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EDEXCEL International Advanced Level

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Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 6
Summary©

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Introduction

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A scientific investigation goes through the following phases:

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Planning
Apparatus
Instruments and techniques
Method

Implementation and measurements

Significant figures
Readings

Analysis
Graph
Error and uncertainty
Conclusion

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A. PLANNING

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Apparatus

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You should produce a list of all the apparatus you will need to take all necessary
measurements. Your list must include both the item under investigation and the means to
experiment on it.
A diagram will help, so this is a good place to draw your diagram. Make sure that your
diagram is clear. Your diagram should show the apparatus assembled as a scientific diagram
not an illustration.

Instruments and techniques

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Digital Multimeter vs Analogue Ammeter Stopwatch vs light gates or sensors and a

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+ Voltmeter data logger

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Method
Write out your method using bullet points.
You should identify the dependent and independent variables.
You should describe the graph you will plot and how you will use to find the value you
require.
You should identify any factors that might affect the outcome and state how you will control
these variables. You should not be too ambitious here but consider only those things that are
likely to have a real effect on your work.

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B. INTERPRETATION AND MEASUREMENTS

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You should follow your plan but keep in mind what you are trying to find out.

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Draw up a table and head each column with the quantity and the unit.

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Significant figures
You are going to record what your instruments read and this is usually to 3 s.f.
You should use the least number of significant figures when calculating values for derived
quantities.
Your graph should be as precise as possible. In general, 3 s.f. are needed for plotting the
points, so gradient calculations should also be given to 3 s.f.

Readings
You need to take enough readings to plot a reliable graph. If you expect your graph to be a
straight line then you should have six readings. For a curved graph you should take more
readings where the graph curves and the readings change rapidly, and take fewer readings
when it is straight.
You do not always need to use equal increments of the independent variable.

Critising measurements

Units present or missing in the table

Repetition / at least 6 readings
Inconsistent precision / Inconsistent significant figures
Precision of readings too low

C. ANALYSIS
First, plot your readings on a graph. You must do this by hand without using a software
programme.
You then evaluate your findings and move towards a conclusion.

Graph
Your graph should have the correct axes, as described in your plan, and for giving the axes
correct units. The gradient of a graph has no units because the axes are labelled with units
and, therefore, you plot pure numbers. Independent variable is usually plotted on the x-axis
and the dependent variable on the y-axis. You should have a good reason for plotting the
independent variable on the y-axis.
One purpose of a graph is to display data. The data points should occupy at least half of both
axes of your graph; you should not include the origin unless you can do so without
confirming the points to one corner. The other purpose of a graph is to enable you to take

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readings from intermediate points (interpolate), so make sure your scale is sensible and easy

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Plotting should be accurate.

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The best-fit line should have points above and below it and should not necessarily pass

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through the origin.
You should describe your graph using appropriate vocabulary. If the graph is a straight line
through the origin then the two variables are directly proportional; if the y-intercept is not
zero then you can say there is a linear relationship between the variables. You should also
note how close the points are to a straight line.

Error and uncertainty

Error in a reading may be systematic or random. The value of a derived quantity will have an
uncertainty that comes from the readings used in the calculation.

Error
A systematic error is caused when something affects all of the readings of an instrument in
the same way. Systematic errors can be minimised by taking sensible precautions, such as
checking for zero errors and avoiding parallax errors, and by drawing a suitable graph. A
systematic error has poor accuracy, definite causes and is reproducible.
A random error results from variability in what you are reading. Random error is shown by
the spread in repeated readings, which might also come about because what you are reading
is difficult to measure. Random errors can be minimised by taking the average of a number of
repeat measurements and by drawing a graph, that, in effect, averages a range of values. A
random error has poor precision, non-specific causes and is not reproducible.

Uncertainty
Uncertainty arises when you consider the effect of the errors in the context of the actual
measurement. There are two ways to take this into account.

Uncertainty in measurements is unavoidable and estimates the range within which the
answer is likely to lie. This is usually expressed as an absolute vale, but can be given as a
percentage. The normal way of expressing a measurement x0 with its uncertainty, u, is:

𝑥0 ± 𝑢

Absolute uncertainty and percentage uncertainty are calculated by using the following
equations:

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𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛

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𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =

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𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛

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𝑢=

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2

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,where 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum and 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 the minimum reading of x. (Ignoring any anomalous readings)

𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = × 100%
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Uncertainties can be combined when 2 or more values with absolute uncertainties are
treated.

1-) Multiplying and dividing: The percentage uncertainty in a quantity, formed when two or more
quantities are combined by either multiplication or division, is the sum of the uncertainties in the
quantities which are combined.

2-) Raising to a power: The percentage uncertainty in xn is n times the percentage uncertainty in x.
1
Note: The percentage uncertainty in 𝑥 𝑛 is again times the percentage uncertainty in x.

Note: The percentage uncertainty in √𝑥 is half the percentage uncertainty in x.

3-) Multiplying by a constant: The percentage uncertainty is unchanged.

The other way to consider uncertainty is to use a graph. Plot error bars on the graph – these
are lines drawn vertically and horizontally from the plot and indicate how much error there is
in the reading. Now draw a best-fit line through the data points on the graph and then draw
a worst-fit line that just fits through all the error bars. The uncertainty in the gradient is given
by the difference between the two gradients.

Conclusion
The aim of the uncertainty calculation is to give a measure of the confidence you can have in your
conclusion. The conclusion is the answer to the question in the hypothesis and the uncertainty,
informed by your thoughts on errors, will give your results some validity.

As part of your conclusion you need to think about how you might improve the experiment. Your
suggestions should reduce the uncertainty and improve your final answer in terms of accuracy and
precision.

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Glossary

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A2 Physics Experiments

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1. Conservation of linear momentum

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2. Force and change of momentum
3. Centripetal force
4. Demonstrating a uniform electric field
5. Measuring the force between two charges
6. Measuring the capacitance of a capacitor
7. The efficiency of energy transfer from a capacitor
8. Charging and discharging a capacitor
9. The force on a current-carrying conductor
10.Deflecting electron beams
11.Capturing an induced emf
12.Measuring the specific heat capacity of a solid
13.Measuring the specific heat capacity of a liquid
14.Demonstrating the pressure law
15.Demonstrating Boyle’s law
16.Measuring background radiation
17.Modelling radioactive decay
18.Measuring the activity of a radioactive substance
19.Generating graphs of SHM
20.Forced oscillations
21.Investigating damped oscillations
22.Standard candles

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1-) Conservation of linear momentum

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that in any interaction between
bodies, linear momentum is conserved, provided that no external force acts on the bodies.
Therefore, the following equation can be applied to two colliding bodies:

𝑚𝑎 𝑢𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑣𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏

The purpose of this experiment is to test on this principle using two trolleys (Trolley A and
Trolley B) and a friction-compensated slope. As trolley B is stationary initially, and after the
collision A and B move off together as a single object the general equation stated above
becomes:

𝑚𝑎 𝑢𝑎 = (𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 )𝑣

Therefore, to say that momentum is conserved, the initial momentum of A must be equal to
the final momentum of A and B which couple together.

B. SAFETY
Lift the wooden support with care.
To reduce the danger of trolleys falling off the bench, a
means of stopping them safely at the bottom of the
runway is needed. An enclosed area or piece of sponge
would suffice. The area around the equipment should
be kept free of bags, books.

C. APPARATUS
Two trolleys Wooden runway
Two light gates Means of compensating the runway
0.2 m interrupter card for friction.
Pin and cork

D. PROCEDURE
Compensate for friction by tilting the runway slightly. Check by giving one trolley a small
push and confirming that it runs down the runway with constant speed.
Trolley A of mass mA is given a push so that, after its release, its interrupter card cuts
through a light beam with the trolley moving at a constant velocity down the friction-

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compensated slope. The time in the light beam is interrupted is recorded electronically

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and the (constant) velocity, u, of trolley A is calculated.

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Trolley A has a cork attached with a pin sticking out of it that couples to a cork attached

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to trolley B of mass mB when A hits B.

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The two now move off together at a constant velocity, v, down the slope; a velocity that
is calculated as the interrupter card on trolley A passes through the second light beam.
The experiment is repeated for differing initial speeds and trolley masses.

E. DATA
t1/s t2/s u/m s-1 v/m s-1 Initial momentum/N s Final momentum/N s
0.64 1.28 0.31 0.16 0.27 0.27
0.73 1.45 0.27 0.14 0.24 0.23
0.48 0.95 0.42 0.21 0.36 0.36
0.60 1.20 0.33 0.17 0.29 0.28

F. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

The values of the initial and final momentum are the same (±1%) in each case, indicating
that the total momentum has been conserved. The uncertainty is most likely a result of an
external resultant force acting on the system which includes air resistance.

The reason behind using an inclined plane: There should be no resultant external forces
acting on the system for the momentum to be conserved. There will usually be resistive
forces acting on the trolley. These forces can be compensated for by raising the end of the
runway so that there is a component of the weight of the trolley acting down the plane.
When this force is equal to the frictional forces, the resultant force on the trolley is zero. If
the trolley is given a gentle push, it will continue to move down the runway at constant
speed, just as it would on a horizontal track with no friction.

If the runway were horizontal, the frictional forces would lead to a change in
momentum – the total momentum after the collision would be less than that before
the collision.

G. CONCLUSION
Initial momentum equals final momentum within reasonable accuracy, therefore this
experiment has shown that momentum had been conserved in the collision of trolleys.

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2-) Force and change of momentum

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Newton’s second law establishes the relationship between the resultant force acting on an
object and the change of momentum that it causes. An important result that follows from
the second law and the definition of the Newton is F = m x a.

Newton’s second law states that:

The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting
on it and acts in the direction of the resultant force.

∆𝑝
∝𝐹
∆𝑡
The definition of the size of the Newton fixes the proportionality constant at one.

The aim of this experiment is to investigate rate of change of momentum using a linear air
track.

B. SAFETY
Place a padded box beneath the load so that the floor and masses do not get damaged.
To avoid injuries to feet, do not stand under falling masses.

C. APPARATUS

Linear air track Pulley suitable for fixing to the air

Air blower track
Rider Thread
Two light gates Set of slotted masses

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D. PROCEDURE

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The light gates are connected to a suitable data logger and the results can either be

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interpreted manually or can be fed into a suitable computer programme. They are

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interpreted manually in this experiment. The following data is required:

The length l of the card: 200 mm in this experiment

The times for the card to pass through each light gate, t1 and t2
The time for the car to travel from the first light gate to the second light gate ∆𝑡
The mass of the trolley mT: 450 g in this experiment

Method
Measure the length of the card.
Carry out the experiment for a particular force and record t1, t2 and ∆𝑡.
Repeat the experiment a couple of times for the same force and calculate the average.
Repeat the experiment for increasing magnitude of forces at 0.1N intervals.
We need to think carefully about m. The force, which is the weight of the masses
hanging over the pulley has to accelerate the combined mass of the trolley, the
masses on the trolley and the masses hanging over the pulley. In order to vary the
force and at the same time keep m constant we have to take one of the masses off
the trolley and add it to the load each time.

E. DATA
𝑙
The velocity through the first light gate is calculated using the equation: 𝑣1 = 𝑡
1

𝑙
The velocity through the second light gate is calculated using the equation: 𝑣2 = 𝑡
2

The change in momentum is then ∆𝑝 = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚∆𝑣 where m is the mass being
accelerated.

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F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

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a graph of 𝐹∆𝑡 on the y-axis against ∆𝑣 on the x-axis is plotted.

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G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS
Using a linear air track minimises friction.

The experiment should be repeated at each different load combination.

In order to draw a line of best fit, at least 6 points are needed.

H. CONCLUSION
A graph of 𝐹∆𝑡 on the y-axis against ∆𝑣 on the x-axis is plotted and a straight line through
the origin shows that ∆𝑣 ∝ 𝐹. The gradient is found to be m, then we can say that
𝑚∆𝑣
𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑣 or 𝐹 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
∆𝑡

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3-) Centripetal force

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Consider a body of mass m moving in a circle of radius r at constant speed. While the
magnitude of v is constant, its direction is continuously changing; in other words, although
the linear speed is constant, the velocity, which is a vector quantity, is always changing.

The change in velocity means that the mass is accelerating.

Since the magnitude of v remains unchanged, the acceleration must always be
directed at right angles to v, towards the centre of the circle.
The magnitude of the acceleration is given by:

This acceleration is known as the centripetal acceleration.

Using the relation 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟, centripetal acceleration can also be expressed in terms of the
angular speed:

𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟

By Newton’s second law, a resultant force is required to produce the centripetal

acceleration. This resultant force, called the centripetal force, is directed towards the centre
of the circle and has a magnitude given by:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
The aim of this experiment is to verify the equation for centripetal force using a whirling
bung.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑟

B. SAFETY
Glass tubing should be smoothed by heat treatment in a Bunsen flame.
Eye protection should be worn, even if the experiment is carried out outdoors.

C. APPARATUS
Rubber bung with a hole through it (mass Stopwatch
75g) Metre ruler
Length of string Short length of glass tube with ends
Washers burred over

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Access to a balance Eye protection

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D. PROCEDURE
Tie the piece of string to a rubber bung and then thread it through a short length of glass
tube.
Fix a small weight to the lower end of the string.
Whirl the bung round in a horizontal circle while holding the glass tube so that the radius
of the bung’s orbit is constant.
Measure the mass of the bung (m), the total mass of the washers (M), the radius of the
orbit (R) and the time for ten orbits.
Repeat the experiment with different numbers of washers or Repeat the experiment
with different orbit radii or Repeat the experiment with bungs of different masses.

E. DATA - ANALYSIS
2𝜋𝑅
Calculate the period of the orbit (T), the velocity of the bung in the orbit (𝑣 = ) and then
𝑇
𝑚𝑣 2
work out the centripetal force (𝐹 = ).
𝑅

Compare this value with the weight of the washers (Mg).

F = Mg v = 2πR/T
M (g) (N) 10T (s) T (s) R (m) (m/s) mv^2/R
50 0,49 21,9 2,19 0,83 2,38 0,51
100 0,98 16,2 1,62 0,80 3,10 0,90
150 1,47 13,5 1,35 0,93 4,33 1,51
200 1,96 11,2 1,12 0,79 4,43 1,86
250 2,45 10,7 1,07 0,99 5,81 2,56

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F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

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A graph v squared against r can be drawn and that can be used to find the mass of the bung

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if it is unknown.

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G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS
Assumptions

When the supported mass M is in equilibrium,

There is negligible friction between the glass tube and the string
That the string to the whirling rubber bund is effectively horizontal

Note: Time for 10 rotations is measured instead of 1 in order to reduce the percentage
uncertainty in the measurement of the period.

H. CONCLUSION
The tension in the string is known. T is equal to the weight of the supported mass M. Tension
acts as the centripetal force in this experiment resulting in the circular motion of the rubber
bung. The equation for centripetal force is used to calculate the force acting on the bung. In
theory tension and centripetal force is equal thus the columns 2 and 6 in the table must be
equal. Some values agree. As M gets larger, the agreement between the second and the
sixth column becomes weaker which suggests that the system is not frictionless.

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4-) Demonstrating a uniform electric field

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A. INTRODUCTION

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An electric field is a region in space in which a charged object will experience a force. An
electric field is generally represented by drawing field lines or lines of force. Electric field
lines are drawn always pointing from positive to negative, like the flow of current. Just like
magnetic and gravitational fields, the separation of the lines tells us the relative strength.

Electric field strength can be calculated:

𝐹
𝐸=
𝑄

,where F is the force that would act on a positive charge Q placed in the electric field. It
should be noted that E is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the force F.

Between a pair of parallel conducting plates that have a potential difference applied across
them, the field is uniform, with all field lines perpendicular to the plates. As E is constant, F
acting on a charged object should also be uniform.

The aim of this experiment is to demonstrate a uniform electric field using a rod with
aluminium foil attached to on of its ends.

B. PROCEDURE
Cut a test strip of aluminium foil, about 20 mm by 5 mm.
Attach it to the bottom of an uncharged insulating rod.
Hold the ruler vertical and lower the end with its foil into the space between two
charged plates.
Move the ruler so that the aluminium foil is at different places between the charged
plates.

C. CONCLUSION
If the yield is uniform, the force on the foil will be constant and the aluminium foil will hang
at the same angle to the vertical wherever it is placed in the field. If the charges on the
plates are reversed, the test strip swings to the same angle the other way.

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5-) Measuring the force between two charges

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The basic law describing the size of the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is an
inverse square law that depends on the distance r between the charges and the size and sign
of the charges Q1 and Q2.

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
𝑟2
The aim of this experiment to measure this force F between two charges.

B. SAFETY
Use a low potential difference.

C. APPARATUS

D. PROCEDURE
The forces are going to be very small, so a sensitive measuring device is required to
register changes in the force as the distance between the charges is changed.
Two conducting spheres, shown in blue, are charged by flicking the negative lower
sphere with woollen cloth and using the positive terminal of a d.c. supply set at about
30V to charge the upper sphere. Spheres are insulated so that they do not lose their
charge.
Readings on the top-pan balance should now be taken for different distances r between
the centres of the spheres. One way of recording how this distance changes without
touching the charged spheres is to project a shadow of them onto a nearby screen.

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E. DATA

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m/g 0.11 0.38 0.62 0.83 1.14

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r/cm 12.0 6.4 5.0 4.3 3.7

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F. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS
One difficulty is that some of the charge on one or both of the spheres may leak away during
the experiment.

Another difficulty is the difficulty in measuring the distance r between the centres of the
charged spheres.

G. CONCLUSION
If 𝑚 ∝ 1⁄𝑦 2 , then the product my2 should be constant. Taking values from the table gives
the following values:

16, 16, 16, 15 and 16 to 2 SF

Hence the product is approximately constant and m is proportional to 1⁄𝑦 2.

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6-) Measuring the capacitance of a capacitor

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as Q/V where Q is the size of the charge on the
plates of the capacitor and V is the potential difference between the plates.

The aim of this experiment is to measure the capacitance on different capacitors.

B. SAFETY
Capacitors of more than 1.0 Mf usually have a plus sign marked at one end and a maximum
voltage written on them. It is very important in any activity to be sure that the + end of such
a capacitor is connected to the positive terminal of the supply and that the maximum p.d. is
not exceeded.

C. APPARATUS

D. PROCEDURE
Connect up the circuit in the diagram using the 0.1 micro Farad capacitor with the
switch in position 1. Switch on the power supply and adjust the output so that the
voltmeter reads 0.5 V.
Move the switch to position 2 and record the reading of charge on the
coulombmeter.
Return the switch to position 1 and adjust the voltmeter to read 1.0 V. Move the
switch to position 2 and again record the charge.
Repeat the procedure in 0.5 V steps up to a maximum of 6.0 V. Record all your results
in the table showing capacitor voltage and charge.
Repeat for different values of capacitance.
For each capacitor plot a graph of capacitor voltage against charge. Calculate the
gradient of each of your graph and compare this with the stated value of the
capacitor.

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E. DATA
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7-) The efficiency of energy transfer from a capacitor

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Capacitors store energy. The energy transferred, or work done, when a charge ∆𝑄 moves
across a potential difference of V is given by ∆𝑊 = 𝑉∆𝑄. When charging capacitors there is
a problem in calculating the energy transferred using this formula because the p.d. changes
as the capacitor charges!

Fortunately, V is proportional to Q, so the average p.d. is exactly half the final p.d., and we
can use:

1
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝑄 = 𝑉 𝑄
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
The aim of this experiment is to use this formula and exploit the principle of conservation of
energy in order to calculate the efficiency of energy transfer from a capacitor to a motor
which lifts a mass.

B. SAFETY
Fix the motor on the table.
Do not exceed the voltage limit of the capacitor.

C. APPARATUS

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D. PROCEDURE

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The electrical potential energy (EPE) stored in a 10000 𝜇𝐹 capacitor can be

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transferred to gravitational potential energy (GPE) by discharging the capacitor

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through a small electric motor. As the capacitor discharges the current in the motor
raises a small mass.
The mass to be lifted could be a small ball of plasticine with a mass of, say, 8.0 g. the
cotton is wound round the spindle of the electric motor and a vertical rule arranged
to measure how far the plasticine is lifted. The gain of GPE by the plasticine is mgh so
m must be small for measure values of h to be obtained. The capacitance of the
capacitor C must, however, be large.
A series of readings of V the charging voltage and h should be taken as the capacitor
is first charged from the variable d.c. power supply and then discharged through the
motor.

E. DATA
V/V 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0
h/m 0.27 0.40 0.53 0.71

F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA
1
A graph of mgh (the gain of GPE in joules) against 𝐶𝑉 2 (the loss of EPE in joules), or simply a graph
2
of h against V2, could be plotted. If the graph is a straight line through the origin, then ℎ ∝ 𝑉 2 , or
∆(GPE) is proportional to ∆(EPE).

G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY

1
The values of mgh and 2 𝐶𝑉 2 will not be equal because the efficiency of the energy transfer is not
100%. Some energy is inevitably lost to internal energy in heating the wires of the circuit and in
working against friction in the motor. Over a wide range of values, the efficiency may not be constant
and so ∆(GPE) may not proportional to ∆(EPE).

H. CONCLUSION
Ideally, ∆(GPE) must be proportional to ∆(EPE). However, there are energy losses from the system
due to friction and other forces so this is not the case.

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8-) Charging and discharging a capacitor

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The charging and discharging of a capacitor follows curved graphs in which the current is
constantly changing, and so the rate of change of charge and pd are also constantly
changing. These graphs are known as exponential curves. The shapes can be produced by
plotting mathematical formulae which have power functions in them.

A data logger must be used in this experiment to display and analyse the potential difference
across a capacitor as it charges and discharges through a resistor. Time is too small to collect
data as you go.

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate charging and discharging capacitors and
their graphs.

B. SAFETY
Ensure that the voltage rating of the capacitor is not exceeded.
Ensure that the electrolytic capacitor has the correct polarity in the circuit.

C. APPARATUS

D. PROCEDURE
The capacitor is charged through the resistor by connecting the switch to contact A.
The capacitor is then discharged through the same resistor by moving the switch to
contact B. The p.d. across the capacitor is measured by the voltage sensor and
recorded by the data logger. The data can then be analysed by the computer.

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E. DATA

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F. ANALYSIS OF DATA
During the first 6 seconds (approximately) the capacitor is being charged through the
resistor and the p.d. rises exponentially from zero to just under 6 V. The capacitor then
discharges exponentially, becoming almost completely discharged after about 10 seconds.

Equations for the graph:

Charging: V = V0 (1 – e-t/RC)

Discharging: V = V0 e-t/RC

Estimating the capacitance and the uncertainty in the estimate

G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

The value for the capacitance is only an estimate as it is difficult to read off the times with
any accuracy from the graphs. This could be improved by expanding, say, the charging part
of the graph so that the time scale was larger, thereby making the times easier to read off.

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H. CONCLUSION

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The following equations can be used to calculate the potential difference across a charging

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and discharging capacitor:

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Charging: V = V0 (1 – e-t/RC)

Discharging: V = V0 e-t/RC

Explaining the shape of the following graphs

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9-) The force on a current-carrying conductor

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The force acting on a current-carrying conductor is perpendicular to both the direction of
magnetic field and the direction of current.

The aim of this experiment is to measure the magnitude of this magnetic force with varied
current.

B. SAFETY
The power supply should be switched off between readings to avoid the copper wire
getting too hot.

C. APPARATUS

D. PROCEDURE
The balance is first zeroed and the current is then switched on. Having made sure the
horizontal piece of the wire carrying the current lies between the poles of the U-
magnet and that the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field, a series of balance
readings m, in grams can be taken for a range of currents I.
The magnetic force on the wire is, by Newton’s third law, equal in size but opposite
direction to the magnetic force on the magnet – and it is this latter force that is
registered by a change in the balance reading. The force can then be calculated using
F = mg.
A graph plotted of F against the current I enables a value for the magnetic field
strength between the poles of the U-magnet to be deduced. (It is also possible to
alter the length l of the horizontal wire in the magnetic field by using a second U-

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magnet, but such an experiment gives only a rough test of how the force varies with

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E. DATA

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F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

H. CONCLUSION
As the graph is a straight line through the origin, the current in a wire in a magnetic field is
directly proportional to the conventional current flowing through it.

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10-) Deflecting electron beams

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Electric fields

As simple as it is, like charges repel and unlike charges

attract. Charges in an electric field will experience force
acting on them and the direction of this force will depend
on the charge of the particle. Suppose, for example, that a
charges particle is moving parallel to two parallel plates
which produce a uniform electric field between them. The particle will experience a force
towards either of the plates and provided that its mass is negligible, the only force acting on
this particle will be the electric force. Therefore, it will have acceleration in the vertical
direction but no acceleration in the horizontal direction, thus it will follow a parabolic path.

Magnetic fields

Moving charges constitute an electric current, and so will

experience a force when they move at a non-zero angle to a
magnetic field. Beams of electrons or ions will therefore be
deflected as they pass through a magnetic field, as will fast
mobbing charged sub-atomic particles.

The force on a particle carrying a charge q moving with velocity v

at an angle 𝜃 to a field of flux density B is given by the expression:

F = Bqvsin 𝜃

Note that since the force is always at right angles to the direction of motion of the charges,
particles moving perpendicular to the field will travel along circular paths, with the magnetic
force providing the centripetal acceleration.

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11-) Capturing an induced e.m.f.

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A short bar magnet is dropped through a coil connected in series with a resistor. A data logger (a

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device that can capture a changing p.d. thousands of times per second) is connected across this

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resistor.

The data logger will record the potential difference as it varies across the resistor. The p.d. is equal in
size at all times to the e.m.f. induced in the coil.

Apparatus

Data

Explanation of the shape of the graph

Changing of flux / Cutting of field
Induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of flux (equation)
Initial increase in e.m.f. as the magnet gets closer to the coil
Negative gradient is when magnet is going through the coil
Magnet’s speed increases as it falls
Negative maximum value is greater than the positive maximum value
Time for second pulse is shorter
The areas of the two parts of the graph will be the same (since N𝜑 is constant)

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Some questions

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Q1 – Explain why the acceleration of the falling magnet is not quite 9.8 m s-2.

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The induced e.m.f. produces a current in the coil-resistor circuit. This current in turn produces a

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magnetic field that will be up out of the coil as the magnet approaches, so repelling the falling
magnet – Lenz’s law. Similarly, the falling magnet will be attracted back into the coil as the magnet
exits the coil. Both these effects are producing upward forces on the magnet so its acceleration is not
quite as big as the free fall acceleration.

Q2 – Describe how the output of the data logger would differ if:

a-) the coil is replaced by a coil with double the number of turns, and

Double the number of turns means that the induced magnetic flux through the coil is doubled. The
induced e.m.f. is doubled at each stage of the fall, and so the peaks are each twice as high as they
were.

b-) the magnet is dropped from a greater height.

When the magnet is dropped from a greater height the magnetic flux linking the coil changes at a
greater rate. Therefore the e.m.f. , is greater and time taken for the magnet to pass through the coil
is reduced. The peaks are both higher and narrower.

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12-) Measuring the specific heat capacity of a solid

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Transferring the same amount of energy to two different objects will increase their internal
energy by the same amount. However, this will not necessarily cause the same rise in
temperature in both. The increase in temperature can be calculated using the equation:

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃

c, in the equation is the specific heat capacity of the object. This is defined as the amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a particular substance by 1 K. Different
materials have different specific heat capacities because their molecular structures are
different and so their molecules will be affected to different degrees by additional heat
energy.

The aim of this experiment is to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid using an
electrical method.

B. SAFETY
Use low voltages.

C. APPARATUS
Aluminium Thermometer
Heat-resistant mat Stopclock
Low-voltage heater and a suitable Insulating jacket with a hole for the
power supply thermometer or sensor
Ammeter and voltmeter Silicone grease
A temperature sensor and a data logger can be used instead of the thermometer and stop
clock.

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D. PROCEDURE

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Measure the mass of metal block (m).

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hole in the block and switch it on. A small amount of silicone grease in the holes in the
block can improve thermal contact. Place the insulating jacket around the apparatus.
Set the voltage (V) to a convenient value and record this with the value of the current (I).
Measure the initial temperature and start the stopclock (or use a temperature sensor
and data logger).
Record the temperature at one-minute intervals. Switch off the heater when the
temperature reaches 50 °C.

(You may need to adjust the value of I during the experiment so that the power input
remains constant.)

E. ANALYSIS
Plot a graph of temperature against time and choose a section of the graph where the
temperature is rising steadily. In this area find the temperature rise ∆𝜃 in a time ∆𝑡.

Calculate the electrical energy supplied to the heater (𝑉𝐼∆𝑡).

Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the metal of your block using the formula:

𝑉𝐼∆𝑡
𝑐=
𝑚∆𝜃
where m is the mass of the block.

F. DATA
m = 993 g V = 10.3 V 𝜃𝑖 = 21.4°C

l = 3.10 A ∆𝑡 = 3.00 minutes 𝜃𝑓 = 27.3°C

G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

Although this quick and practical method provides an accurate estimate of the specific heat
capacity, there are several sources of error:

Energy is absorbed by the heater itself; this is the main source of error and will make
the value of c too large because it means that not all the energy supplied is used to
raise the temperature of the block of metal.

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Energy is transferred to the surroundings, despite the lagging (also making c too

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A little energy will be taken by the lagging and the thermometer (again making c too

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large).

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Inaccuracy of the thermometer, especially ∆𝜃 is fairly small (this could make c too
large if ∆𝜃 were too small or too small if ∆𝜃 were too large).
Inaccuracy of the meters (again, this could affect the value of c either way).

H. CONCLUSION

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13-) Measuring the specific heat capacity of a liquid

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A. INTRODUCTION

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The aim of this experiment is to measure the specific heat capacity of a liquid using two
different experimental set-ups.

B. SAFETY
Do not heat the contents of the calorimeter above 50°C.

C. APPARATUS
First set-up

A copper or aluminium calorimeter Electrical immersion heater

with a volume between 250 and Voltmeter and ammeter
400 ml Low-voltage power supply (0-12V)
Insulating jacket with a hole for the Thermometer (0-50°C)
thermometer or sensor Stopclock
(A temperature sensor and datalogger can be used instead of the thermometer and
stopclock.)

Second set-up

Expanded polystyrene cup Ammeter and voltmeter

Thermometer Stopclock
Heater

D. PROCEDURE
First set-up

Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

Measure the mass of the calorimeter (mc) and fill it with a
known mass of water (mw). There must be enough water to
cover he immersion heater when it is put in the calorimeter.
Place the muff over the calorimeter.
Switch on the heater. Set the voltage (V) to a convenient value
and record this with the value of the current (I).
Measure the initial water temperature (𝜃) using a thermometer and start the stopclock
(or use a temperature sensor and datalogger).

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Record the temperature at one-minute intervals, stirring just before the thermometer is

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Switch off the heater when the temperature reaches 50°C.

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Second set-up

The heater is a 15Ω, 11W ceramic body, wire-wound

resistor. A 12 V power supply is used, with digital meters
set on the 20V and 2A ranges respectively.
Using a measuring cylinder, 120 ml of water is poured into
the expanded polystyrene cup.
The initial temperature 𝜃𝑖 of the water is taken. The power
supply is then switched on and, at the same time, the
stopclock is started. The current I and V are recorded.
After a time ∆𝑡 of 5.0 minutes has elapsed, the heater is switched off, the water is stirred
thoroughly and the highest steady temperature 𝜃𝑓 reached by the water is recorded.

The specific heat capacity c of the water can be calculated from:

𝐼𝑉∆𝑡
𝑐=
𝑚(𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖 )

E. SOURCES OF ERROR
Energy is absorbed by the heater itself (making the value of c too large).
Energy is transferred to the surroundings, mainly from the top of the cup (also
making c too large).
A little energy will be taken by the cup and the thermometer (making c too large).
Inaccuracy of the thermometer, especially ∆𝜃 is fairly small (this could make c too
large if ∆𝜃 were too small or too small if ∆𝜃 were too large).
Inaccuracy of the meters (again, this could affect the value of c either way).

F. CONCLUSION

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14-) Demonstrating the pressure law

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A. INTRODUCTION

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When we are looking at the behaviour of gases we have four variables to consider – the
mass, pressure, volume and temperature of the gas. These four variables are related by the
ideal gas law equation:

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

In order to investigate how these quantities are related, we need to keep two constant
while we see how the other two vary with one another.

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the pressure of a gas changes when it is
heated at a constant volume, thus two factors investigated are pressure and temperature.

B. SAFETY
Wear eye protection if your face is to be close to the hot water.

C. APPARATUS
Round-bottomed flask Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze and
Temperature sensor and probe mat
Rubber bung with a short length of Glass beaker
glass tube fitted through it Water
Length of rubber tubing Ice
Pressure sensor Eye protection
This experiment can be performed either using a thermometer and a pressure gauge or
using temperature and pressure sensors with a suitable datalogger. Note that the tube
connecting the container of air to the pressure gauge/sensor should be as short and of small
an internal diameter as possible to reduce the volume of air inside the tube to a minimum,
because this air will not be at the same temperature as that in the flask.

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D. PROCEDURE

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Record the temperature of the water (effectively the temperature of air in the flask) and

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the pressure of the air.
Light the Bunsen burner and heat the water slowly.
Record the pressure and temperature of the air at 10-degree intervals until the water
temperature reaches 80°C.

E. ANALYSIS
Plot a graph of the pressure of the trapped air (y-axis)
against the temperature of the trapped air (x-axis).
(Make sure that the pressure you record is the
pressure of the trapped air, not just the excess above
atmospheric pressure. It is assumed that the
temperature of the trapped air will be the same as that
of the water in the beaker.

Draw a second graph with the temperature axis showing -300°C to +100°C and find the
intercept on the pressure axis. This should be at absolute zero.

Record your value for absolute zero, suggesting any inaccuracies in your experiment and
how they might be reduced.

F. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

Extrapolation
Inaccuracy in thermometer
Uneven heat distribution

G. CONCLUSION
As the graph is a straight line through the origin, it shows that
𝑝
𝑝 ∝ 𝑇 or = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇

for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.

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15-) Demonstrating Boyle's law

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Boyle’s law states that:

For a constant mass of gas at a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies.

This relationship can be derived from the ideal gas law equation as was the case in the
previous experiment.

The aim of this experiment is to verify the relationship between the pressure and volume for
a gas.

1
𝑝𝛼
𝑉

B. SAFETY
The apparatus should include a protective plastic screen around the glass tube. However, a
safety screen is advisable.

Do not increase the pressure to more than 300 kPa.

C. APPARATUS
Boyle’s law apparatus Thermometer
Bicycle pump Safety screen
Length of thick-walled rubber
tubing

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D. PROCEDURE

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The simple apparatus shown can be used.

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The volume V of the fixed mass or air under test is given by the length l of the column air

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multiplied by the area of cross section of the glass tube. If the tube is uniform, this area
will be constant, so we can assume that 𝑉 ∝ 𝑙.
The total pressure of the air is read straight off the pressure gauge.
The valve is opened so that the air starts at atmospheric pressure and then the pressure
is increased by means of the foot pump. This pressure is transmitted through the oil and
compresses the air.
The pressure p and the corresponding length l of the air column are recorded for as wide
a range of values as possible. --- It is important to leave sufficient time after each change
in pressure for the air to reach thermal equilibrium with its surroundings so that its
temperature remains constant.
The measurements of p and l are tabulates, together with values of 1/l.

E. DATA

F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

G. VALIDITY OF THE STUDY AND IMPROVEMENTS

Constant temperature must be ensured.
Gas should not escape.

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H. CONCLUSION

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The graph of p against V is called an isothermal. An isothermal is a curve that shows the

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relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at a particular temperature. As this is

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a straight line through the origin we can deduce that:
1 1
𝑝 = 𝑉or𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑉

Giving pV = constant

A convenient way of remembering Boyle’s law for calculations is:

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2

Three different graphs may be drawn which illustrate Boyle’s law and these are shown below
along with how each graph would be altered with an increase in temperature.

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16-) Measuring background radiation

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A. INTRODUCTION

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We live in a radioactive environment and the radiation, which is constantly present in our
environment, is called background radiation. There are various sources of background
activity. The main natural sources of background radiation are:

Radioactive gases (mainly radon) emitted from the ground

Radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust – mainly uranium and the isotopes it forms
Cosmic rays from outer space which bombard the Earth’s atmosphere producing
showers of lower-energy particles such as muons, neutrons and electrons
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes present in our food and drink, and in the air we
breathe

The aim of this experiment is to measure the background count rate.

B. APPARATUS
Geiger – Müller tube and counter Stopclock

C. PROCEDURE
The Geiger-Muller tube detects radiation. Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an
electrical pulse to a counting machine. This makes a clicking sound or displays the count
rate. The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation the
Geiger-Muller tube is absorbing.

It is easy to determine the average background radiation in your area using a Geiger-Müller
tube and counter. As radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process, the activity in
your lab must be measured over a long period of time (30 minutes or more) and then an
average calculated. Otherwise, you may find that the measurement is, by chance,
particularly high or particularly low and thus does not truly indicate the average over time.
For example, if the G – M tube and counter are set to counting for two hours, and the final
count is then divided by 7200 seconds, this will give a good approximation to the average
over time as the count time is long compared with the typical average count of about 0.5Bq.

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17-) Modelling radioactive decay

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D. APPARATUS

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Large beaker
24 dice

E. PROCEDURE
Twenty-four dice (or small cubes of wood with one face marked with a cross) are shaken
in a beaker and tipped onto the bench.
All the dice that have landed with six uppermost are removed – these are deemed to
have decayed.
The number N of dice remaining are then counted.
This process is repeated until all the dice have decayed.
A graph of N against x (the number of throws) is plotted.

F. DATA

G. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

H. ANALYSIS
The curve is not smooth because whether or not a six is thrown is a random event, just like
radioactivity. It is instructive to repeat the experiment and average the results, or else
combine the results with those of one or more classmates. It will be found that the more
results that are combined, the smoother the curve will become.

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Radioactivity is a random process similar to throwing dice, although it differs from this dice-

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throwing model insomuch as it is a continuous process and the numbers involved are much,

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“Decay constant” Half-life

I. CONCLUSION AND MODEL OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radioactivity differs from the dice-throwing model as it is continuous. The concept of half-
life is used to model radioactive decay. Half-life of a particular isotope is the average time
for a given number of radioactive nuclei of that isotope to decay to half that number.

As radioactivity is an entirely random process, we can only ever determine an average value
of the half-life because it will be slightly different each time we measure it. However, the
very large number of nuclei involved in radioactive decay means that our defining equation,
-dN/dt = λN is statistically valid.

The graph for radioactive decay is an exponential curve and the equation is:

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

From this equation it can be deduced mathematically that the half-life, 𝑡1⁄ , is related to the
2
decay constant, λ, by the expression:

ln 2
𝑡1⁄ =
2 𝜆

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18-) Investigating the absorption of 𝛾-radiation by lead

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Different types of radiation have different penetrating powers and can be stopped by
different materials of various length. The absorption of any type of radiation is modelled as
an exponential curve and the equation 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑥 .

The aim of this experiment is to investigate the absorption of gamma radiation by several
thicknesses of lead.

B. SAFETY
A sealed source should always be used.
The source must be kept in a lead-lined box in a special locked metal cupboard in a
separate store room, labelled with the radioactivity symbol.
Protective gloves should be worn.
Always handle the source with tongs.
Keep as far away from the source as possible.
Keep exposure time to a minimum.

C. APPARATUS
Geiger – Müller (GM) tube, lead and stand
Source holder
Beta source
Pair of long forceps
Counter/scalar and stopclock
Ruler

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D. PROCEDURE

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The thickness of each of the discs is measured with Vernier callipers or a micrometre.

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The background count rate is recorded for 5 minutes. This is repeated and the average

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value subtracted from subsequent readings.
Once this has been done, the source is put in position and the count N 0 with no lead
discs in place is recorded.
The count N is then taken for several thicknesses of x of lead by using the discs, either
singly or in combination, as absorbers. Care must be taken to keep the distance between
the source and G-M tube constant.
A graph of the count rate N against absorber thickness x is initially plotted.
To test whether the graph is an exponential curve, a graph of ln N against x should be
plotted.

E. DATA

F. REPRESENTATION OF DATA

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G. CONCLUSION

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The suggested relationship between N and x was:

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𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑥

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Taking logs of both sides gives,

ln 𝑁 = −𝜇𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑁0

This is equivalent to y = mx + c. Allowing for a bit of scatter, which is to be expected because

of the random nature of radioactive emission, the graph is a straight line of negative
gradient, with intercept ln N0. This confirms that the absorption of the gamma radiation
varies exponentially with the thickness of the absorber as proposed.

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19-) Generating graphs of SHM

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A. INTRODUCTION

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Simple harmonic motion is periodic motion about an equilibrium position and all SHMs share
two common characteristics:

The resultant force acting on the oscillating body, and therefore its acceleration, is
proportional to the displacement of the body.
The resultant force, and therefore the acceleration, always acts in a direction
towards the equilibrium position.

These conditions are combined into a simple equation:

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥

X is the horizontal distance from the centre. The motion is a

projection of a circular motion so the equations for angular
velocity, displacement, frequency and time are equally valid for
simple harmonic motion.

When the object is at position A, this projected distance x is equal to

the radius of the circle, r, but at position B this distance is shown by OC. This distance can be
calculated from:

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

Or: 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡)

In this experiment a spring is used therefore r is replaced with A

which denotes the displacement. The equation for SHM is then:

𝐹 = −𝑘𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)

The aim of this experiment is to generate graphs of some of the

different properties of a system undergoing simple harmonic
motion and interpret the graphs mathematically.

B. PROCEDURE
This experiment is very simple as a motion sensor and a data logger
are used. The set-up shown is arranged. A card is attached to the
masses to give a good reflective surface, but may not be needed if
the base of the masses is large enough. Typically the data logger

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might be set to record for 10 seconds at a sampling rate of 100 per second. The computer is

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programmed to plot the following graphs:

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Displacement against time

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Velocity against time
Acceleration against time
Acceleration against distance from the centre of oscillation
Velocity against distance from the centre of oscillation

A graph showing the changes in kinetic and potential energy could also be plotted.

C. GRAPHS

Acceleration against distance from the Velocity against distance from the centre
centre of oscillation of oscillation

Energy

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D. INTERPRETATION OF GRAPHS AND CONCLUSION

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Displacement – time graph

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The graph is a typical cosine graph. The equation of the graph is 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕):

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Velocity – time graph

We can calculate the velocity of an oscillator at any moment from the gradient of the
displacement – time graph.

Differentiating 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) gives:

𝒅𝒙
= −𝑨𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
This is the equation of the velocity – time graph. It is sine graph reflected in the x-axis.

Acceleration – time graph

Differentiating the function which represents the velocity – time graph gives the equation of
the acceleration – time graph.

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
= −𝑨𝝎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
Therefore, the acceleration – time graph is a cosine function reflected in the x-axis.

Acceleration against distance from the centre of oscillation

Velocity against distance from the centre of oscillation

Energy graph

Total mechanical energy is conserved and is exchanged between gravitational potential

energy and kinetic energy.

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20-) Forced oscillations

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A. INTRODUCTION

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A free oscillation is one in which no external force acts on the oscillating system except the
force that gives rise to the oscillation. Forced oscillations occur if a force is continually or
repeatedly applied to keep the oscillation going so that the system is made to vibrate at the
frequency of the vibrating source and not at its own natural frequency of vibration.

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the amplitude of a system subjected to a
forced oscillation varies with the driving frequency.

B. SAFETY
Wear eye protection.

C. APPARATUS
Spring
Hanging masses
Clamp and stand
Datalogging laptop
Motion sensor
Signal generator
Vibration generator

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21-) Investigating damped oscillations

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A. INTRODUCTION

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A damped oscillation is one in which energy is being transferred to the surroundings,
resulting in oscillations of reduced amplitude and energy. An oscillating system does work
against the external forces acting on it, such as air resistance, and so uses up some of its
energy. This transfer of energy from the oscillating system to internal energy of the
surrounding air causes the oscillations to slow down and eventually die away.

The aim of this experiment is to investigate the oscillations of an air-damped mass-spring

system.

B. SAFETY
Take care masses do not fall and cause injury.

C. APPARATUS

D. PROCEDURE
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
The mass on the end of the spring (m) should be chosen so that the period is as long as
possible without damaging the spring.
Record the rest position of the mass.
Pull the mass downwards (by about half the original extension) and release, allowing it to
oscillate.
Record the position of maximum displacement of the mass every 5 oscillations and
hence calculate the amplitude (A) of oscillation each time.
Repeat and take an average for each amplitude.

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E. GRAPHS

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F. SOURCES OF ERROR
Parallax error in amplitude measurement
The stand not perpendicular to the surface

G. CONCLUSION

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22-) Standard candles

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Luminosity and flux

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Luminosity is the word astrophysicists use to describe the total output power of a star, unit
W.

The electromagnetic wave energy per second per unit area from a star reaching us on Earth
is called the radiation flux from the star, symbol F, unit W m-2.

Luminosity (L) and radiation flux (F) are linked by the inverse-square law:

𝐿
𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 =
4𝜋𝑑 2
d is the distance from Earth to the star.

Therefore, the following equation can be used to calculate the distance of a star from Earth:

𝐿 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
4𝜋𝑑2 = =
𝐹 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

Standard candles
The problem in using the equation to measure how far it is to a star is how to determine the
star’s full power output – its luminosity L.

A type of star now called a Cepheid was discovered by Henrietta Leavitt. A Cepheid star has a
luminosity that varies with time. Such stars appear more bright and less bright with periods
of the order of days. Further, she was able to establish that the maximum luminosity L of a
Cepheid star was related to the period T of its luminosity variation. For the first time it was
thus possible, by measuring T for a Cepheid star that it is too far away to show any parallax
wobble, to know the star’s luminosity. Such stars are valuable standard candles.

A standard candle is a distant star of known (maximum) luminosity.

The process to find the distance d from Earth to a star is therefore:

Locate a Cepheid variable star

Measure its period T
Find the star’s luminosity L using Leavitt’s T – L data
Measure the radiation flux F from the star at Earth
𝐿
Calculate d using 𝑑 = √4𝜋𝐹

Hasan SAYGINEL HS