ p ≤ 1 and converges for p > 1.
∞
k
– Series Comparison Test: suppose {an } and {bn } are two sequences such that 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n. If ∑ bn
converges, then ∑ an converges too. If ∑ an diverges, then ∑ bn diverges too. Common series for use with
the comparison test are the p-series and the geometric series.
– The Integral Test: suppose an = f (n) for some positive decreasing continuous function f on [1, ∞). Then
∞
f (x) dx: they both converge or they both diverge. The series can
∞
∑n=1 an has the same behavior as ∫
1
begin at any integer k ≥ 1. Note that the series does not converge to value of the improper integral.
– Remainder Estimate: suppose f (k) = ak , where f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function for x ≥ n
∞ ∞
and ∑ an is convergent. If Rn = s − sn , then ∫ f (x) dx ≤ Rn ≤ ∫ f (x) dx. To find the lower and upper
n+1 n
bound for the sum of the series, add sn to both sides of the inequality.
an
– Limit Comparison Test: let {an } and {bn } be positive sequences, and suppose that lim = c ≠ 0. Then
n→∞ bn
∑ an and ∑ bn either both converge or both diverge.
∞ f (k)
– If f and g are nonzero polynomials such that g(k) ≠ 0 ∀k ∈ Z+ , then the series ∑k=1 converges if and
g(k)
only if the degree of g is at least 2 more than the degree of f.
an+1
– The Ratio Test: suppose ∑ an is a series with positive terms. Let r = lim ∣ ∣ be the limit of the ratio of
n→∞ an
successive terms. If r < 1, then the series converges. If r > 1, then the series diverges. If r = 1, then this test
doesn’t give us any information.
√
– The Root Test: suppose ∑ an is a series with positive terms. Let r = lim n ∣an ∣. Then, if r < 1, then the
n→∞
series converges. If r > 1, then the series diverges. If r = 1, then this test is inconclusive.
– Alternating Series: an alternating series is a series whose terms are alternately positive and negative. ∑ an
is absolutely convergent if ∑ ∣an ∣ converges. If ∑ an is absolutely convergent, then ∑ an converges. The
converse is not true, and such a series is called conditionally convergent. We can not rearrange terms of an
infinite series since the value of a conditionally convergent series can vary.

11
 – The Alternating Series Test: let ∑ an be a series in which the terms are alternating, ∣an+1 ∣ < ∣an ∣ ∀n, and
lim an = 0. Then ∑n=1 an converges.
∞
n→∞
– Alternating Series Error Bound Theorem: if an alternating series converges, then ∣Rn ∣ = ∣s − sn ∣ ≤ an+1 .
– Strategies for Testing Convergence and Divergence:
∗ If the series has a form that is similar to a p-series or a geometric series, then one of the Comparison
Tests should be considered, usually with the highest power of n. If ∑ an has some negative terms, then
apply the comparison test to ∑ ∣an ∣ and test for absolute convergence.
∗ Limit Comparison Test should be used when basic comparison tests do not work.
∗ Use the Divergence Test if it’s fairly easy to show that lim an ≠ 0.
n→∞
∗ If the series is of the form ∑(−1)n−1 bn or is an alternating series, then use the Alternating Series Test.
∗ Series that involve factorials or constants raised to the nth power are good candidates for the Ratio
Test.
∗ If an is of the form (bn )kn , then the Root Test is a possibility.
∗ If an = f (n), where ∫1 f (x) dx is easy to evaluate, then the Integral Test may be useful.
∞

• Infinite Sequences and Series II

– Power series: a power series is a series of the form ∑n=0 cn xn for any constant cn . A power series in (x − a)
∞

has three possibilities: the series converges only when x = a, the series converges for all x, or converges when
∣x − a∣ < R (and diverges otherwise). The number R is called the radius of convergence, and by convention,
R = 0 for the first case and R = ∞ for the second case. The interval of convergence is the interval that the
series converges. When x is at the endpoint of an interval, the Ratio and Root Tests are inconclusive.
– We can add, subtract, multiply, and divide power series with other power series.
n=0 cn (x − a) is R = lim ∣ cn+1 ∣, provided that this limit
cn
– The radius of convergence of the power series ∑∞ n
n→∞
exists.
– Representations of Functions as Power Series: representing functions as power series is very useful in that
it helps us integrate functions that do not have elementary derivatives. A useful technique to represent
functions as power series is to rearrange terms as the infinite geometric series.
– Suppose the power series f (x) = ∑∞n=0 cn (x−a) has a radius of convergence R > 0. Then f (x) = ∑n=0 nan (x−
n ′ ∞

a) , ∫ f (x) dx = C + ∑n=0 n+1 (x − a) , and these two series have radius of convergence R as well. This
n−1 ∞ an n+1

allows us to differentiate and integrate term by term of functions, and attain answers numerically.
– Taylor Polynomials: let f be an n-times-differentiable function. The degree n Taylor Polynomial of f at a
(k)
for any a ∈ R, Dom(f ) is the polynomial p(x) = ∑nk=0 f k!(a) (x − a)k . It is the unique degree n polynomial
with the property that p(k) (a) = f (k) (a) ∀0 ≤ k ≤ n. Think of Taylor Polynomials as a natural extension of
tangent line approximation with higher degrees.
– The error in the degree n Taylor Polynomial approximation T of f at a is R(x) = fn (x)−Tn (x). The absolute
value of the error in estimating f (c) by a Taylor polynomial of degree n about a is at most ∣ (n+1)!
M
(c − a)n+1 ∣,
where M is the maximum value of ∣f (n+1) (x)∣ for x between a and c.
∞ f
(k)
(a)
– The Taylor series at a of an infinitely-differentiable function f is ∑k=0 (x − a)k , for the values of x
k!
for which the infinite series converges. This is also called the Maclaurin series of f at a = 0.

12
 – If f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x), where Tn is the nth degree Taylor polynomial of f at a and lim Rn (x) = 0 for
n→∞
∣x − a∣ < R, then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on the interval ∣x − a∣ < R.
xn 2n 2n+1
– Common Taylor series: ∗ = ∑n=0 xn ∗ ex = ∑n=0 ∗ cos x = ∑n=0 (−1)n (2n)! ∗ sin x = ∑n=0 (−1)n (2n+1)!
1 ∞ ∞ ∞ x ∞x
1−x x!
n 2n+1
∗ ln(1 + x) = ∑n=1 (−1)n+1 xn ∗ tan−1 = ∑n=0 (−1)n x2n+1
∞ ∞

– A function f (x) that is equal to its Taylor series, centered at any point the domain of f, is said to be an
analytic function. Most functions with elementary functions are analytic. This is due to the nature of Taylor
series: it approximates infinitely close to the original function with higher derivatives.
– There are many ways to compute Taylor series. We can use the definition of a Taylor series, differenti-
ate or integrate known series, perform arithmetic operations on power series, or algebraically manipulate
expressions with known Taylor series.
• Plane Curves
– Parametric Curves: a parametric curve C with the parameter t is a set of points in the coordinate plane
satisfying the following: there exists an interval I ⊆ R and real-valued functions u and v, each with domain
I, such that C = {(u(t), v(t))∣t ∈ I}. The functions u and v are called parametric functions, and the pair
(u, v) is called a parameterization of C.
– The Cylcloid: suppose the point P lies on the circumference of a circle. The curve traced out by P as the
circle rolls along a straight line is called a cycloid. The parametric equations of a cycloid is x = r(θ − sin θ),
y = r(1 − cos θ), θ ∈ R. An inverted cycloid is the solution to the Brachistochrone problem.
– Conchoids of Nicomedes: the family of curves described by the parametric equations x = a + cos t and
y = a tan t + sin t is called the Conchoids of Nicomedes.
dy d dy
d2 y dt ( dx )
– Tangent Lines: dy
dx
= dt
dx if dx
dt
≠ 0, and replacing y with dy
dx
gives us dx2
= dx .
dt dt

– Areas: from substitution, the area under the curve traced out by parametric equations x = f (t) and y = g(t)
f (β) β
from α ≤ t ≤ β is A = ∫ y dx = ∫ g(t)f ′ (t) dt.
f (α) α
– Arc Length of Parametric Equations: from polygonal path approximation, if a curve is described by the
parametric equations x = f (t), y = g(t), α ≤ t ≤ β, where f ′ and g ′ are continuous on [α, β] and C is traversed
β√ 2 2
exactly once as t increases from α to β, then the length of C is L = ∫ ( dx
dt
) + ( dy
dt
) dt.
α
– Particle Motion: If the position vector r(t) equals ⟨f (t), g(t)⟩, then the velocity vector equals r′ (t) =
⟨f ′ (t), g ′ (t)⟩. The speed of the particle at time t is ∣r′ (t)∣ and the total distance traveled by the particle is
the arc length between the intervals.
– Polar Coordinates: the polar coordinate system has two components, the radius and the direction in the
form of (r, θ). To convert from rectangular form to polar form and vice versa, we use x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ,
r2 = x2 + y 2 , and tan θ = xy .
– Polar Curves: the graph of a polar equation r = f (θ) consists of all points P that have at least one polar
representation (r, θ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation. Taking advantage of symmetry can simplify
the process of sketching polar curves: if a polar equation is unchanged when θ is replaced by −θ, the curve is
symmetric about the polar axis. If the equation is unchanged when r is replaced by −r or when θ is replaced
by θ + π, the curve is unchanged if its rotated π radians about the origin. If the equation is unchanged when
θ is replaced by π − θ, the curve is symmetric about the vertical line θ = π/2.

13
 dy
dr
sin θ + r cos θ
– Tangents to Polar Curves: = dθ
dx dr
dθ
cos θ − r sin θ
– Famous Polar Curves: the polar curves given by r = 1 + c sin θ are called limao̧ns. The polar curves given
by r = a sin nθ and r = a cos nθ are called roses, each with 2n petals if n is even or n petals if n is odd. The
polar curves given by r2 = a2 sin 2θ or r2 = a2 cos 2θ where a ≠ 0 are called lemniscates.
b
– Areas with Polar Coordinates: A = ∫ 12 r2 dθ where r = f (θ). The techniques used to derive areas for
a
normal functions apply can be applied here as well.
b√
dr 2
– Arc Length with Polar Coordinates: if r = f (θ), a ≤ θ ≤ b, then L = ∫ r2 + ( dθ ) dθ.
a
– To find the angles for the limits of integration for polar curves, let r be where the intersection point is, and
solve for the angle. It is a common technique to let r = 0.

peelybonehead

Sources:
J. Stewart, 2015, Calculus - Early Transcendentals, 8th edition
D. Patrick, 2020, Calculus, AoPS Incorporated
S. Kokoska & J. StewartCalculus for AP : A Complete Course, 2019
M. Spivak, Calculus (Fourth Edition), 2008

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