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Architectural Graphic Standards PDF
Architectural Graphic Standards PDF
G PHIC
STANDARDS
I
tJCHN WILEY 6. SONS THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
Sanllr Ali
11)[ I S I I 1\1 RICH.ARllj VIIIllll.AIA Kenneth R. Baetz
Editorial Director Contributing Editor Garv Corey
l avvrence Dick
1\1 II! A \VIISIII;] RC PAVIII.\ ).\\11 \ HI\ \'.1, \1: i Ji111lCS M Duda
Associate Editor Assistant Editor Luke Fox
Mike Harris
Rlll;II;1 I lr rrc III R IV ElllTORIAl A)\, l( 1\ II \ Gordon M. Jensen
Production Manager Melton E. Castro David Larson
Molly Cutting An n Lassetter
DIIlIlIl LYNN DAVIS Stacy Droneburg Anthony Lewandowski
New Media Director Jenifer Tennant Dwyer Michael Lundberg
Christopher Keane Jeffrey Madsen
CI AI' I 11,\ R. C [IFRRA Elizabeth Laking Camille Mendez~Hordatt
Marketing Manager Elena Marcheso Moreno Rene R. Moya
Jennifer Taylor Tarnra Orte se n
AN IIlONY LFWA,NI)OW\I(I Stephanie Vierra Scott Peterson, AlA
Computer Consultant Virginia Vitzthum David Salela
James V. Vose Jerry L. Smith
l(lRIJ.\NI MUllIMI111,\ Chuck Taylor
Software Developer INIl[XFRS Renata Flecchia Tyler
M. L. Coughlin Antonio Vercillo
Jennifer Rushing Schur Kentoll Wesley Wingfield
L. Pilar Wyman Bri1c1ley E Workman, AlA
STANDARDS
TENTH EDITION
If, however, you purchased this product from a bookstore and wish to
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examination review, please send your name, company name (if
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The drawings, tables, data, and other information in this book have been
obtained from many sources, including government organizations, trade
associations, suppliers of building materials, and professional architects or
architecture firms. The American Institute of Architects (AlA), the
Architectural Graphic Standards Task Force of the AlA, and the publisher
have made. every reasonable effort to make this reference work accurate and
authoritative, but do not warrant, and assume any liability for, the accuracy or
completeness of the text or its fitness for any particular purpose. It is the
responsibility of users to apply their professional knowledge in the use of
information contained in this book, to consult the original sources for
additional information when appropriate, and, if they themselves are not
professional architects, to consult an architect when appropriate.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording scanning, or otherwise,
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Publisher's Note ix
3 CONCRETE 183
Forevvord x Concrete Forms and Accessories 184
Concrete Reinforcement 189
Preface xi
Cast-in-Place Concrete 192
A Vievv of Architectural Graphic Precast Concrete 201
Standards at the Beginning of the
Tvventy-First Century xiii
4 MASONRY 209
Timeline xiv Masonry Mortar 210
A Tribute to Masonry Accessories 212
Architectural Graphic Standards xv Masonry Units 218
Glass Unit Masonry 244
Acknovvledgments xvi Stone 247
v
7 THERMAL AND MOISTURE
Fireplaces and Stoves 570
Flagpoles 573
PROTECTION 397 Identifying Devices 574
Waterproofing and Dampproofing 398
Lockers 576
Thermal Protection 402
Fire Protection Specialties 577
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 404
Protective Covers 579
Vapor Retarders 405
Postal Specialties 583
Shingles, Roofing Tiles, and Roof Coverings 406
Partitions 584
Roofing and Siding Panels 413
Membrane Roofing 415
Flashing and Sheet Metal 429 11 EQUIPMENT 587
Sheet Metal Roofing 434 Security and Vault Equipment 588
Flashing 438 Teller and Service Equipment 589
Roof Specialties and Accessories 450 Instrumental Equipment 591
Gutters and Downspouts 459 Commercial Laundry and Dry Cleaning
Equipment 593
Vending Equipment 594
8 DOORS AND WINDOWS 463 Audiovisual Equipment 595
Fire Rating and Security 464 Loading-Dock Equipment 598
Door and Window Openings 467 Solid Waste Handling Equipment 599
Metal Doors and Frames 469 Food Service Equipment 600
Wood and Plastic Doors 473 Residential Equipment 609
Specialty Doors 478 Darkroom Equipment 612
Entrances and Storefronts 482
Windows 486
Skylights 498
12 FURNISHINGS 613
Lamps 614
Hardware 503
General Use Furniture 615
Glazing 512
School and Library Furniture 619
Residential Furniture 624
9 FINISHES 515 Classic and Contemporary Furniture 627
Plaster and Gypsum Board 516 Ecclesiastical Furniture 635
Tile 531 Office Furniture 637
Stone Floor and Wall Coverings 534 Interior Plants and Planters 641
Terrazzo 538
Special Ceiling Surfaces 539
Special Flooring 541
13 SPECIAL
Unit Masonry Flooring 542 CONSTRUCTION 643
Wood Flooring 543 Air-Supported Structures 644
Resilient Flooring 546 Special Purpose Rooms 645
Carpet 547 Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control 653
Wall Coverings 549 Radiation Protection 654
Special Wall Surfaces 551 Pre-Engineered Structures 656
Acoustical Treatment 552 Building Automation and Control 660
Paints and Coatings 556 Detection and Alarm 662
Special Coatings 561 Fire Suppression 663
vi
Historic Storefronts 857
15 MECHANICAL 677 Historic Structural Systems 858
Mechanical Insulation 678 Historic Interiors 860
Building Services Piping 679
Plumbing 690
Special Systems 704
20 BUILDING TYPES AND
SPACE PLANNNING 863
Heat Generation Equipment 705
Residential Room Planning 864
Refrigeration and Heat Transfer 710
Nonresidential Room Planning 876
HVAC Systems 716
Child Care 889
Air Distribution 726
Health Clubs 891
Museums 892
16 ELECTRICAL 737 Airports 896
Basic Electrical Materials and Methods 738
Health Care 900
Special Systems 745 Ecclesiastical 904
Transmission and Distribution 748 Detention 907
Lighting 752 Justice Facility Planning 908
Communications 758 Assembly 913
Retail 922
17 SPORTS AND GAME Animal Care 926
FACILITIES 759 Greenhouses 931
Field Sports 760 Housing 932
Track and Field 770 Waste Management 942
Court Sports 772 Distribution Facilities 945
Tableand Bar Sports- 780 Storage Facilities 948
Aquatics 781 Processing Facilities 949
Equestrian 790
Ice and Snow Sports 791 I
21 ACCESSIBILITY 951
Introduction 952
Target Shooting and Fencing 794
Building Blocks 956
Curbs and Parking 960
18 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL Ramps 962
DESIGN 795 Elevators 963
Climate 796 Doors 966
Solar Radiation and Building Orientation 799 Communication 967
Natural Ventil~tion 807 Mobility Aids 968
Climate Response and Building Design 808 Fumiture 970
Energy Conse'tvation 813 Toilets and Bathrooms 971
Passive Solar 819 Residential 974
Active Solar 823
Shading 826 Appendix 977
Thermal Transmission 829 Graphic Symbols 978
Environmental Construction 833 Drawing Methods 986
Geometry 995
19 HISTORIC PRESERVATION 843 Mathematical Data 1005
Introduction 844 Structural Calculations 1008
Historic Masonry 846 Classical Architecture 1011
Historic Wood 849 Metric 1017
Historic Architectural Metals 851
Historic Roofs 852 Directory 1023
Historic Windows 853
Historic Entrances and Porches 855 Index 1049
vii
1;:
PUBLISHEItS NOTE
hroughout most of the twentieth century, publication of Soon after the publication of Architectural Graphic Stand-
T a new edition of Architectural Graphic Standards has
been a signal event at John Wiley & Sons. More than a mil-
ards, suggestions and requests came from many enthusi-
astic readers. These called for changes and additions and
lion copies of Ramsey and Sleeper's book have influenced inevitably the decision was made to publish a second edi-
several generations of architects, engineers, and designers tion in 1936, which was almost 25 percent larger than the
of the built environment, as noted by Robert Ivy and Philip first. Recovery from the Great Depression had begun when
Johnson in their respective essay and tribute to this tenth the second edition came out, and with rising construction
edition. For half of the life of Architectural Graphic Stand- activity the demand for Architectural Graphic Standards
ards, Wile't·has been proud to have The American Institute increased. To serve its users' growing needs, work soon
of Architects as its publishing partner in this great ongoing began on a third edition which, when published in 1941,
endeavor. was almost twice as large as the original edition.
The release of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic World War II lengthened the interval between editions;
Standards is an unprecedented event even by the high stan- the fourth edition, prepared by Sleeper, appeared in 1951
dards set by this landmark publication. For the first time, and had grown to 614 pages. The fifth edition (with 758
revised print and digital versions are being released simulta- pages), Sleeper's last revision, was issued in 1956. The
neously. Also for the first time, both versions are fully inte- coauthors' achievements in the initial decade, followed by
grated and contain the same content, in formats that are tai- the efforts of Sleeper, provided untold thousands of users
lored to their respective media. This integration culminates with an invaluable resource for almost 30 years.
a major investment of effort and re,sources, and ensures Harold Sleeper's foresight led to his suggestion, which
that Architectural Graphic Standardst'will continue to be not was heartily supported by John Wiley & Sons, that The
only a definitive reference but also a valuable design tool. American Institute of Architects be asked to assume the
editorial responsibility for the sixth and subsequent edi-
ROBERT C. GARBER tions. This was proposed at the June 1964 annual conven-
Publisher tion of The American Institute of Architects, and within a
Professional/Trade Publishing month a contract between John Wiley & Sons and the
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Institute led to the fulfillment of Harold Sleeper's wish.
Now, more than 60 years after publication of the first
edition, we look back on a remarkable record. Each edition
has surpassed its predecessors. The book has grown five-
n the fall of 1932, the lowest point of the Great Depres- fold in length, immeasurably in depth, and is now packaged
I sion, my father W. Bradford Wiley joined John Wiley &
Sons and soon learned that a promising new book had been
in a variety of formats designed for the changing informa-
tion requirements of architects, their students, and their
published in May. Martin Matheson, then manager of mar- colleagues in the design and construction fields. The col-
keting, had persuaded Charles George Ramsey, AlA, author lected editions are a chronicle of twentieth-century archi-
of an earlier Wiley textbook, and his younger colleague, tectural practice and reflect as well those times when
Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, to develop their ideas and pre- progress has meant preservinq (and hence respecting) our
pare the plates for what became Architectural Graphic architectural heritage.
Standards. Subsequently, Matheson directed the design John Wiley & Sons takes pride in the part the company
and layout of the book and personally oversaw its produc- has played in the enduring success of Architectural Graphic
tion and manufacture. Standards and in the association with The American Insti-
The immediate acceptance and success of Architectural tute of Architects. Generations of readers have benefited
Graphic Standards extended far beyond its anticipated audi- from this work, and we look forward to meeting the needs
ence of architects, builders, draftsmen, engineers, and stu- of generations to come.
dents. Interior designers, real estate agents and brokers, BRADFORD WILEY"
homeowners, insurance underwriters, and lovers of fine Chairman
books all carne to be among its users and admirers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ix
FOREWORD
n behalf of The American Institute of Architects (AlA), be a professional. To that list, I would like to add the many
O I am delighted to celebrate with our partners, John
Wiley & Sons, the publication of the tenth edition of Archi-
individuals, firms, trade associations, professional societies,
and manufacturers who have given this publication its auth-
tectural Graphic Standards. Since 1964, this indispensable ority. Their contributions are credited throughout this book
tool of the trade has been a resource in helping the AlA on the appropriate pages.
carry out its historic commitment to the architectural pro- I would also like to acknowledge and thank three Insti-
fession and the public we serve by helping to bring order to tute editors: Joseph N. Boaz, AlA (sixth edition); Robert T.
this nation's building design standards. What is remarkable Packard, AlA (seventh edition); and John Ray Hoke, Jr.,
about this work and the key, I believe, to its success has FAIA (eighth, ninth, and tenth editions). John has led this
been the fact that Architectural Graphic Standards is the project for the last quarter-century, defining the technical
fruit of a thoughtful, cooperative process that makes every content essential to a new generation of architects.
member of our industry an interested stakeholder. Because of the collective wisdom and dedication of the
This book has empowered and inspired generations of Institute's editors, the basic principles of service to the
architects to create a better built environment. The collect- industry that were set forth in the original edition continue
ed editions are a chronicle of the best architectural prac- to be advanced.
tices of the twentieth century. Indeed, I would go so far as I would also like to thank two gifted individuals who
to make a claim that the very nature of modern practice is have enriched this new edition: Robert Ivy, FAIA, editor in
encapsulated in the pages of this splendid book. Each chap- chief of Architectural Record, for his inspiring essay, and
ter, each page, and each detail assists the architect in the AlA Gold Medal recipient Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA,
design process from programming through construction. for his provocative tribute.
Everyone at the AlA and every practicing architect is indebt- To each and every person associated with this special
ed to the founding authors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, project I offer the words of Eero Saarinen, FAIA, who wrote
and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, for their leadership in cre- in the foreword to the fifth edition: "Just as Vitruvius gives
ating this catalyst for coherence and coordination in a his- us understanding of the vocabulary of Renaissance archi-
torically fragmented industry. Without it, modern practice tects, so Architectural Graphic Standards will show the
would likely not be as advanced. future the dizzying speed and expanding horizons of archi-
In this edition, there are so many contributions from tal- tectural developments and practice in our time." (May 1956).
ented AlA members and building design experts that it is
impossible to acknowledge all of them here. These men NORMAN L. KOONCE, FAIA
and women gave unselfishly and creatively so that the Executive Vice President/CEO
whole profession wili benefit from their knowledge and The American Institute ot Architects
wisdom. Such generosity is at the heart of what it means to Washington, DC
x
PREFACE
he American Institute of Architects and John Wiley & size for any edition yet). But in terms of real change, with
T Sons, Inc. are proud to offer to the building design and
construction community the tenth edition of Architectural
revisions to old pages and new pages added, the book's
growth in content is estimated to be about 63 percent. For
Graphic Standards (AGSl, for the first time in simultaneous those who keep records, we have omitted 232 ninth edition
release with a CD-ROM version. Since AGS was first pub- pages, revised 224 pages, added 333 new pages, and trans-
lished in 1932, more than a million copies of this comprehen- ferred 465 pages unchanged from the ninth edition.
sive source of design data and details have helped shape The 232 ninth edition pages we have omitted constitut-
twentieth-century buildings and cities. With the tenth edi- ed about 26 percent of that edition. This process of weed-
tion, this influential volume, established by Charles George ing out has helped enrich the book by making room for new
Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, will contin- material. Most of the pages that were eliminated were out
ue into the next millennium as a trusted companion to all of date or determined to be of little interest to today's pro-
who seek its guidance and reference. fessional. Because of the large number of new pages in
Historically, the primary audience of AGS has been this edition, I have not attempted to list them by name.
made up of architects, interns, and construction specifiers Therefore, I encourage you to open the tenth edition and its
as well as civil, structural, and mechanical engineers and CD-ROM product, located in the back cover of the book,
students in all these fields. In addition, however, a very im- and begin your journey.
portant secondary market exists for AGS. This group is com- An important new chapter titled" Accessibility" is based
posed of general contractors, subcontractors, home build- on the design standards of the Americans with Disabilities
ers, estimators, specialty contractorsfdevelopers, planners, Act (ADA). Today, both existing buildings and new con-
landscape architects, interior designers, building code offi- struction must comply with ADA requirements for accessi-
cials, building owners and building engineers, construction bility. A special team of experts helped define and develop
trade associations, historians and preservationists, facility these new pages. My sincere thanks for their good work
space planners, librarians, homeowners, and lawyers. and dedication go to Thomas Davies, AlA; Mark J. Mazz, AlA;
Since the publication of the sixth edition in 1971, and lawrence G. Perry, AlA; and Kim Beasley, AlA.
under the care of The American Institute of Architects, AGS The publication of a major new edition of Architectural
has generally been organized according to the principles of Graphic Standards requires the time, energy, and expert-
MasterFormat®, which is published by the Construction ise of many people. I would like to thank all of the great
Specifications Institute. MasterFormat® organizes construc- people at Wiley, but especially Robert C. Garber, publisher:
tion data and information into classifications based on build- Joel Stein, editorial director; Robert J. Fletcher IV, produc-
ing trade or specialty, reflecting the assembly-line character tion manager; Debbie lynn Davis, new media director;Beth
of the modern construction industry. In the tenth edition, an A. Weiselberg, associate editor; and Jim Harper, editorial
effort has been made to conform even more carefully to the assistant, for their commitment to this immense and com-
MasterFormat® system. As a result, most pages have new plex project. I would also like to thank two very important
and improved page titles and section names. Chapters 2 players at Wiley who continue to shape the future and the
through 16 conform to MasterFormat®, while chapters 1, very nature of this important work. One is Stephen Kippur,
17, 18, 19,20, and 21 contain sections that are compatible executive vice president, and president, ProfessionalfTrade
with or complementary to MasterFormat®. Division. The other is Katherine Schowalter, vice president,
The tenth edition of AGS is the largest and most im- Professional/Trade Division.
proved edition to date in terms of growth and content. It At the AlA, I am delighted with the dedication of our pro-
consists of approximately 11,000 illustrations in twenty-one fessionals. My special thanks go to three important people
chapters. Much of the core information, or about 50 percent who make things happen. They are Janet Rumbarger,
of the book, has remained unchanged. The new edition has managing editor; Pamela James Blumgart, assistant editor;
increased by 127. pages or about 14 percent. It now has and Richard J. Vitullo, AlA, contributing editor. I am fortu-
1,022 content pages, as compared to the 895 content nate to have them as my friends and associates over three
pages in the ninth edition (one of the largest increases in editions. I also want to thank Fred R. Deluca, senior vice
xi
president/COO, for his many years of service in the care of of the new millennium, prepared for service for the next
one of this Institute's most cherished programs. century and beyond.
I would like to thank two very special people who have In conclusion, I want to express my deep appreciation to
joined our AGS celebration-my dear friend Robert Ivy, the AlA members and other contributors for their good
FAIA, editor in chief of Arctiitectutel Record, for his insight- efforts in the making of the tenth edition. We honor them
ful essay on the historical context of AGS; and one of this by acknowledging their contributions on the relevant page
nation's most prominent architects, Philip Cortelyou or pages, as well as on the acknowledgments page follow-
Johnson, FAIA, for his inspired tribute. We are grateful for ing the preface. Their valuable and inspired service to the
their important contributions. Institute is a fine example of how the profession continues
Finally, I want to pay tribute to the memory of the origi- its undaunted support of Architectural Graphic Standards
nal editors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve year after year.
Sleeper, FAIA who created the first five landmark editions.
They made a wise decision in entrusting the future of their John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA
life's work to The American Institute of Architects, which Editor in Chief
has nurtured the book with great care and passion for its Washington, DC
integrity. As the standard bearer of Ramsey's and Sleeper's January 2000
original vision, Graphic Standards is poised at the beginning
xii
A VIEW OF
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
he tenth edition of Architectural' Graphic Standards Part of this work's beauty is its organization. Its clear
T arrives on the cusp of change, as both a century and a
millennium tick into memory, It has been a period of
drawings; charts and graphs, and now its digital bits, offer
information on a mind-boggling range of issues that mirror
extremes-scientific optimism tempered by overwhelming the design and building process. It answers the question,
societal trauma, social improvement and two World Wars, "How do you do that?," from site planning to building sys-
Le Corbusier and Albert Speer, Einstein's cosmic vision and tems. Graphic Standards presupposes the interrelationship
atomic weapons, Cold War and commerce. of parts to whole projects, a nineteenth-century notion
Two houses built early in the twentieth century in articulated by Wright when he said, "The part is to the
Pasadena, California, illustrate divisions present early in the whole as the whole is to the part." Here, small details link
previous century. The first, Greene and Greene's Gamble into larger systems, ultimately joined into entire construc-
house, represents the apotheosis of hand craft, a contem- tions embracing larger sites, a linked unity of great com-
porary wooden temple on a hillside rubbed to near perfec- plexity, divisible into bite-sized chunks.
tion, as open and forthright as the capitalist family it served. Physical wisdom is represented in graphic ways.
Just down the hill, Frank Lloyd Wright sounds a more com- Throughout the millennia, humankind has recognized subtle
plex chord at La Minatura, a sophisticated example of mod- changes in dimensions that make big kinetic or aesthetic
ular block construction, advanced for its moment, yet hint- differences. Consider the lowly step. Graphic Standards
ing at unresolved psychological forces. The two residences presents tread/riser diagrams that acknowledge the enor-
represent radically different ideals, prescient of clashes that mous physical changes felt with minor shifts in width to
would follow in succeeding years. height ratios. It remains to the architect to devise the actu-
At the turn of the twenty-first cePl'tury, our own models al stair, but all can appreciate the underlying facts.
seem to be virtual ones, a galaxy of computer-generated, bio- You can read this book as social history as well.
morphic shapes developed by architect Frank Gehry and his Sections on accessibility, ecology, town planning, and his-
coterie. The cyber revolution seems to promise endless for- toric preservation all arose following specific movements in
mal possibilities through easily calculated custom fabrication. the larger civilization. Likewise, the exquisite renderings
We have traveled far from Wright and the Greenes. Bom- from earlier in this century, with their complicated analyses
barded by new information, which assaults us in an electronic of shade and shadow, have disappeared: Software has ren-
torrent, we stand on an invisible divide with the sense that dered such knowledge almost arcane, as the electronic
new ways of building are underway. Where can those of us GPS system eclipsed dead reckoning.
concerned with shaping the built environment turn for help? However, the potential unlocked by the computer age
Throughout roughly two-thirds of the last hundred years, only underscores our need for a resource like Graphic
this encyclopedia of building convention and practice has Standards. When all things are possible, we need to know
offered succor and advice. Architectural Graphic Standards what things are best. Great freedom on the screen will be
has been a repository of good ideas and a framework for well-served by rock-solid craft and a knowledge of materi-
constructing new ones; its content is singular, based on als. The editors and contributors to this body of knowledge
architecture's specific language, which is drawing. Since have, in a sense, created their own architecture with Archi-
1932, architects, engineers, and a host of others have tectural Graphic Standards. It, and its complementary digi-
turned to its pages as they would a knowledgeable mentor. tal version, form a structure of firmness, commodity, and
The representations in Graphic Standards are ideal, not delight. Accessible and well-crafted, this sturdy and vast
specific, meant to embody the best thinking and applications treasury of ideas allows us to study, adopt, and modify the
in universal settings, allowing the reader to tailor details to accumulated wisdom of the past into our own new ideas.
the real world. As a source of ideal principles, the book Thus armed, we step forward in time.
stands with other seminal antecedents, such as the work of
Vitruvius from the first century BC; as a comprehensive ROBERT IVY, FAIA
resource, it compares to the work of Sir Banister Fletcher al- Editor in Chief
most two thousand years later, with a nod to Diderot and the Architectural Record
encyclopedists of eighteenth-century France.
xiii
TIMELINE
The increase in size and complexity of Architectural Graphic Standards since its initial publication
has mirrored the extraordinary accomplishments of architecture in the 20th century.
Architectural Graphic Standards Architecture landmarks
Sixth edition published: first edition edited by The John Hancock Center, Chicago
American Institute of Architects; incorporates (Bruce Graham/Skidmore Owings and Merrill)
Uniformat organization
AlA Headquarters, Washington, DC
(The Architects Collective)
First digital version of Architectural Graphic Standards J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California
released as CD v1.0 (Richard Meier)
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain
(Frank Gehry)
1,000,000th copy sold
xiv
A TRIBUTE TO
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC
STANDARDS
n 1932, the same year Henry-Russell Hitchcock and I col- icle of twentieth-century U.S. architectural practice stan-
I laborated in writing The International Style, John Wiley &
Sons brought out a little-known book titled Architectural
dards. Furthermore, the book is one of the most unifying
and focused reference works available in the world. I have
Graphic Standards. Both of these books, in different ways, always considered my Graphic Standards as important in
helped usher in the era of Modernism and contributed to design as is my pencil.
my amazing journey in architecture. Sixty-eight years later Every architect loves it, wears it out, and keeps it with-
and ten editions complete. Architectural Graphic Standards, in arm's length. It is a combination of the Encyclopedia
or as I like to call it, Graphic Standards, has quadrupled in Britannica and the telephone book-or maybe it's the
size and immeasurably in depth of content, thanks to the Whole Earth Catalog of architecture! No architect can be
dedicated work of its gifted editors, architects, and contrib- without Graphic Standards, and with it every architect is
utors. I even understand that it is in digital form on CD-ROM empowered and equipped to practice architecture.
located in the back cover of this book. What's next, a
Graphic Standards website? PHILIP C. JOHNSON, FAIA
I can't think of another book published this century that The Glass House
has supported, taught, and delighted our profession as New Canaan, Connecticut
much as Graphic Standards. These ten editions are a chron- July 7, 7999
xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xvi
ONE
GENERAL PLANNING
AND DESIGN DATA .
INTRODUCTION TO rate, differences are small when compared with size Disabilities are to be reckoned as follows: 3.5% of men
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA variations. and 0.2% of women are color blind; 4.5% of adults are
hard of hearing; over 30% wear glasses; 15 to 20% are
The following anthropometric drawings show three Pivot point and link systems make it easy to construct handicapped, and 1% are illiterate. Left-handed people
values for each measurement: the top figure is for the articulating templates and manikins. Links are sirnpli- have increased in number to more than 10%.
large person or 97.5 percentile; the middle figure. the fied bones. The spine is shown as a single link; since it
average person or 50 percentile; and the lower figure, can flex, pivot points mav be added. All human joints
the small person or 2.5 percentile. The chosen extreme are not simple pivots. though it is convenient to assume
percentiles thus include 95%. The remaining 5% in- so. Some move in complicated patterns like the roving SAFETY INFORMATION
elude some who learn to adapt and others. not ade- shoulder. Reaches shown are easv and comfortable;
quatelv represented. who are excluded to keep designs additional reach is possible bV bending and rotating the Maximum safe temperature of metal handles is 50°C
for the rnaloritv from becoming too complex and ex- trunk and bv extending the shoulder. Stooping to (122°F) and of nonmetallic handles, 62°C (144°F);
pensive. Space and access charts are designed to accept reach low is better than stretching to reach high. The maximum air temperature for warm air hand dryers
the 97.5 percentile large man and will cover all adults dynamic bodv mav need 10% more space than the is 60°C (l40°F); water temperatures over 46.1·C
except a few giants. Therefore, use the 97.5 percentile static posture allows. Shoes have been included in all (115° F) are destructive to human tissue. Environrnen-
to determine space envelopes, the 2.5 percentile to measurements; allowance may need to be made for tal temperature range is 17.2 to 23.9°C (63 to 75° F).
determine the maximum "kinetospheres" or reach heavV clothing. Sight lines and angles of vision givtn ill Weights lifted without discomfort or excessive strain
areas bv hand or foot. and the 50 percentile to estab- one place or another applv to all persons. are 22.7 kg (50 Ib) for 90% of men and 15.9 kg (35 lb}
lish control and displav heights. To accommodate for women; limit weight to 9.07 kg (20 Ib) if carried
both men and women, it is useful at times to add a The metric system of measurement has been included, bv one hand for long distances. Push and pull forces,
dimension of the large man to the corresponding since it is used in scientific work everywhere and is the like moving carts. are 258 N (58 lbf] and 236 N (53
dimension of the small woman and divide bV 2 to ob- most practical system of measurement ever devised. Ibf) initiallv, but 129 N (29.1 Ibf) and 142 N (32Ibf)
tain data for the average adult. This is the wav height Millimeters have been chosen to avoid use of decimals. if sustained. Noise above the following values can cause
standards evolve. Youth data are for combined sex. Rounding to 5 mm aids mental retention while being permanent deafness: 90 dB for 8 hr. 95 dB for 4 hr.
Although girls and bovs do not grow at the same within the tolerance of most human measurements. 100 dB for 2 hr. 105 dB for 1 hr. and 110dB for 0.5 hr.
n4~ m
Weight Kg & lb (Includes Avg. Clothes). Data Are For load ComPUtations, Not Health Purposes.
Standing Slump Can Be 0,.2 For Men Or Women. C.G. Is Within Pelvic link.
m
92.0 203 19.4 1illl21O 8.7
BO.5 178 I :~ I ~~:~ ~~ ~. ~ ~:~ ~:; 3.5
70.5 155 60 24 85
80
3.3
3.1 Weiftlt Kg & Lb
n!fl SO 17.7
m
~
Standin9 H ei!tl t
405 16.0
--;-- [165 65 - o 2.7
1.+ 75.5 166 365 14.4
65 2.5
r!l
95 7.7
--
1905 75.0 155 6.1 69.0 152 2.2 185 7.3
nrl
1770 69.8 55 s 3.3
61.5 135 185 7.2
1640' 64.6 I..... 145 5.7 ~~ Eye level 80 3.1
~
790 6.2
liJ
55
~ -I' . . .
1 ~ I ~~~ !60.6
70.4 145 57
"- 235 9.3 1665
1540
65.5
60.6
135 5.3
m ~70-90"_~J--~~ r\
ti .j,80-,20
220 8.7 •
90 153 215 8.5 4 0
365
345
:;:
\ ~It---.>
L.
1
ce:;~ ~~~::~~:~
~ ~
Shoulder Height
. [J[
~~~ ~:~
175 6.8
70 14.5
350 13.7
[ 325
] [ 12.8
(
I ~ CI.. ~ul., l]ill575 62.4 Ir('
1 r--jj-
\ l.
J~~::::;;:j~~=~ 1460 57.6
1345 52.9
.----tl----;- Shoulder Height )
,- Ul3~ ~~'.~
T:;;
315 12.4
ljJ70 10.7
230 9.0
' ..
1--0[00
280
11.9
11.1 liJ 475
1365
1260
58.0 {
53.7
49.6
& ,"'-J
3~ g:~
Thoracic 195 7.7
i 265 10.4
tr~b~ Link Elbow Hei!tlt ..
[I
285 11.2
455
425
192
18.0
16.7
:z: -
Q 90 7.4
L 6.9
175 r1ml175 46.3
1090 43.0 ('
T' Un , 0[ 85
265
250
11.2
10.5
9.9
~
'-----'-'-'----H",c-t-'.,... I 425
400
16.8
15.7
'195
180
7.7
7.1
105 40.3
1025
:43.5
180_380
~ 935 36.9
~ ) 0[
-~
~
20 36.3
PIV 55
235
10.1
9.3
Pivot 850 33.5 \-- 207135" Crotch Hei!tlt 220 8.7
~
Points 775 30.6
Pelvic 5 3: 4.0
790 31.2
Link
[]I
Finger Height
0[2190
..10 8.3
7.5
730 28.7
'
0 18.1
425
390
16.7
15.3 . UI
I
11n35
680
620
28.9
26.8
24.5
175 6.9
0[ 25 16
. .7
Finger Height
~27.1 [I 90
175
160
7.5
6.9
6.3
Wldth~
J 390
355 15.4
140 \
I ~gJ~~:~
I-
OJITrHIP
380 14.9
lHI:3502: ·J I-- '65 2.6 -I
335 13.1 .7 I ~g ~:~
,
295
Hip W. Sitting
11.7
l 290
Hip W. Silting
16
13.8
11.5
t"\ ~~ ~:j
r~ 39--
Lli-
I ~ ~:g
2.9
[iJ355
315
00 15.8
13.9
12.4
Ol{]
SO 17.7
370 14.6
-i .JL i~ ~5.8
-I
17.7
16.2
14.8
links
[]I 10
380
16.2
14.9
310 12.3
J
J
V lILI'[l;~
§j3.5
Shoe Widlh
_ m 20
105
95
4.B
4.2
3.7
I~~ I~ ~
345 13.6
Shoe Length 2 3'-
nID
75 10.9
260 10.2 75 30
240 9.4 ,I-
lC
A\---'I:l:'-
r.-- ----'-;.~t
290
265
11.4
10.5
265
245
10.4
9.7 I -/ IJ 1 401 1 5
~ 9.7 225 8.9 I
Male and female S1anding heights (including shoes) Dimensional notation svstern:
~
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large ~ 97.5 percen.tile } includes ooo 39.3} Numb~~ appearin. g in bOo xes ~re measurements
1775 69.8 1665 65.5 average = 50 I"'erce-ntlle 95% U.S. 100 3.9 in milfimeters , Numbe~ outSIde boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small = 2,5 oercentue adults. 25.4 1.0 measurements in Inches
Niels Diffrient, Alvin A. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York. New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Anthropometric Data: Children 3
Combined Ages Standmq Shoulder Head Head H,.., Shoulder Crotch Arm Foot Eye Weight
Sex Data Years Height A Width B Width C Length 0 Height E Height F Height G Length H Length J Level K Kg Lb
Large 1BOO 70.8 465 18.2 155 6.2 200 7.9 225 BB 1460 57.5 860 33.9 790 31.1 270 10.6 1685 66.4 76.5 169
Avg-- 15 1675 659 420 16,5 145 5B 190 74 220 B6 1370 54.0 790 31.1 735 28.9 250 9.9 1565 61.7 69.0 152
Small --- 1545 60.8 375 J48 140 5.5 lB5 72 215 BA 1260 49.6 730 2B.7 6B5 26.9 230 91 1445 56.8 62.0 137
1625 63,9 395 156 155 61 200 79 215 B.5 1325 52.2 Bl0 31.9 710 2BO 240 9.5 1520 59.9 51,5 114
1485 28.7 1385
" 1350
1440
58.5
53.2
56.6
350
300
350
137
11,9
13.8
145
135
150
57
53
6.0
lB5
170
200
73
6.B
7B
215
210
210
8A
8.2
B.3
1205
1080
1165
47.5
42.5
45.8
730
645
705
25.4
27.7
660
600
640
25.9
23.7
25.1
220
195
220
B.6
76
B6
1250
1335
54.5
49.2
52.6
37.0
23.5
36.5
B2
52
Bl
1320 52,0 310 12.1 140 5.6 185 7.3 205 81 1065 42.0 630 24.9 5B5 23.1 200 7.B 1220 48.0 27.0 59
1200 47.3 265 10.5 130 52 170 6.7 205 8.0 960 37.7 560 22.0 515 2~.3 175 6.9 1100 43.3 17.0 38
1315 51.8 320 12.6 150 59 195 7.7 205 B.l 1060 4L8 630 24.7 5B5 23,1 200 79 1215 47.8 2B.0 62
1220 48.0 2B5 11.3 140 5.5 lBO 7.1 205 B.O 970 38.2 565 22.3 525 20.7 lBO 71 1120 44.0 22.0 49
1125 44.2 250 99 130 5.1 165 6.5 200 7B 890 35.1 50S 19.8 470 18.6 160 63 1025 40.3 16.5 36
t185 46.7 290 11.5 145 5.B 195 7.6 200 79 945 37.3 545 21.5 515 20.3 lBl 71 1085 42.8 22.0 49
M 1090 43.0 260 10.3 135 54 180 7.0 195 77 B65 34.1 490 19.3 460 18.2 161 63 995 39.' 18.0 39
995 ::9.1 230 91 125 5.0 165 6.5 190 75 7BO 30.7 430 17.0 415 16.3 141 5.6 B90 35.0 13.5 29.5
930 36,7 240 95 135 5.2 175 6.9 195 77 735 28.9 375 14.7 415 16.4 141 56 B35 32.B 13.0 29
725 28.6 205 BO 125 4.9 160 63 175 6.9 565 22.2 245 9.6 305 12.0 110 43 640 25.1 9.0 20
A
Birth 505 19.9 150 6.0 95 3.B 100 4.0 125 5.0 375 14.9 170 6.6 195 7.6 BO 3.1 440 17.4 3.5 7.5
M N 0 p Q S T U
V
370 14.6 465 18.3 430 17.0 420 16.6 115 4.4 355 14.0 190 7.4 185 73 2B5 11.3 255 10.1 195 7.6
15 350 13.8 430 17.0 400 15.7 390 15.3 105 4.1 325 12.7 175 6.9 175 6.9 270 10.6 240 9A lBO 7.0
330 13.0 405 15.9 360 14.2 350 13.8 100 3.9 290 11.5 160 G.? 165 65 250 99 220 B.7 165 6.5
345 13.5 420 16-7 3B5 15.1 375 14.7 100 39 320 12.5 170 67 170 6B 260 10.3 230 91 175 6B
12 320 12.6 390 15.3 345 13.6 335 13.2 95 3.B 2BO 11.1 150 60 160 6.3 245 9.6 215 B.5 160 6.2
295 11.7 360 14.' 305 12.1 300 11.8 90 3.5 250 9.B 130 5.2 150 5.9 225 B9 195 76 145 5.8
310 12.3 375 14.8 335 13.0 325 12.8 95 3.7 270 10.6 145 5.7 160 6.2 240 .9.4 210 B.2 150 60
G
290 11.4 350 13.8 300 11.9 290 11.4 90 3.5 245 9.6 130 5.1. 145 5.B 220 B6 190 7A 140 5.7
0 275 10.8 320 12.7 265 10.4 255 10.1 B5 3.3 220 B6 110 4.4 135 SA 195 7.7 160 6.3 130 51
290 11.4 345 13.7 300 11.8 290 11.4 90 3.5 245 9.6 130 5.1 145 5.8 220 B.6 190 7. 140 5.7
280 11.0 325 12.8 270 10.6 260 10.3 B5 3.3 220 87 115 4.5 140 5.5 200 7B 165 6.5 130 5.2
260 10.2 305 12.0 245 96 235 9.3 BO 3.1 210 B2 100 3.9 130 5.1 175 6.9 150 5.8 120 4.B
270 10.7 315 12.4 260 10.3 255 10.0 85 3.3 215 8.4 105 4.2 135 5.3 190 7.6 160 6.3 130 5.1
255 10.0 300 11.8 235 9.3 220 B.8 BO 3.1 200 7.8 90 3.6 125 4.9 170 67 145 5.7 120 4.7
240 94 2BO 11.0 210 8.2 195 7.7 70 2.B lB5 7.2 BO 3.1 120 4.7 145 57 130 5.1 115 4.5
High Low Reach High Reach Ey, Up To Hat Shelf Lavatory Work Work Table Sea
A"" Reach A Reach B Distance C Reach 0 Radius E level F A"" Height G Height H TopJ Depth K Height l Length M
2085 82.0 815 32.0 735 29.0 144{) 56.7 660 25.9 1215 47.8 15 1675 66.0 760 30.0 915 36.0 460 18.0 650 25.5 370 14.6
HS 15 1915 15.3 730 28.7 6B5 21.0 1375 54.1 610 24.1 1160 45.6 1485 58.5 685 795 16.5 340 13.3
635 25.1 1315 51.7 570
12 27.0 31.3 420 590 23.3
1765 6g.4 665 26.2 22.4 1100 43.3
J,. 9 1320 52.0 635 25.0 695 27.3 3BO 15.0 525 20.7 300 11.8
1860 13.2 70S 27.6 665 26.2 1320 52.0 600 23.6 1100 43.3
HS 12 1705 61.1 630 24.7 620 24.3 1250 49.2 555 1040
21.9 41.0 7 1220 48.0 585 23.0 635 25.0 355 14.0 480 18.9 275 10.8
1545 60.9 560 22.1 565 22.3 1185 46.6 510 20.1990 38.9 5 1090 43.0 485 19.0 570 22.5 330 13.0 445 17.5 250 9.9
1645 64.8 60S 23.B 600 23.6 1175 46.3 540 21.2 975 38.4
4 th. 1510 59.4 55!> 21.8 550 21.7 1120 44.0 495 19.5 925 36.5
1345 53.0 510 20.0 485 19.1 1040 40.9 435 17.1 880 34.6 Seat To Min Basic
1505 59.3 545 21.5 550 21.7 1080 42.6 SOD 19.6 890 35.0 Age,
""., Backrest
0
Backrest
Height P
Armrest
Spacing 0
""., Table
Width S
2 nd . 1370 53.9 510 20.1 495 19.5 1015 4{).0 445 17.5 B50 33.5
Hei!t'tN Width R
1245 49.0 485 19.0 445 11.5 960 31.7 395 15.6 815 32.0 15 405 15.9 150 6.0 175 6.8 445 17.5 380 15.0 760 30.0
1330 52.3 500 19.7 480 19.0 970 38.1 430 16.9 B15 32.1 12 370 14.6 145 5.7 160 6.2 420 16.5 370 14.5 710 2BO
KOG 5 1210 41.1 465 18~3 435 11.1 915 36.1 385 15.2 770 30.4
t lOBS 42.1 425 16.7 390 15.3 865 34.1 345 13£ 720 28.4
9
7
325
290
12.B
11.4
135
130
5.4
5.1
140
130
5£ 355
5.1 330
14.0
13.0
330
305
13.0
12.0
610
610
24.0
24.0
Starting School Grades
5 265 10.4 120 4.8 125 5.0 305 12.0 280 11.0 535 21.0
Chalk Board
Height
l...-.-.--coK_-+-H
o
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
4 Workstations: Standing
SERVING AT A COUNTER
Counter (FOOD COUNTERf
Depth Minimum
Aisle Space
535-610 21-24 18 One Server _-l..J---::":-~:"'"
Two or More
Counter Servers _-4,..J.--=.c~L:.:-I
Height 16
§J36
535-610 21-24
405 16 Highest Step
Cavity For Stool Storage
lowest lowest
Reach Level 305 12 Rung Spacing Reach Level
230
205 8 Bar Rails
75 3 ToeCle.r IMinl
Male and female standing heigtlts (including shoes]: Dimensional notation system:
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large:: 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} ~um.b_~rs aPpea.rin9 in boxes are measurements
1775
1640
69B
64.6
1665
1540
65.5 average=50pen:entile
60.6 small ., 2.5 percentile
95% us.
eccns ITm100
25.4
3.9 In rndlimeters. Numbers outside boxes are
1.0 measurements In inches.
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Workstations: Seated 5
HIGH WORK SEATS SEATING ANGLES MEDIUM HIGH WORK SEATS
(BANK AND TICKET COUNTE RSl (POST OFFICE CDUNTE RI
Reclining Postures
610-710 24-28
Retaxing Postures
Alert Postures
I Work Postures
a 22
Minimum
Table
Widths
1o
24
27
30
50"
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Easy
Head Movements
50° Maximum light Sources Below 1450 57 Highest Head Top High Forward Reach, Eye level, Head Heig--t ~ lower~ 2.2
Visual Limit line
1370
56
54
Mirror Top
No See Over
Reach Radius
/
Decrease~ 2.5
Male and female standing heights (including shoesl: Dimensional notation system
~
1905 75.0 1790 70.4 large = 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} Numben appea.rin g in b.oxes are measurements
, 775 69_8 1665 65.5 average '"' 50 percentile95% u.S 100 3.9 In miltirneters. Numben cctsioe boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small = 2.5 percentile adults 25.4 1.0 measurements In Hlches
Niels Diffrient. Alliin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates: New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
6 Space Usage
PASSAGES FOR ONE PASSAGE FOR TWO FACING DOORS SINGLE DOOR PASSAGE FOR FOUR FACING DOOR::
-----
Door Opening Door
Outward
©
Opening
Outward
Door A
(Q)
~36
@ Min
©
Door B Door A
E!30 OoorA 2440 96
1600 63
1805 71
@ 610
24@
Min
Door B
©
Door B
1650 65
© © 2135 84
© <1D
78
Prefer Straight And Short Corridors With Two Way Traffic; "I" And 'L' Shapes Cause Blockages. Make Flow Plans
LIVING SPACE OFFICE SPACE
685
27 -NOTE~P;et;rFront Load
Dishwashen:
Male and female standing hei~ts (including shoes): English Beds: Small Single 900 x 1900;NewStd.Single 1000 x 2OOO;Small Double Dimensional notation sY'tem:
~
1905 75.0 1790 10.4 large"97.spercentile} includes
1350 x 1900; New Std. Double 1500 x 2(X)() ooo 39.3} Numbers apPearing in boxes ~re measurements
1175 69.8 1665 65.5 average" 50 percentile 95% U,S. 100 3.9 in millimeters. Numbers outsIde boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small '" 2.5 percentile adults 25.4 1.0 measurements in inches.
Niels Diffrient. Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Accessibility 7
SIDE CATWALK FRONT PASSAGEWAY CQARtQORS HALLWAYS WITH ONE BAG WITH TWO BAGS (:AAAYING TRAY
1 Person 2 People
rrnsl49 f1880174
,...,
I <
<
MANHOLES CEILING AND TOP AND WALL ACCESS CRAWL PIPE CRAWL·WAYS ARM ACCESS ARM ACCESS TWO HAND REACH TWO ARM REACH
FLOOR HATCH BOTTOM ACCESS TO ELBOW TO SHOULDER ACCESS (No Vision) ACCESS (No Visionl
~22.8 ~25Min
m; @ 1
Max AbOlie
§J18 Min Oia [!60] 30 Floor 0 2 , l ~ L Height
~36Spac:e Or$quare ~30Prefer ~8 ~5 ~'9.5~5
~i' ~~13
Min
~
$'~'
185 31
• Prefer
915 36
HEAD ACCESS fiNGER ACCESS TWO FINGER HAND FLAT ACCESS MINIMUM HAND FINGER TIP PUllS HANDLE OPENI NGS FOOT OPENINGS
TWIST ACCESS ACCESS TO WRIST
Diameter
~9.3Bare
0 1.3 Bare r=I
~2Bare
Height Width
~2.3 ~4Bare
Height
§]s
Width
~3.5Bare ~OrSquare
L
~3.2 Minimum
L
~3.8 ~1.5Bare
H L
~12
H
[!2i]4.5Bare
~ 1.5 Glove ~3.8Bare
~12.5safetv
Hot [!]O.3 To
r::::-l
EKclUd~2.5 G~~;
~4 ~6Glove @D6 ~4.5GIOve Hand Curled With
Or Without Screw
..H.
[ _~JO. 75 Minimum
G4.5 0 2 Glove ~13 ~5Shoes
I ~15.5 ~6.5 Boots
<$)-
~5To R
?:/Il
d I Round
~'{
I Object ~:~ I ~S=~i~~h Reet
~useHei9hl
II Hound
~
L/2 For Two F m(lf~rs L/2 For Two Fingers
I-- L
Dia
JLlolJC
Exetuoe .j
=:::::;:>For Cia - - - - - - ' For Dlil
« •. ca=;5J
I I I I 0.3 0.9
Datum
SUPINE
[1005]75
PRONE
~
R 96
I ~p~~~,20
~43017
Male and female standing heig,ts (including shoes): Dimensional notation svstem:
~
1905 75.0 1790 70Alarge" 97.5 percentile} includes ooo 39.3} Numbers appearing. in boxes are measurements
1775 69.8 1665 65.5average"5Dpercentile 95% U.S. 100 3.9 In mll.,meten. Numbers outsioe boxes are
1640 64.6 1540 60.6 small" 2.5 percentile adults 25A 1.0 measurements in meres.
, Niels Dilfrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
8 Occupant load Calculations
GENERAL areas of an occupancy, shall be provided with exits as EXITS
though they are completely occupied, but their occupant
The information for determining occupant load shown in load need not be included in computing the total occupant All three major codes use occupant loads to determine the
the table on this page comes from three model building load of the building' rUBC Sec. 3302 la)). size and number of required exits. Based on occupant loads
codes in use in the United States: and area uses, it is possible to determine the required num-
Most codes require that to determine multiple use building ber of exits and the arrangement and sizes of exit compo-
1. BOCA National Building Code (BOCA). 1996 edition. with or area occupancies, the occupant load (OU must be based nents.
permission of the Building Officials and Code Administra- on the use that produces the most occupants. For example,
tors International. Inc .• publisher. the occupant load for a school multiple use room, which All three codes (BOCA. SBC. and UBC) consider an exit to
2. Standard Building Code (SBC). 1997 edition. with permis- will be used for classroom activities (Ot. factor 20) as well be more than merely a door. Although specific definitions
sion of the Southern Building Code Congress Interna- as assembly space (OL factor 15), is calculated using the 15 vary with each code, exits usually are considered to be con-
tional, tnc., publisher, with all rights reserved. sq ft per occupant factor. tinuous and unobstructed means of egress to a public way
and may include such building elements as doors, corridors,
3. Uniform Building Code (UBC). 1997 edition. with permis-
If buildings or areas contain two or more separate occupan- stairs, balconies, lobbies, exit courts, etc. Elevators are not
sion of the International Conference of Building Officials.
cies, the overall occupant load is determined by computing considered exits. Requirements for arrangement. size. and
publisher.
occupant loads for various areas and adding them together operation of exits vary; consult applicable codes for specific
Occupant load generally is defined as the maximum capac- for an aggregate occupant load. information.
ity of a building or room given as the total number of people
present at anyone time. For occupant loads, it is generally When calculating occupant load for areas with fixed seating
assumed that all areas of a building will be occupied at the in benches or pews, the number of occupants is based on
same time, with some exceptions noted in specific codes. one seat for each 18 in. of bench or pew space. In dining
For example. the UBC states, "Accessory use areas. which areas with booth seating, the number of seats is based on
ordinarily are used only by persons who occupy the main 24 in. for each seat.
MINIMUM EXITS
OCCUPANT LOADS BASED ON USAGE
MAXIMUM FLOOR AREA PER 2 EXITS MINIMUM
OCCUPANT (SQ FT) REQUIRED WHERE
OCCUPANT LOAD
USE BOCA SBC USC! USAGE IS AT LEAST,
Assembly areas 2-concentrated use (without fixed seats): 7 net 7 net 7 Aged. homes for the 6
auditoriums, bowling alleys3, churches, dance floors. lodge
Aircraft hangars 10
rooms, reviewing stands, stadiums
Auction rooms 30
Assembly areas-less concentrated use: conference rooms, 15net 15net 15
dining/drinking areas, exhibit rooms, gymnasiums, lounges, Assembly areas 50
staqes- Bowling alley 50
Assembly areas-standing space 3 net 3 net 3 Children's homes 6
Business areas 5 100 gross 100 gross 100 Classrooms 50
Courtrooms (without fixed seats) 40 net 40 net 40 Congregate residences 10
Day care facilities 35 Courtrooms 50
Dormitories 50 Dormitories 10
Educational Dwellings 10
Classroom areas 20 net 20 net 20
Shops and vocational rooms Exercise rooms 50
50 net 50nel 50
Industrial areas 6 Health care facilities
100 gross 100 gross 200
Sleeping rooms 8
Institutional? Treatment rooms 10
Children's homes, homes for aged. nursing homes, - - 80
Hotels and apartments 10
sanitariums, hospitals 240 gross 240 gross 240
Inpatient treatment areas 100 gross 100 gross - Kitchens (commercial) 30
Outpatient areas 1209ross 120 gross 120 Library reading rooms 50
Sleeping areas
locker rooms 30
Kitchens (commercial) 200
Manufacturing areas 30
Libraries
Reading rooms . 50 net 50 net 50 Mechanical equipment rooms 30
Stack areas 100 gross 100 gross 100 Nurseries for children (day care) 7
lobbies (accessory to assembly area) 7 Offices 30
locker rooms 50 Parking garages 30
Mechanical equipment areas 300 gross 300 gross 300 School shops and vocational 50
Mercantiles rooms
Basements 30 gross 30 gross 30 Skating rinks 50
Ground floors 30 gross 30 gross 30 Storage and stockrooms 30
Upper floors 60 gross 60 gross 60
Storage, stockrooms, shipping areas 300 gross 300 gross 300· Stores (retail sales rooms)
Basements 2 exits minimum
Parking garages 200 gross 200 gross 200 Ground floors 50
Hesidential"v 200 gross 200 gross Upper floors 50
Hotels and apartments - - 200 Swimming pools 50
Dwellings - - 300
Warehouses 30
Skating rinks I I - 15net - All other 50
Rink area - - 50
Deck - - 15
Storage areas 300 gross 300 gross 300
Swimming pools
Pool - - 50
Deck - - 15
All other areas - 100
1. Both BOCA and SBC use net and gross floor areas to de- 7. BOCA and SBC classify areas within institutional occu-
termine occupant load. UBC does not differentiate pancies; UBC classifies by occupancy description only.
between net and gross areas. 8. UBC classifies mercantile areas as store-retail sales
2. Occupant loads for assembly areas with fixed seats are rooms.
determined by the actual number of installed seats. 9. UBC considers storage and stockroom areas as storage
3. Occupant load calculations for bowline alleys under occupancy (300 sq ft per occupant).
BOCA and SBC use 5 persons per alley in addition to the 10. BOCA and SBC do not separate hotel/apartment and
tabular values indicated. dwelling occupancies.
4. Stages are considered assembly areas--less concen- 11. BOCA does not classify skating rinks separately from
trated use (15 sq ft per occupant) in UBC, not separately other assembly areas of less concentrated use (15 sq ft
classified in BOCA or SBC. per occupant). SBC does not separate areas within skat-
5. USC classifies business areas as office occupancy. ing rinks.
6. USC classifies industrial areas as manufacturing areas.
EGRESS PLANNING
Stair Design 9
GENE~AL
Stairways are an essential component in the circulation and
egress systems of most buildings. They are also the site of
up to 42 in. {1067 mm} are permitted by some building
codes. Intermediate ralls or balusters must be spaced so
that a sphere of either 4 or 6 in. 1102 or 152 mmJ. depend-
ing on the code and use group, cannot pass through any
iTJmt_ ~,o"."
I
3'1" MIN
I
""'"0 ""~
BE 1 114 TO 1'12 " (3 2 TO 38
IN OUTSIDE DIAMETER
rnrru
~
accidents resulting in approximately 4000 deaths and one part of the guard. Guardrail designs with horizontal rails that
million injuries requiring hospital treatment annually In the are easily climbed are not recommended and, in some
United States. For these reasons, stairway design is strictly cases. are restricted. For residential stairs. guardrails 36 in. 1'1.'(38 mrm CLEAR SPACE
controlled by building regulations. (914 mm) in height are usually permitted. BETWEEN HANDRAIL AND WALL
HANDRAILS
The accompanying diagrams summarize most handrail OK NOT OK NOT OK
requirements for nonresidential stairs. For residential stairs
ACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND RISERS NOTES
not covered by ADA, most codes permit handrails on only
one side of the stair, without top and bottom extensions. In
some cases a greater range of heights is also permitted.
RADIUS"','(13 ~ 1. When considering metal pipe rails, do not confuse the
nominal size by which pipes are specified with the actual
The ADA recommends (but does not require) additional outside diameter of the pipe. The outside diameter is
handrails at lower heights where stairs are used by chil- larger than the nominal size.
dren. 2. Handrails must be continuous on both sides of a stair.
---""--'OPEN RISER Ends of handrails must extend beyond the stair as shown
60" (1524 mm) for educational use group with occupancy of 100 or
more
EGRESS PLANNING
10 Stair Design
STAIR PROPORTIONING GRAPH STAIR DESIGN AND BUILDING
CODES
mmllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllill1111111111111111111111111111111111111111 Building codes are updated regularly, so it is best to consul"
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
the current copy of the applicable building code (the SOC
RISER HEIGHT National Building Code. the Standard Building Code. or tl'
5" 5.5" 6" 6.5" 7" 75 8" 8.25"
Uniform Building Code) for tread and riser dimensions. Th
mm International Building Code will also offer a standard fc
3600 12'
U these dimensions when it is published in 2000.
OJ
::J
3400 0 STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
OJ
,,' '<i."
U An exit stairway in a theater rises a total of 20 ft 3 in. This
dimension is off the graph shown at left, which means tha-
3200 U at least one landing must be inserted in the stair. Sele(
0
'!! two flights of 10ft 1 'h in. rise each. Looking for the hiqhes
0: possible riser, read across to the 18-riser sloping line
3000 '0' w (before crossing the 7 in. maximum riser height line). ther
Ul
it upward to read a riser height of 6.75 in. Reading downwarc
..J to the bottom horizontal axis, the optimum tread dimensior
is 11 Y.! in. This figure can be rounded down to the leg;=;
2800
'"
i=
Z minimum of 11 in. to make the st~r a~ compact as pass!
9' w ble.
0
2600 iii
w
a: STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
X
A stairway in a single-family house rises 8 ft lOin. anc'
2400
I-
8'
'"
::E
'Ill
needs to be as compact as possible according to CASC
I
requirements. Read across to the 13-riser sloping line, the:
OJ
2200
o ci upward to read a riser of 8.15 in.
W
I
7' NOTES
0:
0 1. Stairs should be laid out in both plan and section. The dl
2000 0
..J
u,
mensions shown on this page are samples only .
6
I-
2. Landings must be at least as wide as the stair.
'BOO ci: 6' 3. No single flight may rise more than 12 It 0 in. 1365Smrr»
0 vertically.
0
..J 4. In each flight, there is one more riser than tread.
u,
1600 5. Handrails may project up to 3 Y.2 in. (S9 mm) into the
5' required stairway width. They must be continuous or the
ends must extend beyond the top and bottom of the
'400 stair. Stairs serving areas of rescue assistance must have
4 It clear between handrails.
6. Stairway doors must swing with the direction of egress
'200 4' travel and must not obstruct more than half of the
required landing width at any point in the swing. Wher
fully open doors must not strike handrails (including
extensions) and not project more than 7 in. (178 mm
1000
into the travel path.
3' 7. See AGS page on areas of rescue assistance for more
restrictive stair dimensioning requirements.
800
600 2'
mm "
Ul
0:'
y~~
1'-<0
_' a:t-
OPTIMUM TREAD DEPTH (READ RIGHT TO LEFT) 2R + T '" 25" (635 mrrn III 0 ' "
Ul
1////////// /// ////////// 0:'
V i.-> v .:!"m~
I' - <0
1/
r
_. a: t-
HANDRAIL I
I- V ...... 100e{
'---
0
'03: V
V " .~~ V
'/2 REQUIR ED
'" V
/
I-
LANDING Ul
WIDTH MIN
V
V
/
I
l-
0
V
03:
.~~
-c
l-
Ul
V
V
V
I 4'-0"
V NOTE
r////// ///////////////~// Measure allowable head height at nosings.
PLAN
SAMPLE STAIRWAY
EGRESS PLANNING
Spiral and Circular Stairs 11
,- ~-
--~-~~-~~"
-----TOP CAP
40 4B 52
STAIR DIAMETER
60 64 72 76 BB 96
II \
V CENTER
COLUMN A 20 24 26 30 32 36 38 44 48
-N'
.,1 8 24 28 30 34 36 40 42 48 52
1/
l----- 1
80 92 100
/' OUTSIDE
2" C 44 52 56 64 68 76
DIAMETER
II' HANDRAIL
A
c
B
l
I
,-----
I
....
I
I
I I o
BALCONY RAIL I I W
:I 1f--t--:=~~=;jT"
1 .. SQUARE BARS I
o I
114" X 2" I
I I
jI
MOUNTING
PLATE WITH m I I
I I
>- 3/ 8" HOLES
I I STRINGERS
I I I
o L ..J L ....J
," SQUARE
W BALUSTER-
I PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP PLAN-LEFT-HAND UP ~
NOTES ELEVATION
1. For spiral stairs. larger diameters increase perceived
PLATE
comfort, ease of use. and safety.
TREADS"" 2. Tread and platform materials: The most common materi-
als are steel (regular and galvanized), aluminum, and
wood. Steel and aluminum can be smooth plate, checker
V BASEPLATE
plate, pan type, and bar. A variety of hardwoods can be
used. although many manufacturers use steel substruc-
tures to support the wood finish surface.
3. Refer to local and national codes for dimension and con-
ELEVATiON struction requirements and allowable uses.
SPIRAL STAIRS
A~1u
B ,
27° tread detail C 9 1
/4 'l l
/ e 12 'I. 13 15 / 16 14 7 / . 16 3 / . 17 5 / . 20 '/2 22 5 / 16
Design considerations for circular stairs are similar to those
27" tread detail 0 7 5/. 8 8 'I. 8 3 /. 8 1/ 2 8 5 /. 8 3/ . 10 10 '/2 for spiral stairs. A fabricated steel tube serves as a one-
30 0 tread detail C 10 '/2 12 9 / 16 13 5 / a 15 3 / . 16 3 / . 18 7 / a 19 7 / a 23 25 '/a piece stringer to which treads are bolted or welded. Risers
12" can be open or closed. Numerous finishes are available.
30 tread detail 0
0
8'/2 8 5/a 8 3/. 8 7 /a 9 9 1/ 4 9 3 /a 11 'fa 11 '/2 and treads can be made of laminated wood.
Landing size 22 26 28 32 34 38 40 46 52 TREAD DETAIL
CIRCULAR STAIRS
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ==~~==;=~=r~==--'f----11-:-~
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
IL J
I I I
L ~
PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP PLAN-RIGHT-HAND UP
EGRESS PLANNING
12 Treads, Risers, and Nosings
NOSING CAST IN
IRON. ALUMINUM.
NICKEL. OR
BRONZE
ANCHOR
MINIMUM
EXPOSURE
GRADUALLY FLUSH JUNCTURE OF METAL
RADIUSED NOSING OF RISER AND AT RISER
TREAD
TROWELED GROOVES IN
ABRASIVE STRIPS
SUP-RESISTANT
NOSING DESIGN CONCRETE
ANSI specifications recommend nosings without abrupt RADIUSED
edges that project no more than 1'/2 in. beyond the edge of EDGE----
the riser. A safe stair uses a 1/2 in. radius abrasive nosing
firmly anchored to the tread, with no overhangs and a MINIMUM
clearly visible edge. OVERHANG VARIES
AT JOINT
ANCHOR
ROUNDED
NOSING
ANGLED
NOSING
.-- TAPERED
FLUSH END
RISER
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM V IN YL O R
RUBBER NOSING
REPLACEMENT TREAD
WITH ABRASIVE STRIPS \ CARPET
Iiiiiiiiiii~~~~~
LEVELING COMPOUND
WHERE WOOD. MARBLE.
OR CONCRETE TREAD IS
WORN OR SPLINTERED
NOTE
Eric K. Beach and Annica S. Emilsson, Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C
EGRESS PLANNING
Building Systems-Steel Bar Joist with Bearing Wall 13
INTRODUCTION
Combining a wide range of common building technologies,
the building systems presented on this and the following
pages reflect basic approaches to design, construction, and
use of materials in response to a variety of occupancy
requirements. Such building systems embody key inteqra-
tion issues that arise when components and subsystems
are merged to produce complete buildings.
STRUCTURAL
Roof: Steel decking and open web steel joists ICI
Floor: Slab on grade 1M)
Walls: Concrete masonry bearing wall and
concrete footing (H)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B)
Walls: Window assembly (NI, exterior insulation and
finish system (EIFS)(D), and canopy assembly (K) STEEL BAR JOIST WITH BEARING WALL
Floor: Vapor barrier.and dampproofing (l)
perimeter walls do not disrupt the regular pattern of the SYSTEM SUMMARY
Principal advantages and characteristics: The concrete joist web elements, interfering with straight runs for
masonry unit (CMU) bearing walls are insulated on the exte- mechanical components. If the building owners will also be St~e~ open web joist and bearing wall construction yields
rior to take better advantage of the wall's thermal mass by tenants, relatively fixed interior lighting and mechanical sys- buildinqs that have relatively large interior clear spans and
placing. it toward the occupied side. Lonq-span open web tems may be planned. Otherwise, overhead and in-floor flexible interior layouts. The open webbing of the joists pro-
steel JOistroofs can deflect substantially, and the camber of systems should be laid out for maximum flexibility. If the vides a lightweight structure that is easily penetrated by
the joists alone is often not sufficient to maintain the neces- joist depth is insufficient to carry the ductwork, such equip- mechanical systems. The bottom chords of the joists are
sary slope to roof drains. ment can be suspended from the bottom chord of the steel used for suspension of interior finishes, lighting fixtures,
joist. and air diffusers in finished areas, although they may be left
uncovered. Masonry bearing walls and metal joist roofs are
MECHANICAL among the simplest and easiest to design and build. The
INTERIOR
HVAC: Rooftop unit (AI and ductwork IGI relatively low cost of the system makes it attractive for
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile (EI speculative projects, as does the fact that contractors find
Electrical: Surface-mounted conduit or behind
Floors: Resilient tile (JI this construction method familiar and easy to erect. Retail
furred-out walls
Walls: commercial facilities usually require flexibility in lighting,
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof Glazed interior face on CMU (I)
partitioning, and mechanical systems and large expanses of
Fire safety:Sprinkler system suspended from Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (F) column- and wall-free space; the envelope and structural
structure in ceiling plenum (El and natural light (N) systems chosen often reflect these demands.
Principal advantages and characteristics: If ductwork is to Furnishings:Movable displays
be housed within the depth of the joist, headers or The height to which masonry bearing walls can be built
branches must be fed through the joist webs, perpendicular Princip~1 advantages and characteristics: Suspended inte- without resorting to lateral bracing is limited. so they are
to. the spanning direction. The webs of joists must be rior ceilings are nearly always preferred to directly attached used most frequently in one-story structures. Roof spans
aligned, and bearing walls with projections must be worked interior ceilings. Finished ceilings attached directly to the up to 60 ft can generally be accommodated. The spacing
around. Because beams running transverse to the joists joist bottom chord are not only difficult to alter but must be and depth of joists is related to the spanning capability of
may block the threading of piping, ductwork, and wiring, designed to accommodate the high degree of deflection the roof decking material and the requirements for loads on
care must be taken that variations in the configuration of the roof assembly will experience. the roof structure.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
14 Building Systems-Steel Frame with Access Floor and Curtain Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame Steel, with welded and bolted connec-
tions IF)
Roof: Steel decking welded to frame (A)
Floors, upper: Steel decking welded to primary frame
members, with cast-in-place concrete top-
ping (M)
Floors, Slab on grade, with concrete founda-
basement:tion (01
Core: Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete
Principal advantages and characteristics: Core shear walls
add rigidity to frame; composite action of structural steel
framing and a steel and concrete floor diaphragm result in
relatively long, uninterrupted clear spans with smaller depth
of construction. Heights can range from one to more than
100 stories. System allows for off-site fabrication of frame
components, easy shipping to site, and rapid assembly; cor-
rugated steel deck becomes a working surface as soon as it
is placed and provides torrnwork for concrete topping
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing or single-ply membrane on
rigid insulation IB)
Walls: Curtain wall units of glass/frame assem-
blies IE) and insulated spandrel panels III,
attached to structural frame
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board, with
foundation drain (N); vapor barrier under
slab IP)
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, either suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum or placed
in floor plenum beneath access floor IDI
Electrical and Electrical wires and cables placed mainly
telecommuni-in access floor plenum and
structural/eleo-
cations:trified floor (H); can also be located
in
ceiling plenum. for lighting, and in interior
wall at spandrel panel
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions placed in core
area for efficient vertical circulation of
systems
Fire safety: Sprinkler system suspended from struc-
ture in ceiling plenum
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ICI
Floors: Carpeted access floor system (l.) and
structural electrified floor (HI
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IJI
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (G) and
natural light lEI
Furnishings: Open office furniture (K)
Principal advantages and characteristics· Suspended ceiling
provides space for distribution of internal services, but it
tends to be used principally for overhead lighting and duct-
work. Structural/electrified floors and access floor systems
keep all wires and cables in space below finish floor, easily
accessible by removable floor panels, allowing high degree
of flexibility for interior environment. Buildup of static elec-
tricity and the ensuing risk of equipment damage and
shocks need to be considered. Access floors are not suited
to situations involving heavy point loads or shifting heavy STEEL FRAME WITH ACCESS FLOOR AND CURTAIN WALL
equipment. Stringerless systems are among the most flexi-
ble and least costly varieties. but they lack the stability of
shown is advantageous in office environments that need
fully gridded systems and depend on perimeter walls for SYSTEM SUMMARY
restraint. Use of access floors as air plenum, requiring tight especially flexible interior layouts. This system keeps all
Steel frame and curtain wall construction allows for off-site wires and cables in the space below the finish floor (gener-
and uniform joints between access panels, may hinder
fabrication of frame and envelope components. easy ship- ally not less than 4 in. deep) and out of wall cavities
access to wires, cables, and pipes; ductwork in floor ple-
ping to the site, and rapid assembly at the site. The steel Although access floors may add to overall floor-to-floor
nums may eliminate the advantages of access floors by
and concrete in the floors are designed to act as a compos- heights, the access floor conceals the most visually obtru-
blocking the path for wiring, cables, and pipes.
ite diaphragm, providing a thin, lightweight structural ele- sive distribution elements.
ment with or without an access floor. The access floor
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Staggered Steel Truss 15
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Staggered story-high steel trusses (0) on
steel columns (I) support floor slabs on
both top and bottom chords
Roof: Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck ICI
Floors. upper: Precast hollow-core concrete plank
deck (CI
Floor, lowest: Slab on grade, with concrete
foundation (M)
Walls: Precast shear panels (H) and precast
stiffener beams (OJstabilize structure
ENVELOPE
Roof: Rigid insulation, single-ply roofing and bal-
last (AI
Walls: Window assembly (GI. precast concrete
panels Ill, precast stiffener beams (01, and
precast shear panels {Hl
Basement: Vapor barrier, and waterproofing and
protective board (N)
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, and sprinkler system
(B); separate unit-by-unit HVAC systems
can be used
Electrical: Conduit fed through vertical chases at
outer walls (JI
Plumbing.: Pipes fed through vertical interior chases
Fire safety: Sprinkler system supply at central I
corridor (BI
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Underside of concrete planks is either
painted or covered with acoustical ceiling
tile; corridors may have suspended ceil-
ingtile (B)
Floors: Joints at floor planks are grouted and tops
carpeted (KI or tiled (EI
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IFI
Lighting: Surface-mounted fixtures or suspended
fluorescent fixtures at corridor (8)
STAGGERED STEEL TRUSS
Principal advantages and characteristics: The smooth sur-
face of concrete deck planks can provide interior ceiling fin-
ishes, if desired. SYSTEM SUMMARY
Staggered truss construction is most often used for double-- considered economical for low-rise buildings due to the
loaded residential-type occupancies, including hotels, high- manufacturing costs of the jigs for the trusses and the
rise apartments. nursing homes. and hospitals. Such build- forms for the spandrel precasting. The system easily allows
ing types usually have highly repetitive floor plans and can for long structural bays, permitting a high degree of tlexibil-
benefit from systems that integrate objectives regarding ity in unit interiors. The ground floor is free of trusses and
structure, interior unit separations, fire-compartmentaliza- interior columns and thus suitable for parking or retail com-
tion, and acoustical privacy. The system is not generally mercial use. The system's light weight reduces foundation
size.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
16 Building Systems-lightweight Steel Frame and Brick Veneer
STRUCTURAL
Roof: Metal roof frame (Cvstud brace, C-rafter,
Ccchannel. C-joist) IC), with plywood
sheathing
Floor, upper: Metal floor frame (C-joist), steel deck, and
concrete topping (l)
Floor, ground: Slab on grade with concrete
foundation IP)
Walls: C-stud assembly 1M)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Shingles and roofing felt (8)
Grade: Dampproofing (0) and vapor barrier
under slab
Walls: Batt insulation (KI. window assembly (HI,
and brick veneer (GI
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts. with diffusers ID)
Electrical: Wiring threaded through C-stud wall
assembly 1M)
Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Wood Roof Truss and Wood Floor Truss 17
STRUCTURAL
Roof: Wood roof truss and plywood
sheathing IBI
Floor, upper: Wood floor truss and plywood
subfloor IGI
Floor. ground: Slab on grade, concrete masonry
foundation wall, and concrete
footing IK)
Walls: Wood frame and sheathing IFI
ENVELOPE
Roof: Shingles, roofing felt. with metal
flashing (AI
Grade: Vapor barrier under slab, with
dampproofinq at foundation
Walls' Batt insulation (E), window assembly (J),
and lapped wood siding III
I
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wood compo--
nents treated with fire retardants can now be used in many
applications for which untreated wood is unsuitable. Some
fire-retarding treatments may discolor wood, accelerate
corrosion of metal fasteners, or alter the structural proper-
ties of the wood. For example, plywood can become
delaminated, a particularly difficult problem when the ply-
wood sheathing itself acts as the exterior finish surface.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diffusers IHI. with below-slab
perimeter ducts 1M)
Electrical: Wiring threaded through holes drilled
through wood studs
Plumbing: Pipes set in partition walls, then
through roof
INTERIOR
WOOD ROOF TRUSS AND WOOD FLOOR TRUSS
Ceilings: Acoustical tile (C)
Floors: Carpet ILl
SYSTEM SUMMARY tures. Open web trusses are lighter in weight than dimen-
Walls: Gypsum wallboard IDI
sion lumber and can be lifted easily in gangs by a small
Prefabricated roof and floor trusses eliminate much field crane or lift. Trusses are available in standard configurations
Principal advantages and characteristics: The open web labor, thus speeding on-site construction; help ensure dim- between 12 and 24 in. deep and allow threading of
wood trusses permit longer clear spans than conventional ensional stability; and may eliminate the need for inter- mechanical systems without cutting the members, speed-
timber framing, leaving greater flexibility for the location of mediate load bearing partitions. Longer clear spans are pos- ing installation. The smaller wood components used in
interior partition walls that need not be load bearing sible with floor trusses than with generally available dimen- these trusses are more readily available from sustainable
sion lumber, and recent advances in manufacturing forests, as opposed to the older growth trees harvested for
techniques make it possible to specify many special tea- larger standard lumber sections.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
18 Building Systems-Flat Plate Concrete
STRUCTURAL
Columns: Cast-in-place concrete (K)
Roof: Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (E)
Floors, upper' Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (El
Floors, basement Slab on grade and concrete pile
foundation (Nl
Core: Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete
ENVELOPE
Roof: Rigid insulation and ballast IC), on protected
roof membrane (B)
Walls: Window assembly (0) and precast concrete
spandrel panels 1M), batt insulation II)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board at
foundation, with vapor barrier under slab (0)
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum (Gl
Electrical and tele-
communications: Power and communication poles
(HI
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions in core
area for efficiency in vertical
circulation of systems
Fire safety: Sprinkler system suspended from
structure in ceiling plenum
Conveying system' Elevator equipment in penthouse
(A)
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile (F)
Floors: Carpeting III
Walls: Gypsum wallboard, metal stud assembly IJ)
Lighting' Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling and
natura/light (01
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Post- Tensioned Concrete 19
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Rigid concrete (J)
Roof: Rigid concrete slab
Floors, upper: Concrete slab IB)
Floor, basement- Slab on grade and concrete
foundation (l)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing or single-ply
membrane on rigid insulation (Al
Walls: Window assembly (II. and brick and
concrete masonry with rigid insulation
(K)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board
at foundation (Nl. vapor barrier under
slab
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, with diffusers, suspended
from structure in ceiling plenum (C)
Electrical and tele-
communications: Wires and cables placed in wall
assemblies
Plumbing: Most plumbing functions placed in
centralized locations, avoiding
tendons
Fire safety:" Sprinkler system suspended from /
structure in ceiling plenum
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceilings (E)
Floors: Resilient flooring IF)
Walls: Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (D)
and natural light III
Specialties: Operable partitions (GI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Suspended ceiling
provides space 'for distribution of internal services but tends
to be used only for overhead lighting and ductwork.
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Post-tensioned concrete construction is virtually identical to
the flat plate concrete construction described on the pre-
ceding page. The major difference lies in the thickness of POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE
the concrete slab, which is slightly reduced in this type of
construction. or eliminates tensile stresses on the concrete under use aspects or when concentrated live loads are high and the
loading and strengthens the slab without increasing its building height must be kept to a minimum. It is also effec-
Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete by thickness or adding the dead loads introduced by additional tive when project conditions require minimal floor-to-floor
stretching steel reinforcing tendons after placement and steel reinforcing rods. Post-tensioning is useful when the heights but maximum ceiling heights with generous space
curing of the concrete structure. This prestressing reduces thickness is important to economical or functional design above the ceilings.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
20 Building Systems-Precast Concrete Frame
STRUCTURAL
Frame Prestressed precast concrete columns
and spandrel beams. IDI
Roof: Prestressed precast concrete
double T (81
Floors. upper" Prestressed precast concrete
double T (81
Floors, basement" Slab on grade. with cast-in-place
concrete piles (F)
Core' Cast-in-place concrete vertical
circulation {El
ENVELOPE
Roof: Concrete topping slab (AI
Walls: Spandrel beams act as finish walls (0);
no glazing in openings
MECHANICAL
Electrical: Conduit, exposed at underside of
concrete structure
Plumbing: Pipes from roof and floor drains,
exposed to view throughout structure
Conveying system: Elevator equipment for hydraulic
elevator IGI
Fire safety: Sprinkler heads dropped from supply
lines set into channels at upper face of
precast floor Ts
INTERIOR
Floors: Concrete topping acts as floor finish (A)
Walls: Concrete structure surface acts as
wall finish (DI
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures attached to
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME
structure (C). and natural light between
spandrel beams
Specialties: Curbs, handrails, and signage SYSTEM SUMMARY
Precast concrete components are usually pretensioned. floor and roof Ts are set. the surface is covered with a th
Principal advantages and characteristics: Most typical inte-
Pretensioning is a method of prestressing concrete in concrete topping that provides the finished, weettu
rior elements are not needed because of the open air
which steel tendons are stretched prior to placement of exposed surface and a horizontal structural diaphragm. Tt
nature of the building type; however, all elements provided
concrete and maintained in tension until the concrete is precast components are fabricated off site and lifted in:
are attached directly to the exposed structure. In parking
place by crane. A variety of finished surfaces is possibr.
garages, the depth of the structural Ts and concerns for cured. The external tension on the tendons is then released
to compress the concrete. This example employs pre- and the unity of materials presents an opportunity for nat
minimizing floor-to-ceifinq height present special challenges
ral visible integration of elements. Thin brick or tile can at-.
for the integration of lighting and signs. stressed columns, inverted T girders, ledger girders, and
double-T joists, all of the same length and design. Once the be used as a surface material.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Flying Form 21
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Rigid concrete «»
Floors. upper: Flat plate (K)
Foundation: Slab on grade and concrete (M)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form con-
struction requires almost total regularity in structural bay
widths. Flying forms can be used to construct flat slabs,
pan-joist slabs. waffle slabs. and various types of beams-in-
slab. They are also used to form spandrels of varying con-
figuration. Flat plate or flat slab construction is preferred. as
this eases movement of the flying form "table" and mini~
mizes special additional forming. For flying forms to be eco-
nomical. the building structural layout must be uniform and
the beams and spandrels should be very shallow.
Usually the same work crew sets and strips the flying
forms; half of the crew works below the deck level that has
been cast. while the other half works above the previously
cast area, setting the forms that have been removed. Con-
ventional temporary shoring, separated frpm the surface
forms, is set in place after removal of the flying forms. To
speed the process of curing and to enable quicker removal
of the forms, early high strength concrete is frequently
used.
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B): con-
crete masonry parapet backup {A}
Walls: Window assembly (G) and precast concrete
spandrel panels (Ll
Basement: Vapor barrier (N)
Principles and characteristics: As in the case of convention-
ally cast-in-place flat plate concrete construction, the struc-
tural and mechanical systems are concealed from view,
with the precast concrete envelope spandrel and glazing
units connected to the structural frame. Flying form con-
struction. which requires relatively uniform bay widths, can
have an effect on visible integration because it produces
regularity in the rhythm of structural elements.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diffusers (D)
Electrical and
telecommunications: Under-carpet flat cable (J)
FLYING FORM
INTERIOR
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (E)
Speed of construction. the economies realized through During construction the forms are placed and removed in a
Floors: Carpet tile (I) reuses of the forms, and the high quality of finished sur- sequence of related operations, with temporary shoring
faces are among the most attractive features of this con- used after form removal under the slabs until they have
Walls: Metal stud and drywall assembly (H) struction method. The systems employed with flying form cured. The repetitive use of the forms can lead to conserva-
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture and natural light (F) construction do not differ substantially from those found in tion of both time and, of course, the materials used in form-
other types of reinforced concrete construction; the differ- ing. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed in the
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form con- ence lies in the method of forming slabs and spandrels and suspended ceiling assembly. The use of flat wiring atop the
struction permits great flexibility in interior layouts and fur- in the sequencing of pours. A disadvantage of the flat plate floor slabs for internal distribution of power, lighting, elec-
niture arrangements. The use of flat wiring frees the construction system is the relative difficulty of punching tronics, and communications dictates the use of removable
electrical system from restraints imposed by the structure, through the slab or plate. An important consideration with carpet tiles and yields a set of requirements for interfaces
permitting the furniture layout .and power needs to remain the use of flying forms is the regularity of bay spacing and with furnishings and equipment.
variable until very late in the construction process. the absence of deep beams or spandrels.
Based on Richard D. Rush. AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
22 Building Systems-Tilt-up Wall
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Precast concrete panels (H}
Roof: Steel deck and open web steel Joists ICI
Floor: Slab on grade and concrete footing (JI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Load--bearing tilt-
up wall panels provide a unified vertical envelope. structure,
and interior. The panels are precast on-site. generally using
the floor slab or grade as the casting surface, and tilted or
lifted into position. The floor slab used as a form must be
level. smoothly finished. and treated with a bond-breaking
agent to permit easy separation of the cast pieces. The wall
panels, usually 6 in. in nominal thickness. may extend from
one to several stories in height, and must be designed to
withstand the bending loads involved in tilting and lifting, as
well as loads that will be encountered once in place. They
may be plain, reinforced, or prestressed and are often pro-
vided with temporary timber or steel "strongbacks" for tilt-
ing, particularly when there are large window openings.
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B); skylights
(AI
Walls: Precast concrete panels (H); window assembly
(GI; dampproofing and protective board (E)
Floor: Concrete slab (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Joints between
panels should be designed to be concealed; this is easily
accomplished where cast-in-place columns are designed to
lap the panel edges, or where the panels insert at their
edges into a precast column channel. Connections
between panels should not be rigid, so caulks and sealants
are important.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ductwork in open-web bar joists IG); radiant
heat panels in suspended ceiling lEI
Electrical: Fluorescent light fixtures (F)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the slab
on which the panels are cast must be smooth, utility race-
ways. pipes, and conduits that will penetrate the slabs
must be stubbed below the finish slab level, covered during
wall panel casting. and then uncovered for final connec-
tions.
INTERIOR
TILT-UP WALL
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (K)
Floors: Resilient tile flooring (I) duced virtually anywhere, with meshed interior and ponents are often averted. Because most of the forming
Walls: Precast concrete panels (H) mechanical systems provided by a ceitinq-rnounted radiant and erection work is done within the floor slab area, tilt-up
heat panel. systems work well in confined construction sites.
Lighting: Skylights (AI and fluorescent light fixtures (FI
Conservation of time and forming material is realized when
Principal advantages and characteristics: The site-east pan- SYSTEM SUMMARY there is uniformity in panel design and when the floor sur-
els are the load--bearing elements for the roof members and face can be used for forming. Careful planning of the form-
provide both interior and exterior finish. The building shell Tilt-up walls have been used routinely in a variety of build- ing, storage, and lifting sequence is essential, and early
can be erected quickly, permitting interior work to proceed ing types and heights, especially for single-story buildinqs consultation with manufacturers and contractors is advis-
along with final joining and sealing of the envelope panels. with large, uncomplicated exteriors. The system is also able. Regular inspection of casting and lifting operations is
increasingly used for multistory lowrise projects. Significant
essential.
The clear spans produced by the bar joist roof structure and savings in time and formwork costs can be achieved. and
option for hung ceiling allow interior partitions to be intro- long lead times required for precast or structural steel com-
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Bui/ding Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Laminated Wood Post and Beam 23
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Heavy glued laminated wood beams (Hl; exposed
wood frame and plywood sheathing (J)
Roof: Plywood sheathing and wood roof, tongue-and-
groove wood decking (C)
Floors' Slab on grade and concrete foundation (N)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Standing seam roof, roofing felt. and rigid insula-
tion (B)
Walls; Wood siding (G); window assembly (F)
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts, supply and return system (D)
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
24 Building Systems-Lightweight Mobile Modular
STRUCTURAL
Frame" Wood frame and sheathing (J)
Roof: Glued laminated beams and wood deck (C)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Sheet metal roofing and metal cap flashing (8)
Walls: Aluminum siding (I) and batt Insulation ID)
Floor: Vapor barrier (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Openings in the
envelope for doors and windows may present difficulty in
mating units, due to differential movement of the units,
which are normally placed on separate and tess-than-per-
manent foundations. Entrance doors, for example, should
not span between unit mating lines, even when the installa-
tion is not considered temporary. Exterior siding can be
held back from the mating lines between units and then
field-instal'ed to span the joint lines. This technique
improves visual integration and also helps tie units together
structurally. At the roof, special curb caps are available or
may be field-fabricated to span across low parapets on
mated units. If a complex must mate some units at all four
sides, mechanical system plants may be root-mounted.
Modular units are normally tied down by cable and earth-
embedded anchors.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Rooftop unit (A) and Insulated ducts lEI
Electrical: Electric baseboard heaters III
Plumbing: Factory installed. hooked up on site (I)
Fire safety: Fire sprinklers and fire/security systems may be
factory installed
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wiring and plumb-
ing, installed at the factory, are easily hooked up at the des-
tination site. Nearly all system components are installed at
the factory, including heating, cooling, and ventilation
equipment. Site grading, foundation work, connection of
utilities and services, landscaping, and interconnection of
the modular units are the only on-site activities required.
Mechanical systems are meshed within voids in the struc-
ture and envelope assembly and are basically self-con-
tained within each unit; even when plans call for the linking
together of units to form a complex, mechanical and electri-
cal systems for the individual units remain independent. For
occupancies that require substantial interior partitioning,
HVAC supply and return registers should be planned for
high wallor ceiling locations.
INTERIOR
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (F)
Walls: Drywall (K); window assembly (H)
Floors: Resilient flooring (M)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures in ceiling (Gl and natural
LIGHTWEIGHT MOBILE MODULAR
light
Modular units can almost always be combined. Door open
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Principal advantages and characteristics: An interesting ings should not be placed at the mating lines between mod
aspect of these low-cost buildings is that except for base- Lightweight mobile modular buildings consist of factory fab- ules; such placement requires field installation of the door-
board-mounted electric heat panels, there are no exposed ricated wooden structures. Although both smaller and and may result later in binding of the door due to differentia
structural or mechanical elements. The result is maximum larger dimensions are available, the most common size is movements between the mated modules. When plannm;
interior flexibility. 12 ft x 60 ft. Speeds of construction and low initial cost are the complex, the manufacturer should be apprised of the
the main advantages of mobile modules. On-site labor location of utilities and services on the site: any local build
Ordinarily floor plans are based on the relatively narrow requirements are minimal. Where weather, labor, or site ing code requirements that differ from major codes: anc
dimension of the module and require great care In planning problems affect other options, or for emergency or tempo- handicapped access needs. Distance of the site from the
for interior layouts, although it is possible to obtain large rary use, mobile modulars are often the appropriate solu- manufacturing plant is a major cost factor, and any cornph
clear-spanned floor areas. Claddings, exterior and interior tion. Mobile modular use has increased significantly in cations in shipping should be investigated
wall finishes, door and window types, floor finishes, and areas of rapid growth and development, especially in areas
envelope thermal insulation levels can be specified to with large influxes of temporary population. Modules can
order. be easily moved, even when assembled as a complex.
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Space Frames 25
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Metal space frame (B)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (A)
Walls: Brick veneer and rigid insulation (G)
Floor: Vapor barrier (J)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structure and
envelope are connected in this example, with the exposed I
nature of the space frame requiring a high degree of visible .
integration between the frame's structural components and
parts of the mechanical system. The space frame permits
very long column-free spans with minimal amounts of
structural material. The visual properties can be destroyed if
the frame is coated for fire protection and in many cases
coating can be forgone if the frame is placed 20 ft or more
above floor level.
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts suspended from hubs of the frame IC)
Electrical: Electrical conduits (C)
Fire safety: Sprinkler piping IC)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the
space frame is a highly regular structure and is exposed to
view in most applications, the coordination of service sys-
tems with patterns in the frame is essential for visible inte-
gration. Piping can be suspended from the hubs of the
frame, but should correspond to the patterns of the frame.
Utility runs generally follow the orthogonal grid, while the
sprinkling apparatus and electrical conduits may be run
diagonally. Fireproofing of space frames generally destroys
their appearance, so sprinkling is usually a consideration SPACE FRAME
unless the exposed frame is 20 ft or more above floor level.
INTERIOR frame serve to join the struts and can also accommodate Typical applications include spans above entries, sports are-
mountings for the envelope system and various types of nas, and convention centers.
Ceilings: Metal deck (8) interior equipment.
Floors: Wood flooring IH)
The selection of a space frame module is governed by the
Walls: Glass block panel (E) and concrete masonry SYSTEM SUMMARY integration of cladding systems, the spanning characteris-
bearing wall (F) tics of deckings, and the mullion spacing for glazings. A
The triangulated space frame network is one of the strong- space frame may be enclosed with metal decking, glass,
Lighting: Incandescent light fixtures 10) est and most efficient structural configurations, permitting acrylic, membrane, or insulated paneling. Space frames
long column-free spans with lightweight, highly repetitive must usually be engineered and fabricated by a specialty
Principal advantages and characteristics: The ceiling unifies elements. Slender structural members make space frames engineer and/or fabricator, although strut sections and hubs
interior and structural systems, and meshes them with uni- advantageous in cases where high light permeability is generally do not need to be specially designed for each
fied mechanical and interior systems. The solid hubs in the sought, yet significant live structural loading may occur. application
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems Integra~on Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
26 Building Systems-Metal Building Systems
STRUCTURAL
Frame" Rigid steel frame (C)
Roof: Standing seam metal roof (8); batt insulation (0)
ENVELOPE
Roof: Standing seam metal roof IB)
Walls: Window assembly IH); insulated metal wall panels
(I)
MECHANICAL
HVAC: Ducts and diHusers IE); heat pump IJ); ridge
vent IA)
Plumbing: Stacks in roofing panels and seams
Principal advantages and characteristics: Although the
structural and envelope systems of metal buildings are usu-
ally highly integrated, manufacturers rarely consider the
mechanical and interior systems in any detail. When insulat-
ing metal sandwich panels are used for interior and exterior
finishes, special care is required in detailing the power and
signal wiring, and in providing for its protection once in
place. The mechanical plant shown in this drawing is
located on the ground adjacent to the building, but it could
just as easily be roof mounted.
The standing seam metal roof presents several items of METAL BUILDING SYSTEMS
concern to architects: the modularity of roof panels and
seams, important for locating plumbing stacks, skylights,
often associated with ..standard." buildings components induding the preparation of fabrication and subsystem eng
and other roof apertures; proper expansion details at inter-
sections with flashing, especially upper-roof ridge; and the and even "standard" buildings, the metal buildings sys- nearing documents.
critical importance of crickets, parapet caps, and other tems industry is able to respond to highly specialized
needs, while still employing standardized structural compo- The pre-engineered, cold-formed steel componentry is ver
details to avoid buildup of standing water.
nents and factory fabrication. flexible and can be used for a wide variety of buildin.
shapes and sizes. Such buildings can be rapidly dismantle
and moved. The rectilinear nature of such systems usuall
INTERIOR results in buildings that are easily expanded in the longe
SYSTEM SUMMARY
Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (G) dimension. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed I
A variety of exterior cladding alternatives is available, rang- the ceilings, but the mechanical plant (here shown on the
Floors: Carpet IK) ing from lightweight corrugated metal skins to fully insu- ground adjacent to the building, but just as easily roof
lated sandwich panels that provide both interior and mounted) is normally kept on the exterior, sometimes pre
Walls: Insulated metal wall panels II) exterior finishes. Manufacturers also otter door, window, senting difficulty with visible integration.
and skylight components that work as integral elements of
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures (F) and natural light
the envelope and interior systems. Centralization of respon-
Principal advantages and characteristics: This construction sibility for engineering, fabrication, and construction per- Metal systems are very lightweight. In areas subject to
approach is particularly advantageous for applications mits close cost control and early assessment of building winds, special care should be taken for wind bracing
requiring large interior clear-spans, the support of heavy costs. Architects working with pre-engineered building sys- structural frame and for fastening and design of exteric
overhead cranes, or substantial expanses of roof. More tems can rely on technical support from the manufacturer, cladding details. Building corners and edges are particular!-
subject to wind-induced uplifting and suction.
Based on Richard D Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Building Systems-Tension Fabric Structures 27
STRUCTURAL
Frame: Steel cables in fabric sleeves (A); steel masts (e)
ENVELOPE
Walls and roof: Noncombustible fabric membrane (8)
Floor: Vapor barrier (G)
MECHANICAL
Electrical: Lighting fixtures, receptacles, and sound sys-
tem mounted on columns and masts (0)
Fire safety: Noncombustible or fire-retardant fabric mem-
brane (B)
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
28 Floor Structure Assemblies
~WOOO
_J~L __ . ~_~CEILING
WOOD JOIST
2x 6, 8,10,
JOiST and 12
WOOD
TRUSS
PLYWOOD
OR
! F P L Y W O O D SUBFLOOR
PLYWOOD JOIST
(OR WOOD TRUSS)
13-21 Plywood joists
12,14,16,18,
and 20
6-12 )-40 12-30 Deflection
JOIST -----------~CEtLING
~---
LAMINATED
WOOD ~WOODPLANK 8-22 Nominal plank 6-20 0-40 8-34 -
BEAM GLUE LAMINATED 2,3, and 4
AND WOOD BEAM
-
PLANK
--
I ~
STEEL
-- ~ :-::~O~AI~~:-LOOR 931 Steel joists 820 0-40 16-40 Deflection
JOIST
8-30
STEEL JOIST
- -- -- -....-CEILING
<.•.:.::.._..•. ,.•.. ~:._·,..-;_.4_::.-:o/;:;..ot-CONCRETE SLAB
11 75 Steel joists 30-110 )-100 16-60 Deflection
~
STEEL ST E E L CENTERING 8-72 (up to 130)
JOIST
STEEL JOIST
_ ~CEILrNG
PRECAST
~~,··.······~~~~ARSETT~;~~:~~~ 6-12 Concrete plank
16-48 W
40-75 0-150 Up to 60
Generally
Deflection
and creep
CONCRETE .,-; PLANK
;0..' CONCRETE BEAM
4-12 D below 35
COMPOSITE
>__". '.I'
~:;t;: ~WELDED STUD
s-CONCRETE SLAB
{SHEAR CONNECTOR}
4-6 35-70 ,0-200 Up to 35 Deflection
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. LeWIS, FAIA & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Floor Structure Assemblies 29
BAY SIZE
REQUIRES
FINISHED
REQUIRES
FINISHED
\ COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE 1
_.--------!.2...~UND~A":l~~ISSl~ ____
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER
CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
CONSTRue·
TlON TYPE
I
I
UNPRO- MAXIMUM
CHARAC- FLOOR CEILING SERVICE TECTED PROTECTED CLASSIFI·
TERISTICS SURFACE SU~FACE PLENUM IMPACT AIRBORNE HOURS HOURS CATION I REMARKS
Light joists No Visual or Between Poor Fair - 1-3 1, 2 and 3 Economical system,
16" to 30" o.c. fire joists selective partition place-
Heavy joists protection -two ways ment required. Canti-
4'-12' o,c. purposes levers difficult
L S 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Suitable for concen-
structure trated loads, easy parti-
tion placement
L:S 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 For heavy loads,
structure columns should be
equidistant. Not good
for cantilevers
L$.1.33W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Drop panels against
structure shear required for spans
above 12 ft
- Optional Visual Between Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Most widely used pre-
purposes; ribs stressed concrete
differential -one way product in the medium
camber span range
- Optional Visual Between Fair GOOd 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Easy construction, lack
purposes; ribs continuity, poor earth-
differential -one way quake resistance
camber
L -& 1.33 W No No Under Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Uniform slab thickness,
structure economical to form,
easy to cantilever
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
30 RoofStructure Assemblies
STEEL DECK
f'ot PURLIN
Varies 1525 1060 100 200 Deflection
STEEL
TRUSS
STEEL TRUSS
~
STEEL ST E E L 8-72 16"-30" o.c.
..JOIST CENTERING
Heavy joists
STEEL ..JOIST
----- ---.....,..- CEILING 4'-12' o.c.
P LY W O O D DECK 10-32 Steel joists 820 10-50 Up to 96 Light joists Deflection
STEEL
.JOIST
_____
E§ _ __ ~
WOOD NAILER
STEEL ..JOIST
CEILING
8-30 16"-30" o.c.
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c.
~
STEEL ST E E L DEC K 8-72
.JOIST STEEL .JOIST
___ _ __ ~ C E I L I N G
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
RoofStructure Assemblies 31
Yes For visual Between low Poor Fair - 2 46 (A) Truss depth to span
or fire trusses (combustible) 3C (6) ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 10
protection
purposes
Yes For visual Between low Fair Fair - 1-4 l,2,and3 Truss depth to span
Pitched trusses or fire trusses ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 15
usually used protection
for short spans purposes
Yes For visual Under High Fair Fair - 1-4 l,2,and3 Easy to design;
or fire structure quick erection
protection
purposes
Yes No Under High Fair Fair 2-4 3-4 1 and 2 Provides finished
structure flush ceiling.
May be used with any
framing system
Yes For visual Between High Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Generally used for
or fire ribs long spans
protection -one way
purposes
Yes For visual Between High Fair Good 2-3 3-4 1 and 2 Most widely used
or fire ribs prestressed concrete
protection -one way element.
purposes
No No Under High Good Good 1-4 3-4 1 and 2 Suitable for heavy
structure roof loads
BUILDING SYSTEMS
32 Exterior Wall Assemblies
~C.M.U.
C.M. U. {GRAVEL 8 55 Up to 13 Good None 0.56
AGGREGATE) 12 85 Up to 20 0.49
;:'"
------+--------------------t-------+------!-------12
'§
C.M,U. 8+ 60 Up to 13 s: Good Through 0.21
I I NSULATED I
12 + 90 Up to 20 -o insulation 0.20
fii
C. M. U . BRICK. VENEER 4+4+ 75 Good Through 0.19
AND C,M.U insulation
BRICK
~ii!!I!!!\lii!!\liili!!1i~~
. .INSULATION
4+8+ 100 0.18
VENEER
I INSULATED) ~ ~ INT. WALL FIN.
ST UC C O
OE
C.M,U.
C.M. U. 8+ 67 Up to 13 Good Through 0.16
AND
STUCCO interior
INSULATION
(INSULATED J insulation
INT. WALL FIN.
~
E X T. WALL F"IN.
~~~:T.r~NG WITH MOISTURE 4 12 Up to 14 Poor to fair Between 0.06
WOOD
STUD ~ ~ ~~~AT~~~O
BARRIER
WITH VAPOR
6 16 Up to 20
(LId';; 50)
studs 0.04
INT. WALL FIN
CONCRETE
AND 4+8+ 112 Up to 13 Excellent Through 0.13
BRICK (w/rein!. 17) insulation
VENEER
(INSULATED I
PRECAST .-".~" ...• , •..-., CONCRETE IREINFORCEpJ 2+ 23 Up to 6 Fair to good Through 0.99
CONCRETE ( ! ,INSULATiON 4+ 46 Up to 12 insulation 0.85
INT. WALL FINISH
..........-
PRECAST
CONCRETE 5 45 Up to 14 Fair to good None 0.14
SANDWICH
DOUBLE
GLAZING z:r : : : GLASS
CAVITY
'1_ 6.4 Four side supported 55 SF @30 PSF
Heat strengthened
28 SF @60 PSF
70 SF @80 PSF
Reflective
0.44
Clearltinted
0.5-0.6
Reflective
30 SF @ 200 PSF 0.3-0.6
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect Roger K. Lewis. FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Exterior Wall Assemblies 33
RESIST ANCE TO
I
FIRE RESISTIVE
RATING PER
CODE AND CONSTRUCTION
SUBCONTRAC-
TORS REQUIRED EXTERIOR
EXTERIOR-AIRBORNE HAZARD UNDERWRITERS TYPE FOR ERECTION MAINTENANCE
CLASSIFICATION (FIRE) (HRSI CLASSIFICATION lPLUS FINISHESl REQUIREMENTS REMARKS
SOUND TRANSMISSION
Fair to good Classification provides data in 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, re- Properties of non-engineered masonry
regard to (1) flame spread, (2) fuel 4 pointing joints, are drastically reduced
contributed, and (3) smoke devet- painting, sand
oped during fire exposure of mate- blasting
rials in comparison to asbestos-
Fair to good cement boards as zero and untreated 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, re-
red oak lumber as 100 when exposed 4 Carpentry pointing joints.
to fire under similar conditions Drywall painting, sand
FUEL
blasting
CON- SMOKE
Excellent FLAME TRIB- DEVEL- 3-4 l,2,and3 Masonry Washing, re-
OPED 4 Carpentry pointing joints,
~ UTED
Drywall sand blasting
Paint on CMU
5-25 0-5 0-10
Excellent Gypsum board surfaced on both 4 l,2,and3 Masonry Washing, re- Cavity increases heat storage capacity
sides with paper Drywall pointing joints, and resistance to rain penetration
15 15 0 (Carpentry) sand blasting
Good Gypsum board surfaeed on both 2-4 1,2, and 3 Masonry Washing, paint- The assembly is reversed for optimum
sides with paper, vinyl faced Drywall ing, and re- energy conservation
25-35 0-10 15-45 Lath and plaste r stuccoing
(Carpentry)
Poor to fair Untreated wood particle board 1 4 Carpentry Washing, paint- Exterior wall finishes:
180 75 190 (combustible) Drywall ing, and replac- • wood, plywood,
(Lath and ing exterior • aluminum siding
plaster) finish • stucco
Good to excellent Treated wood particle board with 1-2 3B,C Masonry Washing, re-
untreated wood face veneer (combustible) Carpentry pointing joints,
25-180 10-160 10-250 Drywall sand blasting
Poor to fair Vermiculite acoustical plaster 1-2 1 Carpentry Washing, paint- Exterior wall finishes:
10-20 10-20 0 (nonbearing) Drywall ing, and replac- • wood, plywood,
2 and 3 (Lath and ing exterior • aluminum siding
plaster) finish • stucco
Good to excellent Glass fiber batts and blankets (basic) 1-2 1 Masonry Washing, re-
20 15 20 (nonbearingl Carpentry pointing joints,
2 and 3 Drywall sand blasting
(foil kraft faced)
25 0 0
Poor to good; See See Curtain walls Washing, steam Temperature change critical
see manufacturers' manufacturers' manufacturers -erection cleaning, paint- Minimize metal through connections
Treated lumber
literature literature literature ing, replacing
(Douglas fir)
joint sealers
15 10 0-5
Good- (Hemlock) 4 l,2,and3 Concrete work Washing, sand Concrete walls have very high heat
10-15 5-1s1 0 4 blasting storage capacity
Poor to fair B 26-75 0-450 lA Curtain walls Washing, sand Large size economical (fewer joints)
C 76-200 0-450 1-3 (nonbearing) -erection blasting, re- units available with various finishes
For lesser classifications, permitted 1B, 2, and 3 Drywall placing joint
in residential construction only, (Carpentry) sealers
refer to regulating agency guidelines
Fair 1-3 lA Curtain walls Washing, sand 8' x 20' max. size for concrete sand-
(ncnbearinq) -erection blasting, re- wich panels
lB, 2, and 3 placing joint Plant quality control is very essential
sealers
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis. FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
34 Selected Floor loads
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY Residential IMPACT LOADS
DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS Multifamily houses
Private apartments 40 The live loads shall be assumed to include adequate altov,
LIVE ance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be
Public rooms 100
LOAD made in structural design for uses and loads that involve
OCCUPANCY OR USE (PSF) Corridors 80
Dwellings unusual vibration and impact forces.
Armories and drill rooms 150 First floor 40
ELEVATORS: All elevator loads shall be increased 100'Ye
Assembly halls and other places of assembly' Second floor and habitable attics 30
for impact, and the structural supports shall be designed
Fixed seats 50 Inhabitable attics 20
within limits of deflection prescribed by American
Movable seats ioo Hotels
National Standard Safety Code for elevators and escala-
Platforms lassembly) roo Guest rooms 40
tors, All.1 ~ 1981, and American National Standard Prac-
Public rooms 100
Attics tice for the Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and
Corridors serving public rooms 100
Nonstorage 10 Movinq Walks (Inspector's Manuall A17.2 - 1979.
Storage 30' Rest rooms and toilet rooms 40
2. MACHINERY: For the purpose of design, the weight of
Bakeries 150 Schools machinery and moving loads shall be increased as fol
Classrooms 40 lows to allow for impact:
Balconies
Corridors 80 a Elevator machinery, 100%.
Exterior 60
Interior (fixed seats) 50 Sidewalks. vehicular driveways, and yards sub- 250 b. Light machinery, shaft or motor driven, 20%.
Interior (movable seats) ioo ject to trucking
c. Reciprocating machinery or power driven units, 50%
Bowling Alleys. poolrooms, and similar recre- Skating rinks 100
d. Hangers for floors or balconies, 33%.
ational areas 75 Stairs and exit-ways 100
All percentages to be increased if so recommended by
Broadcasting studios roo Storage warehouses the manufacturer.
Catwalks 25 Light 125 3. CRANEWAYS: All craneways, except those using only
H~vy ~O
Cold storage rooms manually powered cranes, shall have their design loads
Hay or grain 300 increased for impact as follows:
Floor 150
Roof 250 Stores a. A vertical force equal to 25% of the maximum wheel
Retail load.
Corridors First floor, rooms 75
First floor ioo Upper floors 75
b. A lateral force equal to 20% of the weight of trolley
Other floors. same as occupancy served Wholesale 100 and lifted load only, applied one - half at the top of
except as indicated each rail.
Telephone exchange rooms 150 2
Dance halls and ballrooms ioo c. A longitudinal force of 10% of the maximum wheel
Theaters loads of the crane applied at top of rail.
Dining rooms and restaurants too Aisles, corridors, and lobbies 100 4. PARKING GARAGE GUARDRAILS: Guardrails and walls
Dormitories Orchestra floors 50 acting as impact rails in parking structures shall be
Nonpartitioned 80 Balconies 50 designed for a minimum horizontal ultimate load of
Partitioned 40 Stage floors 150 10,000 Ib applied 18 in. above the floor at any point of the
File rooms Dressing rooms 40
guardrail.
Card 125' Grid iron floor or fly gallery grating 75
Letter 80' Projection room 100
High-density storage 150' Transformer rooms 200 2 MINIMUM ROOF LOADS
Fire escapes on multifamily or single family res- roo Vaults, in offices 250 1
1. FLAT, PITCHED, OR CURVED ROOFS: Ordinary roofs -
idential buildings only flat. pitched, or curved - shall be designed for the live
Yards and terraces, pedestrians 100
Foundries 600' loads or the snow load, whichever produces the greater
Fuel rooms, framed 400' NOTES stress.
Garages (passenger cars only). For trucks and 50 1. Increase when occupancy exceeds this amount. 2. PONDING: For roofs, care shall be taken to provide drain-
buses use AASH03lane load age or the load shall be increased to represent all likely
2. Use weight of actual equipment when greater. accumulations of water. Deflection of roof members will
Grandstands roo- 3. American Association of State Highway Officials permit pondinq of water accompanied by increased
Greenhouses 150 4. Paper storage 50 Ib/ft of clear story height. deflection and additional ponding.
Gymnasiums, main floor and balconies ioo 5. Verify with design criteria. 3. SPECIAL PURPOSE ROOFS: When used for promenade
purposes, roofs shall be designed for a maximum live
Hospitals 6. Additional loads-120 Ib~inear It vertical. 24 Iblft parallel
load of 60 psf; 100 pst when designed for roof garden or
Operating rooms and laboratories 60 lateral, and 10 Ib/ft perpendicular to seat and footboards.
assembly uses. Roofs used for other special purposes
Private rooms 40 shall be designed for appropriate loads, as directed or
Wards 40
approved by the building official.
Corridors, above first floor 80
Hotels (see residential) LIVE LOAD
Kitchens, other than domestic 150 2 Live load is the weight superimposed by the use and occu- LIVE LOAD REDUCTION
Laboratories, scientific roo pancy of the building or other structure, not including the In general, design live loads should not be in excess of 100
wind, snow, earthquake, or dead load. psf on any member, supporting an area of 150 sq ft or
Laundries 150'
more, except for places of public assembly, repair garages.
Libraries The live loads to be assumed in the design of buildings and parking structures, and roofs. The reduction shall not
Reading rooms 60 other structures shall be the greatest loads that probably exceed the value of R from the following formulas:
Stack rooms (books and shelving at will be produced by the intended use or occupancy, but in
65 pef) but not less than indicated 150 no case less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit R ~.081A-1 501
Corridors, above first floor 80 load. R = 2311+D/U
Manufacturing where R =reduction (%)
Light 75 o=dead load per square foot of area supported
Heavy 125 THRUSTS AND HANDRAILS by the member
Ice 300 Stairway and balcony railing, both exterior and interior. shall L =live load per square foot of area supported
Marquees 75 be designed to resist a vertical and a horizontal thrust of 50 by the member
Ibllinear ft applied at the top of the railing. For one- and two- A =area supported by the member
Morgues 125
family dwellings, a thrust of 20 Ib~inear It may be used In no case should the reduction exceed 60% for vertical
Office buildings instead of 50. members, nor 40 to 60% for horizontal members.
Office 50
Business machine equipment ioo- For live loads in excess of 100 pst, some codes allow a live
Lobbies roo CONCENTRATED LOADS load reduction of 20% for columns only.
Corridors, above first floor 80
File and computer rooms require heavier Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly dis-
loads based on anticipated occupancy tributed live load or the concentrated load in pounds given,
whichever produces the greater stresses. Unless other-
CODES AND STANDARDS
Penal Institutions
wise specified. the indicated concentration shall be The applicable building code should be referred to for spe-
Cell blocks 40
assumed to occupy an area of 2 1/ 2 sq ft (6.26 ft 2 ) and shall cific uniformly distributed live loads, movable partition load,
Corridors ioo be located so as to produce the maximum stress conditions special and concentrated load requirements.
Printing plants in the structural members.
Composing rooms ioo In addition to specific code requirements, the designer
Linotype rooms ioo must consider the effects of special loading conditions,
Paper storage rooms PARTIAL LOADING such as moving loads, construction loads, roof top planting
Pressrooms 150' loads and concentrated loads from supported or hanging
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live loads
Public rooms roo applied only to a portion of the length of a structure or
equipment (radiology, computer. heavy filing, or mechanical
member shall be considered if it produces a more unfavor- equipment)
able effect than the same intensity applied over the full
The live loads given in this table are obtained by reference
length of the structure or member
to ASCE, UBC, BOCA, and SBCCI.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Long Span and Tensile Structures 35
Steel
·· ·
· ·
20 - 24
16 - 22
p.q.s a.b.f.q
a.b.f.q.rn.t
NATURAL CONDITIONS
· · -- -
16 - 20 a.b.t m
· ·
a. Uneven or excessive snow and ice loads: Geometry,
equipment, or exterior structure may contribute to snow Wood
· 9-12 a.b.t.q
drifting or ice buildup.
b. Ponding: Provide positive drainage to remove water from · · -I-'-
- 9 - 12 b.f
the structure when roof drains clog.
c. Wind: Evaluate potential of wind induced destructive
Space
frame
Steel
· · 16 - 20 I a.b.i.jm.n.
p.q.s.u
vibration in members or connections.
d. Thermal: Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles can
cause significant changes in structural shape and mem-
Stressed
skin
Steel
· · 14-18 I a,b,i,j,m,n,
p.q.s.u
· ·
PRIMARY STRESSES
Rigid Steel 20-24 a.b I
f. Two or more load paths lor all loads should be provided
· · --
frame
wherever possible. The greater the area a single member Wood 18- 22 I
·
supports, the greater should be its safety factor.
g. Compression failure: Resistance to lateral buckling of
long members is crucial. Use members that assure initial
and verifiable alignment.
Prestressed
concrete · 24-28 I
SECONDARY STRESSES
Folded
plate
Steel
Wood
·
·
·
· --
18- 22
12 - 16
b
b
a.f.rn
a.f.m
· ·
i. Deflection: Changes in orientation of members at joints
from loads can increase stresses destructively. Concrete
-- r- 10-14 b a.f.l.rn
Member interaction: Load flows through structures in
such a way as to minimize strength. Check all possible
load paths of complex geometric structures.
Cylindric
shell
Concrete
· · -- 10- 14 b a,l,m,o
· ·
materials are particularly sensitive.
Geodesic 2-5 a.b.c.f.q d.n.r
TOLERANCES dome
· ·
p. Supports and foundations: Supports must accept move-
ments due to deflections from primary and secondary Concrete 5-8 b,c,l,g a.d.l,o
stresses and differential foundation settlement.
Pneumatics Steel
· · 4-7 d a.b.c.e
QUALITY CONTROL Cabke Parallel
· · 8-16 d a.b.c.f
q. Engineering design must not be compromised by time,
scheduling, design changes, or building codes. Comput-
Radial
· · 6- 12 d a.b.c.f
erized design must be carefully verified to resolve all pri-
mary and secondary stresses.
Hyperbolic
· · 4-8 b.d.f a,c
BUILDING SYSTEMS
36 Composite Structural Elements
EMBOSSMENTS PROVIDE
KEYING EFFECT FOR
COMPOSITE ACTION
SHEAR STUDS
WELDED TO
STEEL BEAM
BOTTO~
PLATE FORMS
TRANSFER
SHEAR
CELLS FOR BETWEEN
WIRING CONCRETE
AND STEEL
CROSS WIRES WELDED TO DECK
BEAM
(OPTIONAL KEY DETAIL) ----------
CONCRETE TOPPED STEEL DECK STEEL BEAM WITH STUD IN CONCRETE SLAB
STEEL TUBE
CONCRETE FILL
UNDERLAYMENT
BONDS TO STEEL
TUBE __ --~ __ CONCRETE ENCASEMENT BONDS WEB MEMBERS
TO STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR
COMPOSITE ACTiON
STEEL-ENCASED CONCRETE
CONCRETE ENCASED STEEL COLUMNS WOOD AND STEEL JOISTS
<,
WOOD TOP CHORD
HOLES
CUT FOR WOOD POST
UTILITY
LINES STEEL BOTTOM
LIMITED CHORD
BY MFR.
SPECS. _ _+ _ ~
STRESS RATED
WOOD TOP AND
BOTTOM CHORD
(BUILT-UP OR
SOLiD WOOD)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Introduction to Seismic Design 37
A recent. significant change in the seismic codes is the
GENERAL SEISMIC CODES elimination of seismic zones as a basis for establishing
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust The seismic requirements in the Uniform Building Code design acceleration. Seismic maps have been redrawn
is divided into constantly moving plates. Earthquakes occur have historically been based on Recommended Lateral (completely for the first time since 1976) to show building
when, as a result of slowly accumulating pressure. the Force Requirements, generally referred to as "The Blue response periods as a percentage of gravity.
ground slips abruptly along a geological fault plane on or Book," an earthquake design manual developed by the
near a plate boundary. The resulting waves of vibration Structural Engineers Association of California. The seismic The map below, based on a building response period of 02
within the earth create ground motions at the surface. requirements in the National Building Code and the Stan- second, gives accelerations to be used for low buildings. A
which, in turn. induce movement within buildings. The fre~ dard Building Code are based on FEMA 222, the National similar map based on a building response of 1.0 second is
quency, magnitude. and duration of the ground motion. Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Recommended proposed for taller buildings. Before determining what level
physical characteristics of the building, and geology of a site Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings. Since of ground shaking applies to a project, an architect must
determine how these forces affect a building. the Blue Book and the NEHRP provisions incorporate the find out what type of earth the building will be built on. The
expertise of many of the same engineers, and since the maps are based on buildings built on soft rock, but ground
anticipated International Building Code will encourage con- motion increases as the soil becomes softer.
DESIGN JUDGMENT vergence of the requirements, the seismic code develop-
ment community intends to make the two codes similar.
In an earthquake, buildings designed to the minimum levels
required by model codes often sustain damage. Early dis-
TERMS
The following information is based on the requirements
cussions with an owner should explore the need to limit expected to appear in the 1997 NEHRP provisions and in The seismic community has an extensive set of terms with
property loss in an earthquake and the desirability of subsequent issues of all model codes. Detached one- and which to describe common conditions in the field. Follow-
attempting to ensure continued building operation immedi- two-family dwellings will be exempt from seismic regula- ing is a short list of these terms and their definitions:
ately afterward. To achieve these results, it may be neces- tions in areas other than those with high seismicity. Seis-
sary to make design decisions more carefully tuned to the mic codes are constantly evolving, and architects should BASE SHEAR (static analysis): calculated total shear force
seismic conditions of a site than code requires. always consult the relevant code before beginning a acting at the base of a structure, used in codes as a static
project. - representation of lateral earthquake forces; also referred to
as "equivalent lateral force."
LIQUEFACTION
-
¢ ODD
MAIN CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE
SUBSIDENCE
¢ ODD
¢
¢
ODD
(FREQUENCY
BASE SHEAR DRIFT
Mw-t MAGNITU::J
BASE SHEAR AND DRIFT
0.10 0.50 r-a 4 SEISMIC GROUND DRIFT: lateral deflection of a building or structure. Story
PERIOD OF BUILDING MOTION MOTION drift is the relative movement between adjacent floors.
NOTE
The relationship between the period of ground motion and I building may resonate and the loads will be increased. The-
DUCTILITY: the ability of a structural frame to bend but not
break. Its ductility is a major factor in establishing the ability
the period of building motion is of great importance. Funda- oretically, one part of the seismic design problem is to of a building to withstand large earthquakes. Ductile materi-
mental periods of motion in structures range from 0.1 sec- "tune" the building so that its own period of motion falls als (steel in particular) fail only after permanent deformation
ond for a one-story building to 4.0 seconds or more for a outside the estimated range of ground motion frequency. In has taken place. Good ductility requires special detailing of
high-rise building. Ground generally vibrates for a period of practice, this tuning is very seldom carried out. Rather, the joints.
between 0.5 and 1.0 second. If the period of ground motion architects rely on increased load effects required by the
and the natural period of motion in a building coincide, the applicable code to take care of the problem. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS: a structural analvsis based on the
vibration motion of a buildinq. Dynamic analysis is time-con-
FUNDAMENTAL PERIODS suming and normally reserved for complex projects.
OUT-OF-PLANE
FORCE DIAGRAMS
SEISMIC ACCELERATION FOR LOW BUILDINGS EXPRESSED RE-ENTRANT CORNER: The inside building corner of an L-,
AS A PERCENTAGE OF GRAVITY H-, X-, or T-shaped plan.
SEISMIC DESIGN
38 Site Design for Seismic Areas
GENERAL -- PROVIDE 25' MIN. SETBACK MODE OF
~'~'""
COLLAPSE
Each building and site lies within a broader context of ",ecOcec """
IDENTI.FIED FAULT TRACE
repiona! seismicity. localized geology, community. vulnera-
billty. and adjacent structures and land uses. Siting deci-
sions, therefore. can have a significant impact on the overall
seismic performance of a structure. This page focuses on
the following criteria for siting a building:
-t- BUILDING
SITE
r----D-.,Tr/--=f_~_~_PV_=i""~_1!,~"""'O"
Public rights-of-way
NOTE
Land uses should reflect the relative risk of the location.
DD DO
AVOID BUILDING AT TOES
OR DOWN SLOPE OF
ACTIVE LANDSLIDES
BATTERING FROM ADJACENT
BUILDINGS
EXISTING UNREINFORCED
SITE SECTION (BEFORE LIQUEFACTION) MASONRY BUILDINGS (URM)
BUILDING
-----~
AVOID BUILDING
ABOVE ACTIVE STREET AND PARCEL MAP-URM BLOCK
LANDSLIDES
NOTE
SiTE SECTION (AFTER EARTHQUAKE
On sloping sites, earthquakes can trigger landslides Also, AND LIQUEFACTION)
alluvium and unconsolidated soils can increase the violence
and duration of ground shaking. In areas of young soil
NOTE
deposits, design for greater ground shaking. For example,
during the 1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake, ground shaking in Avoid sites subject to liquefaction (water saturated sandy
San Francisco's marina district. on nonengineered fill, was soils), design foundation systems to withstand ground fail-
more than twice as violent and lasted more than twice as ure, drain water from the site, and change the composition
long as ground shaking on adjacent bedrock sites. of the soil and compact the site. REVITALIZED URM BLOCK
UNSTABLE SITES SUBSIDENCE OR LIQUEFACTION SAFE AREAS OF REFUGE IN
OLDER BUILDINGS
SEISMIC DESIGN
Building Configuration for Seismic Areas 39
LOAD PATHS
A load path is the path seismic forces take from the roof to
the foundation of a structure. Typically the load travels from
The seismic-resistant framing system selected for a struc-
ture must meet both architectural and seismic design
requirements. Although most buildings can be made seis-
mic resistant, some architectural configurations interrupt
SYMMETRICAL
~ RESiSTANCE
~
UNBALANCED
RESISTANCE
BUILDING
TWIST
n
I 1I: I r~J
the diaphragms through connections to the vertical lateral the load path or otherwise interfere with the seismic design
force-resisting elements and on to the foundation by way of process. Inappropriate design choices increase construc-
additional connections. This path should be direct and unin- tion cost and make the seismic restraint system less effec-
terrupted. Seismic design begins with, and codes require, tive. The examples on this page contrast configurations that
the establishment of a continuous load path. probably would cause problems in areas with high levels of
seismicity with variations that should avoid these problems.
FORCE
PREFERRED
U FORCE
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
The lateral force resisting system for a symmetrical building
LOWER FLOOR STRENGTH is much easier to design than that for an asymmetrical
MUST BE AT LEAST 80%
OF FLOOR ABOVE buildinq. Because the source of an earthquake cannot be
known, symmetry in both directions should be considered.
TORSION IN PLAN
PREFERRED DISCOURAGED
<O.15L
NOTE
PREFERRED PREFERRED This is a variation of the symmetry issue. When the notch
gets too big, the bulding tends to tear at the inside corner.
NOTE NOTE
RE-ENTRANT CORNERS
The base should not be too much larger than the tower While it is best to have uniform stiffness. some variation is
above. acceptable.
NOTE
While all floors do not have to be the same. it is important
I that no floor has too much more mass than those adjacent.
MASS IRREGULARITY
c=J c=J
c=J c::=J
PREFERRED DiSCOURAGED c=J c::=J
NOTE .> l7-~~~~~NED c::=J
Horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) can more readily
transfer earthquake loads to the vertical force resisting
DIAPHRAGM DJSCONTINUITIES
system when the size and number of holes in the dia-
phragm are limited.
PREFERRED
NOTE
n DISCOURAGED
o SHEAR
WALL
o
o WINDOW
o
PREFERRED DISCOURAGED
NOTE
Although both drawings illustrate shear walls in the same
PREFERRED DISCOURAGED plane, one arrangement is discouraged because the load
path is not direct enough.
SEISMIC DESIGN
40 Seismic Design-General
ESTABLISHING SEISMIC FORCES ANCHORAGE
--- GLASS
The equivalent lateral force procedure is the most common Anchors are either cast-in-place or drilled in after placern
method at establishing seismic design forces. In it. the of the concrete. When anchors can be precisely locat-
___ - DIAPHRAGM
seismic load, V (base shear), is determined by multiplying before the concrete is poured, cast-in-place anchors
the weight of the building by a factor Cs N=CsWl. The typically used. Post-installed anchors are usually emplov-
value of C$ depends on the size of the design earthquake. when anchor locations cannot be predetermined with au
the type of soil. and the response modification factor (a vari- racy. Spacing between anchors, the distance to the edqe
able corresponding to the type of lateral force resisting sys- the concrete, embedment depth, stiffness characteristic
tem used). This force is applied at the base of the structure and the type of loading (e.g., dead, live, dynamic, seisn
then distributed throughout the building according to the all must be considered. For structural elements that requi
mass and strength of the structure. seismic design, only anchors tested under dynamic load t
should be used. The preferred anchor types for seismic Pi'
forma nee include cast-in-place bolts and inserts. Acce»
DESIGN FOR RESISTING able post-installated anchors are undercut anchors, hea,
SEISMIC FORCES duty sleeve (torque-controlled expansion) anchors,
chemical anchors. .f-bolts and L-bolts cannot be counter:
Shear walls are load-bearing or non load-bearing walls that to resist much uplift.
resist seismic forces acting in the plane of the wall. Shear
wall design is simpler and more cost-effective than other
lateral force resisting systems; however, the architectural
design must be able to accommodate the locations of
these walls and the small number of openings they permit. SHEAR WALLS AND DIAPHRAGMS
j
forces to the vertical elements of a seismic resisting sys- UNDERCUT
tem. Diaphragms must be rigid enough and the connec- CONCRETE
BEFORE
tions strong enough to transfer the entire load to the lateral BOLT IS
force resisting system. I PLACED
THREADED
OVERTURNING AND SLIDING ROD
BUILDING FRAMES
Braced frames depend on diagonal braces to resist lateral
WASHER
forces. Although cost-effective, most braces limit the num- (OPTIONAL) ~
ber of openings possible in a wall, Eccentric bracing is a
_~NUT
configuration that allows for more openings than are nor- TRADITIONAL BRACED CONFIGURATIONS
(PREFERRED) -r-e--r-r- HEADED \
mally achievable. K-bracing used to be a common variation BOLT
of X-bracing, but it was discovered that the forces at the
intersection are very great, making the connection difficult. HEADED CAST-iN-PLACE ANCHORS
DDD
cost-effective for buildings in areas of high seismicity, bulle
COLUMN
ings that must have an irregular shape, large histor.
WELD
buildings, and buildings that must remain in operatro
(BEAM
DDD
immediately after an earthquake.
~DDD~
PERIMETER surrounding earth. This is normally accomplished by pos
CLOSURE tioning the building in a large scooped out area and can
necting it to the surrounding ground with flexible "bridges
~ ~BOLT
The base isolators are usually located in a sub-basemen
dedicated to their use.
CONNECTIONS
REFERENCES
AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research. Buildings i;j
WOOD CONNECTIONS Risk: Seismic Design Basics for Practicing Architects
Connections are an important element of the lateral force
resisting framing system. Wood connections come in a Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association
variety of types, many of which are not appropriate for seis- OUTER Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay
mic or wind loading conditions. End grain nailing performs STEEL in Panel Ceilings. 5700 Old Orchard Ad.. Skokie. IL 60077
SHIMS--t-_
poorly and should be avoided, and toe nailing as the sole
means of attachment is inadequate. Positive connections National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRpl
using appropriate fasteners are necessary to establish a LEAD Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for Nev.
continuous load path. Shear walls must be fastened PLUG --i"",,~'1 Buildings. t994 ed. Part 1. "Provisions" IFEMA-222A); part
securely to the foundation. Diaphragms should be properly . 2. "Cornrnentarv" IFEMA-223A).
attached to the lateral force resisting system. Connector '.- . .. - .
.
{
"
design and detailing should include proper use of connec- DOWEL HOLES BASEPLATE - - . Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existinc
tors to achieve required load capacity and code compliance. THROUGH WITH DOWELS Buildings IFEMA-178) and Handbook of Techniques for the
OUTER SHIM
Adequate size and placing of nails is necessary to minimize . MORTAR LEVELING Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA-172l.
splitting and optimize the load carrying ability of the frame. DETAIL PAD ON FOUNDATION
(See AGS pages on wood seismic design and structural - - . Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHAP Rec
wood fasteners for details.) BASE ISOLATION ommended Provisions IFEMA-99J.
SEISMIC DESIGN
Architectural and Mechanical Components for Seismic Design 41
GENERAL ADJUSTABLE LENGTH 12-GAUGE WIRES AT EACH
VERTICAL COMPRESSION CORNER OR AT LEAST AT
When detailing architectural and mechanical elements for STRUT TO PREVENT DIAGONALLY OPPOSITE
seismic resistance, the architect's primary concerns are to VERTICAL CORNERS; ANCHOR
MOVEMENT WIRE TO STRUCTURE
minimize falling hazards and to maintain a normal egress ABOVE (MINIMUM 3
route. Features such as masonry chimneys, parapets, light TIGHT TURNS IN 1 1/2"
fixtures, suspended mechanical equipment, large duct- AT EACH END OF WIRE)
work, and heavy pipes are potential falling hazards. Cabi-
nets and bookcases can block exits if they fall. An additional
concern for architects designing for earthquake-prone areas
is the need for a building to remain in operation after an
earthquake.
gr
SEISMIC USE GROUP
3 /8 " FOR LOW TO
VALUE OF SaS I II III MODERATE SEISMIC
(3 / 4" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
5 aS s 0.167 9 A A A
7
/8 " FOR LOW TO
0.167 9 ~ 5 aS < 0.33 9 B B C MODERATE SEISMIC
0.33 9 s 5 aS < 0.50 9 C C D (2" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
""
0.50 9 ~ 5 aS <1.0 9
1.0g,;5a5
D
E
D
E
D
F
WALL ATTACHMENT DETAIL
NOTE
""
NOTES For ceiling grids, pull-out capacity at the joints is a key to Ii
good seismic performance. Vertical (compression) struts
1. g-weight of object being analyzed; 5. s- spect ral prevent failure from wave-like or galloping motion. Solu-
response acceleration tions for all levels of seismic activity are addressed in the
2. Seismic use group classification is assigned to each Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association
building depending on the importance of maintaining standards. . 4
H
:i; DISTANCE
function or protecting occupant safety. Buildings in sets- FROM WALL
mic use group 111 are those that are required to function CEILING DETAILS FOR SEISMIC AREAS
for post earthquake recovery. Seismic use group II build- FLEXIBLE GAS
ings are buildings with relatively large occupant loads. CONNECTION
LIGHT FIXTURES
Any remaining buildings fall into group l. The level of
seismic -detailing is expressed by letters A through F and I There are two ways to handle light fixtures that could shake
free from the ceiling grid and create a falling hazard. One is
3 / " X 24-GAUGE
4
PLUMBER'S TAPE
is based on the relationship between the seismic use .
group and the level of design ground motion. This level to suspend the light fixture from the structure above with NOTE
of detailing is known as the seismic design category. two to four wires (if two wires, they should be in opposite
corners). The second method (not used in areas with high Fill space between water heater and wall with 2x blocking
seismicity) is to brace the ceiling and clip the light fixtures with cushioned face.
to the grid. Pendant-mounted fixtures should be designed WATER HEATER SEISMIC
so they cannot swing and hit other building components. REINFORCING
l
SUDE AT TOP
age, When cladding is anchored to the structural frame, increases with the occupancy density and the height of the
BUT RESTRAINS consideration must be given to how movement of the equipment. Fixtures should be bolted onto heavy-gauge
. IT FROM LATERAL frame will affect movement in the cladding. A major con- studs above their center of gravity.
MOVEMENT cern is the difference in movement between floors and/or
floor and roof (story drift). which is addressed with connec-
SEALANT REQUIRED tions that permit the cladding to move independently of the ELEVATORS
FOR ACOUSTIC structural frame. Commonly used are push-pull connec-
ISOLATiON
tions, caulked joints, slip joints, and covers that collapse. Traction elevators cause the most concern in regard to seis-
mic activity. The main problem is that the counterweights
_-.LL~!\~---.l-.L':::::----METAL OR may come loose and strike the cab. Current elevator stan-
WOOD STUD dards address this problem, but older elevators may need
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS to be upgraded.
FASTEN
To brace sprinkler systems, architects must address three
BASE TO
STRUCTURE main problems: the falling hazard of heavy mains, separa-
tion of the mains at the joints (property loss is critical here), HVAC, ELECTRICAL, AND
and breaking of the pipes where the heads pass through PLUMBING COMPONENTS
the ceiling. The la.tter problem is solved by enlarging the
hole (with up to 1 In. clearance) and covering it with a large HVAC equipment is often heavy, with large inertial forces;
escutcheon plate. An alternative is to detail a swing joint in securely attaching such equipment greatly reduces dam-
the sprinkler drop that will provide 1 in. movement in all age. Piping systems generally perform well during seismic
directions. Another solution is to detail the grid and sprin- activity but are vulnerable at equipment connections.
kler drops as one integral unit. (See NFPA 13 for informa-
tion on sprinkler bracing,) Heavy electrical equipment such as switchgear, transform-
NOTE
ers, and batteries are the parts of the electrical system
This detail must be checked for acceptability when the par- most vulnerable to seismic activity. Emergency systems
tition is fire-rated. Partitions that extend to the structure WATER HEATERS depend on electrical power for fuel or control and so may
above usually perform well if consideration has been given fail even though the equipment remains functional.
to potential building racking (i.e.. being forced out of When a water heater overturns, a gas line can rupture.
plumb). Depending on the level of seismicity, the common solution Plumbing distribution systems are relatively flexible and can
for residential water heaters is to use a flexible gas connec- withstand a fair amount of shaking. Piping and equipment
~~~r\JION DETAIL FOR SEISMIC tion and/or a simple steel strap wrapped around the tank should be anchored so it will move with the structure, limit-
and securely anchored to a stud or solid wall. ing differential movement at the joints.
SEISMIC DESIGN
42 Seismic Rehabilitation of BUildings
GENERAL REHABILITATION STRATEGIES CODES AND REGULATIONS
The greatest hazard In major earthquakes stems from older Although the unique characteristics of each building must At present a general code for seismic rehabilitation of b.
buildings that were designed under early seismic codes or be considered when devising a rehabilitation strategy, ings does not exist. For URM buildings, the City of- I
before such codes were introduced. Seismic rehabilitation some fundamental concepts have been developed from Angeles Section 88 Code may be appropriate; for cert.
(or seismic retrofit) refers to design and construction experrence: types of historic URM buildings. the Uniform Code
intended to improve the seismic performance of an existing Building Conservation may be used. Following
building. 1 Add strength. Northridge earthquake. Los Angeles developed criteria
2. Alter building stiffness. rehabilitating tilt-up buildings and nonductile reinforced c.
Some cities have established seismic rehabilitation pro- 3. Create structural continuity crete frame buildings.
grams to reduce the risk caused by unreinforced masonry
4. Add structural containment The Building Seismic Safety Council/National Earthqua
(URM) buildings, which are particularly hazardous in earth-
quakes. The City of Los Angeles, for example, passed an 5. Rationalize existing capacity Hazard Reduction Program is developing the first cornp:
URM ordinance in 1981 that required all of the 8000 URM 6. Isolate the building from the ground. hensive criteria (available about 1998) for the rehabilitatn
buildings in the city to be strengthened or demolished. San of all building types in any geographic region.
7. Add energy-dissipating details
Francisco has a similar ordinance. Many buildings also have
been voluntarily rehabilitated In addition to purely structural issues, architectural con-
cerns influence rehabilitation design. For historic buildings,
rehabilitation measures must be devised that respect the
REHABILITATION PROCESS original architecture, and the addition of external strength-
D~D
The first steps in rehabilitation are to identify the seismic ening components is not an option. For other buildings this
deficiencies and determine a method of rehabilitation. may not be a concern, and affordable cost, safety, and pres-
Other steps involve bUdgeting, preparing contract docu- ervation of building function may be the paramount objec-
tives.
D~D
ments, and selecting a contractor.
Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RI8A, Building Systems Development, lnc.: Palo Alto, California
SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry 43
lower seismic exposure areas and walls not part of the lat- .4
GENERAL eral resisting system (even when other walls are engi-
Empirical rules and formulas for the design of masonry neered). Buildings that are in higher exposure areas or have
structures resulted from the long history of masonry use walls that are part of the lateral resistance system require
and thus predate engineering and analysis. Empirical design engineering design that conforms to local codes.
is a method of sizing and proportioning masonry ~I.ements
that depends on centering gravity loads over beanng walls, There are specific limits on masonry as to height wind or
neglecting the effect of steel reinforcing. other horizontal loads. and seismic loads. In many cases, EXPANSION
design for wind and industry recommendations for crack BOLT TO
For most masonry work, empirical design is conservative. It CONCRETE
control due to shrinkage or expansion may govern building (WELD TO
is generally appropriate for smaller buildings with i.nterior reinforcement in areas with lower seismic activity. STEEL)
masonry partitions and stiff floors, as well as buildinqs in
3" X 3" X 15 1 "
STEEL ANGL~,
CONTINUOUS
OR CLIP ANGLE
BONO BEAM AT
DIAPHRAGM
CONNECTION SEALANT,
eMU WALL OPTIONAL
BONO BEAM
NOTCHED TO
ALLOW FOR
PASSAGE OF
#4 BAR NOTE
#4 STEEL REBAR This detail allows transfer of out-of-plane forces but iso-
AT BONO BEAM lates in-plane forces from the structure.
(DIAPHRAGM #4 STEEL
CONNECTION), REBAR AT CONCRETE (OR
CONTINUOUS CORNER (OR STEEL)
THROUGH
. .
IN FIRST VOID STRUCTURE
CONTROL FROM CORNER,
JOINTS FILLED SOLID (.
WITH GROUT)
'" .
----'~:!irn~1IIIIIqJ~=~:=S:I:Z'EALLOWS
MAX. 16" FROM
~9~~6~(OR FOR DEFLECTION
OR CREEP
CONTROL JOINT)
FLEXIBLE
W1_7 STEEL WALL SEALANT WITH
REINFORCING AT BACKER ROO
16" O.C., VERTICAL
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
BOND BEAM
LQCATEDTO
ALLOW FOR
16" CAVITY GROUTING
D.C. ACCESSIBILITY
PRIMARY
CMU WALL
30" MIN
_ - - - - SECONDARY
eMU WALL
NOTE
Preformed, hot-dipped galvanized tees (Wl.7 wire at 8 in.
o.c., vertical for bearing; 16 in. o.c. tor nonbearing) are
used for reinforcing intersecting walls.
INTERSECTING WALL DETAIL INTERSECTING WALL REINFORCING
SEISMIC DESIGN
44 Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry
'/2" DiAMETER
HEADED BOLT
FLOOR JOIST AT 6'-0" O.C
PARALLEL TO
WALL 16" D.C CONTINUOUS
~ Ll BOND BEAM.
CONTINUOUS --------- GROUT SOUD
BOND BEAM WITH
#4 REBAR5 CMU WALL
CONCRETE ON
METAL DECK
_ - - - - eMU WALL
WOOD TRUSS
THROUGH WALL AT 24" O.C
REINFORCING 4" X 4" X 15/ 16"
(Wl.7.16"O.C .. CONTINUOUS
VERTICAL) STEEL ANGLE
(ANCHOR WITH
NOTE EXPANSION
FLOOR JOIST OR
RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL 16" D.C.
3" LEDGER
CONTINUOUS AS ALTERNATE
CONCRETE ON
BONO BEAM WITH TO BRACE, USE
METAL DECK
#4 ROO #4 STEEL REBAR
AT 48" O.C:
C]
l*==q~-----THROUGH WALL CAVITIES FILLED
REINFORCING :' WITH GROUT
(WT.7, 16" a.c .. I" I
VERTICAL) II
~USEBRACE
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION H -, -, -.( IF HfT > 3
FOR WOOD JOIST/RAFTER
PERPENDICULAR TO WALL -,
" ROOF
" STRUCTURE
-,
GROUT CELL AT -,
ANCHOR ONLY -,
"I
I
-,
II -,
..:L__ jJ~Et:l;;3;:EI1~~
'1
"' I
BEARING ~f::=~:f============
PLATE WITH
#13 HOOK "
TO BAR
CONTINUOUS
JOIST/RAFTER BONO BEAM
(GROUT SOLID)
PARALLEL OR
PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL
1/2" DIAMETER
THREADED ROO,
HOOKED TO BOND
BEAM REBAR
CONTINUOUS STEEL JOIST NOTE
BONO BEAM
THROUGH WALL Empirical design for masonry parapets should be used only
THROUGH WALL REINFORCING in areas with low seismicity, Engineering analysis is
REINFORCING (WI.7, 16" O.C.,
(W1.7, 16" D.C.
required when the heiqht-to-thickness ratio of three-to--one
VERTICAL) is exceeded and in areas of higher seismicity,
VERTICAL)
ALTERNATE DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL MASONRY PARAPET DETAIL FOR
CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/ JOISTS PERPENDICULAR TO WALL SEISMIC AREAS
RAFTER
SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing 45
NOTES
GENERAL ROOF DIAPHRAGM
1. Diaphragms (the roof, tloorts}. and shear panels in walls)
Wood frame structures with a variety of solid wood and CEILING DIAPHRAGM must be designed to resist forces created by the dead
engineered wood products can be designed to resist seis- load mass of the structure and applied seismic loads. In
mic forces using many of the same principles used to resist wood frame construction, a diaphragm is typically a
wind forces. Wind-resistant design involves resolving loads structural "panel" made of a skin (sheathing) stretched
assumed to be applied to the structure in one direction for a - - - - - ROOF-TO-WALL over and fastened to ribs (wood members such as 2x4s)
short time (monotonic loads). Wind load can induce shear ANCHORAGE The resulting construction is stiff and strong enough to
that is both perpendicular and parallel with the structure.
transmit forces to resisting systems such as the founda-
resulting in an overturning motion as well as uplift on the tion. Connections must be designed to transfer lateral
structure. Seismic loads, on the other hand. are cyclical.
forces and restrain overturning motion. Lateral forces can
moving in different directions over a short period.
WALL DIAPHRAGM be either perpendicular or parallel to the structure. The
load from each part of a building that is created as the
Seismic loading conditions on conventional construction are
buildinq shifts from the movement of the earth must be
referenced in four main sources, which also provide infor-
transferred to adjoining elements (roof sheathing to
mation about the capacity of various materials: American
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
rafters to top plates to wall sheathing and studs to bot-
Society of Civil Engineers 7-95, Section A9.9.10; the Build-
tom plates to floor sheathing and framing and so on, until
ing Code, Section 2326; the Standard Building Code, Sec-
the lowest level of floor framing, from which the load
tions 2308.2.2 and 2310; and the National Building Code,
moves to the foundation; in slab-on-grade construction,
Section 2305.8. In general, these provisions are limited to
the load moves finally from the wall sheathing and studs
buildings with bearing walls not exceeding 10ft in height
to the bottom platesl.
and gravity dead loads not exceeding 15 psf for floors and
exterior walls and 10 psf for floors and partitions. Sheathing WALL-TO-FLOOR-
2. The roof diaphragm comprises roof sheathing, roof fram-
for braced walls must be at least 48 in. wide over studs TO-WALL ing (rafters, top chord of truss, etc.), and blocking.
spaced not more than 24 in. o.c ANCHORAGE 3. The ceiling diaphragm comprises ceiling finish material
(for example, gypsum wallboard) and ceiling framing
Wood construction standards for all seismic areas include ijoists, lower chord of trusses, etc).
the following: wall anchorage must use a minimum of t 4. Roof-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down anchors to
o.c., maximum. Walls must be capped with double top resist uplift forces and nailing to resist shear forces
plates, Uniform with end joints offset by at least 4 ft. Bot- WALL DIAPHRAGM
tom plates must be 11 /.} in. thick (2 in. nominal) and at least 5. The wall diaphragm comprises wall sheathing, wall fram-
the width of the studs. ing, and sheathing fasteners.
6. The floor diaphragm comprises floor sheathing, floor
Forces must be transferred from the roof and tloorts) to framing (joists, trusses, etc.), blocking, etc.
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
braced walls and from the braced walls in upper stories to 7. Wall-to-floor-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down
the braced walls in the story below, then into the founda- anchors and shear connectors (for example, nails).
tion . Transfer must be accomplished with toe nails using
three 8d nails per joist or rafter where not more than 2 ft 8. Hoor-to-toundaticn anchorage consists of hold-down
o.c. or with metal framing devices capable of transmitting anchors to resist overturning forces and anchor bolts (1/2
FLOOR-TO- in. diameter at 6 ft o.c.) to resist shear forces.
the lateral force. Roof to wall connections must be made at FOUNDATION
the exterior walls when the building is 50 ft or less in ANCHORAGE
length. A combination of exterior and interior bearing walls
is necessary when the building length exceeds 50 ft. TYPICAL WALL SECTION FOR CONVENTIONAL WOOD FRAMING
BOUNDARY
PANELS, TYP
NOTE
Each diaphragm in a building must resist the seismic NOTES
effects in both directions of all the mass above it as well as
1. Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of shear panels,
of its own mass. The seismic loads caused by the roof
with 10d nails in 2x framing.
mass must be transferred to the wall, and the wall must be
designed to resist both the effect of the mass of the roof 2. Capacities are based on structural I panels of Douglas fir,
and the mass of the wall. These combined loads must then larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or
be transferred to the floor below, which must be designed alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood
to resist the effect of both its mass and the load applied by Association.
the wall above. In turn, walls below must resist these 3. The aspect ratio (the ratio of the longer dimension to the
loads, until the force reaches the foundation, which must NOTE
shorter) of a floor or roof diaphragm is limited to LiL 1 ::;; 4.
be able to resist the combined loads from the rest of the Openings in the diaphragm are limited to either 12 ft or The bracing element is typically a shear panel that is
building. half the length of the diaphragm, whichever is smaller. anchored against both shear and overturning
SEISMIC LOAD TRANSFER FLOOR AND ROOF DIAPHRAGM BRACED WALL SPACING
David S. Collins, FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
46 Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing
i
H
~ {)C,,"
LOCATION OF
HOLD-DOWNS
PANEL
TYP
NOTES
~HOLD-DOWNS AT END OF WALL
David S. Collins. FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
Lighting Design 47
GENERAL LIGHT SOURCE SELECTION GUIDE
Lighting design involves selecting lighting fixtures (lumi-
naires) and determining their locations and control devices
I APPLICATIONS
[OJ
illumination, color of light. and suitable luminaire styles.
QUANTITY OF ILLUMINATION
Standards for illumination are set by the Illuminating Engi-
I D I I
I
neering Society of North America IIESNA). Illumination is
generally measured in the horizontal plane 30 in. above the
I I
I
D
floor. The units of illumination are footcandles (lumens per
square foot) and lux (lumens per square meter). IESNA-rec-
ommended levels are summarized on the following page
I I
I
(Lighting and Lighting Systemsl-more detailed and spe-
cific information is given in the IESNA Lighting Handbook I I
and in other IESNA publications. L:-----------H
Specific lighting levels may be set by codes, such as life
I WAITING
AREA
I
safety codes and health codes. For instance, NFPA 101
(National Fire Protection Association Life Safety Standard) I I
recommends an average illumination of 1 footcandle (10
lux) along a.path of emergency egress with an emergency
power source. Some owners establish their own lighting
level requirements for specific areas. I
I
L
D _ J
I
The uniformity of lighting levels is also subject to IESNA 1,IGHTING LEVELS FOR TYPICAL OFFICE RECEPTION AREA
recommendations. For interior lighting, IESNA generally
recommends the following ratios of illumination for com- QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION SUITABLE LUMINAIRE STYLES
fort: Quality of illumination remains largely an aesthetic issue. Many design problems have reasonably obvious solutions
However, a number of specific quality issues can be determined by a combination of budget, energy code, and
1. Task proper: 100%. addressed objectively: industry standards. For instance, most office lighting
2. Immediate surround: 33-100%. designs utilize recessed troffers because they are cost-
1. Eliminate flicker: Light sources should minimize or elimi- effective and energy-efficient and they meet the standard
3. Distant surround: 10-100%.
nate flicker caused by AC power or other influences. expectations of owners and tenants. Choices among trof-
2. Eliminate or minimize glare: Shield lamps from view. fers require further consideration, although at that point
When light is designed to maintain these relationships, the
Minimize very bright and very dark surfaces. Illuminate style is a lesser issue.
human eye continually adapts to the light level and
responds quickly to visual stimulus. However, visual inter- walls and ceilings.
Some situations call for uncommon or creative designs. In
est is caused by contrast in which ratios between task and 3. Use light sources with good color rendering: Halogen, these cases, the distribution of the luminaire and its physi-
surround might be 100: 1 or even greater. This is one of the high CRI (color rendering index) full size and compact flu- cal appearance become critical. In particular, luminaires that
greatest paradoxes of lighting design: The most appealing orescent, and high CRI metal halide and white HPS enhance the architecture are desired for residences, hotels,
visual scenes are often uncomfortable. lamps should be used whenever possible. restaurants, and other nonwork spaces. Decorative styles
range from contemporary to very traditional; lamp options
COLOR OF LIGHT
may permit a choice between incandescent and more
Both the correlated color temperature (CCT) and color ren- energy-efficient light sources, such as compact fluorescent
dering index (CRO for light sources should be used in or low watt high-intensity discharge (HID) luminaires. In
choosing light sources. In general, try to match CCT when fact. energy-efficient decorative lighting fixtures, both inte-
mixing sources, such as halogen and fluorescent. rior and exterior, are one of the fastest growing parts of the
lighting fixture industry as the market for attractive lumi-
naires that comply with energy codes grows.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
48 lighting and lighting Systems
ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR VARIOUS INDOOR ACTIVITIES
GENERAL
RANGES OF ILLUMINANCE
Most b~ildings are equipped with electric .49htj~g syste~s ILLUMINANCE REFERENCE
for interior uses. Early In the history of Ilghtln!":1. l!h.~mJnatlon TYPES OF ACTIVITY CATEGORY LUX FOOTCANDLES WORK PLANE
systems were desiqned for minimum use of mtenor space Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5 General lighting
at night. Today, however, electric illumination systems gen- throughout
erally are designed to be used in place of natural light Simple orientation for short, temporary B 5075-100 5-7.5-10
spaces
visits
Working spaces used only occasionally C 100-150-200 101520
FUNCTIONS OF LIGHTING for visual tasks
Light is one of many tools available to help in space design, -
Performance of visual tasks of high 0 200-300-500 20-30-50 Illuminance on
In the beginning of any project, it is wise to recall the func- contrast or large size task
tions of lighting and to be certain each has been examined:
Performance of visual tasks of medium E 500 750-1000 50-75-100
Performance of tasks: Lighting to perform work, whether contrast or small size
it is reading, assembling parts, or seeing a blackboard, is Performance of visual tasks of low F t 000- 1500-2000 100-150-200
referred to as task lighting. Visual work is a primary rea- contrast or small size
son for providing lighting.
Enhancement of space and structure: It is only through Performance of visual tasks of low G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500 Illuminance on
the- presence of light that spatial volume, planes, orna- contrast and very small size over a task, provided
ment, and color are revealed. For centuries, structural prolonged period by a comb ina-
systems evolved partly in response to aesthetic as well tion of general
Performance of very prolonged and H 5000-7500-10000 50G-750-1000
as functional desires for light of a certain quality. The and local (sup-
exacting visual tasks
progress from bearing wall to curtain wall was driven by plementaryl
the push of newly discovered technologies (both in Performance of very special visual tasks I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000 lighting
materials and in technique), by evolving cultural desires of extremely low contrast and small size
for certain spatial characteristics, and by a desire to admit
NOTE
light of a particular quality. These developments are
reflected in the Gothic church window, the baroque ocu- Standards for lighting and illurrunation in North America are IESNA Lighting Handbook, 8th edition, from which this
lus, and the Bauhaus wall of glass. With the advent of established by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North table is taken.
electric lighting systems, this connection of structure to America. IESNA recommendations are summarized in the
light was no longer entirely necessary, but most archi-
tects continue to pay homage to this historical tie.
3. Focusing attention: The quality of light in a space pro- LAMP: the electric bulb or tube within a luminaire. its lumens downward will have a higher CU (room cavity
foundly affects people's perception of that space. The ratio and reflectance values being equal) than one that dis-
timing and the direction of an individual's gaze are often PHOTOMETRY: the measure of light, especially with tributes light in any other direction. A higher CU is not nec-
a function of the varying quality and distribution of light respect to a luminaire. essarily a virtue; it only ranks fixtures according to their
through the space. Lighting draws attention to points of ability to provide horizontal illuminance.
interest and helps guide the user of a space. PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: a written report that describes
the manner in which light is emitted from a lurninaire, pre- The lumen method/zonal cavity system is limited by the fol-
4. Provision of security: Lighting can enhance visibility and sented in an industry standard format. lowing:
thereby engender a sense of security. Lighting can also
be used to illuminate hazards, such as a changing floor ENERGY EFFICIENCY, the measure of how a lighting sys- 1. It is based on a single number, average value.
plane or moving objects. tem compares to standards, in the context of building size 2. It assumes a uniform array of lighting fixtures.
and function.
3. It assumes all room surfaces have a matte (lambertian)
finish.
BASIC LIGHTING TERMS 4. It assumes the room is devoid of obstruction, at least
down to the level of the work plane.
LUMINAIRE: a structure that holds an electric lamp and its
socket, wiring, and auxiliaries, such as ballasts. LUMEN METHOD
The light loss factor (LLF) is used to calculate the Hlumi
Lighting design involves determining how many luminaires nance of a lighting system at a specific point in time under
PORTABLE LUMINAIRE (LAMP): a luminalre equipped with are needed for a particular application and where to locate given conditions. It incorporates variations from test condi
a cord and plug and designed to be moved from space to them. The most accurate means of determining illumination tions in temperature and voltage, dirt accumulation on light-
space. performance is by computer; a number of point-by-point ing fixtures and room surfaces, lamp lumen output
lighting programs are available with DXF and DWG file inter- depreciation, maintenance procedures (mainly frequency of
LIGHTING FIXTURE: a luminaire that is permanently faces and other features. (See the annual computer issue cleaning), and atmospheric conditions. The LLF is also
attached ("hard wired") to a building of Lighting Design and Application, an IESNA publication. known as the maintenance factor.
for a current list of commercially available proprarns.I It is
LIGHTING SYSTEM: the lighting fixtures in a building, also possible to estimate illumination results from a pro- Tc use a CU table, assumptions must first be made about
sometimes including portable lights, subdivided into posed lighting design using the lumen method and photo- the reflectance of major room surfaces. Then the room cav-
smaller systems (e.g., the lighting system in a room or aU metric reportts) from candidate luminaires. itv ratio (RCR) can be determined according to one of the
luminaires of a particular type In a room or building). following formulas:
The lumen method, also known as the zonal cavity system,
ILLUMINANCE: the measure of light striking a surface, in is a calculation method that can be used to determine the For rectangular rooms: RCR ~ 15 x H(L + Will (L x WI.
footcandles (lumens per square meter). Illuminance can be horizontal illuminance that will result from a proposed light- which H is the cavity height
measured and predicted using calculations; also illumina- ing fixture selection and layout or the number of fixtures
tion. required by a proposed fixture selection and its horizontal For odd-shaped rooms: RCR = 2.5 wall arealfloor area
illuminance value.
~O"
due to dirt accumulation, deterioration of reflecting sur-
faces, and reduction of lumen output. JiUGHT
FIXTURE
j
~
<,
The lumen method requires the following information:
H
1. Room dimensions (to compute wall area and floor area)
H H
2. Height of fixtures above work plane
jPOTENTIAL
WORK PLANES
/ \ 3. Reflectance levels of major surfaces (ceiling, walls, floor)
H OF INTEREST
I \ 4. An estimate of the light loss factor (LLF)
O' 35" 5. Initial lamp lumens
6. A target illuminance level
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
Robert Prouse, IALD, IES; H.M. Brandston & Partners, Inc., New York, New York
LIGHTING DESIGN
Energy Efficiency in Lighting Design 49
GENERAL COMPLIANCE STRATEGY TRADEOFFS
Lighting can be desiqned both ~o use minimum energy and To realize design compliance with local energy codes with- Energy codes do not regulate lighting design or the amount
to realize environmental benefits such as reduced air and out significant redesign, observe the followinq process: of lighting in a particular space. For instance, a designer
groundwater pollution. Electric light sources more effica- could slightly reduce the lighting loads throughout an office
cious than traditional incandescent lamps have been devel- 1. Choose a general lighting system that uses one of these building by using efficient lighting equipment. With the
oped to. meet most lighting needs. The key to achiavinq sources: fluorescent T-8 with electronic ballasts, high- energy saved, an important space like the main lobby could
efficient design is knowing how and when to choose effi- wattage compact fluorescent with electronic ballast. or be illuminated in a less efficient manner, such as with
cient sources, luminaires, and controls. metal halide or HPS (high-pressure sodium). incandescent chandeliers, and the project would stilt com-
2. Make certain the lurninaire and room are reasonably effi- ply with the energy code.
cient. Use direct lighting for tasks whenever possible,
CODES and make room finishes light. especially ceilings. Tradeoffs are allowed among interior spaces in the same
building, but they are not allowed between interior and
The U.S. Energy Policy Act 01 1992 requires states to 3. Design to just barely meet IESNA recommendations for exterior lighting. In addition, tradeoffs are not allowed
develop codes that require efficiency in lighting design. each space. between buildings, even if they are owned by the same
Each code must meet or exceed the requirements of 4. For downlighting, wall washing" and other traditional company and stand on the same site.
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989. In 1996, although in many states incandescent applications, use compact fluorescent or
compliance was mandatory and enforced. some states had HID (high-intensity discharge) sources.
yet to adopt such a code, while others had not yet begun
enforcement. For federal government buildings. a version 5. Minimize the amount of track lighting by using recessed ENERGY-EFFICIENT
of 90.1 with more stringent values was in force. Progress fixtures or rnonoooints when 'possible.
LIGHTING CONTROLS
toward regulating energy efficiency in Canada was similar. 6. Use incandescent and halogen sources sparingly, confin-
ing them to necessary decorative lighting. DEVICE OR TYPICAL
METHOD OPERATION CREDIT*
All codes presently calculate allowed watts based on build- 7. Add advanced controls such as motion sensors and day-
ing type and area. Codes generally determine allowed inte- lighting dimming. These allow the reduction of actual Time clock Turns lights on and 0-10%
rior lighting watts in one of three wavs-s-roorn by room, by lighting watts and can help bring a design into compli- (with manual off at scheduled
area (groups of rooms), or for the entire building: ance with energy efficiency requirements. override readily times
accessible)
1. Room by room: Determine the specific use of each room Dimmer Reduces lighting 0%
and its net area. Multiply the area 01 each room by the power by manual
allowed power density (watts/sq It) adjusted lor the adjustment
room cavity ratio (RCRI. Add the wattage lor all rooms
together. Motion sensor Turns lights on and 15% (>250sq
011 based on space Itl to 30%
2. Area: Determine the use of major portions of a building use «250 sq It I
or renovation and the gross lighted area of each. Multiply
the gross lighted area by the allowed power density Daylighting Reduces interior 20%
(watts!sq It) lor each group 01 rooms by type. Add the controls lighting power (stepped( to
figures for all areas together. based on amount of 30% (continu-
daylight in space ous dimming)
3. Whole building: Determine the building type and the
gross lighted area for the entire building. Multiply the Scene preset Reduces average 10-20%
gross lighted area by the allowed power density (watts! dimming power by dimming
sq It I lor the entire building by type. combinations of
lighting systems
To find the total allowed watts for the interior of a building, Tuning Reduces lighting 10-15%
start with the total wattage as determined by one 01 the power by hidden
three methods above. Then subtract "credit" watts for adjustment
lighting controlled by advanced automatic devices such as LINEAR ROTARY OR TOUCH·PLATE Lumen Reduces interior 10-15%
daylighting or motion sensing and add other allowed watts. SLIDE PUSH ON/OFF CONTROL
if any. maintenance lighting power
CONTROL CONTROL
based on age of
An allowed lighting load can also be determined by using a lamps and cleanli-
building energy simulation program like DOE-2. However, ness of space
because the program's algorithm is based on the same DIMMING CONTROL DEVICES Combined Combinations of Up to 45%
power density assumptions as the allowed amount given systems the above are not
above, it is unlikely the value for lighting determined in this directly additive
manner will be significantly different.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacilic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
50 Workstation Lighting and Lighting Controls
DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF
PARTITIONS ON LIGHTING LEVELS
The illumination that reaches a desk tQP in q"direct lighting
system is a combination of light arriving directly from the
lighting fixture and indirectly via reflectance from various
··············<········~r····/··············
room surfaces. A partition not only interferes with this indi-
rect component of light but can drastically reduce the A·
potential direct component.
_ _li6~II_
If the same lOx j O tt workstation had partitions 60 in. tall,
the projected lines would enclose a ceiling area of 676 sq ft
(26 x 26 ttl This area would include only ten or eleven fix-
tures [676 sq'tt ~ (8 x 8 ftll. This 80% decrease in the num- "S"
ber of lighting fixtures that could possibly contribute light
directly to the desk top does not translate into an 80% drop
in light levels at the desk top. However, it will cause a sig- 60" PANELS
nificant decrease, the amount of which is influenced by fac-
tors such as the distribution pattern of the lighting fixtures
and the finishes of the partitions. PANEL HEIGHT COMPARISON
James Robert Benva. PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Luminaire Design 51
LENSED troffers use a plastic lens to refract light and dis-
GENERAL LUMINAIRE STYLES
tribute it in the desired area. The lens cuts off light distribu-
A luminaire IS any device that Includes a lamphoJder, a Downlights and troffers are discussed below; commercial tion to minimize glare and protects lamps from breaking in
means of electrification, and a support. Lighting fixtures are fluorescent fixtures, indirect and direct/indirect lighting sys~ food preparation and service areas. Lenses ca~ contain
luminaires that are permanently attached to a building. terns, architectural lighting fixtures, and decorative lighting internal RFI shields for use in hospital operating and labora-
Luminaires are characterized by the manner in which light is are discussed on the following page. tory rooms. Lens troffers equipped with highly polished
distributed. Luminaire types are identified in the chart internal reflectors offer very high efficiency.
below. DOWNLIGHTS
PARABOLIC troffers have parabolically shaped aluminum or
LUMINAIRE TYPES Downlights are often called 'cans' or 'tophats.' They are
plastic louvers that shield the lamp to improve visual com-
principally used for general illumination in a wide range of
TYPE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION fort. These troffers offer sharp cutoff, which makes some
residential and commercial applications, especially in lob-
of them suitable for use in computer work spaces. "Para-
Direct Emits light downward. bies, halls, corridors, stores, and other finished spaces
belies" generally refer to deep-cell louvers 6 in. or larger
Most recessed lighting Downlights can be equipped with incandescent, halogen, across; "paracubes" are shallower troffers with smaller
types, including downlights low-voltage, compact fluorescent, or HID (high-intensity
cells. Larger cells are more efficient. but smaller cells make
and troffers, are direct lumi- discharge) lamps. There are several major types, which
it easier to hide the lamps.
naires accommodate varying source types, ceiling heights, pte-
num heights, room types, and beamspreads. These include
Fixtures meeting IESNA recommendations for computer
the follovvinq: work spaces are generally identified.
OPEN CONE: the cone of this type of down light shields the
Most troffers are recessed and designed to be laid into
lamp and develops a beam pattern.
acoustic tile ceilings, with the fixture face matching the size
of the tile. The most common troffer sizes are 2 x 4 ft.
OPEN BAFFLE: ridged baffles shield the lamp and minimize
Indirect Emits light upward. so it although 2 x 2 ft and 1 x 4 ft are also readily available. Other
glare.
bounces from a ceiling into sizes exist, often to match a specific ceiling (such as 20'x
the space below. Many 60 in. fixtures for a 5-ft ceiling grid system). Different
OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL: an elliptical reflector allows a small
styles of suspended lumi- mounting types are made, including the following identified
aperture of1ly; this beamspread is highly efficient.
naires, sconces, and some by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association:
portable lamps provide indi-
LENSED (prismatic or fresnel): generally used outdoors or
rect lighting. NEMA "G": for fixtures in a standard exposed inverted T
in wet locations, the lens protects and seals the lamp com-
grid.
partment of this type of downlight.
NEMA "F": for fixtures furnished with a flange and designed
DIFFUSER: a diffuser distributes light broadly. which is
to be installed in an opening in plaster or wallboard.
especially useful in closets and showers.
Diffuse Emits light in all directions
uniformly. This type includes NEMA "55·: for fixtures in a screw-slot inverted T grid.
ADJUSTABLE: adjustable downlights can be used as a
most bare lamps, globes, downlight or as an accent light.
and chandeliers and some NEMA "NFSG": for fixtures in a narrow face slot T grid.
table and floor lamps. PULLDOWN: this feature allows the light to be used as a
NEMA ·Z": for fixtures in a concealed Z spline ceiling.
downlight or an accent light and permits a wide aim.
NEMA "Mr: for fixtures in a metal pan ceiling system.
DOWNLIGHT RATINGS
Choice of a downlight depends on the applications for Some recessed troffers are also designed to interface with
which it is listed. The primary rating types are these: the building HVAC system: "Heat extraction' troffers have
vents in the top of the fixture to allow return air to be pulled
Direct/indirect Emits light upward and THERMALLY PROTECTED IT) downlights are suitable for into the troffer, past the lamps, and into the ceiling plenum.
downward but not to the all applications except direct concrete pour. "Air-handling fixtures" have slots around the lens or louvers
side. Many types of sus- to supply air to a room (by means of a special boot that can
pended luminaires, and INSULATION-PROTECTED liP) downlights are used when transfer air to the supply air system) or to remove it (by con-
some table and floor lamps, the fixture may come in contact with insulation. They are nection to a return duct).
offer this type of lighting. designed to prevent fixture overheating.
These luminaires can offer Troffers can also be equipped with emergency battery
mostly direct or mostly indi- INSULATED CEILING IIC) fixtures are used when the fix- packs to power some or all of the lamps during a power
rect lighting. ture is intended to be in contact with insulation. outage or emergency condition.
instance, asymmetric and air leaks in the ceiling must be prevented. Most troffers are rated for standard dry indoor applications
uplights are indirect lumi- and must not touch insulation. Some special types include
naires with a stronger distri- DAMP LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to moist air but
bution in one direction, such 1. Gasketed: can be damp or even wet rated.
not to direct water spray or rain.
as away from a wall. Wall~ 2. Fire-rated: can maintain up to one hour ceiling rating in
washers are a form of direct WET LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to direct water certain rated ceilings.
luminaire with stronger distri- spray or rain. 3. Vandal-resistant: equipped with vandal-resistant lens.
bution to one side to light a
4. RFI: lens troffers that are shielded from radio frequen-
wall. SPA OR SHOWER fixtures are designed to be used in a
cies.
shower stall or over a spa.
5. Specially gasketed: rated for clean room applications.
Adjustable Usually, direct luminaires
that can be adjusted to throw CONCRETE-POUR fixtures are designed to be installed in
direct contact with concrete. Troffers can be equipped with most fluorescent technolo-
light in directions other than gies, including dimming, magnetic or electronic ballasts,
down. Examples are track and T-12 or T-8Iamps. Special troffers are made for ceiling
lights. floodlights. and accent EMERGENCY fixtures are equipped with a backup battery
to produce light for at least 90 minutes during a power out- systems like the linear metal slat system (4 in. wide).
lights. Recessed troffer depth varies from 3 1/ 2 to more than 7 in.,
age (generally available only for compact fluorescent lumi-
naires). so troffers must be coordinated with other elements above
the ceiling.
TROFFERS
Troffers are widely used in offices, stores, schools, and
other commercial and institutional facilities for general light-
CHOOSING LUMINAIRES ing in work and sales areas. They 'are the most common
type of fluorescent lurninaire.
DIRECT luminaires tend to be more efficient because they
distribute light directly onto the task area. They generally
create dark ceilings and upper walls, which can be dramatic
but can create discomfort from the high contrast.
t~j
DIFFUSE luminaires create broad general light that often is
considered glaring due to the lack of side shielding. They
are generally chosen for ornamental reasons or for utilitar-
ian applications. OPEN OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL
CONE BAFFLE ' - - - ACRYLIC LENS
DIRECT/INDIRECT luminaires are often a good compromise LENSED
between the efficiency of direct lighting and the comfort of
indirect lighting. DOWN LIGHTS TROFFERS
James Robert Benya, PE. FIES. IALD, Pacific Lightworks: Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinskv. Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
52 Luminaire Design
LUMINAIRE STYLES INDUSTRIAL RATINGS INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEM RATINGS
Downlights and troffers are discussed on the previous Most industnal fixtures are listed for dry locations. Some
have finishes such as glass or porcelain that resist corrosion Almost all indirect and direct/indirect luminaires an
page. where the subject of lighting equipment is intro-
duced. caused by airborne gases or particles; others are made of intended for dry, relatively clean indoor locations. Many 01
aluminum or plastic. Certain fixtures are specifically these systems are designed to meet IESNA recommenda-
designed for demanding environmental applications ranging tions for lighting computer workspaces and are rated as
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
from wet or saltwater marine luminaires to explosionproof complying with either IESNA fANSI RP-1-1993 or IESNfI
Several types of fluorescent direct luminaires appropriate products for use in petrochemical plants, grain storage, and RP-24-1989. These ratings are based on ceiling brightness
for general and utility lighting are employed as commercial other unusual locations. and uniformity criteria
fixtures. Most utilize wraparound lenses or diffusers in
which the lamp is surrounded by the lens; either way, the INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
lamp is hidden from direct view while radiating light down- LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Like downlights, architectural lighting fixtures are functional
ward and to the sides. Commercial luminaires are among
Most indirect and direct-indirect lighting systems are and inconspicuous rather than decorative. They are used to
the lowest cost lighting fixtures and are typically used for
designed to illuminate offices and similar finished spaces illuminate architectural shapes and forms.
general and utility lighting in modest projects.
In almost all cases, the ceiling should be finished in white
paint or white acoustical tile, as the reflectance of the ceil- WALLWASHERS come rn several types Eyelid wallwast-
COMMERCIAL RATINGS
ing plane is critical ers essentially are downlights with an eyelid-shaped shie!o
Most commercial fixtures are rated for dry locations. Some on the room side. Recessed lens wallwashers resemble
have damp labels. Most can be equipped with a battery Indirect lighting systems only produce uplight. Generally downlights but use an angled lens to throw light more to
pack for emergency power. they should be mounted at least 15-18 in. below the ceiling; one side. Surface and semi-recessed lens and open wall-
longer suspension lengths can improve uniformity but washers, which throw light onto an adjacent wall, generally
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING FIXTURES potentially will decrease efficiency. To maintain adequate work best; they can also be mounted to track. Downlight
clearance, ceilings should be at least 9 ft high wallwashers are designed to illuminate rather than scallop
These fixtures generally have a utilitarian or functional an adjacent wall, although the light they provide is not good
appearance. Fluorescent industrials have strip lights and Direct/indirect lighting systems are intended to produce enough for display purposes.
open fixtures with simple reflectors that are designed to be some indirect lighting for its comfort and balance and some
surface-mounted or hung by chains or rods. HID (high-inten- direct lighting for efficient production of task lighting. Simi- WALL GRAZING FIXTURES. sometimes called ·wall slots."
sity discharge) industrials include high bay down lights and lar suspension length and ceiling height considerations are used to illuminate walls in lobbies, corridors, and core
low bay downlights. Industrial fixtures are generally used in apply. The percentage of upliqht to downlight varies; gener- areas. They are especially suited for textured or polished
factories and warehouses and increasingly in schools and ally the higher the ceiling, the greater the downlight per- surfaces.
retail stores where a less-finished appearance is desired. centage should be.
mr
ACCENT FIXTURESfocus light on art and building surfaces
~
Recessed accent lights appear as downlights but internally
permit rotalion and elevation of the light beam. Eyeballs
and pulldown accents resemble down lights that cannot be
wmnt:[
adjusted. Track lighting systems are specifically designed
for accent lighting of art and retail displays, with easy relo-
cation of lampholders along the track.
WRAPAROUND STRIP
INDIRECT
COVE LIGHTS provide uplighting from coves or other archi-
-.
tectural elements more efficiently than strip lights and with-
out socket shadows
~
6" TO 8"
TYP
SLOT TASK LIGHTS are specifically designed to illuminate a desk
area while minimizing veiling reflections.
CEILING
INDIRECT/DIRECT DECORATIVE LIGHTING
Lighting is the "jewelry of architecture" and, in many build-
14" MIN. FROM ing types, plays a significant role in building style, period, or
INDUSTRIAL HIGH BAY TOP OF LAMP
FLUORESCENT HID LAMP TO CEILING motif.
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANDELIERS are ornate luminaires that generally com-
FIXTURES prise many small incandescent lamps to simulate the effect
of candle flames. Chandeliers are hung from the ceiling and
DIRECT are used for general illumination in dining rooms, foyers.
COVE and other formal spaces.
SUSPENDED
PENDANTS are also ceiling-hung decorative fixtures. In
INDIRECT, DIRECT/INDIRECT, AND general, the term is used for luminaires that are less formal
DIRECT LUMINAIRES than chandeliers, such as those used in offices or restau-
rants. Most pendant luminaires also use incandescent
lamps, although modern variations are available with HID
ROUND 4" TO 9" DIAMETER and fluorescent sources.
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
CLOSE-TO-CEILING luminaires are similar to pendants but
are mounted close to the ceiling to allow use in rooms with
conventional ceiling heights.
CHANDELIER PENDANT
~ OVOID
(UP, DOWN. OR UP/DOWN)
SCONCES are ornate or decorative wall-mounted lumi-
~
naires. Often they match an adjacent chandelier; in other
cases, they are the sole decorative lighting element
Sconces generally exhibit the widest range of styles, from
crystal sconces with flame-tip lamps to modern designs.
ELONGATED OCTAGON
(UP, DOWN, OR UP/DOWN) LAMPS are traditional portable luminaires generally used
for table or floor mounting. Torcheres are floor lamps
designed for uplighting. Most portable lighting uses incan-
descent or halogen sources, although compact fluorescent
options should be considered for commercial and hospital-
(~m_ oj
TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY RACETRACK OVAL ity applications.
SCONCE SCONCE (UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
LANTERNS are outdoor luminaires mounted to ceilings,
walls posts, or poles
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lighting for Office Spaces 53
t-t
L~
I I ,
r~ D \
[',
'-;1
"
'
'I
-, L
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
1"--"- OPEN OFFICE '- - --'>-
NOTE
In this 10 x 10 ft office, two fixtures produce 50-60 fe on <. AREA STANDARD
2' X 4' CEILING GRID
I I
WORK, ESPECIALLY
PAPERWORK
I s'-o"
I I
I
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE OPEN OFFiCE
AREA STANDARD
In this 14 x 16 ft room, four two-lamp fixtures produce 25- 2' X 4' CEILING GRID
35 fc uniformly at 1.0B watts/so ft. If higher lighting levels DIRECT LIGHTING
are needed, as in a mailroom, use three-lamp fixtures. In FIXTURE, TYP
meeting rooms, consider adding task lights such as down-
lights or wall-wash luminaires. REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
In larger offices and work rooms, arrange fixtures as sym-
metrically as possible. Vary the spacing if necessary, for This layout produces 30-50 fc in an empty room using two watts/so ft. Increasing horizontal spacing to to
tt with three
example, from the standard 8 x 8 ft to 6 x 8 or lOx 8 ft. F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 0.92 lamps produces 40-60 fc at 1.22 watts/so ft. Also consider
Keep the long sides of fixtures within 2-3 ft of the wall. watts/sq ft. With three lamps, it produces 50-75 fc at 1.38 2 x 2 fixtures with two F32T8/U or four F17T8.
LARGE OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT GENERAL DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
James Robert Berwe. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks: Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
54 Lighting for Office Spaces
CORRIDOR LIGHTING
In office buildings. corridors require reasonably uniform illu-
mination with minimum glare. Using ordinary troffers is
tempting but generally creates too much light beneath the
fixtures and not enough evenly distributed ligtlt
OJ
~-
- -
I Q t
0
--- j----I--- --
I I
'I I I 9 I-
I
I
I
I I I I
o
+--------s'Q"- -
I
so" --f-
o NOTE
In this arrangement, sconce quantity can be minimized by downlights each have two 13-watt lamps or one 26~watt
maintaining a nominal 8-ft either-or spacing. Sconces and lamp. Designs produce 10-15 fc at 0_6--D.7 watts/sq ft.
o o o
o o o
NOTE
Although asymmetric, lighting one wall of a hall or corridor creates a floating ceiling; wallwashers (right) are better for
can both provide effective light and be an attractive ele- lighting art or graphics. While footcandles are about the
PLAN ment. potentially highlighting art or graphics. A wall slot same as in the two schemes above, power use increases
(shown at left) is best for textured or polished surfaces and to 1.2-1.5 watts/so ft to illuminate vertical surfaces.
NOTE
Fluorescent pendants and sconces produce general light. REFLECTED CEILING PLANS FOR !==ORRIDOR LIGHTING
Compact fluorescent downlights and wallwashers and halo-
WALLWASHER
gen art accent fixtures provide more specialized lighting
that showcases the architecture and artwork and creates
an atmosphere.
MAIN AND ELEVATOR LOBBIES NOTES
1. The lighting load total in this plan 01 2_75watts/sq ft 15_25
watts/sq ft for halogen lamps) is not often reached
LOBBY LIGHTING CON FERENCE
because, in most cases, not all fixtures are used simulta-
Lobbies offer a primary opportunity for use of creative or
decorative lighting. Pendants, ceiling fixtures, and sconces
E -=:5 ( TABLE
neously.
2. Wallwashers produce vertical illumination at 30 tootcen-
~
are the primary lighting systems, supplemented by down- dies (Ie) on one short wall, using about .5 watts/sq It with
lights, wallwashers, and other architectural light sources. fluorescent lamps and 1.5 watts/sq ft with halogen
~
To most easily meet energy code requirements, use fluo- lamps.
rescent, compact fluorescent and/or low wattage HID
(high-intensity discharge) lamps instead of incandescent.
o 3_Downlights produce direct light at 10-15 Ie that IS con-
centrated downward, usually onto the table surface in a
Main lobbies are a most important venue for ornamental III conference room, Compact fluorescent fixtures require
0.5 watts/sq ft, while halogen fixtures require about 1.25
and decorative lighting design. Wall lighting is especially
useful for providing a sense of spaciousness and cheerful-
o f-lJ watts/so ft. The ability to the dim lights is a requirement
for most conference rooms.
ness. Art objects such as paintings or sculpture may require
accent lighting. rr 4. Sconces produce indirect light at appoximately 1Q....15
footcandles. Compact fluorescent lamps require 1 watt/
Architectural and decorative lighting sources are generally LJJ sq ft to light a room, while halogen lamps require 2.5
watts/sq ft.
~
used in combination in lobbies. Incandescent and halogen
5. Incandescent and halogen light sources are often used In
lamps are often preferred for specific luminaire types, such
as art display lights. However, whenever possible, use of o board and other meeting rooms. When a building houses
{-D~GHT
more efficacious fighting sources such as fluorescent or a number of conference rooms, it is best to use fluores-
HID fixtures is recommended. cent sources to avoid overspending in the overall building
energy budget
James Robert Benva. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Ughting for Office and Commercial Spaces 55
Lighting power density: Listed below are approximate
SPECIAL LIGHTING ILLUMINATION CRITERIA
design targets for whole stores, including back of house.
ISSUES FOR OFFICES FOR COMMERCIAL SPACES These targets are based on HID (high-int.ensity discharge)
Lighting for computer use. task lighting. and wall lighting The lighting levels given are average figures for these com- systems of TB/compact fluorescent lamps and electronic
are among the specialized lighting issues in office design. mercial spaces: high-frequency ballasts. including display lights.
COMPUTER LIGHTING 1 Grocery store, general light: 70-90 footcandles (fcl, or Grocery , .4-2.0 watts/sq It
700-900 lux, in an empty room, which will result in aver- Wholesale 1.0-1.4 watts/so It
Lighting for computer workspaces is becoming increasingly age center-of-aisle illumination of 50 fe.
specialized. There are four distinct approaches to thiS' sort General merchandise , .2-' .8 watts/sq It
of design: 2. Wholesale merchandise: 30-50 fc (300-5oo lux) in an
Department store 2.0-3.0 watts/so ft
empty room with display lighting added as needed. For
spaces with warehouse-style shelving, use 30-50 fc in Specialty retail 1.8-3.5 watts/so ft
1. Parabolic troffers optimized for computer spaces: By
meeting specific cutoff and distribution specifications. aisles but take shelving into account. Jewelry, china 2.5-4.5 watts/sq It
some parabolic and small-cell louvered direct lighting fix- 3. General merchandise: 40-60 fc (400-600 luxl in an
tures provide lighting acceptable for concentrated com- empty room with display lighting added at key locations
puter workspace applications. These lighting systems to provide 70-100 tc (700-1000 lux) for secondary mer- DESIGN OPTIONS FOR GENERAL
are generally fairly efficient but tend to create spaces chandise displays and 150-300 fc (1500-3000 lux) for pri- COMMERCIAL LIGHTING
with dark upper walls and ceilings. mary displays.
FLUORESCENT STRIP LIGHTS AND LENS TROFFERS pro-
2. Indirect suspended lighting: Indirect lighting systems 4. Boutique and specialty retail stores: 20-30 Ie (200-300 vide basic light for the lowest cost and are the easiest to
that illuminate ceilings uniformly are also considered lux) in an empty room for general lighting. Display lighting install. They tend to be the most efficient, as well, but
good for computer workspaces. General indirect lighting is added throughout to provide 70-100 fc for most mer- appear budget-minded.
tends to be comfortable but bland. Supplemental task chandise and 150-300 Ie (1500-3000 lux) for primary dis-
lighting is usually necessary. plays. HID INDUSTRIAL-STYLE FIXTURES also provide goqd
3. Direct/indirect lighting: Some direct/indirect lighting sys- 5. Beck-of-house storage and stock areas: 10-20 fc (100- basic light at low cost but appear budqet-conscious. They
tems have been optimized for illuminating computer 200 lux) in an empty room. can be used to create a warehouse motif in a retail outlet.
workspaces, providing the advantages of the two lighting
systems just described. The greatest disadvantage of OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS appear more expen-
these direct/indirect systems is cost. The correlated color temperature (CeT) and color rendering sive and suggest higher quality merchandise. They should
4. Intensive CADD workspaces: CADD workspaces are the index (CRII measurements for light can be used to help be used in conjunction with valances and/or other perime-
most demanding of all computer workspaces. Neither specify lighting fixtures: ter and display lighting.
parabolic nor indirect lighting, even if optimized for com-
puter workspaces, is acceptable. Task-only lighting sys- Wholesale and grocery 3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI SUSPENDED DIRECT. DIRECT/INDIRECT. AND INDIRECT
tems or very low levels of general light are needed. The SYSTEMS require ceilings taller than 8 ft. These lighting
Boutique/specialty 3000 or 3500K > 80 CRI types playa major role in the appearance and style of a
unusual requirements of these spaces are often resolved
by creating a cavelike space and letting employees General merchandise 3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI space and are generally chosen to reinforce a specific mar-
manipulate lighting levels and types with switches and Jewelry. art 3000 or 5000K> 90 CRI keting motif.
dimmers.
TASK LIGHTING
STRIP LIGHTING ~ 12'-0" TROFFER
For use under cabinets or shelves, continuous fluorescent SHELVING ......,
LIGHTING
task lights are generally the best choice. Good task lights
offer the ability to dim or alter the distribution of light to
minimize veiling reflections. 1\_L
Table lamps and task lights produce localized task illumina-
- - - - -- - - ---- -
tion using a portable luminaire. The area of influence is I
small but proper location can achieve a successful result. - - -- - - - - -
Use compact fluorescent lamps whenever possible.
WALL LIGHTING
Office spaces generally require supplemental wall lighting - - -- - - -- - - -- -- -
to compensate for the lack of wall lighting provided by most I
general liqhtinq systems. Wall grazing and wallwashing are - - -- - - -- - - -- -- -
two methods used to accomplish this lighting task.
I
FINAL TOUCHES
- Ii
Many offices are furnished with partition-style systems fur- -
niture. In this case, best results are obtained by coordinat- I
ing lighting and furniture plans. Try to use fluorescent
lamps of consistent color. -
- - -f - - -- - - -- -- -
I-
(
'- GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID
CEILING, 12'-0" OR MORE HIGH
STRIP LIGHTS/STRIP TROUGH LIGHTS GENERAL SALES AREA: 2' X 4' GRID
CEILING, 12'·0" OR MORE HIGH
I
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE
LIGHTING I , 12'<>"
, TROFFER LIGHTING
I
I
I
I I NOTES
I I I 1. Strip lights and strip trough lights are common in large
Id 0 0 retail grocery stores and many mass merchandise stores.
The layout illustrated (above left) produces 60-60 fc in an
empty room using two F96T8 lamps in a strip light or
open trough in continuous rows at 1.15 watts/so ft.
o Lights usually run perpendicular to shelving to allow rear-
~ rangement. but parallel lighting is preferable when
shelves are fixed.
2. Industrial-style lights are commonly used for lighting
warehouse-style discount stores. The layout shown at
left produces 30-40 tc in an empty room using one 100-
0 0 0 watt metal halide lamp in an industrial-style luminaire at
WALL SLOT WALLWASHER 0.85 watts/so It. Using a , 50-watt metal halide lamp. the
LIGHTING LIGHTING lighting level is about 40-60 tc at 1.27 wattsrsq ft.
NOTE
A grazing light such as a wall slot is appropriate for illumi-
II 3. Trofters in lay-in ceilings are common in the discount
retail industry and serve as general purpose lighting for
hardware and general merchandise. The layout above
nating interior core walls in open office spaces. but wall- produces 60--70 fc in an empty room using four F32T8
washers or sconces can be used as well. Wall slot lighting <; lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.15 watts/sq
GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID
accentuates the wall texture and enhances polished sur- CEILING, 14'-0" OR MORE HIGH ft. With high light level ballasts. this arrangement pro-
faces. Wallwashers accentuate wall pigment and work best duces 80-100 fc at 1.58 watts/so ft.
for ordinary wall finishes with artwork hanging on them. INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING
WALL LIGHTING
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
56 lighting for Commercial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS
FOR DISPLAY LIGHTING
TRACK LIGHTING,s the most popular and commonly used
display lighting system. Use halogen, fluorescent, or high- IE;---~---:---;------;---~-------:v WALL DISPLAY
WITH NICHES
intensity discharge (HID} display luminaires. I<----k-------i'----7I<::-----+----"7k-------i'---7f---OII
RECESSED DISPLAY LIGHTS are not as flexible as track I
lights but can be concealed better. This category includes
adjustable accent lights and wallwashers. Sources include I VALANCE LIGHTING
WHERE NECESSARY
halogen, low-wattage HID, and compact fluorescent
I
DISPLAY MONOPOINT LIGHTS are adjustable I,ghls
installed at fixed locations. I
VALANCE LIGHTING rs used for clothing and other displays I WALL DISPLA Y
WITH SHELVES
in which a niche is created. Full-sized fluorescent lamps
work best for the application. I
DISPLAY CASE LIGHTING is similar to valance lighting I
except the light is built into the display cases to illuminate
the task. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent, or low voltage I LOCATIONS OF
MONOPOINTS OR
incandescent or tungsten halogen lamps are used. Fiber- TRACK UGHING
optic lighting systems may be useful in certain situations. I HEADS
I
I \\ / /\vf-FLOOR
/ Vi DISPLAY
LIGHTING FOR
CEILING NOT
SHOWN)
/
I
STORE ENTRY
/
WALL DISPLAY
/ WITH NICHES DISPLAY LIGHTING FOR STORES
LIGHT SOURCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPLICATIONS
I DISPLA Y CASE
~
Tungsten halogen Low cost. ready availability, Not enerqv-etticient. short Recessed accent lights,
/ LIGHTING
(for greatest energy efficiency excellent color, excellent lamp life track and monopoints.
use halogen infrared reflecting beam control, dimmability, waHwashers of all types,
/ IHIRllampsl availability in wide range of portable lighting, low volt-
o sizes/wattages age lighting, showcase
I lighting, downlrghts
Full-size fluorescent lamps Low cost. ready availability, Very poor beam control. Valance lights, showcase
(primarily T81 very good color, dimmabil- care required when used in lights, some types of wall-
itv, energy efficiency, long cold environments washers
lamp life
Compact fluorescent Low cost. ready availability, Poor beam control, care Wallwashers of all types,
(including high power T·5 twin very good color, dimmabil- required when used in cold some types of floodliqhts.
tube) itv. energy efficiency, long environments downlights
lamp life
Compact hid Energy efficiency, very High cost. not dimmable, Recessed accent lights.
(low-wattage metal halide and good beam control, long limited range of sizes and track and rnonopoints.
white high-pressure sodium are lamp life, good to very wattages wall washers of all types,
main choices) good color portable lighting, down-
lights
TYPICAL DISPLAY LIGHTING
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pac.fic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lighting for Schools 57
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA Lighting power density: Listed are approximate design tar- TROFFER SYSTEMS, lensed or parabolic, provide good,
gets using T8 lamps and electronic high-frequency ballasts acceptable light at low cost and are commonly used in
The lighting levels given are average figures: or hiqh-intensitv discharge (HID) systems (not including schools. Recessed lighting minimizes vandalism and is effi-
task lights): cient.
1. Classrooms with traditional paper tasks: 40-60 footcan-
dies 140G-B00lux) in an empty room. Classrooms 0.8-1.2 W/sq ft SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT and INDIRECT SYSTEMS
2. Classrooms with mostly computer work: an average of Lecture halls 1.2-2.0 W/sq ft are favored for better lighting comfort and are suited for
2D-40 footcandles 120D-400 lux) In an empty room with spaces with ceilings higher than 9 ft.
Arts and industrial education 1.2-1.8 W/sq ft
task lighting as needed.
Gymnasiums (pnmarv-secondary) 1.2-1.6 W/sq ft INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING SYSTEMS are often used in
3. Art, music, industrial. mechanics, and laboratory class-
Commons and hallways 0.4-0.8 W/sq ft industrial education, arts, gymnasium, and other spaces
rooms: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 lux) in an empty
requiring plentiful, inexpensive, durable lighting. If using
room, with task lighting as needed.
HID sources, provide quartz auxiliary lamps on some fix-
4. Lecture halls: 20-40 footcandles (fe) task illumination tures or an independent instant-on lighting system.
DESIGN OPTIONS
dimmable to 5 fc with cutoff for video/film presentation.
5. Hallways. commons (not including work spaces): 10-20 More information about these lighting systems is available Choose luminaires carefully, considering manufacturer's
footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room. in the section on lighting for offices. recommendations.
6. Libraries: in active stacks, 20 footcandles minimum verti-
cal illumination; for reading rooms, card files. and cata-
logs, 50-70 fc in an empty room; computer files and
computer study/carrell areas, 20-40 fc in an empty room.
IX LIGHT ABOVE
CHALKBOARD SUSPENDED INDIRECT/DIRECT
LIGHTING SYSTEM USED
7. Gymnasiums: general illumination of 50 footcandles (500 FOR GENERAL STUDIES WITH
lux) throughout; significantly higher levels may be
required for high school or college sports that will be
/ LIMITED COMPUTER WORK
televised.
Il Il Il Il Il\.
STANDARD
8. Typical administrative offices: 4G-B0 footcandles 1400- 2' X 4'
600 lux) in an empty room. CEILING
GRID
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA I~ ~ I~ I~ ~
~
Most classrooms 3500 or4100K > 70 CRI '~ ~ ~ I~ I~
I 0
0
0 l SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
I I
RECESSED (OR
I ~ <,
I SURFACE MOUNTED)
I
0 0
1 I
(TROFFER) USED FOR MOST
CLASSROOMS, ESPECIALLY
USED FOR CLASSIC
STANDARD
2' X 4' lIIf
PAPERWjRK
CEILING
I I GRID
I- -1 TYPICAL
DESK
I I LOCATION
I I
~ 0 0 :9
N
~
I <, . /
'"
0
l-
I
I
.z,
:9 I H - - - + - - - - + - - - . j - - - - - f - - - - f - - - + - - - - + - L DIRECT LIGHTING
L 0 0 io
J FIXTURE (TROFFER)
WINDOW
WALL
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE NOTE light level ballast, it can also produce 40-50 fc at 1.09
watts/sq ft.
In a 10,000 sq ft gymnasium, average lighting would be 40- This layout. suitable for traditional classrooms, produces
50 footcandles at 0.95 watts/sq ft provided by 400-watt 50-60 fc in an empty room using three F32T8 lamps in a
For computer classrooms, use computer-optimized para-
metal halide fixtures. lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.29 watts/sq ft. With a low
bolics and dimming.
GYMNASIUM LIGHTING CLASSROOM WITH TROFFERS
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
58 lighting for Industrial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS FLUORESCENT SYSTEMS are useful for mounting heights OTHER RECOMMENDED CRtTERIA
up to about 20 ft. They require more fixtures than HID sys-
INDUSTRIAL HID DOWNLIGHT SYSTEMS provide good tems but provide more uniform Irght with softer shadows; ATMOSPHEREiENVIRONMENT: The amount and type
acceptable light at low cost and thus are frequently used in use electronic ballasts to eliminate stroboscopy. Fluores- dirt and other airborne particles present in an application
industrial spaces. High-bav downlights are specifically cent systems make good task lights for work stations. can affect luminaire selection. For spaces where hazardous.
suited for mounting heights greater than 20 ft. Low-bay corrosive, or explosive vapors or dust are present, specia'
downlights generally have lower wattage and are best for SPECIAL APPLICATION LUMINAIRES come in hundreds of lighting equipment is generally required.
mounting heights less than 20 ft. Aluminum reflectors and different types, each optimized for a specific job, work sta-
prismatic glass or acrylic reflectors direct most light down- tion, environment, or hazard. Examples include explosion- SAFETY: Backup quartz auxiliary lamps are needed for high
ward, although some light is directed upward in certain proof, vapor-tight, and paint booth luminaires. intensity discharge (HID) systems. Where rotating machin
luminaires. Special aisle-Iiqhters and other types are avail- ery is used, take precautions to prevent strobosopic prob
able. Choose luminaires for specific applications carefully, taking lems by using fluorescent lighting systems or rotating
into account manufacturer recommendations. phases of power.
I 1/ needed.
2. Industrial manufacturing-assembly and rough inspec- LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Listed are approximate
o 0- tion: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 luxl in an empty room. design targets using HID systems or T8 lamps and elec
tronic high-frequency ballasts (not including task lightsl:
J
3. Industrial manufacturing-fine assembly and moderate
inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-7CO lux) in an empty
room with task lighting as needed to achieve 100-200 Warehouse 0.2--D.5 W/sq ft
footcandles (fc) depending on type of work. Light industrial 0.8-1.2 W/sq ft
4. Industrial manufacturing-specialized: refer to the IESNA Precision industrial and inspection areas 1.2-1.8 W/sq ft
o 0--
Lighting Handbook.
5. Lunchrooms and break areas: 20-30 fc 1200-300 luxl in an
empty room.
6. Hallways and circulation areas (excluding work spaces):
Storage areas
Lunchrooms and hallways
0.1--D.3 W/sq
0.8-1.0 W/sq
ft
It
o HID
LUMINAIRE-O
10-20 footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room.
7. Warehouses: with high stacks, 20 footcandles minimum
vertical illumination on stacks; for general use, 2G-40 fc in
an empty room.
8. Storage areas: general illumination of 5-10 footcandles SUSPENSION
150to 100 luxl. CABLE~
FLUORESCENT
LAMP
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
TANDEM 8'-0" LAMPS
A low-bay layout using HID lighting requires the fewest (THREE 16'-0"
LONG FIXTURES)
luminaires. HPS offers the longest lamp life and lowest
maintenance costs. Metal halide lighting is preferred for vis-
ibility and color rendering.
HID LOW-BAY LAYOUT 18'-0" HIGH
sHELVING UNITS
I I G I I I I FLUORESCENT DOWNLIGHTING
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
<;>
I I 'o I I I I
x ~
I I I I I I BALLAST
I I I I I I HOUSING
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
FLUORESCENT
LUMINAIRE \ L J L J L_J
DOWNLIGHTS
..y=F=~~::;:;--\-.--HID
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN LAMP
NOTE
NOTE
In the left aisle shown. two 250-watt HPS aisle lighter
Fluorescent luminaires offer superior color and flicker-free down lights illuminate the shelving units at 0.6 W/sq ft. In CLEAR
operation with electronic ballasts. No warmup time, instant the right aisle. the task is performed by fluorescent F96T8/ GLASS
restriking, and long lamp life are other advantages of this HO lamps at 0.5 W/sq ft. The fixture mounting height is LENS
lighting type. about 18 ft above finished floor.
FLUORESCENT LOW-BAY LAYOUT ACTIVE AISLE LIGHTING FOR HID DOWNLIGHTING
WAREHOUSES
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Outdoor Lighting Systems 59
SHARP CUTOFF FLOODLIGHTS resemble shoebox park- LIGHTING INFORMATION SOURCES
GENERAL
ing lot luminaires with characteristics of Type IV distribu-
Outdoor lighting systems include a wide variety of lighting The best general purpose reference document for Iightmg
tion. These luminaires are designed to be elevated slightly
types used to illuminate buildings, parking areas, roads, information is the IESNA Lighting Handbook, published by
in front to throw light farther. Sharp cutoff floods are espe-
landscapes, signs, and other outdoor areas. the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America in
cially good for car lots and sports lighting near residential
New York. IESNA Recommended Practices provide in-
districts where light trespass must be avoided.
depth information on specific applications, for example.
STREET AND ROADWAY L1GHTING
office lighting, roadway lighting, and residential lighting
Four significantly different lighting systems are used to ifiu- LIGHT TRESPASS AND POLLUTION
minate roads and streets (and often large parking lots). All LIGHT TRESPASS occurs when outdoor night lighting Additional information on new and evolving lighting tschnol-
employ high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps: encroaches onto adjacent properties. Trespassing light is ogies is available from Advanced Lighting Guidelines, a pub-
often annoying and can be quite offensive. Some cities lication of the U.S. Department of Energy from Battelle
Standard roadway lights, called cobraheads, are usually have ordinances designed to prevent light trespass, Pacific Northwest National Labs, and from Specifier
mounted to a mast arm and suspended over the road- although few of these are competently written. Reports, published by the Lighting Research Center at
way at mounting heights of 25-40 ft. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
2, Sharp cutoff roadway lights, called shoeboxes. are spe- LIGHT POLLUTION occurs when light is emitted upwards
cifically designed to minimize light pollution and trespass. into the night sky. It both wastes energy and causes light Additional information on design and applications can be
They are typically mounted between 20 and 40 ft. pollution, a condition in which the upward light strikes dirt found in a number of textbooks on the SUbject of architec-
and airborne pollution and obscures the view of the night tural lighting design, landscape lighting, and related topics.
3. Traditionally shaped post lights often have a particular
theme or design. They are usually less than 25 ft high. sky. Some municipalities and counties with important Popular lighting industry publications offering current
observatories have developed lighting ordinances that regu- projects and industry news include Lighting Design and
4. High mast lights consist of multiple high-wattage lamps late light sources, cutoff, and hours of operation in an Application, Architectural Lighting, Lighting Dimensions,
atop poles 60-120 It high. attempt to make astronomy more possible. and Architectural Record Lighting Supplement.
~
LUMINAIRE FOR
FREEWAY
prevented by using sharp cutoff equipment and careful
INTERSECTIONS design practices. For street and roadway lighting, this
AND VERY LARGE means using shoebox luminaires, including decorative lumi-
PARKING LOTS naires that employ shoebox-style optics. For floodlighting,
COMMON EXTERIOR
LIGHTING TYPES
mm
I
this means using sharp cutoff floodlights and special sports
lights equipped with louvers and visors to prevent upward TYPE USE
light. These high-performance lights require careful layout
U M IN A IR E FOR MOST Bollards Walkway and pathway light-
ROADS AND PARKING LOTS to meet design criteria.
ing. A typical bollard is 42-48
in. high and uses a lamp
LUMINAIRE
LUMINAIRES FOR STREET ranging from about 35-watt
FOR MALLS, AND PARKING LIGHTING to 1On-watt HID (high-inten-
\ BUILDING sity discharge!.
o ft=:j ENTRIES,
CATEGORY USE
AND FORMAL
'"o STREET
LIGHTING
Type I Roads and streets
where the lumi-
I- naire is mounted
o in the median or
'" ~ c::::::: 0 :> suspended over
o the road center.
I- Spacing is 6-7
-0 in MHO Step lights Walkway and stairway light-
ing from adjacent retaining
'" walls. The light is mounted at
Tvpe II Roads and streets or below the rail height
where the turni-
naire is mounted
above the road but
Q
and not above the
LAYOUT OF STREET AND PARKING LOT LIGHTING. Most road; also used
luminaires for street and parking lighting are categorized for parking lots.
according to the lighting patterns they create on the Spacing is 4-5
ground. Types I-V are described in the accompanying chart. Landscape lights Includes a wide variety of
MH.' low-level lights, such as path,
Computer point-by-point calculations are recommended. planter bed, and wallwash
Tvpe IV Parking lots and lights and uplights in several
However, it is possible to layout roadway and parking lot
lighting using isolux curves (similar to those illustrated), service areas styles. For residential land-
requiring a forward scapes, most lighting sys-
Q
making sure the overlapping footcandle lines achieve at
least 25% of the intended average footcandle level. throw distribution. tems are low voltage (12V
typically) for ease of wiring
and safety.
AREA FLOODLIGHTING
Floodlighting is used to illuminate exterior fields, lots, yards.
docks, and other similar areas. Special care is often needed
to minimize light trespass and light pollution. Type V Parking lots.
Spacing is 3-4 Parking garage lights Parking garages. These are a
Floodlights are described by their light distribution. The MHO unique type of HID luminaire
G)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
designed specifically for the
developed a system in which floodlight beams are mea-
low concrete ceilings of
sured in degrees of vertical and horizontal distribution, then garages. They typically are
rated from 1 (very narrow field anglel to 7 (very wide field
100- to 175-watt fixtures.
angle!.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
Mark Rea, ed., IESNA Lighting Handbook (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 19931
LIGHTING DESIGN
60 Site Lighting
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA STARTING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURE: Fixtures Short 'pedestrian" poles: similar to parking lot luminaires
should be able to start and operate at the lowest expected these poles are 8~ 15 ft high and use lower wattage:
Thelighting levels given here are average figures temperature on a site. Minimum starting temperatures for lamps. Spacing is 4-6 times the mounting height.
common sources are shown in the accompanying table. Low level 'bollards": these are typically 42-48 in. high
Parking lots with pedestrian cross-traffic: from 0.8 fe in Spacing is about 4 times the height of the bollards.
places with low activity to 3.6 fc in places with a high LIGHT TRESPASS: Minimize the light shining onto adjacent
level of activity; uniformity of 4:1 Step lights recessed into retaining walls
properties by uSing sharp cutoff lighting. Maximum mount-
Parking lots with minimum pedestrian cross-traffic: from ing height for a fixture is a function of the cutoff angle. 4. Building-mounted wall brackets (wallpacks}.
0.5 fc and uniformity of 4;1 in places of low activity to 2.0 Keep in mind the overhang of adjacent buildings Canopies
fe with uniformity of 3:1 in places of h"lgh activity. LIGHT POLLUTION: Minimize light pollution by preventing and soffits can serve as locations for recessed lighting to
stray upward light. Use cutoff luminaires. illuminate walks near the building foundation
Sidewalks and bikeways: from 0.2 fc with 10:1 unifor-
mity in residential areas to 1.0 fe with 4:1 uniformity in
commercial areas. MINIMUM STARTING
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
4 Building entrances: from 1.0 fc near inactive entrances to
FOR PARKING AREAS TEMPERATURES
5.0 fe at active entrances
COMMON LIGHT MINIMUM
Outdoor industrial areas: 0.2 fe for storage and dump Poles between 12 it and 40 ft high are most commonly SOURCES TEMPERATURE
areas; 2.0 to 5.0 fe for active loading, unloading, and used for parking areas because they provide good accept-
able light at low cost. Pole spacing is generally about 4 Tungsten (incandescent, halo- Nolimit
rough work areas; 10 to 20 fc for work areas such as pas- gen)
senger loading, gas pumps, and railroad hump areas. times the mounting height; optimum pole heights are 15-
20 It lor spacing along every aisle and 30-40 It lor spacing MH, MV HID Lamps -20°F
6. Outdoor sports: from 5 fc for recreational sport areas to along every other aisle.
150 fc for major league baseball. ReIer to the IESNA HPS lamps -40°F
Lighting Handbook for more information High mast poles higher than 40 ft (up to 100 ftl can be used Fluorescent HO -20°F
to light large parking areas economically. Poles must be Fluorescent T12fTB O"F'
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
equipped with lowering devices for servicing luminaires.
Compact fluorescent _10°F'
COLOR OF LIGHT: White light sources like metal halide,
amalgam 126-32-42 wi
fluorescent. and compact fluorescent luminaires are recom- Floodligh~s mounted onto buildings are often a low-cost
mended for sports, most applications involving pedestrians, alternative to mounting poles. To minimize light trespass, Standard compact 32°F
and situations that require color discrimination. Light the farthest distance from the building to the edge of the fluorescent
sources that provide poor color, such as high-pressure lot or Illuminated area is about 5 times the mounting height.
sodium fixtures, may be better suited for security lighting, "These temperatures are with specific low temperature
Tungsten sources, including halogen fixtures, offer excel- ballast; with standard ballast, the temperature may be as
lent color rendition but poor energy efficiency and short life. DESIGN FOR WALKWAYS high as 50°F.
4 TIMES HEIGHT
OF POLE
12' TO 40'
HIGH
BUILDING·MOUNTED
LIGHTS SIMILAR TO
PARKING LOT
LUMINAIRES:
4 TO 6 TIMES ILLUMINATES DRIVES
HEIGHT AND SIDEWALK
OF POLE
INACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE
TO HAVE 1.0 FC, AVERAGE, LIGHTING
James Robert Benya, PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks; Portland, Oregon
Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Daylighting 61
GENERAL SOURCE LIGHT SHELF
Ample daylight is available throughout most of North Amer- The origin of all daylight is the sun but the light may reach a H = HEIGHT
ica for lighting interior spaces during a large portion of the work space via a nun:ber of paths. Direct sunjqht is intense
working day. Daylight is often used for ambient lighting but and vanes substantially as the sun's position changes 1~
may be used for critical visual tasks as well, in each case throughout the day (up to 10,000 tootcanoles (fell. Daylight IH
supplemented with electric light as needed. Daylight is from a clear sky can be 10 to 25% of the intensity of direct
thought by most to be psychologically desirable. and there
is growing evidence that it is biologically beneficial and can
contribute to enhanced task performance. The variability of
the intensity and color of daylight over time stimulates the
sunlight 11000-2500 fc). Daylight under partly cloudy condi-
tions can be highly variable; daylight under full overcast
conditions can be 5 to 10% of sun conditions 1500-1000fcl.
Data on daylight availability for various cities and building
'-----------'-'---' -t
visual senses, and the view and visual connection with the orientations can be found in several references. Daylight 3H
outdoors that accompanies many daylighting designs is availability at locations in the United States is influenced by
almost universally desired. Proper use of daylight can help latitude and weather patterns. Traditionally overcast cli-
reduce unnecessary energy use for electric lighting and mates such as Seattle may have sunshine only 40% of the REDIRECTED DAYLIGHT PENETRATION
cooling, if the electric lighting system is controlled with on- year while regions like Palm Springs, California, have sunny INTO A SPACE
off switching or dimming. conditions for 90% of the year.
A window of a given size will provide the most daylight
deep in a space when it is located as high as possible on
Exterior conditions (ground, trees, water, adjacent build-
the wall. Light-eolored walls and ceilings maximize the day-
DESIGN STRATEGIES ings) can all influence interior daylight levels. In some cases
light levels in the rear of a space. Deeper spaces need
the architect can control these conditions to enhance day-
Daylight has always been an important element of architec- light levels. Nearby trees will filter daylight and adjacent larger windows to provide more light but larger windows
tural design, and in the era before cheap electric light it was buildings may obstruct the view of the sky and block direct have other drawbacks. The uniformity ratio between the
often a major determinant of a building's form. In buildings daylight level in the front and back of a room becomes
sun. In built-up urban environments, windows on lower
today daylighting strategies are used in a variety of con- larger as the room becomes deeper and should not exceed
floors of buildings adjacent to multistory buildinqs will
texts, both as a strategy to define the quality of experience a ratio of 10:1. A splayed window reveal will reduce glare
receive little useful daylight. The south facade of a light col-
in an architectural space as well as in a more utilitarian role ored building that is struck by direct sunlight can become a and ease the transition from bright exterior to darker inte-
to reduce unneeded use of electric lighting. rior. Sloped ceiling surtaces may improve daylight utilization
very bright light source for the north facing windows of an
adjacent building. but their biggest benefit is typically the greater ceiling
Daylighting usually supplements or complements an elec- height at the perimeter. Interior walls and partitions will
tric lighting design, so it is essential that the two be fully reduce daylight levels. Use of light colors or glazed interior
Orientation has a major impact on available daylight and
integrated. For a given building program and climate, it may influences the degree of difficulty in controlling sunlight on partition walts will help mitigate this undesired impact.
be feasible and desirable to create spaces in which the pri-
a facade. North orientations in most North American loca-
mary light source is daylight. In others, electric lighting will Distribution of daylight in a space can be greatly improved if
tions receive direct sunlight only in the early morning or late
be the primary source, supplemented by daylight. The deci- it is introduced from multiple apertures-for example, win-
evening in summer. South facades have the longest expo-
sion to make daylight the primary source will directly influ- sure to direct sun. Given the high altitude angle of the sun dows on two sides of a space, or windows and cleresto-
ence other design decisions such as the size of the floor ries, or windows and skylights. In low-rise buildinqs,
in summer, sun control on the south facade is readily
plan, the arrangement of spaces within the floor plan, and diffusing skylights are an effective way to daylight a space.
addressed with properly sized overhangs. In winter low alti-
the overall massing and configuration of the building. The skylights are diffusing and their spacing is optimized
tude sun must be controlled by shades, blinds, or other
Designs intended to maximize daylight use will either pro- based on ceiling height. More elaborate toplighting sys-
means. Low altitude direct sun on east and west orienta-
vide perimeter access to each space or utilize low-rise tems can utilize a variety of roof monitors or clerestories.
tions causes glare and cooling problems and is the most dif-
designs that allow skylights to provide daylight. Atriums
ficult to control. Exterior vertical fins or interior vertical
and light courts can provide some useful daylight in low-rise
blinds provide control but allow some view.
buildings of two to five stories. The best strategy for day-
lighting in high-rise buildings is to ensure that no spaces on
Not only does the intensity of daylight and sunlight vary but FULL HEIGHT WINDOW
the floor plan are more than 30 It from a daylighting source.
the color or appearance varies as well. The characteristic
yellow-white of direct sunlight becomes' redder as the sun
moves lower in the sky and travels through more air mass.
DESIGN PROCESS The north sky on a clear day can be deep blue, a result of
To be successful, daylighting requires the integration of all scattering processes in the atmosphere. Cloudy 'and hazy
major building systems. Daylighting issues should be well skies typically have a uniform white appearance. Daylight is
defined in the programmatic or schematic phases of design a full-spectrum source that, notwithstanding its variability,
and monitored through construction to occupancy. Early will faithfully render the color of most materials, something
planning is essential, since it may be difficult and costly to that not all electric lamps can do. The sun and sky are pow-
add features later in design development. Many architects erful sources of ultraviolet light that can damage pigments
and lighting designers are skilled in resolving daylighting in paintings and turnishinqs. Design in light sensitive appli-
design issues and trade-offs. However, in designs that I cations such as museums must pay particular attention not
push the state of the art, present unusual conditions, or only to the UV characteristics of daylight but also to the vis- LlGHT·COLORED
have quantitative performance expectations that must be ible light portions, which are responsible for some fading. , ROOM SURFACE
met, it may be appropriate to use a daylighting consultant Certain glazing options will reduce these negative effects of -,,
with expertise in many of the computer-based tools now light to acceptable levels. , -,
-,
available (see discussion below, Design and Analysis
Tools).
ENVELOPE AND ROOM DESIGN .... ......................
Although critical design decisions related to plan and sec-
tion will be determined early, many seemingly small deci-
Building envelope and room design details can be thought
of as the light fixture that controls the distribution of day- ~~~~.;~~~~~~ ~-----
sions are made in the final stages of design and bid
light in a space. Envelope decisions include the size, shape,
preparation that can influence the success of a daylighted
and location of the fenestration and the type of glazing and
space. These include issues such as interior finishes, furni-
shading system. Room geometry, size, and surface proper-
ture specifications, and installation details for controls. After
ties also influence achievable daylight levels.
construction is complete, most daylighting systems involv-
ing controls and operable systems should be calibrated and
There are practical limits to room size beyond which con-
commissioned. The final step in the process is to ensure
ventional window systems are ineffective. The depth limita-
that facility managers and occupants understand the opera-
tion of a daylighted zone with windows becomes a
tion of the complete system.
fundamental constraint and design determinant. for
designs that use diffuse daylight from the sky, clouds, or
surrounding environment, it is difficult to provide adequate
daylight when the depth of the space is more than 1.5 or 2
times the height of the head of the window. (Designs that
redirect daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using light
shelves or light redirecting glazings might be able to extend
this to 3 times the ceiling height.)
H = HEIGHT
r "'"
::: '-( OF LIGHT LEVEL
L..---------'-='=---
IH
-t
!~~ ( DEEP OVERHANG
-"~,---~~---+
2H l
'I
LIGHT PATHS TO A WqRK SPACE DIFFUSE DAYLIGHT PENETRATION RELATIVE INDICATOR OF LIGHT
INTO A SPACE LEVELS WITH VARIOUS DESIGNS
LIGHTING DESIGN
62 Daylighfing
New types of light redirecting systems such as prismatic overall lighting concept includes the controls used to man
glazings provide shading at a task location by redirecting the age the electric lighting system. Many designers behevr
sunlight to the ceiling. Light shelves can also provide shad- that an indirect lighting system that illuminates the ceihr.:
Ing as well as some control of daylight levels and light distri- and wall surface is a better complement to a daylighteu
bution. Simple, flat light shelves with white, diffuse space than a direct lighting system. Such an indirect ambi-
surfaces will provide some shading near the window and ent system might be used with task lights to produce
brighten the ceiling near the window but will not redirect higher illuminance levels where needed. Electric lightin~;
light deep into a room, The size, shape, location, and sur- sources may be chosen for their compatibility with colo'
face properties of light shelves will have a significant influ- temperature in a daylighted space, their ability to dim, anc
ence on their ability to redistribute light in a space. the ability to quickly restart if switched off
H '" HEIGHT 5 "" SPACING S < 1.5 H A well-daylighted space will only save energy if lighting can
trois are used to turn off or dim electric lighting. For most
systems the control options are on-off switching, multilevel
LIGHT LEVELS WITH SKYLIGHTS switching, or dimming. Dimming is the preferred strategy
because it changes light levels smoothly, often mak.n.
--'~SOUTH ~:g~F changes in electric light levels unnoticeable in the space
jo~i:'M
Oaylighting controls may also be combined with othe
forms of lighting control to achieve even greater energy
savings. To guarantee energy and cost savings, automatic
controls are preferable to manual controls, although occu
pants should be able to override any automatic system
Switching or dimming systems must be designed with care
EXTERNAL BLINDS INTERNAL INTERNAL to capture daylighting savings. The layout of circuits for fix
BLINDS BETWEEN BLINDS SHADES tures must be coordinated with the pattern of available day
GLASS light. These zoning issues are more important in open plan
spaces than in perimeter single offices. Photocell sensors
SHADING DEVICES NEAR GLAZING in automatic control systems must be properly located in
SURFACE
the space, and the entire control system must be calibrated
TOPLIGHTING SYSTEM TYPES
after installation. A users' manual for occupants is recom
SKYLIGHTS AND SLOPED mended.
GLAZING AND SHADING DESIGN GLAZING
Selection of a glazing system can have a tremendous Light distribution from skylights is intrinsically more uniform
impact on the performance of a daylighting system. The than that from windows. Skylight solutions range from sim- TOTAL BUILDING ENERGY
glazing controls the amount of light admitted, its intensity, ple vacuum-formed plastic domes to sophisticated, multi- CONSUMPTION
and its directionality as it enters a space. The challenge is to layer glazing products. Skylights in work areas with office
tasks should provide diffuse light so that its distribution is Final daylighting design decisions must account for the
admit adequate light to achieve illumination objectives with-
relatively uniform. Nondiffusing glazings will result in visual interaction of other systems, such as heating and cooling
out creating glare or causing overheating or large cooling
hot spots and glare. Light diffusion can be achieved by impacts of the glazing and the cooling impacts of electric
loads. Numerous glazing systems are available to control
lighting use. Although the specifics vary with climate and
solar gain and the transmittance, distribution, and color of using diffusing plastic bubble skylights, high transmission
glazing with a diffusion screen below, some of the fritted other building design and operation details, the general
light.Conventional clear and tinted gJazings are still offered
trend of the lighting-HVAC trade-off is well known. It is use-
but low-E coated glass or plastic and spectrally selective glasses or laminates with diffusing layers, or exterior shad-
ful to estimate the energy savings as a function of ..ettec
low-E glazings are becoming more popular. These glazings ing systems. Light wells provide a transition from the roof
plane to the lower ceiling plane or the space below. The tive aperture" (EAl. defined as the fraction of the wall that
reduce winter heat loss and reduce cooling load in summer
is glazed (window-to-wall ratios, or WVVR) times the visible
with little additional loss of daylight. They are excellent for geometry and surface properties of the wells determine the
transmittance (Tv) of the glazing system. An EA of .35 or
admitting daylight but glare control must be provided with total light loss. Light wells can reduce the amount of light
entering a space from as little as 10% to as much as 85%. greater is adequate to provide large daylighting savings;
shading systems. In an insulating glass unit, both low-E and
higher levels increase cooling loads with only minimal addi-
tinted glazings can be used to optimize performance. Highly Splayed wells with high reflectance finishes are the best
tional lighting energy savings. Optimal EA values for sky-
reflective glass with very low transmittance has a role in performers. Adequate daylight in most climates is provided
with skylight areas of about 4 to 8% 'with relatively high lights are even smaller; an EA of .05 provides substantial
highly glazed facades with limited sun control options, but
energy savings.
occupants complain about poor views through these glaz- transmittance glazing. Larger areas with proportionally
ings on overcast days or at night. Glazings with a frit layer lower transmittance will work as well. A completely glazed
provide some sun and glare control. roof or sloped glazing may be used but the transmittance of
the glazing should be about 5%. The importance of control- DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOLS
Some new options available to designers promise greater ling heat gain depends in part on the occupancy of the Since many critical architectural decisions that affect day-
optical control capability. Prismatic glazings can redirect space and the climate. In most skylight and sloped glazing lighting solutions occur early in the design process, it is
light, and between-glass elements can provide varying designs, safety codes require laminated glass or alternative essential that the design consequences of those decisions
degrees of light control and solar control. safety solutions; consult code authorities or manufacturers. be predictable. It is also important that the design intent of
a daylighting solution be communicated to all members of
Adequate control of sun and glare is often difficult to pro- CLEAR ~ DIFFUSING the design team so that decisions made later in the process
vide with glazing selection alone. Architectural shading TINTED will support and reinforce the original intent. Relatively sim-
solutions are typically part of the exterior facade. Other ple changes late in the process, ranging from a change in
shading devices can be positioned outside the glazing, paint color to improper sensor position, can have a signifi-
between glazings, or at the interior surface. Shading svs- cant impact on the success of a daylighting plan. However,
terns can be static or operable, controlled either by occu- a number of tools are available to help predict the perfor-
pants or with motorized, automated controls. Shading mance of a daylighting system.
systems that are intended to block sunlight alone can be
dark, but light-eolored systems should be used if the intent Physical Scale Models: Since lighting scales perfectly, day
is to provide diffuse daylight. Overhangs, fins, shade / lighting levels in a small-scale model placed outdoors will
screens, venetian blinds, vertical blinds, miniature louvers, / be the same as the full-size building space (assuming the
and roller shades are commonly used systems. Operable I model faithfully reproduces all of the parameters that influ-
systems are often preferred because they can take advan- / ence light levels, such as geometry and surface reflec-
tage of the variability of sunlight and daylight. In open plan / tances), It is important to account for the effects of
offices it may be desirable to use motorized, automated partitions and furnishings, which can significantly influence
shading controls; in sif1gle-person offices it is likely that the light levels. The continuous variability of the outdoor sky
occupant will use the shading controls as needed. also must be accounted for when trying to compare results
DAYLIGHT DISTRIBUTION WITH of successive measurements. One alternative is to use
SKYLIGHT TYPES
ttr
simultaneous measurements in side-by-side models. In all
model measurements, care must be exercised in construc-
tion details, and accurate light measurement equipment
must be used.
111
EFFICiENT
niques to produce photorealistic images that are not only
INEFFICIENT
LIGHT WELL
quantitatively accurate but also assist the designer in under-
LIGHT WELL
standing the qualitative aspects of daylighting design under
LIGHT WELL DESIGN a variety of sun and sky conditions. Some whole building
energy simulation tools also model daylighting impacts
Those that can account for the hourly operational character-
ELECTRIC LIGHTING istics of light sensors and shading device operation can
INTEGRATION AND CONTROLS assist with understanding the lighting and thermal trade-
LIGHT SHELF AWNING VERTICAL Because people respond to the overall luminous environ- offs involved in developing efficient building designs
LOUVERS ment, it is important that electric lighting and daylighting be
WINDOW SHADING DEVICES designed and specified as a well-integrated system. The
LIGHTING DESIGN
Principles of Sound 63
GENERAL
Sound is energy produced by a vibrating object or surface
and transmitted as a wave through an elastic medium. Such
a medium may be air (airborne sound) or anv solid common
building material, such as steel. concrete, wood, piping, gyp-
y))
sum board. etc. (structure-borne sound). A sound wave has
amplitude and frequency.
16
I
31.5 63 125
l
250
I OCTAVE"I
500 1000
I
2000 4000 8000 16000
'j
31500
Low pedal stop on organ
••
Highest note on piano
Trucks, buses
Human hearing
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
64 Sound Absorption Properties of Materials
GENERAL NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT
WAWNNL
All materials and surfaces absorb some sound greater than The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is the arttbmet« aver- ~ ~~~~I M EN
SOUND-
0% and less than 100%. The percentage of incident sound age of the absorption coefficients, a, at four designated tre- ABSORBIN(,
energy that is absorbed by a material, divided by 100, equals quencres: 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2,000 Hz. These . -. MATERIAL
the coefficient of absorption, designated a. which ranges frequencies have been selected because they represent the
middle range of most representative sound sources perti-
TYPE A MOUNTING ~ --
from 0 to .99. The coefficient varies as a function of fre- TEST ROar-.'
quency, Hz. nent to architectural applications. Because the NRC value is
~:::::
meant to be only a general indication of a material's effi-
Any material can be tested in a proper laboratory to deter- ciency at absorbing sound, it is rounded off to the nearest
mine its ex values, as per ASTM C423. Some tests give val- .05 value and often represented as a .10 range (for example,
ues greater than 1.0. but this is an anomaly caused by the 50 to .60). NRC ratings can never be less than 0 or greater
testing procedure; such values should be corrected to be not than 1.00. The following formula can be used to compute
more than 1.0, since no material can absorb more than the NRC for a particular application:
TYPE D MOUNTING
100% of the incident energy that strikes its surface. NRC = (a250 + a500 + a1000 + a2000)/4
·37 V
;: DEPTH
o,
POROUS ABSORPTION entails the use of soft, porous,
..fuzzy" materials like glass fiber, mineral wool, and carpet. 'o"
The pressure fluctuations of a sound wave in air cause the
fibers of such materials to move, and the friction of the
III
W
-c / NRC=
.65 + 72 + .80 + .83
4
-
-
75
--
SAME MATERIAL
o
III
W / V 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 z
o
TYPE E MOUNTING "--------
,................ ;'"
o"
IL
I- 0.5
Z
W / /
1/
ACOUSTICAL
TILE
/'
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
ii:
'o"
III
m ".. -- / r-,
o"
U
iL
IL
W -r /
The sound-absorbinq coefficients for a given material may
vary depending on the thickness of the material. how it is
supported or mounted, the depth of the air space behind the
IL
t- 0.5
Z
/
PERFO~~
-,
8 l/ / r'--CARPET
material, and the facing in front of the. material. In general.
thicker porous materials absorb more sound; the air space
w
U
/ FACING
"
"
../
V behind a material will increase the absorption efficiency,
especially at low frequencies; and thin facings degrade high
iL
IL A
.
W
frequency absorption. o I-- TYPICAL ACOUSTICAL
~ U MATERIAL: TYPE A
o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 MOUNTING ASSEMBLIES " MO,NTINi
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN HZ) For consistency in comparing test results, there are set stan-
dards for the mounting assembly used in testing absorbent
PANEL ABSORPTION involves installation of thin light- materials. These mounting conditions should be reported o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
weight panels like gypsum board, glass, and plywood. along with any and all test data so that the data accurately
Sound waves cause panels to vibrate. Sound absorption for reflect field conditions. Mounting types A, D, and E are typi- OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
a panel is greatest at that resonant frequency. cal for standard sound-absorbing materials. A numerical suf-
NOTE
fix is used to specify the mounting depth in millimeters; for
TYPICAL VALUES FOR PANEL ABSORPTION example, E-400 indicates mounting type E with a 400 mm Acoustical performance varies with mounting assembly and
airspace (a typical 16 in. plenum). Mounting types are speci- facing.
10 fied by ASTM E795.
iL
IL
W
o
.>: ~ V Acoustical tile, surface-mounted
Acoustical tile, suspended
.34
.43
.28
.38
.45
.53
66
.77
.74
.87
.77
.77
.55
.65
u
I \ "r-... LIGHTWEIGHT
WOOD PANELS Acoustical tile, painted (sst.) .35 .35 .45 50 .50 .45 .45
--
.15 .19 .22 .38 .30 .30
---j
Audience area, occupied, upholstered
seats 39 .57 .80 .94 .92 .87 80
o 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 Glass fiber, 1 in .04 .21 .73 .99 .99 .90 .75
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz) Glass fiber, 4 in. .77 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .95
CAVITY ABSORPTION entails the movement of air pressure Thin fabric, stretched tight to wall 03 .04 .11 .17 .24 .35 .15
fluctuations across the narrow neck of an enclosed air cavity,
such as a space behind a perforated panel or a slotted con- Thick fabric, bunched 4 in. from wall .14- .35 55 .72 .70 65 .60
crete masonry unit. also called a Helmholtz resonator. The
natural frequency at which the resonator most efficiently NOTE
absorbs sound is related to the volume of the cavity, the size This table gives representative absorption coefficients at or extrapolate from similar constructions. All materials have
of the neck opening, and the presence of any insulation in various frequencies for some typical materials. To deter- some absorption values that can be determined from
the cavity. mine values not provided here, refer to manufacturer's data proper test reports.
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Room Acoustics 65
GENERAL UJ
U SOUI"JO ABSORPTION
SOUND ABSORPTION
The total sound absorbing units (a) provided by a given mate- Z 83>3 2>8 1 11l 8 3 >8 2 >a 1
UJ
rial are a function of the absorptive properties (0;) and surface CCJ -'
W
UJUJ m
area (S) of that material as defined by the formula 11l u, >
U
-,
-' UJw
a = S" W 0::-' INDOORS)
W
o
-
in which a = sabins (units of sound absorption), S = surface
Ql \ a,
area (measured in sq m or sq ttl. and a = the coefficient of
8o --"'0 ~
absorption.
~
·6
~ a,
...i
w
>
'j
~ j1-
The total sabins in a room can be determined by adding ...i \ az
w az o
together the sabins of all the surfaces. which vary as a func- > Z
w ·12 " ' - SHORTER
~
tion of frequency. Since most materials absorb more high~ -' :J
frequency sound waves than low-frequency ones, it is typi- o NOISE REDUCTION
a3
a11l REVERBERATION
-,
8 TIME
~6~~gl~~SORPTION ~
Z
cal to find more sabins in a room at high frequencies than at :J g! OUTDOORS
3
low frequencies. a
~
11l
Auditoriums, churches, etc. Special considerations and Floor Carpet 600 sq h .37 222 Outdoors, sound waves expand spherically, becoming more
(list) complex applications dispersed li.e., quieter) over distance and time. Indoors,
Ceiling Acoustical tile 600 sq tt .77 462 sound waves reflect off surrounding surfaces, building up
All 4 walls Gypsum board 1500 sq ft .01 15 energy so sound drops off less quickly over distance or time.
Total - 2700 sq tt - 699 SOUND PATTERNS
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
66 Transmission Loss Properties of Materials
GENERAL the same weight The transmission loss tends to increase two spaces. It is the amount of sound blocked by all inter
about 5 dB for each doubling of the airspace between vening sound paths between rooms, including ttfIe cammal
The property of a material or construction system that blocks wythes (minimum effective space is approximately 2 in.). wall but also the floor, ceiling, outside path, dOOJl'5. etc
the transter of sound energy from one side to another is Resilient attachment of surface skins to studs or structural
transmission loss (TL), which is measured in decibels (dB). surfaces provides a similar benefit, as do separate wvthes Noise reduction also depends on the relative siZ!eof a room
Specifically, TL is the attenuation of airborne sound trans- If the noise source is in a small room next to a ilJrge receiv
mission through a construction during laboratory testing ABSORPTION: Use of soft, resilient absorptive materials in ing room {like an office next to a cvrnnasrumn. the nois.
according to ASTM EgO. Transmission less values range the cavity between wvthes. particularly for lightweight stag- reduction will be greater than the TL oertorrnsnceot the we
from 0 to 70 or 80 (or higher). A high TL value indicates a gered or double stud con~truction, increases transmission alone because the sound radiating from the ccrJJnmon wa
better ability to block sound; that is, more sound energy is loss slgn!flcantly. Viscoelastic (somewhat resilient but not fully between office and gym is dissipated in such a tlirge space
"lost" as the sound wave travels through the material elastic) materials. such as certain insulation boards, dampen On the other hand, if the noise source is in a largJeroom next
or restrict the vibration of rigid panels such as gypsum board to a small one (as from a gym to an office ne»l door). the
Sound transmission class (STC) is a single number rating and plywood, increasing transmission loss somewhat. Follow noise reduction will be far less than the TL of thte wall alone
system designed to combine TL values from many frequen- manufacturer-recommended installation details. because the common wall, which radiates sourna is such a
cies. STC values for site-built construction range from 10 large part of the surface of the smaller room. AnlarJjustment
(practically no isolation, e.g., an open doorway) to 65 or 70 NOISE REDUCTiON for this ratio, plus the contribution of the absorptive finishes
(such high performance is only achieved with special con- in the receiving room, enters into the catculatioa of act;
struction techniques). Average construction might provide Noise reduction (NR} depends on the properties of a room
noise reduction between adjacent spaces.
noise reduction in the range of STC 30 to 60. and is the actual difference in sound pressure level between
-.
It is very difficult to measure the STC performance of a sin- GRAPHIC TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE COMPOSITE TRANSMISSION LOSS
gle wall or door in the field because of the number of flank- (COMBINING TWO DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS)
ing paths and nonstandard conditions. Field performance is
measured with noise isolation class (NIC) ratings, which
cover effects from all sound transfer paths between rooms.
<.
To determine the STC rating for a particular construction, the !: 2
I~
STC curve shown in the accompanying figure is applied over
the transmission loss (Tl) curve for a laboratory test of the
G
z
construction. The STC curve is then manipulated in accor- Z
~
dance with prescribed rules to obtain the highest possible w
"""
a. PERCENT OF TOTAL AREA OCCUPIE[
rating. The procedure states that the TL curve cannot be o BY DOOR, WINDOW OPENING
------- --
curve that are above the STC curve are of no benefit in the 7
rating. The object is to move the STC curve up as high as 3' r-, <,
8 <, r-, r-,
<i
possible and to read the STC rating number from the point
where the STC curve at 500 Hz crosses the TL curve o
o
9
10 --- "- <,
r-, ~
<,
o
r--
~
The STC curve has three segments: the first segment from u,
o
i'- r-,
l'--I'-
--
125 to 400 Hz, rises at the rate of 9 dB per octave (3 dB per
I--
~ t---- r- r-- r-,
-
..J
one-third octave); the second segment, from 400 to 1250 t::
Hz, rises at the rate of 2 dB per octave (1 dB per one-third
20
I---
octave); and the third segment, from 1250 to 4000 Hz, flat.
~ r- r--r-- r-
~ ~~
:J
..J
~ ~
- t--
r-- -f::::: f:: f::::: r-
~ r-
TRANSMISSION LOSS
- s-.
u, 30
~ '-~
Design of construction and materials for high transmission o
loss builds on three principles:
50
--- t--
r----::::::::: ~
~~
the frequency of sound, the weight (or mass) and stiffness
F- <,
of the construction, and the cavity absorption. Theoretically, 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
the transmission loss increases at the rate of 6 dB per dou- dB TO BE SUBTRACTED FROM TL OF WALL TO OBTAIN TL OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
bling of the surface weight of the construction. A single solid
panel behaves less well than the mass law would predict
since the mass law assumes a homogeneous, infinitely resil- NOTES combining the TL (or STC) values of the corneonents or
ient material/wall. the wall alone, in accordance with the chart attJlve.
1. When a wail or surface of a room is made up of two or
more different structures (e.q., a window in an outside 2. Note that small gaps and cracks such as the pm:imeter of
SEPARATION: Improved TL performance without an undue
wall or a door in an office). the TL performance (or STC) an ungasketed door can dramatically degrade, ale perfor
increase in mass can be achieved by separation of materials.
of the composite construction should be evaluated by mance of a high TL construction.
A true double wall with separate unconnected elements per-
forms better than the mass law predicts for a single wall of
SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC) RATING CURVE
BENEFIT OF AIRSPACE IN IMPROVING
TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL)
z>-
w
:i'
w 301-----+--+--+-----1'----+----1 STC RATING VALUE
.......
> ....... i.--
o
[CD AIRSPACE, IN IN 6·· /
:i''''
~~ 201----+---+--+--1----+--:>--"'1
/
~~
3··
V
X
o0: V
a.
a. 1/
-c
NOTE
If two layers of dense material are separated by an airspace
(rather than being continuous), they create two independent
walls. The improvement in transmission loss depends on the
size of the airspace and the frequency of sound., Avoid rigid ~
~
0
00
8~ ~
~
2_ N8 ~
N
2~ 8~ 8~ g~ 8m Q
0
00
N
8~ 80 0
~
0 8N 80 Q
0
8~ 80
ties between layers in all double waH construction. The graph
above indicates the approximate improvement in TL when a
~ - - N N ~ ~ ~ m 00
wall of a given weight is split into two separate walls ONE-THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (HZ)
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Sound Isolation and Noise Reduction 67
SOUND ISOLATION CRITERIA GENERAL
SOUND ISOLATiON REQUIREMENT One of the most common goals in the design of sound isola-
RECEIVER ROOM (MIN.) FOR ALL PATHS BETWEEN tion construction is achievement of acoustical privacy from a
SOURCE ROOM OCCUPANCY ADJACENT SOURCE AND RECEIVER neighbor. This privacy is a function of whether the signal
from the neighbor is audible and intelligible above the ordi-
Executive areas, doctors' suites. personnel Adjacent offices and STC 50-55 nary background noise level in the environment.
offices, large conference rooms; confidential pri- related spaces
vacy requirements Privacy index := noise reduction + background noise
Normal offices, regular conference rooms for Adjacent offices and simi- STC 45-50
group meetings; normal privacy requirements lar activities Noise reduction is measured as a field performance where it
is evaluated and given an STC value. Background sound lev-
Large general business offices, drafting areas, Corridors. lobbies. data STC 40-45 els from steadv mechanical heating and ventilating systems.
banking floors processing; similar activi- a constant part of our environment, are measured in accor-
ties dance with ASH RAE standards by a set of uniform curves
called noise criteria (NC) ratings. These NC curves are con-
Shop and laboratory offices in manufacturing labo- Adjacent offices; test STC 40-45
stantly refined, so check the latest ASH RAE quides.
ratory or test areas; normal privacy areas, corridors
Mechanical equipment rooms Any spaces STC 50-60+ 1 Normal privacy, in which you are aware of a neighbor's activ-
ity but not overly distracted by it, can usually be achieved
Multifamily dwellings Neighbors (separate occu- with a privacy index of 68 or higher. Confidential privacy, in
pancy) which you are aware of the neighbor, usually requires a pri-
Bedrooms Bedrooms STC 48-55 2 vacy index of 75 or higher.
Bathrooms STC 52-58 2
Kitchens STC 52-58 2 A quiet environment with little or no natural.background
Living rooms STC 52-57 2 sound (from HVAC systems) between neighbors requires a
Corridors STC 52-58 2 higher degree of sound separation construction to achieve
Living Rooms Living Rooms STC 48-55 2 the same privacy as that in a noisier environment with louder
Bathrooms STC 50-57 2 background sound.
Kitchens STC 48-50'
School buildings Adjacent classrooms IMPACT NOISE DESIGN CRITERIA
STC 50
Classrooms Laboratories STC 50 Floors are subject to impact or structure-borne sound trans-
Corridors STC45 mission noises such as footfalls. dropped objects, and scrap-
Large music or drama area Adjacent music or drama ing furniture. Parallel to development of laboratory sound
area STC 60 3 transmission class (STC) ratings for partition constructions is
Music practice rooms Music practice rooms STC 55 3 the development of an impact insulation class (lie). This is a
single-number rating system used to evaluate the effective-
Interior occupied spaces Exterior of building STC 35-60" ness of floor construction in preventing impact sound trans-
Theaters. concert halls. lecture halls. radio and 1V Any and all adjacent Use qualified acoustical consultants to assist in mission to spaces beneath the floor. The current lie rating
studios the design of construction details for these critical method is similar to the STC rating.
occupancies
Testing for IIC ratings is a complex procedure using a stan-
1 Use acoustical consultants when designing mechanical connections between layers or, preferably, structurally dard tapping machine. Because the machine is portable, it
equipment rooms to house equipment other than that independent" room-within-a-room" construction. The level cannot simulate the weight of a person walking across a
used for air handling (e.g., chillers, pumps, and compres- of continuous background noise, such as that provided by floor. Therefore, the creak or boom footsteps cause in a tim-
sors) and heavy manufacturing areas that house equipment the HVAC system or an electronic masking system, has a ber floor cannot be reflected in the single-figure impact rat-
that generates noise at or above OSHA allowable levels or significant impact on the quality of construction selected ing produced from the tapping machine. The correlation
generates high vibration levels. and must be coordinated with the other design parame- between tapping machine tests in the laboratory and field
ters. performance of floors under typical conditions may vary
2 Ratings depend on nighttime, exterior background levels
greatly, depending on the construction of the floor and the
and other factors directly related to the location of a build- 4 Ratings depend on the nature of the exterior background
nature of the impact.
ing. Grades I, II, and III are discussed in "Guide to Airborne, noise-its Ievet, spectrum shape. and constancy-as well
Impact, and Structureborne Noise Control in Multifamily as the client's budget and thermal considerations. Use Often the greatest annoyance caused by footfall noise is the
Dwellings:' HUD TS-24 (1974l. qualified acoustical consultants for analysis of high noise low-frequency sound energy it generates, which is beyond
3 The STC ratings shown are guidelines only. These spaces outdoor environments such as airports, highways (espe- the frequency range of standardized tests. Sometimes this
typically- require double layer construction with resilient cially those with heavy truck traffic), and industrial facilities. sound energy is near or at the resonant frequency of the
1~ MIN.
I 1" MIN.
building structure.
++ SEPARATE WOOD OR
METAL STUD WALLS
ON SEPARATE FLOOR
++ GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
Whenever possible. to stifle unwanted sounds use carpet
with padding on floors in residential buildings and resilient,
suspended ceilings with cavity insulation. For especially criti-
cal situations, such as pedestrian bridges or tunnels, hire an
PLATES OR TRACKS
xlJ:-'::""'9tt- FURRING acoustical consultant.
AVOID
BACK·TO· BACK XL-JC-=""'=tT- CMU WALL Slamming doors or cabinet drawers are other sources of
WALL OUTLETS impact noise. If possible. bureaus should not be placed
BATT INSULATION.
~v'\;X7\;;ti::::;;:::::;!+-CHANNEL
R ESILIENT directly against a wall. Door closers or stops can be added to
cushion the impact of energy from a door so it is not
3~THiCK MIN, imparted directly into the structure. Common sense arrange-
STUD WALL WITH ments can help minimize problems in multifamily dwellings.
2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
INSULATION For example, kitchen cabinets should not be placed on the
other side of a common wall from a neighbor's bedroom.
DOUBLE STUD WALL DOUBLE WALL--CMU AND STUD
CONSTRUCTION NOTES
>4---------- CMU WALL 1. Edge attachment and junction of walls. partitions, floors,
ISOLATION BOARD and ceiling can cause large differences in transmission
~ FINISH FLOOR
loss (Tl) performance. The transverse waves set up in
PLYWOOD
~~~~!j~~i .----~~P:;D C SUBFLOOR
continuous, stiff, lightweight walls or floors can carry
sound a long distance from the source to other parts of
the structure with little attenuation. Curtain walls, thin
concrete floors on bar joists, and wood framed structures
~~L.------~~°ci~~~EF~::~NG are particularly SUbject to this weakness.
- - - - - - WOOD FRAMING
ISOLATOR 2. Properly designed discontinuities such. as interrupted
floor slab/toppings are helpful in reducing structural flank-
-, 4. ~ STRUCTURAL
BATT
INSULATION ing.
FLOOR
3. A resilient (airtight) joint between exterior wall and parti-
RESILIENT WOOD FURRING tion or partition and floor can appreciably improve TL
HANGER 4. Continuous pipes, conduits. or ducts can act as transmis-
sion paths from room to room. Care must be taken to iso-
FRAMING
CHANNELS late such services from the structure.
\ { " - , . . - - - . INSULATION
2 LAYERS GYPSUM
WALLBOARD
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
.68 Mechanical System Noise and Vibration Control
GENERAL RECOMMENDED BACKGROUND NOISE CRITERIA FOR TYPICAL
Mechanical system noise, as a major component of acous- OCCUPANCIES
tics in modern buildings, must be addressed in developinq A-WEIGHTED
mechanical design and acoustical goals. TYPE OF SPACE USES NC RATING RANGE DECIBELS
Sensitive listening spaces Broadcast and recording studios, con-
Background sound levels from mechanical systems are mea- NC-15 to NC-20 25 dBA
cert halls
sured and evaluated by means of noise criteria (NC) ratings
as well as by actual A-weighted decibel levels The noise cri- Performance spaces Theaters, churches (no amplification),
teria curves provide a convenient way of defining the ambi- video and teleconferencing (live NC-20 to NC-25 30 dBA
ent noise level in terms of octave band sound pressure microphone)
levels. The NC curves consist of a family of curves that General presentation spaces Large conference rooms, small audi-
relate the spectrum of a noise to the environment being toriurns. orchestral rehearsal rooms,
specified. Higher noise levels are permitted at lower fre- NC-25 to NC-30 35 dBA
movie theaters, courtrooms, meeting
quencies since the ear is less sensitive to noise at these lev- and banquet rooms, executive offices
els. The complete octave band frequency of an acceptable
ambient noise level can be specified with one NC number. Quiet areas Offices, small conference rooms,
classrooms, private residences, hospi- NC-30 to NC-35 40 dBA
Mechanical equipment creates noise and vibration from the tats. hotels, libraries
rotation of the equipment motor. Four aspects of the noise Public spaces Restaurants, lobbies, open plan
NC-35 to NC-40 45dBA
and vibration to be addressed are described here: offices and clinics
Service and support spaces Computer equipment rooms, public
MACHINE NOISE: Sound isolation requirements for the circulation areas. arenas, convention NC-40 to NC-45 50 dBA
walls and floors of a mechanical equipment room depend on floors
the type of equipment to be housed and the sensitivity of
adjacent spaces. Chillers can be extremely loud, requiring
double walls and extra thick floor slabs. Air-handling units NOISE CRITERIA SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL TABLE*
may only require regular wall construction, perhaps STC 50
systems. Major secondary sound paths are duct penetra- SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (DB)
NC
tions, open curbs under rooftop units, and doors; all potential CURVE 63 Hz 125 HZ 250 HZ 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 HZ 4000 HZ 8000 Hz
sound paths must be controlled.
NC-70 83 79 75 72 71 70 69 68
FAN NOISE: Rotation of the fan motor and the fan itself gen- NC-65 80 75 71 68 66 64 63 62
erates noise, which is transmitted along the duct path (both NC-60 77 71 67 63 61 59 58 57
supply and return) to the listening space. Typical fan noise
control elements include package silencers (inserted into a NC-55 74 67 62 58 56 54 53 52
straight run of duct, often at the wall of the mechanical NC-50 71 64 58 54 51 49 48 47
equipment room) and internal acoustical duct lining (glass
NC-45 67 60 54 49 46 44 43 42
fibers adhered to the duct walls). The degree of fan noise
attenuation can be determined by calculations based on the NC-40 64 57 50 45 41 39 38 37
size and sound power levels of the fan, the length and con- NC-35 60 52 45 40 36 34 33 32
figuration of duct runs, the attenuation of the duct systems,
NC-30 57 48 41 36 31 29 28 27
the number and type of diffusers, and the room finishes in
the listening space. NC-25 54 44 37 31 27 24 22 21
NC-20 50 41 33 26 22 19 17 16
AIR NOISE: Movement of air through a duct generates tur-
bulence, which creates noise. For sensitive spaces and quiet NC-15 47 36 29 22 17 14 12 11
noise levels, the airflow must be at low velocity (hence the "For convenience In uSing norse criteria data, the table lists the sound pressure level (SPU In decibels for each NC curve.
need for large ducts) with smooth inlet and outflow condi-
tions. For extremely quiet noise levels, air velocities at dif-
NOISE CRITERIA CURVES
fusers or terminal devices may need to be below 400 fpm.
Volume dampers to control flow for such spaces are critical; 20 75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800
keep dampers 10ft from diffusers, and avoid opposed blade 75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800 9600
dampers at diffusers. A simple duct layout that provides 90
even distribution of air to all diffusers in a room can eliminate
many problems (see preferred duct layout below).
20
VERY
QUIET
FAN
NOTE
10
All diffusers are equidistant from the fan. The system is self-
balancing. The duct layout does not need volume dampers. 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES (HZ)
PREFERRED DUCT LAYOUT
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Performance Spaces 69
GENERAL area of absorption can be calculated to predict RT. The big- SEATS
qest design factor aHecting RT is ceiling height. The relation-
Performance spaces are rooms in which good hearing condi- The largest area of sound-absorbinq surface in a perfor-
ship between the volume of a hall and the number of seats
tions are particularly critical to the use of the space and manee hall is the seating. If the seats are made of a sound-
is often a good approximation of sound quality in the room.
exchange of aural information. Such spaces include class- reflecting material (wood, vinyl. plastic. etc.), their absorptive
rooms, lecture halls, recital halls. theaters. cinemas. concert properties will change dramatically when they are occupied.
In wide halls with high ceilings,seats in the center of the
halls, churches and synagogues. Critical design of a perfor- since a person introduces about 5 sabins for each seat
orchestra often suffer from lack of early reflections. Reflect-
mance space may require assistance from an acoustical con- which significantly affects reverberation time. Use of uphOI~
ing canopies or arrays over the front rows can bring reflected
sultant. but the primary tools at the architect's direction are stered seats or pew cushions makes the RT similar whether
sound to these seating areas, which otherwise may suffer
outlined here: the seats are empty or fully occupied and will never make
from poor articulation. Often. seating at the rear of the bal-
the empty hall RT more dead than it would be when fully
cony does not experience this problem, and these seats
LOUDNESS occupied.
have excellent acoustics.
Audience and performers should be in the same space, and BALCONIES
any sound generated by a speaker or musician should be PREFERRED VOLUME/SEAT
projected efficiently to the audience and captured within the Balconies bring additional persons into a given volume and
RATIOS
space. The "sending end" of the room (i.e., the stage) create more intimacy between audience and performer
should be acoustically hard. Walls near the performer should VOLUME/SEAT However, seating under a balcony can be cut off from the
SOUND QUALITY main volume of sound if the balcony overhang is too great. A
be angled or splayed to enhance projection and prevent 3
CU FT M OF SPACE
"flutter echoes" at the stage. Walls and ceilings where the reasonable rule of thumb is that the overhang depth should
audience sits should be hard so they can reflect sound, Less than 200 Less than 6 Quite dead, suitable for not exceed the height of the opening (greater ratios are
unless absorptive treatment is needed to eliminate problem- speech and cinema acceptable where live music is not part of the program).
atic reflections or focusing or to reduce reverberation time
300 to 350 8to 10 Good for music ORCHESTRA PIT
(RT)for particular program needs.
Greater than 500 Greater than Good for organ music only, The surface over the orchestra pit should be angled to
QUIET 14 too reverberant for speech project sound out to the audience but diffuse so that some
Good hearing environments should maximize the signal-to- energy is reflected back to the performers on stage. The
noise ratio; in other words, in addition to the desired signal front wall of the orchestra pit should be a hard surface so the
being well projected (see loudness), unwanted noise should ARTICULATION front rows of the audience do not hear direct sound and so
be eliminated. To accomplish this requires very low back- that more energy is reflected back to the performers on
Much of the clarity of sound that audiences need for speech
ground sound levels INC-20 perhaps) from mechanical stage. Also. both the front and back walls may need to be
intelligibility and clear musical attacks comes from the sound
equipment. Sound lock vestibules eliminate intrusive noise treated with movable curtains to vary and control the degree
reflected off hard suriaces that reaches listeners within 50
from a lobby and allow latecomers to enter without acous- of sound reflected off these surfaces.
to 80 milliseconds of the direct sound (which always reaches
tical interference to the show, and carpeted aisles help the listener first). To enhance articulation of acoustics in a
reduce footfall noise. Noise from exterior environmental SOUND SYSTEM
hall, the design must ensure there are enough surfaces to
sources should also be considered. Avoid lightweight roofs, reduce the time gap between the initial (direct) sound and Electronic sound systems may be used for amplification
which will transmit rain noise. these early reflections; the initial time delay gap should be (making the source louder for a big hall), for playback or
less than 50 milliseconds. Sound travels 1120 fVsecond lin recorded material, or for both. Depending on the source, the
SPACIOUSNESS SI units. 333 m/secondl. so the initial time delay gap for loudspeakers used to distribute the sound should be located
Because of the lateral configuration of our ears, sound sig- prime seating locations should not exceed 50 ft (13 mJ. at the center slightly in front of the speaker (for speech
nals that are slightly different in each ear allow the listener to amplification) or on the left and right sides (for musical ste-
hear an acoustical quality called spaciousness, which is usu- reo playback or amplification of the orchestra pit). Additional
ally highly desired, especially for classical music. This sense OTHER FACTORS loudspeakers may be needed under a balcony or at the rear
of spaciousness can be enhanced if the distribution of sound Following are several other features to be considered when of the hall to cover the upper balconies. Special effects loud-
through a large hall is diffused. and the ear literally hears designing performance spaces. speakers are added around the hall as needed. The sound
reflections from many facets of the side and rear walls. This control location must be well placed within the audience
diffusion can be enhanced by protrusions and angled sur- FOCUSING area covered by the loudspeakers. Additional transmitters
faces on the side walls. using infrared signals or FM radio signals can be used to
Focusing concentrates sound waves in one area. causing meet ADA requirements.
"hot spots" where the sound is louder or unnatural in qual-
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
ity. Concave surfaces either in plan or section can present
Refer to the accompanying charts on optimum reverberation major focusing problems if they are not identified and
times and preferred volume/seat ratios. Room volume and treated.
MUSIC
l.iturgical-orchestra. chorus, or organ *
Classical symphony
Secular choral works
Opera
Contemporary orchestral works. recital. and chamber music
"Semiclassical" concerts and choral groups with sound systems
Musicals and operettas
Rock concerts
0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.2 '.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 26 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
70 Open Plan Office Acoustics
MAXIMUM SPACING
GENERAL OF OFFICE WORKERS I
CLOSE ENOS
-/----. - OF BARRIER
Open plan offices can provide great flexibility in office arrange-
ments and work flow. However. because .workstations or
cubicles do not have full-height partitions. noise can be a oJ i
major problem in such offices. The extent to which speech is 7~
distracting depends on the degree to which it is intelligible. An
-t-
overheard conversation can be annoying or distracting, while
I
an inaudible murmur is not. When desig.ning open plan I
offices. the need for communication between workstations I SOUND
should be evaluated in light of work functions and practical I ABSORBING
separation. I CEILING
I
Speech intelligibility and acoustics in an open plan office can I PARTIAL
be rated in terms of an articulation index (All. which is a I HEIGHT
measure of the ratio between a signa! (a neighbor's voice or OFFICE I TREAT BARRIER
WORKER. TYP REFLECTING
intrusive noise) and steady background noise (ambient noise I
PATHS
from mechanical equipment, traffic, or electronic sound I
masking). AI values range from near 0 (very low signal and
relatively high noise; no intelligibility or good speech privacy) PLAN SECTION
to 1.0 (very high signal and low noise; excellent communica-
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS FOR SOUND CONTROL IN OPEN OFFICES
tion or no speech privacy). When communication is desired
(e.g., in classrooms or teleconference rooms), it is preferable
The sound should be evenly distributed throughout the may be necessary on some barriers or reflecting surfaces
to have a high AI so people can hear well. In an office, how-
office so no areas are louder than others. In addition, the (e.g., walls, file cabinets).
ever, it is preferable tv have a low AI so people can be freed
sound should not vary in the open plan area by more than 3
from distraction and will be better able to concentrate. Aver-
decibels in any octave band. Masking sound should be nei- Carpet helps reduce footfall and impact noise and is a great
age noise requirements for various office functions are
ther too loud nor too quiet, perhaps between 45 and 50 dBA. benefit in open offices. Finally, voice levels should be kept to
shown in the accompanying chart.
It should be loud enough to cover intrusive noises but never a minimum; even the best acoustical treatments cannot pre-
loud enough to be distracting in itself. Conference rooms vent disturbances caused by loud voices.
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI) FOR and private offices, which require lower levels of background
OPEN PLAN OFFICES noise, should have plenum treatments so they are shielded All the factors outlined in the paragraphs above are interre-
AI VALUE NOiSE REQUIREMENTS from direct exposure to the masking sound. lated. For example, doubling the distance between adjacent
workstations will reduce a nearby conversation by 5 dBA
>.65 Good Necessary when communication Normal air conditioning and ventilation could generate while raising the height of a 5-ft barrier to 6 ft may reduce
communication is desirable (conference rooms, enough background noise to mask sound between offices, the sound path over the top by 3 dBA. Changing from a min-
classrooms, auditoriums, etc.) but this sound source is not well designed for this purpose. erai-fiber acoustical ceiling tile to a glass-fiber ceiling tile may
.35 Freedom from Reasonable work conditions not Most office buildings use variable volume air distribution, so reduce reflected noise by 5 dBA. Adding sound masking
distraction requiring heavy concentration or noise from the HVAC system may be erratic and uneven in may change the ambient level by 10-20 dBA.
speech privacy; hear and under- distribution and change over time and season. The preferred
stand neighboring conversations solution is to install an electronic sound masking system An acoustics consultant can evaluate proposed layouts and
.20 Normal Occasional intelligibility from a materials as part of the design process. The acoustical out-
speech neighbor's conversation; work Sound masking systems comprise a noise generator, an come of a design should be analyzed before construction. As
privacy patterns not interrrupted equalizer to shape the sound spectrum properly. amplifiers, a rough initial guideline, offices in which freedom from dis-
and loudspeakers hidden above an accessible acoustical tile traction is the only criterion will require highly efficient
<.05 Confidential Aware of neighbor's converse- ceiling. Such systems generate a broadband, pleasant sound- sound-absorbing ceilings and an electronic background
speech privacy tion but it is not intelligible ing, evenly distributed masking noise. The sound in the ple- masking sound at levels between 45 and 50 dBA. For normal
num filters down through the ceiling and provides an even speech privacy, these conditions should be augmented by
blanket of sound that will mask the intrusive sound from a keeping workstations 8-10 ft apart and adding partial-height
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS neighbor. Avoid untreated sound leaks if! the ceiling such as barriers at least 5 ft high, with increased attention to office
Low AI ratings for open plan office spaces can be achieved openings for return air; these become noticeable "hot layout and reflecting sound paths. Confidential privacy
in three primary ways: by blocking sound, by covering (mask- spots" and draw unwanted attention to the sound from the requires higher partitions and more attention to related
ing) sound, and by absorbing sound. ceiling. Masking sound from two channels can improve spa- details and is extremely difficult to achieve in an open plan.
tial uniformity. Ceiling height and plenum conditions (fire-
BLOCKING SOUND proofing, beams, ducts, etc.) will determine loudspeaker
Partial-height barriers or partitions are necessary to block spacing and location. Electronic sound masking should be
direct sound transmission between workstations. The barri- professionally designed and installed.
ers must be high enough and wide enough to interrupt the
line of sight between a source and a receiver; hence, the ABSORBING SOUND
first 4 ft or so of barrier height do not help speech privacy at The ceiling in an open plan office is the most important sur-
all. Barrier heights of 5 ft are a minimum requirement for face to treat with highly efficient sound-absorbing material.
acoustical separation, and heights of 6 ft are typical for nor- Glass-fiber ceiling panels often have NRC values of .85 or
mal privacy. The barrier should be able to block sound at higher and are the preferred material for open plan spaces.
least as well as the path for sound traveling over the barrier, Regular mineral-fiber acoustical panels have typical NRC val-
which means a minimum laboratory sound transmission ues of about .55-.65. Hard sound-reflective materials such as
class value of 24. Barriers or screens should extend to the exposed structure or gypsum board will dramatically reduce
floor or leave only an inch or so open at the bottom. There privacy and raise annoying sound levels in an office. Most POOR LAYOUT
should be no open gaps between adjacent panels. Barriers ceiling tile manufacturers provide extensive NRC data for
may need to have sound-absorbing facings to reduce reflec- their products and have special products with high absorp-
tions to the next workstation. tive performance for use in open plan spaces. Materials
must also be selected for their ability to reflect light.
COVERING SOUND
The character and level of background sound is perhaps the Most sound-absorbinq materials are measured in a reverber-
most important acoustical design consideration for an open ation chamber in accordance with ASTM C 423 to determine
plan office. A modest level of background or ambient sound their random incidence sound-absorption coefficients (a) and
will cover, or mask, annoying, intrusive sounds. The masking from these data, manufacturers tYPically report the noise
sound must be pleasant and neutral with an even tonal spec- reduction coefficient (NRCI. The NRC value is a good first
trum (like the sound of a comfortable ventilation system) approximation of the ability of a material to absorb sound
that drops off at the high end of the frequency range. There from the human speech range. For office acoustics, how-
should be no pure tones or annoying characteristics (like the ever, a more useful value is the ability of a material to absorb
hum of a fluorescent light bellast). sound at an incident angle of 40-60 0 from a flat ceiling and at FAIR LAYOUT
frequencies weighted to reflect the relative contribution to
BACKGROUND SOUND LEVEL FOR OPEN speech intelligibility. Therefore, a more effective tool for
PLAN OFFICES evaluating the effectiveness of ceiling materials for sound
50 r----r-..,-.=:-r-,--,---,--, absorption is the speech absorption coefficient (SAC), which
..J
W can be calculated from standard sound absorption coeffi-
> cients as follows:
W 40
..J
W SAC= l:10·06a250+ 0.15a"oo+ 0.24aHXlO + 0.32u2000 + 0.23ct.woo1
0:
:0 30
Ul~
Ul"
OTHER FACTORS
wo.
0:'" 20 Arrange offices so that entrances are offset. and eliminate
0.0 direct line of sight or an open view through doorways from
ON
ZW one workstation to another. Workstations should be 8-10 ft
:00: 10
apart so voice levels are adequately reduced over distance.
om
Ul~ Higher ceilings can help reduce noise transfer. Light fixtures
in the ceiling plane should not have hard lenses or be placed PREFERRED LAYOUT
31.5 125
63 250 1000 4000 directly above a partition because the fixture can then act as
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz) a mirror for sound across the barrier. Absorptive material OPEN OFFICE CONFIGURATIONS
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Electronic Sound System Design 71
GENERAL 1---11
Sound systems are used primarily to provide better listening
I
conditions through sound amplification that increases the
loudness of a sound source. Secondary uses of sound sys-
IMICROPHONES II SOUND
MIXER
I·
tems include recording and playback of audio signals, distri-
bution of audio signals to remote locations. and satisfaction
I IN
OUT
I
of ADA requirements for provision of assistive listening sys- I I
tems for hearinq-impaired individuals. IN
I LOUDSPEAKER
I
Sound systems are recommended in all places of assembly,
including auditoriums. churches, classrooms. and lecture
halls with more than 60 seats; large conference rooms;
courtrooms; legislative chambers; and sports arenas. partic-
I
I
IN
fff I
I
ularly if these facilities will be used by inexperienced speak- IN OUT
ers. Sound amplification systems should not be used as a I ASSISTIVE
L:STENING
I
substitute for good room acoustical design. The sound sys-
tem equipment chosen, its location in a space, and the I SYSTEM I
reproduction quality it provides depend on the acoustical
L -.JL _ .;
properties of that space.
INPUT SIGNAL SIGNAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT AMPLIFIERS OUTPUT DEVICES
Sound amplification systems should be used when one or SOURCES
more of the following conditions occur: (1) the room volume
exceeds 50,000 cu ft; (2) the distance between source and BASIC SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEM
farthest receiver exceeds 50 ft indoors and 25 ft outdoors;
(3) the receiver is located beyond 70 0 horizontally from the
source; (4) the room reverberation time exceeds 1.5 sec; l.------t-- LOUDSPEAKER
and (5) the ambient noise levels are greater than NC-40 SYSTEM
indoors or 55 dBA outdoors.
Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
72 Electronic Sound System Design
SOUND SYSTEM ELEMENTS routed from these enclosures to audio wall plates that con- AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOMS
nect to input and output devices. Normally, metal conduit is
Sound systems comprise input signal sources, signal pro- used to minimize signal interference and to protect cables Equipment rack enclosures are often housed in a dedicated
cessing equipment to alter the properties, of the signal, audio equipment room. In this case, clearance should be left
amplifiers to increase weak signal levels, and loudspeakers around the enclosures to permit maintenance work. When
to convert electrical signals to acoustical signals. ELECTRICAL POWER power amplifiers create a large sensible heat load, audio
REQUIREMENTS equipment rooms may require fOlced air cooling
MICROPHONES
Sound systems should have dedicated power circuits sepa- Locate audio equrpment rooms as close as possible to the
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves rate from other building electrical services. The major electri- microphones and loudspeakers to minimize cable length
into electrical AC voltage corresponding to the acoustical cal power load comes from the amplifiers, which can easily Often a separate equipment room is required so the power
characteristics of the source. Microphones can be classified exceed the power requirements of all other sound system amplifiers can be located close to the loudspeakers.
by type, transducer element, or polar pattern. The major components by a factor of 100. When computer-controlled
microphone types are thin profile lectern, performer's hand- sound systems are used, provide electrical power surge pro-
held, boundary layer, and lavaliere, tection and a source of uninterruptible power.
2"
LINE LEVEL SOURCES
..
AIR
'\/ "\~ DIAMETER
III/
VENT.
Line level signal sources include audio formats such as mag-
TYP.
netic tape, audio and optical discs, video, telephonic devices,
and radio. These sources are classified as recorded audio
(magnetic tape. audio discs, and optical discs) or real-time
audio (videoconferencing, telephone, and radio), o
~,(/
..
io
SOUND MIXERS 0
I-
Sound mixers combine the electrical output of microphone
and line level sources into a composite output Signal for dis- {;>
-;
;,
tribution to other components of the sound system. Sound
mixers are classified as manually operated or automatic
hands-off types. Manually operated mixers require place-
ment in the same sound field the audience experiences so DIAMETER
the operator can properly adjust the sound system. Auto- HANDHELD BOUNDARY LAYER
matic microphone mixers control turning on/off of micro- PERFORMER'S MICROPHONE
phones, adjusting gain. and routing of signals. MICROPHONE 2'-0"
SIGNAL PROCESSING
2'·0"
Signal processing equipment provides the means for altering
the frequency. magnitude. delay time, and distribution of
audio signals received from the mixer. Signal processing AUDIO EQUIPMENT RACK
equipment includes frequency equalizers, crossovers, signal
delay lines, and distribution amplifiers. These items can be EQUIPMENT RACK
2'-0" ENCLOSURE
discrete components, or computer-eontrolled digital signal
processing (DSP) can be used to execute their functions.
AMPLIFIERS
ACCESS
SPACE AT
-'-1: 2 0
FRONT~-+--.........,r
Amplifiers increase the voltage of the audio signals received : .1
from the signal processing devices and distribute the stron- 1--'--!---1---T
ger signal to the loudspeakers. Amplifiers are configured as
either low impedance output for driving 4,8, or 16 ohm loud-
speakers or as 25, 70.7. or 100 constant voltage output driv-
ing transformer-eoupled loudspeakers.
WALL 2··0"
LOUDSPEAKERS
Loudspeakers convert electrical AC voltage into sound PLAN
waves. Sound reinforcement loudspeakers have either full- NOTE
range cone drivers, commonly used for ceiling distributed THIN PROFILE LAVALIERE
systems, or multiway loudspeaker systems with separate LECTERN MICROPHONE Plan for space at each side, in front of, and behind equip-
low frequency and midlhigh frequency drivers. Typically, MICROPHONE ment rack enclosures to allow for maintenance and access
midjhigh frequency systems use compression drivers con-
MICROPHONE TYPES AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOM
nected to a horn system to provide controlled directional
f
sound coverage output. ~4" DIAMETER
BACKBOX
I ~ / COMPRESSION
INFRASTRUCTURE -/' DRIVER
0~=----''''))I ~:~FREQUENCV
TRANSFORMER
Sound system equipment is normally installed in standard
19-in. wide equipment rack enclosures. Signal cables are
LOUDSPEAKER
.~y/;~>
FINISH
CEILING
HIGH-FREQUENCOY
HORN 8"
AUTOMATIC MICROPHONE MIXER
LOW·FREQUENCY
~"
LOUDSPEAKER
'-.......''-....~,
HORN LOADED
MANUAL MIXER LOW-FREQUENCY LOUDSPEAKER MULTIWAY LOUDSPEAKER
Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design 73
GENERAL WELL-LIT ENTRY WITH
CLEARLY MARKED UNIT
LOCKABLE WINDOWS
Crimes such as vandalism, terrorism, burglary, shopliftinq, NUMBER DEFINES
FROM DWELLING
employee theft, assault, and espionage endanger lives and SURVEY DEFINED
PRIVATE REALM OF UNIT
threaten the built environment. Despite this, security as a COMMON AREAS
design consideration has often been inadequately
addressed and poorly funded. Now. however, in many juris-
dictions police authorities require security plan reviews as
part of the building permit process in the same way they
review life safety and fire prevention plans.
LOW LEVEL
Security design is more than bars on windows, a security PLANTING BUFFERS
UNIT FROM SIDEWALK
guard booth, a camera. or a wall. Security involves the sys-
tematic integration of design, technology, and operation for
the protection of three critical assets-people. information.
and property. Protection of these assets is a concern in all
building types and should be considered throughout the
design and construction process, from programming, sche-
matic design. design development, preparation of construc- RECESSED
tion documents, and bidding, through construction. ALCOVE AND
LEVEL CHANGE
The most efficient, least expensive way to provide security HELP DEFINE
UNIT BOUNDARY
is during the design process. Architects called on to
address security and crime concerns must be able to deter-
mine security requirements, know security technology, and 'x'--...//O:::--~- LIGHTING AND
understand the architectural implications of security needs. DESIGN CURB
COLUMN DEFINE
ENTRY PORTAL
TO DETER
Designing without security in mind can lead to expensive INAPPROPRIATE
retrofitting, which may require more security personnel TRAFFIC
than security equipment designed in from the start. As COLLECTIVE
well, installation of retrofit security equipment can distort SEMIPRIVATE
key building design elements and inhibit building function. ARE~/
Most important, planning without security can lead to sue-
cessful claims against owners, architects, and building
managers.
CPTED strategies are implemented by NATURAL SURVEILLANCE 2. Door hardware, such as handles, pulls, latches, locks,
and other operating devices, must be shaped so they are
A design concept intended to make intruders easily observ-
1. ELECTRONIC METHODS: mechanical security products. easy to grasp with one hand. Lever, push-type, and U-
able, natural surveillance is promoted by features that maxi-
target-hardening techniques, locks, alarms, CCTV, gad- shaped mechanisms are acceptable, knobs are not.
mize visibility of people, parking areas, and building
gets entrances. Examples are doors and windows that look onto 3. Elevators must have visual signals to indicate when each
2. ARCHITECTURAL METHODS: architectural design and I streets and parking areas, pedestrian-friendly sidewalks and call is registered and answered. Elevator doors must
remain open for at least 3 seconds.
layout site planning and landscaping. signage, circulation streets, front porches, and adequate nighttime lighting.
control 4. Regulations require counters to be 28 to 34 in. off the
3. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS: manpower, police, secu- TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT floor.
rity guards, receptionists. doormen, and business block Physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence. 5. Alarm systems for evacuation must provide warnings for
watches In this setting, users develop a sense of territorial control, the blind, deaf, and nonambulatory staff of the building.
while potential offenders perceive this control and are dis- Announcements must be louder than 15 dB but not
couraged from their criminal intentions. Territorial reinforce- exceed 120 dB for 30 seconds. Visual alarms must flash
ment is promoted by features that define property lines and and be tied into the emergency power circuit. Fire alarms
distinguish private spaces from public spaces such as land- should also incorporate visual strobes to alert individuals
scape plantings, pavement design, gateway treatments, who are hearing impaired.
and fences. 6. ATM controls must be at least 15 to 54 in. high and have
operating instructions in braille. Night deposit mecha-
MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE nisms must not require a tight grasp (no knobs).
Operational and management concepts that maintain build- 7. Security vestibules must be accessible to individuals in
ings and facilities in good working order and that maintain a wheelchairs. A maneuvering clearance of at least 4 ft
standard of care consistent with national and local stan- must be provided.
dards contribute to the security effort. Equipment and
materials used in a facility should be designed or selected Areas affected by ADA requirements for building security
with safety and security in mind. include vaults. safety deposit box rooms. front desk
CPTED STRATEGIES counters, security desk and information counters, control
LEGITIMATE ACTIVITY SUPPORT rooms, life safety equipment safe-refuge areas, turnstiles
and security screening checkpoints, all door and locking
CPTED CONCEPTS Legitimate activity for a space or building is encouraged hardware, and access control devices.
Concepts involved in crime prevention through environ- through use of natural surveillance and lighting and archi-
mental design are described below. tectural design that clearly defines the purpose of the struc-
ture or space. Crime prevention and design strategies can ACCESS ELEVATOR
discourage illegal activity and protect a property from CONTROL CONTROLS
DEFENSIBLE SPACE
chronic problem activity.
Oscar Newman coined the expression "defensible space"
as a term for a range of mechanisms. real and symbolic bar-
riers. strongly defined areas of influence, and improved
opportunities for surveillance that combine to bring the
ADA AND BUILDING SECURITY
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) affects
""O"J
environment under the control of its residents.
architecture, life safety design, and building security tech-
nology dramatically. Sample regulations are listed below.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
For specifics. please see the act itself.
Natural access control involves decreasing opportunities for FLOOR N
crime by denying access to crime targets and creating a
perception of risk in offenders. It is accomplished by
Instructions for access control card readers must be pro-
vided in braille for the visually disabled.
LEVEL
"
designing streets. sidewalks. building entrances. and neigh-
borhood gateways to mark public.routes and by using struc-
tural elements to discourage access to private areas. SECURITY CONTROLS FOR ADA
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
74 Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
PROJECT-RELATED SECURITY 3. Determine the threats to the project. cations: organizational (people strategies). electronic (tech
a Consider threats from sabotage, espionage, terrorrsm, nology and hardware), and architectural (design ami
EVALUATION
street crime, disgruntled employees, workplace vio- circulation patterns). These classifications should be comic
Security needs for an architectural project should be deter- lence. among others. ered for eacl: level of defense or security layer:
mined early, preferably as part of the programming and
needs definition stage. Surveys of similar existing opera- b. Consider the value of the assets to be protected, the , First level--outer perimeter and site
tions and interviews with personnel at these sites can help objectives of potential aggressors, the perceived
deterrence of security measures, and the risk level at 2. Second level-c-buildinq exterior
identify security concerns. .~-
the site. 3. Third level-s-interior control and point security
Once a client, owner, or security consultant has identified 4 Determine what modes of attack may threaten the In defensible space, these security layers are defined as
the security objectives of a project, the architect must project. Among those to be considered are these: public. semipublic. semiprivate. and private spaces.
ensure the design supports these objectives. Basic deci- a _Covert entry
sions about circulation, access, building materials, fenestra-
b. Insider alone LIGHTING FOR SECURITY
tion, and other design features can support or thwart overall
security aims. The architect's role is to incorporate the c. Insider with others
Security lighting does not prevent or stop crime, but it car
basic security requirements and programmatic objectives Bombing help owners protect people and property. Good pedestriar
into the project e. Surveillance lighting offers the natural surveiHance people need to fee'i
f. Demonstrations comfortable walking ahead or across a parking lot to their
cars. Lighting can prevent surprises from jump-out crimi-
PROJECT DESCRIPTION g. Aerial attack
nals or g'lve pedestrians the opportunity to request assis
The first step in determining site-related security require- h. Standoff attack tance, to turn and go another way. or to retreat.
ments is to identify the location. building type, style of oper- i. Theft. burglary, robbery
ation, and economic aspects of the project. Security levels j. Destruction Security lighting goals should be to achieve a uniform, can
(high-low) can be defined by determining which areas, sistent level of light on both pedestrian and vehicular paths
k. Contamination of travel. Lighting is critical for the illumination of street anc
items of equipment, buildings, and activities and personnel
are most sensitive or vulnerable, I. Unauthorized entry building names and numbers for effective response by
5. Determine the severity of the potential attacks. Which of police. fire, and emergency personnel. Design lighting to
the following would the perpetrators be most likely to avoid light intrusion into residential settings.
SITE SELECTION AND use?
EVALUATION FOR THREATS The quality of lighting may be an important security feature
a. Tools
True-color, full spectrum light rendition can help with identi
AND VULNERABILITY b. Weapons fication of vehicles and persons. Car lots and gas stations
Security objectives should be considered when choosing a c. Explosives are examples of building types where metal halide lumi-
site. For example. crowded sites can make it difficult to pro- 6. Determine the vulnerability of the site. considering the naires are used for tul! spectrum light rendition.
vide an adequate buffer around the perimeter or to control state of the following security measures at the site:
and check on-site circulation NOTES
a. Security force capabilities
b. Penetration delay 1. Proper beam control saves a system from glare. loss of
Once a site has been selected, the crime prevention
light energy. and light intrusion.
through environmental design (CPTED) and security analy- c. Detection capabilities
sis process can identify measures to overcome any security 2. Fixtures should be installed to cast a light pattern over a
d. Assessment capabilities broad horizontal area rather than a tall vertical area.
deficiencies. The architect should consider conditions on
and off the site. including topography; vegetation; adjacent e. Access controls 3. Light surfaces reflect light more efficiently than dark sur-
land uses; circulation patterns; sightlines; potential areas for f. Procedural controls faces.
refuge or concealment; existing lighting conditions; and the g. Mission requirements 4. Keep in mind the line of sight between the location of a
types and locations of utilities, including -their vulnerability light fixture and objects that may cast a shadow. Careful
7. Identify the constraints that will affect what security
to tampering or sabotage. placement will avoid dark. corners behind doors, trash-
measures are implemented:
cans, and other features.
Steps for determining the threats to and vulnerability of a a. Financial
project and site are outlined here: b. Operational
8. Determine the protection required for the project: RECOMMENDED
1. Identify a mission statement for the project. LIGHTING LEVELS (IN
a. Where is security critical?
a. Identify the assets to be protected. LUMENS) BY BUILDING TYPE
11At the outer perimeter?
b. Determine what is to be protected according to the ...J ...J
categories of people. property, and information 2) At the inner perimeter? s
U
...J
« ~
f-
c. Determine the replacement value of the information 3) At the asset?
a: a: z
and property to be protected. b. What security measures will be implemented? w f- W
:;: III 0
2. Determine how critical security is to the design of the 1) Barrier/delay :>
:;: III
project. 2) Detection 0 w
0 Z
a. Analyze the mission of the project. 3) Assessment u a:
b. Determine present posture/operation positions. Entrances 10 5 5
4} Access control
c. Determine the ease with which the property and infor- Interiors 30-100 30 10
5) Command and control
mation to be protected could be replaced. Bathrooms 30 30 30
61Manpower
d. Analyze the value of what is to be protected. Elevators and stairs 20 20 20
7) Security procedures
Public spaces 30 30 -
Private spaces 20 20 20
SECURITY LAYERING
Self-parking 1.0 1.0 1.0
Once the risks, threats. and vulnerabilities of a project have
Attendant parking 2.0 2.0 2.0
been assessed, analyze the security measures that could
be used for the project. The choices fall into three classifi- Sidewalks 0.9 06 0.2
( L I G H T SOURCE
ENTRY
LIGHT
PARKING
RESIDENTIAL RESIDENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
l
1
ADJACENT
--.----.-.------r~
COMMERCIAL
I
. - -..
ADJACENT
PROPERTY ZONING PROPERTY ZONING
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami. Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
Security Systems Design 75
A SYSTEMS APPROACH TYPES OF SENSORS INFRARED CARDS depend on encoding information with
AND CONDITIONS OF USE varying density patterns that are read by infrared detectors
TO SECURITY The patterns are optically detected and not visible to the
ULTRASONIC MOTION DETECTORS are used when air
An interdependent arrangement of security barriers, tech- turbulence is low and when there are external noise human eye.
nology systems, and security response capabilities yields a sources that could affect a motion detector that radiated
responsive and complete security delivery system. energy outside of the protected area. Use low frequency MAGNETIC SLUG CARDS have magnetic slugs or metal
detectors if audible noise is not objectionable. pieces embedded or layered in them; they are read by mag-
The physical security process primarily consists of fences, netic sensing devices. Also known as shim cards, they are
building walls. inner walls and doors, and safes and vaults. MICHOWAVE MOTION DETECTORS are used when air generally limited to a single code, making them most suit-
turbulence is present in the protected room and when able for parking operations.
The proliferation of electronic security devices and sys- there are no potential false alarm sources outside of the
tems. coupled with rapid and substantial advances in the room and in the field of the detector. MAGNETIC STRIPE CARDS have stripes or layers of a mag-
capabilities of these systems, has resulted in a wide array netic material embedded between layers or on a card's sur-
of choices in security technology. To choose effectively PASSIVE INFRARED DETECTORS are used when air turbu- face in vertical columns or horizontal rows. Areas or
among these. architects must gain a basic understanding of lence is present in an area or point to be protected. Tem- patterns on this magnetic material can be magnetized in
the principles and applications of crime prevention through perature changes do not affect this type of device, but coded patterns and read by magnetic sensing devices.
environmental design (ePTED). security design, and opera- abrupt changes in light level may cause false alarms.
tional security. OPTICAL MEMORY CARDS depend on varied transparency
DETECTORS FOR ROOM BOUNDARIES are used when densities arranged in rows, columns, or spots. These pat-
Use of alarmed surveillance systems can greatly reduce detectors are needed to give the earliest possible warning terns are read by a system of light sources and photodetec-
property loss. Reports have shown that even when actual of an intrusion. They are used only in conjunction with tors.
breaking and entering incidents have increased, the amount space detectors for the interior of a room; vibration detec-
of property stolen has decreased. This is due in part to the tors, acoustic detectors, break beams, and breakwires are PROXIMITY CARDS incorporate embedded or laminated
use of alarms, perimeter protection, and intrusion detection suggested. RF circuits that utilize electrically tuned circuits that reso-
systems. However, Integrated systems-those that nate when activated by a transmitfer sweeping through the
employ the proper procedures, equipment, and people in MULTIPLE SPACE DETECTORS are used jointly when RF range. A receiver picks up the resonating frequency and
combination-are the most effective. detectors are not affected in the same measure by external activates the code deciphering system. Unlike other access
noise sources and when false alarm rates can be reduced cards, the proximity card can be worn or carried and
In general. the security response capabilities at a particular drastically while still maintaining a reasonable probability of detected at various ranges depending on the design capa-
facility depend on the efforts of the on-site security team. detection. bilities of the system.
However, architects must design buildings that permit
security staff to respond efficiently to incidents requiring Multiple space detectors are used singly when one type of SMART CARDS contain an onboard computer chip and a
their action. detector can protect one part of a room and another detec- power supply, normally a lithium battery capable of storing
tor can protect another part of a room because external up to six pages of text.
noise sources are specifically located.
SENSOR SECURITY SYSTEMS WATERMARK MAGNETIC CARDS contain small oxide par-
VIBRATION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence, ticles physically oriented into zones of varying widths. The
Sensor security systems are commonly designed to protect
acoustical noises, and motion outside the room are, particles are set while the iron oxide slurry is still fluid: the
perimeters or to monitor interior space.
present. These devices are best suited to protect room binary structure spacing of this computer-generated pattern
boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering. is then oven-eured to create an unalterable 10- or 12-digit
PERIMETER SENSOR SYSTEMS may include the following
code number but leaving another layer of the magnetic
features: continuous line of detection, in-depth protection,
ACOUSTIC DETECTORS are used when light air turbu- stripe available for encoding soft conventional data.
complementary sensors, alarm combination, priority
schemes, clear zone, site specific system, sensor confiqu- lence, vibration, and motion are present outside the room.
These devices are most effective in protecting room bound- WIEGAND CARDS utilize magnetically embedded unstable
ration, tamper protection, self-test compatibility, suitability
aries from penetration by drilling or hammering. ferromagnetic wires formed in a permanently tensioned
for physical and environmental conditions, integration with
video system, and integration with barrier delay. helical twist. The wiegand card reader uses a magnetic coil
THERMAL DETECTORS are used to detect temperature that picks up the flux reversal characteristics of the wires
rises in small enclosures such as vaults when an intruder and converts them to binary pulses.
Physical and environmental conditions that affect exterior
sensors include topography, vegetation, wildlife, back- uses a torch or burning bar to gain entrance. This device
ground noise, climate and weather, and soil and pavement. would normally be used in a system that includes other VIDEO SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
types of intrusion detectors. The major components of a video system are the camera,
The conceptual design stage of a perimeter sensor system lens, and mount; lighting system; transmission system;
involves identifying targets, defining threats, establishing ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON SENSORS synchronization system; video switching equipment; video
security requirements, and developing basic security fea- Environmental conditions that affect interior sensors recorder; video monitor; and video controller.
tures. include the electromagnetic energy, nuclear radiation,
The final design stage requires defining the clear zone sur- I acoustic energy, thermal energy, optical effects, seismic
phenomena, and meteorological conditions.
TRANSMISSION
face, determining sensor locations. completing system MEANS (COAXIAL
engineering and specifications, locating perimeter fencing, OPTICAL. 2-WIREl
and designing power and signal distribution.
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Tasks in the construction stage include procuring materials, The following statements describe features of a good
performing surveys, installing conduit and wiring, applying access control system:
surface material, and installing outer fences and sensors.
1 They cannot be bypassed.
Operation tasks are maintenance, testing, training, and doc- 2. They allow observation by a protective force guard.
umentation.
3. They protect the guard.
VIDEO
INTERIOR DETECTION SYSTEMS offer in-depth protection, 4. They block passage until access and material control MONITOR
detect intruders in time for adequate response, detect tam- procedures have been performed.
pering, and are able to self-test. As well. they must be prop- 5. They provide secondary inspection of those who cannot
erly installed (no loose mountings, wiring in conduits, pass the automated inspection.
sensors in proper location for detection).
6. They accommodate peak loads. PRINTER
ENTRY VESTIBULE 7. They accommodate vehicles and people.
8. They perform access and material control.
9. They are under surveillance by a central alarm station. VIDEOCASSETTE
10. They are designed for both entry and exit. RECORDER
CARD TECHNOLOGIES
BAR CODE cards have a series of vertical or horizontal
stripes and spaces printed in a manner that represents
coded data. The spaces between the stripes are read opti-
cally by a photodetector cell.
Randall L Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
76 Security Design Strategies
GENERAL 10. Limit the number of facility exit doors based on opera- 9. Design artistically pleasing concrete barriers as planters
tional necessity and fire loading regulations. or works of art and position them near curbs at a dis
Basic security design strategies for building perimeters, tance from the building
11 Clearly mark site entrances with signs that indicate visi-
interiors, lobbies, stairwells. loading docks. and roofs are 10. Design buildings in a simple geometric rectangular lay
tor and vendor processing points
outlined here. Also given are specific strategies for practic-
12. Establish physical control over loading docks, equip- out to minimize the defraction effect when blast waves
ing crime prevention through environmental design bounce off If-shaped or L-shaped buildings and cause
(CPTED) and for addressing the need for bomb resistance. ment sheds, boiler rooms, and trashbins
additional damage.
13. Provide adequate lighting and surveillance of employee
and visitor parking lots. 11 Drastically reduce or eliminate ornamentation on build
BUILDING PERIMETER ings that could easily break away and endanger building
14. If possible, separate employee and visitor parking. occupants or pedestrians at street level. All external
1. Reduce the number of stairwells that exit to the outside. 15. Provide tenants with the means to control their own cladding should be of lightweight materials to minimize
2. Make the exit through the lobby whenever possible. office areas. damage if they become flying objects after an explo
16. Provide reception personnel with a means of covertly sian.
3. Entries should funnel people toward the control point.
signaling duress situations.
4. Don't place any entries behind the control point.
17. Establish a uniform means of identification and access
5. Define public vs. private areas. for multitenant sites. PARKING GARAGES
6 Project the image of a secure building. 18. Utilize primary and secondary authentication methods NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
for access to highly sensitive areas.
1. Garages should be attended or monitored openly with
INTERNAL AREAS 19. Clearly delineate employee, visitor, vendor, and contrac- cameras and sound monitors marked with signs.
tor status on badges along with the locations and times
1. Place occupant services within protected floor space. 2. Place all pedestrian entrances adjacent to vehicle
they are allowed access.
entrances.
2. Control access to critical operation areas. 20. Design floor layout plans with security in mind 3. Stairwells should be visible, without solid walls.
3 Provide buffer/reception zones In executive areas
4. Place elevators close to the main entrance so the entire
4. Provide multiple paths of entry/exit for executives. interior of the elevator is in view when the doors are
STRATEGIES FOR BOMB
5. Consider creating safe havens in senior executive RESISTANCE open.
offices. 5. Elevators must not have permanent stop buttons.
Key defensive architectural design considerations for bomb
resistance are listed here: 6. Design the ground floor to provide a view of the garage
use wire mesh or stretch cable.
BUILDING LOBBY
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building as far 7. Limit access to no more than two designated, moni-
1. Position the control point between the entry and access from the building as possible. tored entrances.
to other floors.
2. Use poured-in-place reinforced concrete for all framing, NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
2. Move flow past control point. including slabs, walls, columns, and roofs.
3. Place restroorns in public areas. 3. Roof and base slabs should be at least 8 in. thick, exte- 1. All elevators should be monitored by cameras and
4. Make it possible to secure the lobby level rior walls 12 in. thick, and columns spaced no more sound or clear materials should be used for the entire
than 30 It apart. car.
4. Use seismic detaili.ng at connection points. 2. Replace retaining walls with stretch cable railings for
COMMON STAIRWELLS maximum visibility.
5. Reinforce floor slabs and roofs using a two-way rein-
1. Designate stairways for emergency use only whenever forcing scheme. 3. Parking areas and driving lanes should be well lighted
possible. 6. Design windows that comprise no more than 15% of MANAGEMENT
2. Prevent access to floors from the garage and public the wall area between supporting columns.
areas. 1. Prohibit free access to adjacent buildings without direct
7. Reduce the flying glass hazard by using a plastic mylar
3. Place stairs so they exit into the lobby. monitoring.
coating on the inside face of the windows.
4. Use internal stairwells for floor-to-floor transit. 2. Designate public and private parking spaces.
8. Install specially designed blast curtains inside the win-
dows to catch pieces of glass, while permitting the air- 3. Operate during hours similar to those of local busi-
blast pressure to pass through the curtain. nesses.
LOADING DOCKS 4. Secure the garage when it is closed.
1. Restrict access to authorized personnel. SPECIFY HIGHER
2. Control access from the dock into the building. SECURITY FEATURES
FOR WINDOWS
3. Provide comfort area for drivers on the dock. ADJACENT TO
4. Make it possible to close off the dock CANOPY
ELEVATOR MONITORED
5. Place dumpsters within controlled dock area BY VIDEO CAMERA WITH
SOUND PICK·UP
6. Give vehicle staging a separate area ~e,",u,)
ROOFS BUILDING
SIGNAGE
1. Minimize entry points onto the roof (CLEAR
VIEW, AT
2. Minimize entry via skylights by using multiple mullions
LEAST
Solid or fixed diffusers in the light weI! can also prevent 6" HIGH)
access.
3. Protect roof equipment, such as HVAC cooling towers,
from vandalism with roof enclosures with lockable lou-
vered doors spaced far enough from the equipment to
allow proper ventilation.
4. Restrict the height of parapets to allow for surveillance
from the gro.und.
ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
STRATEGIES
1. Establish a physical boundary separating public from pri-
vate property.
2. Design vehicular and pedestrian traffic patterns to maxi-
mize natural surveillance of arrivals and departures.
3. Clearly indicate primary and secondary entrances for
employees, as well as a primary entrance for visitors.
4. Ensure that visitors will be processed at the main recep-
tion area before they proceed to secondary areas of the
facility.
5. Erect physical barriers to separate public reception from SHAFT WALLS
private office areas. AND WALLS OF
6. Establish physical and electronic control over exterior and ELEVATOR CABS
SPECIFIED WITH
interior access points. DESIGN COLUMN TO PROHIBIT TRANSPARENT
7. Compartmentalize and electronically control access to CLIMBING BY AVOIDING MATERIALS FOR
DECORATIVE FEATURES SUCH VISIBILITY TO
critical areas such as computer rooms, executive areas, AS WROUGHT IRON AND
power and telephone closets, and other restricted areas. ADJACENT PUBLIC
RUSTICATED MASONRY SPACE
8. Physically separate shipping and receiving areas.
9. Restrict access to inventory storage areas ROOF AND CANOPY DESIGN ELEVATORS
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP: Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.; Miami, Flonda
BUILDING SECURITY
Commercial, Office, and Industrial Security Strategies 77
WINDOWS SHOULD
EXTERIOR OF BUILDING BUILDING SIGNAGE FACE REAR
SHOULD BE WELL LIT PARKING AREA AWNING
FOR SURVEILLANCE WITH
LIGHT
BUILDING
SIGNAGE
/
/
/ \ PARKING
./-- COMMERCIAL \ AREA
--/ \
~/L _ BUSINESS
-----\---~
/
/ \
-;L _
/ \..;L-~----,c-'\
/
NOTE
Clear visibility should be maintained from store to sidewalk,
street, parking areas, and passing vehicles. Window signs
should cover no more than 15% of any window area.
COMMERCIAL SECURITY NATURAL SURVEILLANCE 7. Windows and doors should have views into hallways-
including peepholes and vision panels.
Designing safe stores and malls is critical to ensuring , . Make restroom doors visible from main pedestrian areas
strong business draw and retention. Commercial security and keep them away from outside exits. 8. Assign parking spaces to each employee and visitor.
measures and design must protect the patrons. property, 2. Parking areas should be well lighted. Use high-intensity 9. Parking areas should be visible from the windows; side
and business information of a business. lighting in parking garages to minimize hiding places. In parking areas should be visible from the street
addition, all levels of the parking garage should be visible 10. Keep shrubbery below 3 ft and tree branches at least 10
from the street or ground floor. ft above the ground for good visibility.
COMMERCIAL STOREFRONTS 3. Loading areas should not create dead-end alleys or blind
spots. TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Define the perimeter with landscaping or fencing.
1. Locate cash registers in the front of the store near the TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
main entrance. 2. Design fences to permit visibility from the street.
1. Define property perimeters with landscaping, post-and- 3. Make exerior private areas easily distinguishable from
2. Clearly mark public paths. pillar fencing, and gates. public areas.
3. Signs should direct patrons to parking and entrances. 2. Keep the number of entrances as low as possible and 4. Position a security and/or a reception area to screen all
4. There should be no easy access to the roof. make them obvious and celebrated. entrances.
5. Shops with rear parking lots should have rear entrances.
MANAGEMENT
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE 1. Assign close-in parking for nighttime employees. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
1. Plan for good visibility: Windows should face rear parking 2. Help business associations work together to promote Industrial enterprises need to protect the assets in their
lots. Signs in windows should cover no more than 15% shopper and business safety. facilities. Special security consideration must be given to
of the window area. Interior shelving and displays should receiving and outgoing areas to reduce theft. Individual
be no higher than five feet. Unobstructed views should I building tenants should have security technology availability
be available from the store to the street. sidewalk, park- COMMERCIAL DRIVE-THROUGHS for continuous monitoring and supervision of their space.
ing areas, and passing vehicles.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
2. The building exterior should be well-lighted. NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
3. Loading areas should not create hiding places. 1. Locate ATMs in front of banks facing main roads or as a
drive-through in the drive-in teller lanes. 1. Avoid creating dead-end spaces.
4. Drainage retention areas should be visual amenities, a 2. Make site entrances easy to secure.
landscaped pond or smaller waterway rather than a 2. Place the ordering station for a restaurant within sight of
the restaurant interior. 3. Control entrances to parking areas with fences, gates,
fenced area, but to be secure they should be visible from
or an attendant's booth.
nearby buildings ano streets.
4. Parking should be assigned by shifts and planned so
5. All entrances should be under visual surveillance or mon- OFFICE BUILDINGS
itored electronically. late workers have the close-in spaces.
Office building security focuses on the safety and security 5. Restrict access to railroad tracks.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT of people, goods, and services. Office building security can 6. Plan storage yards for vehicular access by patrol car.
assume a high or low profile based on the type and number
1. Where possible. mark property boundaries with hedges, 7. Avoid access to roofs via dumpster, loading docks.
of building users.
low fences, or gates. poles, stacked items, etc.
2. Distinguish private areas from public spaces. NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL 8. Delivery entrances should be separate, well-marked,
3. Identify shops with wall signs for those parking in the and monitored.
1. Clearly define public entrances with walkways and signs.
rear. 9. Place employee entrances close to employee parking
2. Accentuate building, entrances with architectural ele- and work areas.
4. Specify awnings over rear doors and windows.
ments, lighting, and landscaping and/or paving stones.
10. Separate nighttime parking areas from service
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE entrances.
COMMERCIAL SHOPPING MALL 11. Avoid providing access from one part of the building
1. Place restrooms where they can be observed from into other areas.
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL nearby offices.
1. Use signs to mark public entrances clearly 2. All exterior doors and hallways should be well-lighted, as NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
2. Clearly mark sidewalks and public areas with special pav- well as all parking areas and walkways.
1. All entrances should be well-lighted, well-defined, and
ing and/or landscaping. 3. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding visible to public and patrol vehicles.
3. Separate loading zones from public parking zones; desig- places.
2. Parking areas should be visible to patrol cars, pedestri-
nate limited delivery hours. 4. Windows and exterior doors should be visible from the ans, parking attendants, and/or building personnel.
4. The parking garage should provide no exterior access to street or to neighbors.
3. Position the parking attendant for maximum visibility of
adjacent rooftops. 5. All four facades should have windows. the property.
6. Do not obstruct windows with signs. 4. Give reception areas a view of parking areas
5. Use walls only when necessary.
6. Blind alleys, storage yards, and other out-ot-the-vvav
places should not offer hiding places.
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Alias Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
78 Residential Site Security Strategies
GENERAL PORCHES. _ - SIDEWALK SCALE LIGHTING
SIDEWALKS. ETC I \
Designing CPTED (crime prevention through environmental ENCOURAGE
design) and security features into residential buildings and r \ STREET DESiGNED TO DISCOURAGE
INTERACTION J CUT-THROUGH TRAFFIC
neighborhoods can reduce opportunities for and vulnerabil- \
BETWEEN /
ity to criminal behavior and help create a sense of commu- NEIGHBORS
nity. The goal in residential design is to create safe dwelling ~ OPEN GREEN SPACE
places through limited access to properties, good surveil- I OBSERVABLE FROM
lance. and a sense of ownership and responsibility. NEARBY HOUSES
r
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Landscaping should not create blind spots or hiding
places.
ARCHITECTURAL
2. Locate open green spaces and recreational areas so they FEATURES, LIGHTING,
can be observed from nearby houses. ETC. ACCENTUATE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
3. Use pedestrian-scale street lighting in areas with high
pedestrian traffic.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Design lots, streets, and houses to encourage interaction
I
between neighbors.
2. Accent entrances with changes in street elevation, differ~
ent paving materials, and other design features.
3. Clearly identifv residences with street address numbers
that are a minimum of 5 in. high and well-lighted at night.
4. Property lines should be defined with post-end-pillar
fencing. gates, and plantings to direct pedestrian traffic.
(-----
5. All parking should be assigned.
3'-0" +-_·-tIH
MAX.
MULTIFAMILY DWELLINGS
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL PROPERTY LINES DEFINED a-o" SIDEWALK lSTREET
AND REINFORCED BY (PREFERRED)
1. Balcony railings should never be made of a solid, opaque FENCING AND LANDSCAPING
material or be more than 42 in. high.
2. Define parking lot entrances with curbs, landscaping,
and/or architectural design or a guard booth; block dead- CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL
end areas with a fence or gate. DESIGN-PLANNING FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY
3. Hallways should be well-lighted, and elevators and stairs
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
should be centrally located. 3. Assign parking spaces to each unit and locate them next
4. Common building entrances should have locks that auto- to the unit. Designate special parking spaces for visitors. 1. Define property lines with landscaping or post-and-pillar
matically lock when the door closes. 4. Parking areas and walkways should be well-lighted. fencing, but keep shrubbery and fences low to allow vis!
bility from the street.
5. Limit access to the building to no more than two points 5. Recreation areas should be visible from a multitude of
No more than four units should share the same entrance. windows and doors. 2 _Accent building entrances with architectural elements
and lighting and/or landscape features.
6. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE places. 3. Doorknobs should be 40 in. from window panes.
1. Make exterior doors visible to the street or neighbors, 7. Elevators and stairwells should be clearly visible from 4. Clearly identify all buildings and residential units witf
and ensure they are wetl-lighted. windows and doors. In addition, they should be well- well-liqhted address numbers a minimum of 5 in. high
2. All four building facades should have windows. Site lighted and open to view-not hidden behind solid walls. 5. Common doorways should have windows and be key
buildings so the windows and doors of one unit are visi- 8. Shrubbery should be no more than 3 ft high for clear visi- controlled by residents.
ble from those of other units. bility and tree canopies not lower than 8 ft 6 in 6. Locate mailboxes next to the appropriate residences.
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Secunty Design, Inc, Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
Site Security Planning for Terrorism 79
SITE SECURITY PLANNING AND DISTANCE SHOULD BE
GREAT ENOUGH SO THAT
DESIGN CRITERIA COLLAPSE OF THE TOWER
TOWER FACILITY
The safety and security of a building, its site. and its users DOES NOT AFFECT THE
should be an important design criteria, similar.to such OTHER FACILITIES
CENTRAL FACILITY
health and safety issues as structural integrity, accessibility,
and fire safetv Increased threats to people and property
from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and street POTENTIAL THRE~.T / /
crime make it important to identify security issues and
establish a plan to manage the risks. SECURE. ->
SERVIC:ERIMETER. T Y P . \ / . / / / /
SECURITY ASSESSMENT
An assessment of the security requirements should be BUILDING ./
made as early as possible. preferably as part of the pro-
/
gramming phase and certainly before the design phase. /
~:.j~t//::'~~:CEPT'ON
the owner's responsibility, the architect should ensure that
the security requirements have been identified before the
design begins. Failure to identify security issues will surely
result in design changes, delays, and cost increases for
1
both the owner and the architect.
././ ._<. FACILITY
100'·0", ./././'~ . .
MIN. "'>'""'-
The security assessment will answer four questions:
/
~~~~~~I~"""',
./ POTENTIAL
1. What are the assets-persons, places, information, prop- ././././/100'-0". MIN. THREAT
erty-that require security protection?
2. What are the criminal or other threats-street crime,
<, /
workplace violence, terrorism, sabotage-against which <, /
the assets must be protected? , 'J
/
Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D., CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc., Miami, Florida
Anth~ny DjGr~gano: Applied Research Associates: Washington, D.C.
Amencan Societv for Industrial Security; Alexandria, Virginia
BUILDING SECURITY
80 Site Security Planning for Terrorism
Site Securitv Planning for Terrorism is continued from the FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING 2. Design concrete barriers as flower planters; positior
previous page. them at curbs, spaced less than 4 ft apart.
1. Secured water supply
3. Build new buildings in a simple, geometric, rectanqul.
PARKING (CONTINUED) 2. Dual fire pumps (electric and diesel)
layout to minimize the "detraction effect" when bias'
5. Parking facility security systems • Not required in low- or high-threat projects waves bounce off U-shaped or L-shaped buildings caus
3. Secured standpipe connection ing additional damage.
6 Minimize the number of entrances to a building
4. Reduce or eliminate ornamentation on buildings, an
• Functions of the entrances should be clearly identified ELECTRONIC SECURITY use lightweight materials for exterior cladding. During "
(e.g., employees only, deliveries, visitors)
1. Operational control center, fire command center, and bomb blast (or even a hurricane). such ornamentation I~
• Secure entrances when the building is not in use security control center located together likely to break away from the building and may iniur«
7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground building occupants or pedestrians at street level.
• Low threat: not required
floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and 5. Eliminate potential hiding places near the facility.
skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unautho- 2. Backup control center
6. Provide unobstueted views around the facility.
rized access and funnel movement along desired paths. • Low threat: not required
7. Site the building within view of other occupied facilities
8. Control access for servicing and deliveries. • High threat: locate in manager's or engineer's office
8. Locate assets stored on site but outside of the buildinc
9. Use graffiti-res~stant exterior finishes and/or landscape 3. Electrical utility closets, mechanical rooms, and tele-
within view of occupied rooms of the facility. ~
with creeping vines. phone closets
9. Minimize signage that indicates what assets are on the
• Low threat: entry with key should be maintained, with
SITE property.
some method of noting times of entry and departure,
1. Generous wiring and backup power such as marked by a watchman's clock system 10. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the build
ing.
2. Intrusion detection devices • High threat: access to mechanical, electrical, and tele-
communication rooms should be authorized, pro- 11. Minimize the number of vehicle access points.
3. Boundary penetration sensors and motion detection sys-
tems grammeG, and monitored at the security control center '2. Eliminate or strictly control parking below Luildings.
through preidentification of maintenance personnel
4. Access control systems 13. Locate parking as far from the building as practica:
4. Elevator recall (while still addressing ADA spaces and proximity), and
5. Contraband, weapons, and explosives detectors
5. Door lock place parking within view of occupied rooms or facili
6. Credential readers and positive personnel identification ties.
systems • Low-threat: key-locked security keying system
14. Illuminate the building exterior and other areas where
7. Security control and information display systems • High-threat: high-security keying system with elec-
assets are located.
tronic locks
15. Secure access to power and heating plants, gas mains
EXTERIOR ENTRANCE 6. Intrusion detection
water supplies, and electrical and phone service.
1. Lobby • Low threat: magnetic reed switches with optional sen-
sor to detect breaking glass
• Protection from forced entry
2. Employee entrances • High-threat: same as for low threat, with balanced CONCLUSION
magnetic contact switch set and sensor to detect
• Same as lobby The design of a building can significantly affect how secure
breaking glass
it .is from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and other
3. Garage and service entrances 7. Monitoring cnmes. The goal for architects is to use architectural design
• Vehicle arrest devices • Low threat: commercial central station features and elements in a manner that enhances a build-
• High threat: on-site, proprietary security control center; ing's security without compromising its aesthetics and
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING functionality. While there are instances in which a fortress-
review roof intrusion detection
Except for lighting (#5) and vehicle access control (#61. like structure is the only solution to various security issues,
B. CClY in many cases a simple, well thouqht-out plan will yield the
none of the following is necessary in low-threat projects.
• Low threat: not required best results.
1. Exterior connector for emergency power 9. Duress alarms
2. Exterior surveillance • Low threat: install in key public contact areas, execu-
tive offices, and garages as needed MORE INFORMATION
3. Emergency generator
4. Protected utilities and feeders • High threat: same as low threat 1. GSA security standards: www.gsa.gov/pbs
5. Adequate lighting (including site lighting) 2. American Society for Industrial Security; \'V\'VW.asison
SUMMARY OF KEY DEFENSIVE line.com
6. Vehicle access control (parking) ARCHITECTURAL SITE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS FOR BOMB RESISTANCE 3. CPTED: www.cpted-secunty.com
7. Emergency communications (parking)
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building that is 4. National Criminal Justice Reference Service: www
8. CClY (parking) ncjrs.org
as far from the building as possible. Setbacks of 100 It
are desired. 5. Illumination Engineering Society of North America (secu
rity lighting): W\NW.iesna.org
Balance X
>- X
magnetic
0:'
« Stay-behind
O~ Vibration X X X intruder or
ZW Improper installa-
z entry through
:::lZO Infrasonic tion
Ow_ X X X X unprotected
mo..f- area
Sonic X X X X X
X X
Ultrasonic X X X
X X X Air movement
0: Cover when
Qz Microwave sensor is in
X X X X X X X RFI
"access"
0:0
W- mode
f-f- Unstable thermal
zO Infrared X X X
X X
-::;: background
>- Capacitance
!: X X X
::;: Gross changes in
Disable
humidity, temper-
x Pressure ature, or pressure
electronics
0 X X
0: dial
0..
Source. BaSIlJ. Steele, Amencan Society for Industnal Securitv. Alexandna. Virginia
Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
Anthony DiGreggario; Applied Research Associates; Washi"'gton, D.C.
BUILDING SECURITY
Commercial Site Development 81
DESIGN GUIDELINES GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
Each commercial development project will have its own set A geotechnical engineer should be retained at the inception The maximum height buildings on a particular site can
of requirements. This outline is intended as an overview of of a project to provide a thorough subsurface investigation reach is usually defined in terms of both stories and feet
the subjects the architect, engineer, and owner should con- of the property. The key information provided by such a sur- above the finished grade. These criteria are set by local
sider when planning a small to medium commercial devel- vey includes the following: ordinance and building code.
opment.
Soil quality/type: Soils are described, ranging from their PARKING REQUIREMENTS
LOCAL PLANNING REGULATIONS
composition to drainage.
Parking requirements typically are a function of intended
2. Bearing capacity: A variety of field and/or laboratory test- use and building size le.g., one space per 250 sq It of build-
As with all new projects. the designer should research the ing, considered in conjunction with anticipated structural
laws. codes, and ordinances that govern development in ing areal. In suburban office park planning, this is com-
dead loads, goes into analyzing how a planned building monly the governing factor when maximizing buildable area
the jurisdiction. This may include municipal, township. wilt react to the soil conditions on a site. Settlement is
county, state. and federal regulations as they pertain to land on small and constricted sites.
one issue to be considered here.
and building development.
3. Foundation recommendations: The geotechnical engi- UTILITIES
ZONING
neer uses analytical data about the soil quality/type and
the bearing capacity of the soil to make recommenda- The architect must determine which utilities are required,
Confirm that the zoning classification of the property per- which are available, how site access will be designed, and
tions regarding the most efficient/cost-effective founda-
mits the intended use. For example, to build a warehouse where the utility lines will enter the building. Utilities
tion system.
the tract of land would have to be zoned for industrial use. include water, sewer, gas, electric, and telephone.
The zoning classification also determines what level of LOT COVERAGE
development is allowed on a particular tract of land. BUILDING ENTRANCE
Zoning laws regulate the amount of physical construction
that can occur on a given piece of land. Physical construc- Public exposure, topography, orientation, and parking
BUILDING CODES tion covers buildings and paved, impervious surfaces (e.g., should Q€ considered in designing and siting the main
The architect should find out what relevant codes/laws sidewalks, blacktop). Another measure affecting the allow- entrance. To maximize a building's presence on the site
require in regard to life safety, welfare, and accessibility. able building footprint is building setback, the distance that and help orient users, the main entrance should be obvious
These requirements should provide minimum criteria by must exist between a structure and the property line. Build- and easily visible. Site topography and the intended use of
which to measure the design and construction of a project. ing setbacks are typically described in terms of front, rear, the bUilding will determine orientation of the entrance, with
The intended use and type of construction will dictate and side yards; rights-of-way; and property easements. consideration of sun angles and views. The main entrance
allowable heights and areas. Local municipal ordinances describe required setbacks, should be readily recognizable from the main parking area.
which vary based on location and intended use.
Codes vary around the country, so architects must consult TRAFFIC SURVEY
the local government for all applicable codes/laws and local PROPERTY SURVEY A typical traffic survey analyzes traffic patterns, densities,
amendments. Pertinent laws include the BOCA, UBC, Property surveys verify the property boundaries, street generators, and peak periods. This information is used to
SBCC, NFPA, ASHRAE, ANSI. and the ADA universal lines, contours, pertinent landmarks, rights-of-way, and determine the guidelines/procedures required to provide
accessibility law. easements (construction restrictions) of a piece of property. safe and effective flows of vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Local governing agencies determine the scope and extent
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS of survey required.
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
Environmental issues such as wetlands preservation,
When properties share a common storm water basin, local SERVICE ACCESS
potential groundwater contamination, and preservation of
authorities can hold easements to allow for storm water
native flora and fauna should be considered. Local groups Architects must consider vehicular service access to both
drainage across multiple properties. Drainage easements
can provide information regarding local environmental the site and the building. Site design and building orienta-
are not required when individual property owners are
issues. tion must allow for maneuverability of service, delivery, and
responsible for storm water management.
sanitary vehicles.
LOT COVERAGE
BUILDING ENTRANCE
UTILITIES
<
PARKING
GEOTECHNICAL
ANALYSIS
WATER MAIN
TRAFFIC SURVEY
Site planning for development projects should be a sequen- Other information that may require additional researc'
tial process that begins with information gathering and COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT includes
ends with detailed design drawings. The process involves Early in the planning process, contact community groups
three stages: analysis. design. and implementation. The 1. Availability of potable water, including local and state reg
with an interest in the proposed project. Such efforts yield ulations on wells
chart below indicates a planning process; however, this can useful information for community design and are particu-
vary to accommodate the specifics of a particular project. larly important when a proposed project is adjacent to exist- 2. Availability of public sewer service, access to trunk lines,
Physical site characteristics, urban or suburban location, ing development. Compatibility issues are typically resolved and available increases in flow. If sewage lines are not
and community criteria modify the process. The site plan- with community participation. immediately available, determine projected phasing of
ning process includes both architect and landscape archi- these services, as well as alternatives to sewage collec-
tect and. in some cases, biologists, civil engineers, and One method of involving the community is the "eharrette." tion and treatment, including septic tanks.
others. An integrated approach to site development and a participatory planning process with a limited time frame, 3. Access to public roads, existing and projected carrying
architecture helps create a quality environment. The text on usually one day to a week, in which residents, municipal capacities, and levels of services of the roads. (State am
this page is presented as a checklist for structuring a staff, elected leaders, and others participate in the physical local road departments can provide this inforrnation.)
project. design of a project. The planner receives local information 4. Availability and capacities of schools and other public
useful for the design, and individuals and groups bring their facilities, such as parks and libraries
interests to bear at the beginning of the design process,
CLIENT CONTACT AND INPUT thereby expediting final approvals.
The first step is contact between the client and the site SITE ANALYSIS
planner. The client may have some development objectives
based on financial capabilities and market feasibility. It is REGIONAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL Site analysis is one of the planner's major responsibilities
important for the site planner to obtain all client data rela- PLANNING All the on- and off-site design determinants must be evalu-
tive to planning the site. ated before design begins. For details, see the following
Some areas of the country have established regional agen- pages on environmental site analysis.
cies for intercommunity issues, such as water manage-
ment, transportation, population studies, and pollution
LITERATURE REVIEW control. Some communities have adopted regional planning PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
Site planning covers a variety of situations from rural and guidelines.
suburban to high~ntensity urban. At the program development stage, background research,
State and/or federal criteria can also affect projects.. State citizen input, and site analysis are combined with client
plans may address broad issues applicable to large sites or input and synthesized into a set of program strategies
impose constraints on sites involving issues of statewide Basic elements for program development include market
concern. Also, some states require environmental impact and financial criteria; federal. state, regional. and local plan-
statements for large-scale projects. The U.S. Army Corps of ning information; local political climate development costs;
Engineers is responsible for environmental review of pro- the client's objectives; and site opportunities and con-
posed dredge and fill operations in navigable waters and straints as developed in the synthesis of environmental site
wetlands. The Federal Flood Insurance Program establishes determinants. Balancing the various determinants will lead
minimum elevations for potential flood areas. Other state, to an appropriate approach to site development. Consider
regional, and local authorities also may oversee the protec- dwelling unit type, density, marketing, time phasing, and
tion of air and water quality and other environmental issues. similar criteria, as well as graphic studies of the site, to
finalize the program. Develop clear graphic representations
of design concepts to present to the client and others who
LOCAL PLANNING INFORMATION may have input to the process. If the project cannot be
accomplished under the existing zoning or public works
The planner must collect local planning information. Per- requirements, requesting a regulatory change becomes a
sonal contact with planning and zoning agencies is impor- part of the program.
tant in order to comprehend local criteria. Following is a list
of information to review.
ALTERNATIVE PLAN
PLANNING DOCUMENTS PREPARATION
Many communities have adopted comprehensive plans Once the program has been accepted by the client, develop
that indicate the particular land use and intensity of the site. several design solutions to meet the program objectives
In addition, information on the availability and/or phasing of When an alternative has been accepted, develop it into the
public services and utilities, environmental criteria, traffic preliminary plan. This plan should be relatively detailed,
planning, and population trends can be found in most com- showing all spatial relationships, infrastructure, landscap-
prehensive plans. Some communities require that rezoning ing, and other relevant information.
meet the criteria provided in their cOmprehensive plans.
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz; Miami, Florida
SLOPE SOILS
LAKE
VEGETATION COMPOSITE
ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ANALYSIS 1. SLOPE: The slope analysis is developed on the contour COMPUTER APPLICATION
PROCESS map; consideration should include the percentage of
The above process is labor intensive when developed by
slope and orientation of slope relative to the infrastruc-
If a site has numerous environmental design determinants, hand on individual sheets of mylar; however, this particular
ture and land uses.
method of environmental analysis is easily adaptable to the
~he. ~ite pla.nner may analyze each environmental system 2. SOIL PATIERNS: Consideration may include the analysis CAD (computer-aided drafting) system. Commercial draft-
individually In order to comprehend the environmental char- of soils by erosion potential, compressibility and plastic-
act.af of the ~ite more clearly. This can be a complex pro- ing programs suitable for the overlay approach are readily
ity, capability of supporting plant growth, drainage capa- available. Simplified, the method is as follows:
cess, and a Site planner/landscape architect with expertise bilities, possible sources of pollution or toxic wastes,
in environmental analysis should be retained to coordinate septic tank location (if relevant), and the pro- posed land
such an effort. 1. A map, such as a soil map, is positioned on the digitizer
uses and their infrastructure. and the information is transferred to the processor
3. VEGETATION: Consideration of indigenous species (vat- through the use of the stylus. One major advantage to
By preparing each analysis on transparencies, the site plan-
ues of each in terms of the environmental system) the use of a computer is that the scale of the map being
ner can use the overlay approach. Values are assigned to
includes size and condition, the succession of growth recorded will be transferred to the selected scale by the
each sheet based on impact. ranging from areas of the site
toward climax conditions, uniqueness, the ability of cer- processor. A hatched pattern is selected, with a less
where change would have minimal effect to areas where
tain species to tolerate construction activities, aesthetic dense pattern for soil types that would have minimal
change would result in severe disruption of the site. In
values, and density of undergrowth. influence and more dense patterns for soil types more
essence, the separate sheets become abstractions with
4. WILDLIFE: Consideration of indigenous species includes sensitive to change. Once this information is pro-
values assigned by the site planner and associated profes-
their movement patterns, the degree of change each grammed into the computer, it is stored.
sionals. As each sheet is superimposed, a composite devel-
ops that. when completed, constitutes the synthesis of the species can tolerate, and feeding and breeding areas. 2.The same process is repeated for development of the
environmental design determinants. Lighter tones indicate 5. GEOLOGY: Consideration of underlying rock masses next overlay; for example, vegetation. Once again any
areas where modification would have minimal influence studies the depth of different rock layers and the suitabil- scale map may be used. This process is repeated until all
darker tones indicate areas more sensitive to change. Th~ ity of different geological formations in terms of potential overlays have been stored. At any time one or all over-
sketches shown simulate the overlay process. The site infrastructure and building. lays can be produced on the screen.
planner may give greater or lesser weight to certain param- 3.The individual overlays or any combination of overlays can
6. SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WATER: Consideration of
eters depending on the particular situation. In assigning val- be drawn on mylar with a plotter. If appropriate for the
natural drainage patterns covers aquifer recharge areas,
ues that help determine the site design process, the site particular analysis, the plotter will draw in color. The
erosion potential, and flood plains.
planner should consider such factors as the value of main- resulting overlay sheets take considerably less time than
taining the functioning of the individual site systems, the 7. CLIMATE: Consideration of rrucrocfimatic conditions by hand and may be more accurate. Other benefits are
uniqueness of the specific site features, and the cost of includes prevailing breezes (at different times of the that the site can be studied directly on the computer
modifying the site plan year), wind shadows, frost pockets, and air drainage pat- screen and any part of the overlay can be enlarged for
terns. greater detail.
Following is a Jrstof the environmental design determinants 4.The overlay process can be recorded by videotape or by
that, depending on the particular site, may be considered slides from the screen for use in presentations.
and included in an overlay format:
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharm, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
CONVENTIONAL LAYOUT OR
..YlELD Pr AN"
Sketch an unimaginative but legally correct conventlonal
lavout to demonstrate the density that could realistically be
a;hieved on the site and, by comparison, to show local offi-
cials and abutters how ditferent a rural village approach is
The sketch here shows how, under 1 .s-acre zoning, a 520-
acre site would ordinarily be checkerboarded into 300 lots,
each with a required minimum area of 60,000 sq ft, leaving
HILGIDE
no open space whats@ver. PASTURE /
VILLAGE PLAN
CONVENTIONAL LAYOUT
WOODED
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_
s\oPE THE
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MARSH
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(=r.,i:
\ \-Ll
'BROOK
NORTH
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FandallArendt,MRTPI;NaturalLandsTrust:Media,Pennsylvania
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie;Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
A
PLANNING
AND URBAN
COMMUNIry,
SITE, I
86 Elementsof Urbonism
THE NEIGHBORHOOD. THE 2. The neighborhood has a balanced mrx of activ[ies: The strJcture ot.the distnct parallels lhat ot the nerghb,
DISTRICT, AND THE CORRIDOR shops, work, school, recreation, and dwellinos of all hood An rdenti{iable locus encourages o.ientat,oi o
lvpes Thrs 's oa.lrcularty use{ut t6r ygga9. old lro tow identity. Clear boundaries facilitate thelormation of spec
The tundamental elements 01 urbanism are the neighbol
income populations who, in an automobile based eovi- taxrng or management organrzations. As in the neighbo
hood, the district, and the corridor. Neighborhood"s
iie ronment, depend on others for mobility.
urbanized areas with a fuil and balanced iange of human hood,_the character of the public spaces creates a comm..
activity. Districts are urbanrzed areas organizled around a The neighborhood provides housing for residents with a nrly ot users. even if they reside elsewhere Interconnectp
predominant activity. Neighborhoods and distrjcts are variety of incomes. Affordable housing types include circulation encourages pedestrians, supports transit viab
con- oacKyaro apartments, apartments above shoos. and
nected and isolated by corridors of t.ansportation or open rty. and ensures security. Districts benefil from transit sv:
space. apa.lmenl buildtngs adiacent lo workplaces. tems and should be located within the regional network
3. The optimal size of a neighborhood isrL mile from center
Neighborhoods, districts, and corridors are comotex urban to edge, a distance equal to a tive-minute walk at an easy THE CORRIDOR
elements Suburbra. In co4trast, rs the result oi srmplistrc pace. lts ljmited area gathers the oooulation within walk-
The corridor is the connector and the separator of neighbor
zoning concepts that separate activities into residential sub_ Ing drstance o{ many of its daily needs. hoods and districts. Corridors include natural and lec-hnica
divisions, shopping centers, o{fice parks, and open space. The locatron of a transit stop within walking distance of components ranging from wildlife trails to rail lines The
most homes increases the likeiihood of rts use. Transit_ between ts not the haphazardly residual space remainrn(l
THE NEIGHBORHOOD onented neighborhoods create a regional network of vtf outsrde subdivisions and shopping centers in suburbia. lt i
Cites.and towns are made up of multip'e neighborhoods_A lages. towns, and cities accessible to a oopulation unable a crvrc etement characterized by its visible continuity an.j
neighborhood isolated in the landscape is a village. 10 rely on cars. Such a system can provtde the mator cul. bounded by neighborhoods and districts, to which ii pro
lural and social institutions, varrety of shopprng, and vides entry.
The nomenclature may vary, but there is general agree broad Job base lhat can onlv be suppo(ed by itrJiarger
ment regardrng rhe physical composition of a neighbor populatron ot an aggregation of nerghbo'hOOOs The transponation corridor's trajectory is determined by its
hood. The neighborhood unit of the 1929 New-york 4. The neighborhood consists of blocks on a network of anlensity. Heaq/ rail cotridors should remain tanoeni t.
Regional Plan, the quartiet identified. by Leon Krier, tradi- small thoroughfares_Streets are laid out to c.eate blocks towns and enter only the industrial drstricts of citiei. Lio,
tiona' nerghbo'hood desrgn {TNDt. and transttorienled ot appropriate building sites and to shorten pedestrian rarl and trolley corr,dors may occur as boulevards at ih.
development (TODI share sjmrlar attr butes. The population, routes. An interconnecting street pattern provides multi_ edges of neighborhoods. As such, they are detailed fo
conliguration, and scale may vary, but all of these models ple routes, drffusing traffic. This pattern keeps locat lral. pedestnan use and to accommodate building sites. Bus cor
propose the following: trc otl regtonal roads and through tralfrc ofl local srreels ndors may pass into neighborhood centers on conventional
streets.
Neighborhood streets ot varying types are detailed to
1. The neighborhood has a center and an edge. This combi_ provrde equitably for pedestrian comiort and automobile
nataon of a focus and a limit contributea to the social The corridor may also be a continuous parkway, providing
movement. Siowing the automobile and increasing
identity of the community. The center is a necessity, the long.distance walkrng and bicycling trails and nitural hab
peoestfian actrvtty encourage lhe casual meetings lhat
edge less so. The center is always a public space_a tat. Parkway coiridors can be formed by the systemal,.
rorm lne bonc,s ot communitv.
squa.e, a green. or an important street intersection_ accretion of recreational open spaces, such as parks
5. The neighborhood gives priority to pubtrc space and to schoolyards, and golt courses. These continuous sDace5
l@ated near the center of the urbanized area, unless
appropriate location of civic buiidrngs. public spaces and can be part of a larger network, connecting urban oper
compelled by geography to be elsewhere. Eccentric loca_
public buildings enhance community identity and toster space wth rural surroundings.
tpns are justified by a shoreline, a transponation corri-
civic pride. The neighborhood plan creates a hierarchy ot
dor, or a promontory with a compelling view.
useful publc spaces: a formal square, an informal pirk,
The center is the locus of the neighborhood,s public ano many ptaygrounds.
buildrngs. Shops and worlplaces are usualty here, espe_
crally In a vtllage. In lhe aggregalrons of neighborhoods THE DISTRICT
InaI create towns and cities, relail butldings and work_
places The district is an urbanized area that is functionally specjal_
_areoften at the edge, where they Can combine ized. Although disrricts preclude the fuil range of aciivities
wtth others to draw cuStomers
of
The edges of a nerghborhood vary In character. In vil .a reighblrhood, they are not the sjngle-aclivity zones of
suburbia. Rather, multiple activities support its primary
lages, the edge rs usually defined by tand designated tor identity. Typically complex examples are thearer disrricts,
cultivation or conservation of its natural statel ln urban caprtal areas, and college campuses. Other districts accom_
areas, the edge is often defined by rail lines and boule- modate large-s€le transportation or manufacturing uses,
vards, which best remain outside the neighborhood. sucn as arrpons, container terminals, and refineries
o
E
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5
o
BOULEVARO
u
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SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
RegionolTypes 87
GENERAL
ln its short hrstory as a discipline, regional planning has gen-
erated a substantial number of models, usually presented
as dragrams. Redrawrng thp main lYpes 'n a standard
graphic form reduces options to a few fundamental mod-
els. Most regional plans are hYbrtds of these few.
The garden city has been the underlying concept for subur-
ban growth, although its current form is unrecognizably
degenerated. With the late arrival o{ the office park into the
residential/retail suburb, the functional elements of the city
are now available in the suburb, and the core city has lost
its importance. As @nceptualized by Fishman and Garreau,
this regional pattern is no longer centroidal. The automobale
is able to move equally in all directions. although it tends to
reinforce maior intersections. These intensified points sup-
port commercial developmenl, around which residential
areas ousrer.
TRANSIT-ORIENTED DESIGN
This pattern emerged naturally with the advent of the rail-
rmd. Moving along a single axis like the streetcar, but
unable to stop as frequently, the railroad creates nodal
Doints ot commercial develooment with residential settle-
ment around them. The advent of the automobile permitted
the expansion of these settlements beyond any limit, con-
suming the landscape.
Garv Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Platerzyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie. Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
PLANNING
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
SITE, fl
88 PlonTypes
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ADVA NTAG E S
AOVA NTAG ES
1. Excellent directional orientation A DVANTAG ES
1. Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
2, Lot shape controllable 1 . Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
2. Even dispersal oI traffic through the grid
3. Street hierarchy with end blocks tor through traffic 2. Even dispersal of traffic through the network
3. Diagonals respond to the terrain
4. Even dispersal of traffic through the grid 3. Diagonals respond to terrain
4. Diagonals interrupt monotony of the grid
5. Srraight lines enhance rollng terrain 4. Intrinsically interesting by geometric variety
6. Efficient doubleloading of alleys and utjlities D ISAOVANTAG ES 5. Controllable shape oI blocks and lots
1. Uncontrollable variety ot blocks and tots 6. Efficient double-loading of alleys for urilities
DI SA OVANTAG ES
2. High number ol awkward lot shapes 7. Diagonal intersections spatially well defined
'|
Monotonous unless penodically interrupted
3. Diagonal intersections spatially ill defined OISADVANTAGES
2. Does not accommodate environmental intetruptions
3. Unresponsive to steep terrain I Tends to be disorienting
u
.2 1
SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING
BlockTypes 89
GENERAL
The urban plan must be assembled of blocks betore build-
ing frontage and landscape types are assigned. The disposi-
tion of blocks has distinct socioeconomic implications.
wm wq
THE SQUARE BLOCK % wq Wq &
Thistypewas an earlymodellor plannedsettlements
in
America. panicularly in Spanish colonies. lt was sometimes
ass@iated with agricultural communities, providing four
% u
large lots per block, each lot with a house at ats center. % %
When the growth ot the community produced additional
subdivision, replatting created irregular lots (Fig. 1). While % &
this may provide a useful variety, it is more often regarded
as a nuisance bv a societv accustomed to stdndardized W %
products. A lurther disadvantage is that dtscontln-uous rear
iot lines make alleys and rearaccess utilities impractical. %
-
b d wd %
Despite these shortcomings, the square block is usetul as a
specialized type. When platted only at its perimeter, with
the center left open, it can accommodate the high parking
% d wd
requirements of certain buildings. The open center, well
insulated from tratfic, may also be used as a common gar-
d e e o r a p l a y g r o u n d( F i g . 2 ) .
t
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COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
SITE, U
90 Open Spoce Types
GENERAL
Public open space provides ofientatton, hierarchy, and com
munal structure to a neighborhood. The specialtzed open
spaces shown he'e are denved tron the elonoated biock
types. They cdn atso be adtusted to frr borh iquare and
organic block types.
LANE
Children otten make lanes behind houses into informal olav
grounds. The paved surface in front of garages is conve,
nrent for ball games Lanes are particularlysuccessful when
they are designed ro eliminate lhrough traffic (right). Garage
apartments provtde superyision.
PLAYGROUND
Playgrounds can be easily extracted from any block by
assrgnrng ane or several lots to this use. There should be a
playground within 500 ft of every residence. The plav-
ground should provide both sunny and shaded play areas,
as well as an open shelter with benches tor parents. plav
grounds must be fenced, lockable, and lit. if thev are not to
become a nuisance at ntght.
NURSERY
A nursery can be inserted in the middle of a block. awav
from major lhoroughtares. It requires a |mrted amount of
parkrng but substantial vehicular drop{ff space. The
attached playground should be securely fenced and have
both sunny and shaded areas. Children's games may be
noisy, so it is advisable to locate nurseries where adjabent
houses are buffered by outbuildings.
CLOSE
A close is a space shared by buildings inside the block. lt
may be pedestrian, or it may have a roadway loop around a
green area. lts minimum width must coincide with emer-
gency vehicle turning standards. The close is a superior
allernative lo the cul{e-sac, as the locus is a green rather
than pavement. lt is especially recommended for commu-
nal subgroups such as cohousing or assisted-living cot-
tages. the close provides additional frontage for deep
square and organic blocks.
ATTACHED SQUARES
are greenspacesthat providesettingsfor civic
Squares
buildings and monuments, which are located at the center
or edge o.f the square. Buildings play a part, but the space is
largely deliaed bV iormal tree ptantrng. Squares should be
marntained to a higher standard than playgrounds and
oarks
DETACHED SQUARES
Squares detached on all sides by roads are particularlv for
mal. Srnce adjacent buildings provrde much of the popu,a- OPEN SPACE TYPES
tron that uses a public space. detached squares are less
likely to be used than other types. This separation atso lim-
rts the mount of natural security provided by adjacent win,
dows. The delached square remains approp.ate as a
means to symbolically enhance important places or jnstitu_
!ons.
Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Elizabeth PlatetrZyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shatie; Mjami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
'al
U SITE,
COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
PLANNING
OpenSPoceTYPes 9l
MARKET PLAZ-A
Plazas are public spaces that are prrmarily paved rather lhan
green. They can sustain very intense use by crowds and
even by vehicles. Parking lots should be designed as plazas
that happen to have cars on them, rather than as single pur-
pose areas. A smaller shoppang center can be transtormed
into a town center if it has been designed so at can be
seamlessly attached to the block system and detailed as a
praza.
CIVIC PLAZA
Civic buildings are often no larger than the private ones that
surround them. and their legibility as more important buil+
ings cannot depend solely on architectural expression
Their setting within the block system must communicate
their elevated status. Sites on squares or at the termina-
tions of avenues are ideal but not always available. Thus
the most dependable technique is to organize and detail the
parking areas ol civic buildings as plazas.
GREEN
The green is an urban. naturalistic open space. Lke the
square, it is small. civic, and surrounded by buildings. MARKET PLAZA CIVIC PLAZA
Unlike th€ square, it is in{ormally planted and may have an
irregular topography. Greens are usually landscaped with
trees at the edges and sunny lawns at the center. Greens
should contain no structures other than benches, pavilions,
and memorials; paths are optaonal.
PARK
Parks are naturalisticopen spaces, like greens, but larger
and tess tended. They are most successlulwhen qeated
from virginw@dland. Parkshave grassYareasonly periodi-
€llv. A knoll or a pond can be used as an imponantorganrz-
ing featlre. Parks exist within the urban {abric of large
cities, but their inherentsizeusuallyputs them at the edges
of towns and villages,Parksmay be edged by publicdrives
or by houses on very large lots, as long as connectionsto
publicpaths occur at every block.
BUFFER
The buffer has the basic elements of a green, with the
added purpose of buffering the impact o{ traftic from a
highway or boulevard.Shown is a small lot development
fronting a green. On the opposite side are larger lots on
which houses are placed further back from the roadway
edgo as anotherbufter technique.
GREEN
z-'. O O
PARK BUFFER
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizaberh Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
A
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE, I
92 BuildingTypes
GENERAL
The traditlonal increment for platting lots in Norlh America
has been the 50Jt. width This subdivision dtmension was
ef{icient for many years, creating 2s-ft rowhouse and shop-
tront lots. as well as 50-, 75, and 100Jt lots suitable for
houses. Howevei, the advent of the automobile added a
set of dimensional constraints that requ;red new platting
standards. The 50 ft width is wastelul. sinc€ the basic
increment of efficient parking is the double row at 64 ft.
COURTYARD BUILDING
This type of buildingoccupiesall or most of the edges of its
lot and definesone or more privatespacesinternally.This is
the most urbanof types as it is abteto completeiyshield
the privaterealmfrom the publicrealm.lt is commonin hot
clrmates,but its attributesare usefuleverywhere. Because
ol its ability to accommodateIncompatrble activttiesin
close proximity,it is recommendedlor workshops,hotels,
and_schools. The high securitythe boundaryprovidesis
usetul for recolonizingcrime-proneurbancores.
B c o
SIDE YARD BUTLDING 3 RODS 3 RODS 2 RODS 2 ROOS
This type ol buildingoccupiesone side of the lot. with the SIDE YARD BUILDING
primaryopen spaceon the other side. The view of the side
yard on the street front makes this buildingtype appear
freestanding,so it may be interspersedwith perimeteryard
buildingsin less urbantocations.lf the adiacentbuildingis
alsoa side yardtype with a blankpartywall. the open sp;ce
can be quite private.This type permitssystematiccli;atic
onentation. with the longsideyardelevationfacing the sun
or the breeze.
B D
PERIMETER YARD BUILDING 4 ROOS 2 RODS L 5 RODS 1 ROD
This buildingstandsfree on its lot. with substantiallront REAR YARD BUILDING
andrearyardsandsmallersideyards.lt is the leasturbanof
the types, so it rs usuallyassrgnedto areasaway from
nerghbo.hood and town centers.Thisbuildingtype is usu_
ally residential,
but when parkingis containedwithin the
rear yard atlends itself to limited oflice and boardinguses.
The rear yard can be secured for privacyby lenceJ and a
well-placedoutbuilding.The front yard is intendedto be
semipublic and visuallycontinuouswith the yardsof neigh-
W
,4 %
bors.The illusionof continuityis usuallydegradedwhin
garagetrontsare alignedwith the facades,as carsseldom
pullin beyondthe d.iveway.To avoida tandscape
cars,garagesshouldbe set backa minimumof one car,s
of parked
length from the facade or entered srdeways through a
walled forecourt
%
Wry
ru
3 RODS 3 RODS
u
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SITE,
COMMUNlry,AND URBANPLANNING
SpotiolDefinition 93
GENERAL
Building delineates public space in an urban setting Suc'
cessfufsoatial delinition is achieved when bounding build-
inos are alioned in a drscrp|ned manner and the defined
spice doesiot etceed a certarn herght-to-wdth ratro
NOMENCLATURE
THE FRONTAGE LINE
The lot boundary that coincides with a pubiic thoroughfare
or public space. The trontage line may be designed inde-
p€ndently of th€ thoroughfare, to create a specific sense of
place.
FACADE
The vertical surface oI a building set along a lrontage line.
The elevation is the vertical sudace set along any other
boundary line- Facades are subiect to control by building
height, setback lines, recess lines, and transition lines. Ele-
vations are only subiect to building height and setback
Iines.
SETBACK
BY FACADE BY RECESS LINE
The mandatory distance between a frontage line and a
facade or a lot line and an elevation
BUILOING HEIGHT
The detined limit to the venical extent of a building The
buildrng herght should be stated as a numbel of stotres, ,l
J
rather ihan iprescribed dimensron. Thrs prevents the com-
pression of internal ceiling heights. Height may be deter-
mined by density and view and not by the requirements of
soatial definit;on, which are addressed bY the recess lrne
RECESS LINE
A line prescribed tor the lull width ol the tacade, above
which the facade is set back. The recess line effectively
delines the enclosure of public space. lts location as deter-
mined bv the desired heighctcwidth ratio of that space,
compatibility with the average height of existing buildings,
or provision for daylighting at the street level.
CURB LINE
SECTION
DEFINITIONS
GaryGreenan, AndresDuany Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin. lskanda. Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
A
PLANNING
COMMUNW,ANDURBAN
SITE, u
94 FrontogeTypes
GENERAL
Buildrng type is independent of frontage type For example.
a c o u r l y a r d b u r l d t n g m a y h a v e a n a , c d d e . a S n o p l r O n t .a
sloop. of a porch as rts frontage lype Irontaqes can be
ranked trom most urban to most rural.
ARCADE
The facade overlaps the sidewalk, whtle the storefront
remains set back. This type is excellent for retail use, but
only when the sidewalk is fully absorbed so the pedestri€n
cannot bypass the arcade. An easement for public use of
private property is required. ARCADE
%
SHOPFRONT
The facade is aligned directly on the frontage line, with the
entrance at grade. This type is conventional for sidewalk
retail lt is often equipped wjth an awning or a porch. A
transition line should separate the signage from the facade
above. The absence of a setback and elevation from the
srdewalk prevents residentjal use on the ground floor,
although it is appropriate above.
STOOP
SHOPFRONT
The facade rs al,gned drrectly on the trontage Lne, with the
lfsl lloor elevated to achieve some ptivacv for the win_
dows. I his type is suitable for resrdenlial usei such as row_
nouses and apartment buildings. An easement may be
necessary to accommodate the encroaching stoop. This
type may be interspersed with the shopfront.
FORECOURT
The facade is set back and replaced by a low wall at the
trontage line. The forecourt thus created is suitable for oar-
dens, vehrcular drop{ffs, and workshop loading and sior-
age. jt should be used sparingly ano in conju;ction with
STOOP
lhe shopfront and sloop types, as a contrnuous bltnd wall is
boring and unsafe tor pedestrians Tree canopres within the
lo.ecourt should overhang the sidewatk
DOORYARD
The facade is set back from the frontage line. with an ele-
vated garden or terrace between. This type can effectively
buffer residential quarters from the side;alk, while remoJ_
rng the yard from public use. The terrace, when roofed. is
suitable for restaurants and cafes, as the eye level of ihe
srtter is level with that ot passersbv.
FORECOURT
PORCH AND FENCE
With an encroaching habitable porch, the facade is set back
substantially from the frontage line. The porch should be
wrthrn a conversational distance of the sidewalk. A fence at
the frontage line marks the boundary of the yard.
FRONT LAWN
The lacade is set back substantially from the frontage line.
l ne ront tawn thts creates should be unlenced and vrsually
continuous with adjacent yards. The ideal is to simulate
buildings sitting in a rural landscape. A front porch is usuallv
not appropriate, since no social interaction with the street i; DOORYARD
pol.ible at slch a distance.The large setback can provide a
butler trom heaw traffic, so thrs type ts sometimes founcl
on boulevards.
FRONT LAWN
AndresDuany,ElizabethptatetrZyberk,
Gary^Greenan, KamalZaharin.lskandarShalie;Miami,Florida
The CinlasFoundarion
4
tl
SITE,
COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
LondscopeTyPes 95
GENERAL
The urban landscape is a set of rnterdependent elements
that creates a controlled sense of place. lt includes thor
oughfare 1ype, building type, frontage type, and the form
and disgosition of landscape.
RURAL ROAD
This type is appfopriate for buildings at the edges of the
neighborhood and along parks and greenbelts. There is no
public planting line. The tree species should be episodic,
but in coherent clusters. There are no curbs; the drainage is
by open swale. Bicycle paths may be paved in asphalt.
RESIDENTIAL ROAD
This type is appropriatefor housesoutside of neighborh@d
centers. Since the frontage usually includes a substantial
setback. the tree canopy may be quite wide. The rural
aspect may be supported bY planting several species in
imperfect alignment.Roadsare detailedwith open swales'
and, where possible,drainageis through percolation.
RESIDENTIAL STREET
Thistype is appropflatefor residentral
buildingsat neighbotr /
'
h@d and town centers I rees ale in continuousplanlrng
strips, since the sidewalkdoes not require unusualwidth.
Planta singlespeciesof tree in steadyalignment.A thin.
venical canopy is necessary to avoid nearby building
facades.This type is dimensionally interchangeable with
the commercialstreet tYpeand may alternatein correspon- RESIDENTIAL STREET COMMERCIAL STREET
dence to the building facade. Streets are detailed with
raisedcurbs and closedstorm drainage.
COMMERCIAL STREET tl
tl
This type is appropriatelor commercialbuildingsat neigh- tl
borh@d and town centers.Trees are confinedby individual tl
plantingar€s, creatinga sidewalkof mximum width with
tl
areas accommodatingstreet furniture. Plant a single spe-
cies of tree in steadyalignment.CIeartrunks and high cano-
pies ar6 necessary to avoid interference with shoplront
signageand amings. Streetsare detailedwith raisedcurbs
with closed storm drainage.
AVENUE
This type is appropriatefor approachesto civic buildings.
The general principle is a thoroughfareof limited length,
with a substantialplantedmedian.At town cente.s,the
median may be wide enoughto hold monumentsand even
buildings.In residentialareas,the medianmay be planted
naturalisticallyto becomea parkwayor green.
BOULEVARD
tl
This type is appropriatefor hightapacity thoroughlaresat ll
neighborh@dedges.The detailingis similarto that of a
commercial street. The effect of the mediansis to segre-
gate the slower traffic and parking activity, al the edges,
from through traffic,at the center.
AVENUE BOULEVARD
Gary Greenan. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
The Cintas Foundation
A
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
SITE, I
96 ThoroughforeNomenclqture
GENERAL
Thoroughlares are endowed with two attribules: caoacrtv
and chardcler Capacrty refers lo the number ot vehtcles
that can move safely through a segment within a given
ffi
time. lt is physically manifested by the number of lanes and
their width and by the centerline radius, the curb radius,
and the super elevation of the pavement Character relers
to a thoroughfare's suitability for pedestrian activatiesand a
variety of building types. Character is physically manifested
by the thoroughfare's associated building. trontage, and
mwl
landscape types and sidewalk width.
W' NOMENCLATURE
HIGHWAY:A Iong{islance,mediumspeedvehicular corri-
dor that traversesopen country.A highway shouldbe rela-
NK
tively free ol intersections,drivewavs, and adiacent
buildings;otherwisert becomesa stilp, which tnterferes
with trafficflow. (Relatedtermsincludeexpressway,
a high
speed highwaywith intersectionsreplacedby grade sepi-
ration,and patkway.a hrghwaydesignedwrth narura'istrc
landscaping, partiallyaccommodatedwtthin a wtde and
varyingmedian.
ffi
wth trees.Euildingsuniformlylinethe edges.
W
usuallyalonga waterfront,park.or promontory.One side of
tho drive has the urbancharacterof a boulevard,with side-
walk and buildings,while the other h6 the aualitiesof a
parkway,with naturalisticplantingand ruraldetailing
ffi
ALLEY:A narrowaccessroute servicingthe rearof build-
ings on a street- Alleys have no sidewalks,landscaping,or
buildingsetbacks.All€ys are used by trucks and;ust
accommodatedumpsters, They are usuallypaved to their
edges. with center drainagevia an jnvened crown.
4
u SITE,
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
ThoroughforeTYPes 97
GENERAL
Caoacrtv and character are combined and adJusted to
achieve a complete series of useful thoroughfare types-. The
series rs best regarded In pairs: keeping the trghtof-way
wdth (B O.W) constant. each oair illustrates one type surl
able in two wavs, one for a relativelY rural condition and an-
other suitable for a more urban condition.
BOULEVARD HIGHWAY
H IG HWAY
AOULEVARD
11
ffi
zo' 4o'MrN. 20'
80'MlN. R.O.W.
AVENUE
MAIN STREET
STREET
+_+__++
lo 40' lo
lttlll
lffi-r
5' t4' 22'
60'R.O.W.
14' 5'
60'R.O.W
ROAD
STREET
{ nn
L#J
2 LANES
J I
%:m2
tttl tlttl
ffi lffi
5 t3 19 MlN. 13
IO' 30' lo'
50 R.O.W.
50' R O.W.
PASSAGE
+3;;-
PASSAGE PATH
ChesterChellman,P.E.:Ossipee,New Hampshire
KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie:Miami, Florida
Gary Greenan.Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
The Cintas Foundation
4
SITE, PLANNING
AND URBAN
COMMUNIry, |l
98 TrodilionolNeighborhoodDesign
INTRODUCTION
The traditional neighborhood development (TND) ordinance
produces compact, mixed-use, pedestrian t{endly commu
nities. lt can be incorporated in municipal zoning ordjnances
as an overlay or aS a separate districl. lt is intended to
ensure the following conventrons
i'if.Tll
Traditional neighborhoods share the following characteris-
tEl
tics:
SPECIAL DEFINITIONS
Terms used in a TND ordinance may differ in meaning from
their use in conventional zoning ordinances:
A
tUl
SITE,
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
TrqditionolNeighborhoodDesign vv
B2.PUBLIC: {a) A minimum o{ 57o of the neigh- C2.PUBLIC: (al Balconiesandopen colonnades are D2.PUBLIC:{a) Parkingsharedbetween public
42.PUBLIC: (a) Includes streets. squares.
parks, playgrounds. andthe like. (b) Civ- borhood area or 3 acres (whichever is permitted to encroach up to 5 ft into thorough- and privateuses is encouraged.
ic use lots may be placed within tracts greater) is permanently allocated to public {ares and other tracts. Such encroachments
designated lor public use. (c) Large- use. (b) Each neighborhood contains at shall be orotected bv easemenls.
scale recreational uses such as golf leasl one square, not less than one acre in
courses. schoolyards, and multiple size. close to the center. (c) No portaon ot
game fields are located only at the edge the neighborhood is more than 2000 lt
of the neighborhood. from the square. (d) At least half the perim-
eter of squares, parks, and waterfronts
{ace streets. (e) At least a quarter of the pe-
rimeter of waterfronts, goll courses, green-
belts, and other natural amenities face
Streets.
A3.ClVlC: (al Contains community build- 83.ClVlC: (a) A minimum of 27o ol the neigh- haveno heightor set- D3.ClvlC: (a)The majority(75yo)of the off-street
C3.ClVlC:{a)Civicbuildings
borhood area is reserved for civic use. (b) backlimitations. parkingtor civic structuresis behindthe build-
ings such as meeting halls, libraries,
post offices, schools, child care cen- Civic lots are within or adjacent to squares ings.
ters, clubhouses, religious buildings, and parks or on a lot terminating a street
recreational facilities, museums. cultur- vista. (c) Each neighborhood has a minr
al societies, visual and performance arts mum of one meeting hall and one child care
buildings, municipal buildings. and the lacilitv.
like.
(a)A minimumof 27oand C4.COMMERCIAL: (a) Buildings are built out to a D4.COMMERCIAL:(a)Lots front streets no more
A4.COMMERCIAL:(a) Containsbuildings B4.COMMERCIAL:
a maximum ol 309o ol the neighborhood minimum of 807o of their frontage at the front- than four laneswide; parallelparkingand side-
Drimarilvfor businessuses, such as re-
areais designatedtor comrercial use. (b) age line. (b) Buildings have no required setback walks minimum 15 ft wide. (b) Rear lot lines
tail, entertainment,restaurant,club, of-
fice, residential, lodging, antsanal, Commerciallots havea maximumfrontage from the side lot lines. (c) Buildings do not ex- coincidewith an allev. {c} Streets have curbs
ot 32 ft. (c)A maximumof lour lots may be ceed four stories in height and are no less than with a radiusat intersectionsof 5 to 15 ft. (d)
medical, etc. (b) At least 25yo of the
consolidatedto constructa single building. two stories in herght When fronting a square, Street trees are alignedon both sides of the
buildingarea is designatedfor residen-
buildings are no less than three storles In street at 35- to 5Gft interyals;when open col-
tialuse.
height. (d) Building coverage does not exceed onnadesare provided,no street trees are nec-
709o of the lot area. essary.{e)The majority(75yo)of the off-street
parkingis behindthe buildings.
(a)Containsbuild- 85 HIGH RESIDFNTIAL: (a) A minimum ot Cs.HlGHRESIDENTIAL: (a)Buildingsare builtout D5.H|GHRESIDENTIAL: (a)Lots frontstreetsno
A5.HIGHAESIDENTIAL:
ings tor residentialuse, limited office 2O9o and a rrCximum ot 607o of the neigh- to a minimumof 70% oI theirfrontage, at a con- more than three laneswide, with parallelpark-
borhood area is designated for high resi- tinuousalignmentno furtherthan 10 ft from the ing and sidewalks minimum 15 ft wide. (b)
use, cafes, retail, lodging,and artisanal
uses. {b) All of the buildingarea above dential use. (b) High residential lots have a lrontageline. (b) Buildingshave no requrred Street trees are alignedboth sides ol streets
ground flooris designated lor resi marrmum f rontage of 16 ft. (c) A maximum setbackfrom sidelot lines.(c)Buildings do not at 35- to 50-ft inteNals. (c) Rearlot linescoan-
the
dentialuse. (c)Outbuildingsare permit- of eight lots may be consolidated for the exceedfour storiesin heightand,when fronting cide with an alley. (d) All off-street parkingis
ted. purpose of constructing a single building a square, are no less than three stofles rn behindthe buildings.
containing one or more residential units. height. (d) Buildingcoveragedoes not exceed
50% of the lot area.
(a)Containsbuild- 86.LOW RESIDENTIAL:(a) A maximum of C6.LOWRESIDENIIAL:(a)Buildingsare builtout D6.LOWRESIDENTIAL: (a) Lots front roadsno
46.LOW RESIDENTIAL:
ings lor residentialuses, includangart 60% of the neighborhoodarea is designat- to a minimum of 40% of their frontageat a con- more than two laneswide with optionalparal-
ed tor low residentialuse. (b) Lots havs a tinuous alignmentno Iurtherthan 30 ft from the lel parking and sidewalks minimum 6 ft wide.
studios,limited offices, limited lodging,
and the like. (b)All of the buildingarea maximum frontage of 64 ft. (c) A maxi- frontagelin€. (b)Sidesetbacksare no less than {b) Street trees ar€ installedon both sides ol
'I the street at no more than 50-ft intervals. (c)
abovethe groundfloor is designatedfor mum of two lots mav be consolidatedfor 0 ft in aqgregat€and may be allocatedto one
residential use. (c) Outbuildingsare the purposeo{ constructinga single build- side. Buildingsare set back no less than 20 ft Rearlot lines mav coincidewith an alley. (d)
permatted. ing. from th€ rear lot line. Outbuildingshave no re- All ofl-street parking is to the side or reat ot
quired setback. (c) Buildingsdo not exceed the building. Where access is through the
three storiesin height. (dl Buildingcoverage frontage, garages or carpons are located a
d@s not exceed 50% ol the lol area. minimum of 20 ft behindthe facade.
(a)Contains
buildingstor BT.WORKPLACE: (a)A minimumof 27oanda CT.WORKPLACE: {a) Euildings are built out to a DT.WORKPLACE: (a) Lots front streets as wide
AT.WORKPLACE:
maximum of 30% of the neighborhood minimum of 707o ol their fronlage at a continu as necessary to accommodate truck traffic.
uses such as corporateollice, light in-
for workplaceuse. (b) ous alignment no {urther than 10 ft from the (b) Street trees are aligned on both sides ol
dustry,artisanal.warehousing,automo areais designated
Lots havea maximumfrontageof g ft. (c) lrontage line. (b) Buildings have no setbacks the street at 35. to 5Gtt intervals. (c) Rear lol
tive.and the like.
A maximumof four lots may be consolidat- from side or rear lot lines. (c) Buildings do not lines coincide with an allev. (d) All oll-streel
ed for the purposeof constructinga single exceed three stories in height. {d) Building cov- parking is to the side or rear of the building.
building. erage does not exceed 70yo ot the lot area. (e)
Lots are separated from other use tYpes al the
side and rear lor lines by a wall of between 3
and I ft high.
KamalZaharin'lskandarShafie;Miami,Florida
Platerzyberk,
GaryGreenan,AndresDuany,Elizabeth
The CintasFoundation
4
PLANNING
ANDURBAN
COMMUNW,
SITE, U
REMOVE FOR
- PUBLIC STREET F|REappaRATUs
n I l
ACCESS
\ _\ -- L
L]
'
L] L\
| \_-
--eounno
l -' -w- !
\-{f
PAVED SURFACE
DESIGNED TO
SUPPORT LOAD
OF FIRE
APPARATUS
e#
+* +
'll
"
fiffiIffifl
l'
ro'.o"rorz'.o"
WITH MIRRORS
1-
J
swtNc GATE
DE , SAC
RESTRIcTEo AREAs
Buildings constructed near clilfs or steeo slooes should not
reslr'ct access by tire apparatus to only one side of the
building. Grades greater than 10% make operation of fire
apparatus difficult and dangerous. Avoid parking decks
abutted to buildings. Consider pedestrian bridge overs
Insteao.
HIGHLIGHT REFLECTANCE
COLOR FOR MAX. VISIBILITY
ZONE OF MAX.
LIGHT INTENSITY BONNET
"STEAM€R"
CONNECTION
FACING STREET
PAVEMENT RING
FUNGE
D. L. Collins and M. David Egan, P. E., College of Architecture, Clemson University; Clemson. South Carolina
Nicholas A. Phillips, AIA; Lockwood Greene; New york. New york
A
1 SITE,
COMMUNITY,
AND URBANPLANNING
ControlofFloodDqmoge l0l
FLASH FLOOD: a local flood of great volume and short ward of the reach of the mean high ttde. Local land use and
FLOOD DAMAGE MANAGEMENT duration. Flash floods di{{er from fiverine floods in extent development or floodplain management plans that are
Flood hazards are caused by building in flood-prone areas. and duration. Flash tloods gene.ally result from a totrentjal more stringent than NFIP requirements supersede NFIP
Fl@ds cannot be prevented, but the damage they wreak on rain or "cloudburst" covering a relatively small drainage requirements. The NFIP divides riverine floodplains into
man-made Droperties can be managed, either by altering area. Flash tloods may also result from the failure ot a dam flmdway and floodway fringes for land use management.
the flood potential of an area or by avoiding construction in or sudden breakup of an ice jamb. Coastal floodplains are divided into coastal high-hazard
lo€tions subiect to flooding. Historically, flood damage areas and coastal fringes. Land uses in these areas should
management in the United States has locused on the FLOOD RISKS always be verifred with local agencies.
former management lechnique, attempting to diven floods
with structural flood controls-dams, levees, and channel Flood risk is usuallv exoressed as the estimated annual fre-
FLOOOWAYS
quency with which a flood equals or exceeds a specified
modilications. However, such flood control measures have
proved unsatisfactory over time. magnitude. The llood risk for a future period of time is the Floodwavs include the channel of a watercourse and those
ioint probabiljty of the occurrence of the annual flood risk. portions of the adjoining tloodplain required to permit the
For example, il a hous€ is situated at the "100-year Jlood" passage of a llood of specified magnitude at no more than
Structural flood control proiects have tended to encourage
development in high hazard areas. often without appropri- elevation (1 yo annual exceedance frequency). then its tlood a specified level above natural conditions. The NFIP
risk for a 3o-year period is 26% or approximately a one in requires lloodways to be large enough to accommodate
ate land use planning. When a storm exceeds or violates
four chance it will be llooded to the specified depth or floods with a 17o annual exceedance frequency (100-year
the design parameters of a tlood control structure, the dam-
greater. flood) without causing an increase in water levels of more
age that results from a flood can exceed what would have
than a soecified amount (1 ft in most areas). Some localities
@curred if the structure had not been built. For example,
tl@dplain invasion often occurs where lwees have been STANDABD PROJECTED FLOOD (SPF): a flood that may obiec.t to the acceptability of increased flood levels this
b€ expected from the most severe combination of meteo- NFIP requirement implies. lnstead, they define the flood-
built with the intention ol reducing damage to agriculture.
rological and hydrological conditions characteristic of the wav as the area inundated bv floods with a 4yo annual
Although in some regions levees have reduced the number
geographic area in which the drainage basin is located, exceedance frequency (25-year lloodi.
of high-frequency floods, in general they cause conditions
tavorable for their own failure by altering erosion patterns excluding extremely rare combanations.
Uses oermitted in a floodwav are those with low llood dam-
and increasing stages.
SPFs are used in designing dams and other facilities with age potential thal do not obstruct flood {lows or require
high damage potentaal. structures, fill, or storage of materials or equipment. Fill is
Recognition of the cost of development in high{isk areas. prohibited, and most structures are strongly discouraged.
the uneven distribution of flood hazards on lhe landscape,
PROBABLE MMIMUM FLOOD {PMF): the most severe The following uses are generally permitted:
and the natural and beneficial values of floodplains have led
flood that may be expected lrom a combination of the most
to more common adoption of nonstructural flood hazard
critical meteorological and hydrological condations reason- FUNCTIONALLY DEPENDENT USES: facilities and struc-
managemenl techniques. In particular, land use manage-
ably possible in a drainage basin. (This term is not a statisti tures that must be located close to water in order to func-
ment and modified building practices are finding wide-
cal concept.) tion, such as docking and port facilities and shipbuilding and
spread acceptance.
repair lacilities. Water supply and sanitary sewage treat-
PMFS are used in designing high-risk flood protection ment plants must be floodproofed il they must be leated
Information on flood damage management and floodplain
works and in siting structures and facilities thal must be adjacent to bodies ol water.
and wetland conseryation is available from the Federal
subject to almost no risk of flooding.
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Natural Haz-
AGRICULTURAL USES: general farming, pasture, outdoor
ards Research Applications and Information Center, the plant nurseries, horticulture. viticulture, truck farming, for-
U.S- Army Corps o{ Engineers, the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, the National Park Service, and state and local LAND UsE IN FLOOD ZONES estry, sod farming, and wild crop harvesting.
ag€ncres. Land use management is the most effective method of RECREATIONAL USES: golf courses, tennis courts. driving
managing flood damage. State control of land use in hazard- ranges, archery ranges, picnic grounds, boat launching
ous areas, authorized by tha policepowers clause of the
ramps, swimming areas, parks. wildlife and nature pre-
FLOOD HAZARDS U.S. Constitution, is usually delegated to local planning and seryes. game farms, fish hatcheries. shooting preserves,
zoning boards. L@al, state, and federal governments also target.ranges, trap and skeet rang€s, hunting and fishing
Most flood damage is caused by weather conditions such
regulate ecosystems essential for flood damage manage- areas, and hiking and horseback riding trails.
as hurricanes, fronts associated with midlatitude cyclones,
menl. such as wetlands, coastal dunes, and mangrove
thunderstorms, and melting snow packs. These conditions
interact wtih surface leatures such as tloodplains, coasts, stands. Land use management often includes setback reg- INCIDENTAL INDUSTRIAL-COMMERCIAL USES: loading
wetlands, and alluvial lans. resulting in floods, mudslides. ulations, which attempt to limit flood-related erosion dam- areas, parking areas, and airport landing strips (except in
age. Regardless of regulations imposed by the
and erosion. Geologic phenomena such as eanhquakes flash flood areas).
government, developers should evaluate building sites for
may also trigger floods.
their intrinsic suitability for the intended use. INCIDENTAL RESIDENTIAL USES: lawns, gardens, parking
Weather and climate in{ormation is available from the areas. ano play areas-
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requires that
National Climate Data Center. regional climate research
participating local governments adopt minimum lloodplain
centers, ?nd state climatology oftices. Geologic and hydro FLOODWAY FRINGES
management plans based on data provided by the federal
logic information is available from the U.S. Geological Sur 7
3 insurance administrator. The NFIP does not require local Floodway fringes are the portion of the regulatory floodplain
vey and state geological and geographical surveys.
governrents to adopt land use or transponataon plans that outside ol the floodway. Floodway fringes are treated as
require prelerential development of hazar*tree areas or slorage area {or flood waters. Where permitted, prop€rty
FLOOD.PRONE AREAS
prohibit development of land in high hazard areas. New owners on each side of the floodplain may obstruct llood
FLOODPLAIN: The relatively flat area within which a river construction in coastal zones is required to be located land tlows equally.
moves and upon which it legularly overflows.
INTERFLUVE
FLOODPUIN
Rivers typically meander over their floodplains, eroding the
cutbank and redepositing sediments in accretion zones
such as point bars, meander belts, and natural levees.
Channel shifting may be extreme in alluvial fans. Coastal
tl@dplains, which include barrier islands, shores, and wet- BASE FLOOD
lands. hav€ the same relationshio to the sea that riverine ELEVATION
tloodplains have to rivers.
RIVERINE FLOOD: great overflows of water from a river INTERFLUVE FLOODPUIN INTERFLUVE
channel onto a floodplain caused by precipitation over Iarge
areas, melting snow, or both. Over-bank flow is a normal
geophysical event that @curs on average every two years SPECIAL FLOOD HAZARD AREA
for most rivers.
A
FLOODDAMAGECONTROL 1l
102 ControlofFloodDqmoge
Uses permitted in floodway fringes include those permitted tral basements are permitted only in communjties that out grade beams should be used only in areas not subiecl
in floodways and elevated or otherwise flood-proofed struc- meet special NFIP flood criteria and adopt special local stan- to potential scour Freestanding pole struclures are unsafe
tures. Prohtbited or strongly discouraged uses include facilts dards tor their design and construction. Commercial struc large rotations develop at moment connections, causrn.i
ties for storing materials that are toxic or flammable or tures must be elevated or otherwise floodDrooted to the deflection of pilings under sustained lateral loads that can
explosrve In water, vital lacilities such as hosDitals and civil BFE. lead to collaose.
defense or rescue facilities, and facilities that are difficult to
evacuate, such as nursing homes and prisons. B ZONES Destruction of coastal dunes and wetlands dramaticaltv
Increases the Inland reach of storm surge and waves and
B zones indicate areas subject to inundation by floods with
increases the severity of tlood damage. Buildings mav be
FLOOD INSURANCE an annual exceedance frequency greater than the base
RATE ZONES destroyed it dunes and wetlands are inadequatelv oro
tlood with less than a 0.2% annual exceedance frequencv
The NFIP is a program intended to reduce federal expendi- tected, even it they contorm to legal building requirements
{500-year flood). B-zone designations are not used on
tures for flood disaster relief. lt provides flood damage recent FIBMS because of the lack of statistical valadityof
Insurance as an incentive Io. communities to adopt flood, mosl estimates of 500-year {loods and the false perception E AND M ZONES (E, M}
plain management regulations, especially those governing that they are generally safe. On some maps I zones are E zones are areas adjoining the shore of a lake or other
floodplain obstructions and building practices in floodplains. shown as shaded X zones- body of water that are likely to suffer flood-related erosion
NFIP minimum standards require a low level of flood dam M zones are areas with land surfaces and slopes of uncori
age management based on historic conditions. c zoNEs soirdated material in which the history, geology. and climate
indicate a potential for mudflow. Setbacks and special buitd
States and localities may establish standards higher than C zones, including all areas that are not in zones A. B, or V,
ing requirements are used in E and M zones.
NFlPas, in which case these supersede NFIP standards. For are not necessarily flood tree. They may include low{isk
example, other governments may control land use in haz- interfluvial regions (areas of a watershed above the natural
ardous areas, regulate runof{, have freeboard requirements, floodplain), moderate-risk floodplain between the interfluve
and the regulatory floodplain, areas with localized nonriver- SOURCES
or base regulatory flood elevations on historic floods that
exceeded the base flood or on the oroiected effects ot ine flooding. high{isk areas with small contributing drainage CoastalConstructionManual IFEMA-55).Dames & Moore
future development. The NFIP Community Ratang System areas, and floodplains with structural flood protection that and Eliss& Nvitrav.lnc.. 1986.
provides insurance rate reductions as an incentive to adopt may be sub,ect to low frequency catastrophic floods.
higher standards. Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA)-s4).Washinoton.
D ZONES D C AmeflcanInstituteot Archilects,1984
The NFIP bases Flood Insurance Rate Zones on the fre- D zones are areas of possible blt undetermined flood haz-
quency of flooding and the presence of storm surge and ard.
Elevating to the Wave Crest Level: A Benefit: Cost Analysis
waves. Local governments are typically required to regulate (Fl46),Shaelfer& Roland,Inc..1980.
building practices in A and V zones as a condition of eligibil- x zoNEs
ity for flood insurance. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Answers lo
X zones includeall areas not in zonesA or V, combiningB Questions About the National Flood lnsurarce Program
The most important requirement in A and V zones is that and C zonesfound on older maps. On some maps.X zones (FlA-2).,
Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
the tirst floor of new buildings be buill equal to or higher that wer€ tormerly B zones and X zones within levee sys-
than the base flood level, which has a 1 yo chance of beino tems are shaded. FederalEmergencyManagementAgency. The Fl@dway:A
equaled or exceeded in any grven year ( l 0Gyear flood). Thi Guide tor Cffimunity Pemit Officials. Community Assis-
base flood is the still water height for riverine floods. For v zoNEs (v, vE, vt-v3o, vo) tanceSeriesNo.4. Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
the Atlantic Coast and the Gull of Mexico, the base flood
VelocityzonesV and VE (formerlyV1-V30)are coastalhigh FloodLoss ReductionAssociates.Fl@dplain Management
includes storm surge plus wave crest height because of
hazardareasidentified as susceptibleto inundationby the Handb@k.U.S.Water ResourcesCouncil.1981.
northeasters and hutricanes. The base flood for the Pacific
base flood, includingstorm surgeswith high velocitywaves
Coast includes astronomical rides plus wave run-up caused greater than 3 ft. Generally,zone V indicates the inland
by tropical cyclones and tsunamis. For maior lakes, the Fbodpr@fing Nonresidential Structures {FEMA)-102).
extent of a 3-ft breakingwave, where the still-waterdepth B@kerAssociates.Inc.,1986.
base flood includes seiche (sloshing be€use of wind, seis-
during the loGyear flood decreasesto less than 4 ft. VO
mic activity, and storm surge). The base flood elevation
zones are proposed alluvial fan zones with high velocity Hayes, W. W., ed. Facing Geologic and Hydrolagb Haz-
{BFE} is the height of the base flood in reference to mean shallowflow (1 to 3 ftl and unpredictableflow paths.
sea level as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical ards: Eafth-Sciene Considentions. Washington, D.C.l
Datum ol 1929 {NGVD 1929). U.S.GeologicalSuruey,198 1.
Elevation and structuralrequrrements are most stringentin
coastalhigh hazardareas.Fillbelowbuitdingsis p.ohibited. Pemit Olticials' Handbook tor the National Fl@d lnsurance
Local communities may adopt regulatory flood datums
lf construction is permitted by the local government.the
(RFD) in place ot base llood elevations. RFDS are the base Prognm. 3rd ed. Baton Rouge LouisianaDepartment of
lowest horizontalstructuralmember of the lowest habitable Transponationand Developm€nt,1993.
flood plus a lreeboard. a factor of safety expressed in feet
floor must be built above the base flood elevation.Rioid
and used to compensate for uncenainties that could con-
framesor semirigidtrameswith gradebeamscanresisrihe
tribute to greater flood height than that computed for a
impact of storm surge and waves. Semrrigidframes with-
base flood. Freeboard allows for hazards excluded from
consideration in tiguring the base llood and uncertainties in
analysis, design. and construction. Severe structural subsid-
ence, increases in floods because of obstructions in the
floodplain, urban runoff, or normal climatic variability, as
well as long-term increases in sea level and storms, are GENERI\L LIMITS OF FLOODPROOFING
olten excluded from consideration in determining base
flood levels. Urban conditions. low accuracy base maps, METHOD WARNING REQUIREMENTS
and unplanned development are other common sources of Advance warnang
uncertainty that justif y f reeboard.
of floodgatesin openings
Some qommunities require up to a 3-ft lreeboard to com-
pensate for inaccurate flood insurance rate maps (FlRMs). hr
The margin of error of base maps may be estimated as plus installationof closures
or minus one-halt of the contour interual. Most FIRMs are
tme
developed from maps with a contour interyal of 5 ft, and a
to higher ground
margin of error ol -2 12 lt. Field survey maps with a con-
tour interval of 2 ft or less are used in some communities; evacuatron trme requrred
the smaller interyal reduces the uncertaintv of the risk and
NOTE
the need for freeboard.
Information presented is general and warrants caution. Time availabl€ for warning may be severely limited by a llood's rate of rise
The NFIP classifies land either as special flood hazard areas
(SFHA)--*righJrequency f lood, {l@d-related erosion, and
mudslide zones{r low-risk and undetermined flood haz-
ard zones. Zone names that include actuarial risk factors,
such as A1-A30 and V'l-V30, are being replaced by AE and
VE designations with flood depths. COASTAL OCEAN<ONSTRUCTION PROHT gtTED
COASTAL FRINGE HIGH HAZARD
a zoNEs (A, AE, At -A3O, .AO, AH, AR, A99)
PRIMARY DUNES
Zones A and AE (formerly A1-A30) are highjisk riverine
areas susceptible to inundation bv the still-water base
flood. AO zones are areas of shallow flooding (1 to 3 ft)
without detined channels, usually sheet flow on sloping ter-
rain. AH zones indicate shallow flooding, usually with water
ponding. AR zones are areas in which structural flood pro-
tection is deficient. A99 zones are areas in which structural
fl@d protection syslems are near compteron.
A
I FLOODDAMAGE CONTROL
VehicleDimensions 103
GENERAL
, l
ln setting design paramelers. the designer assumes that all
vehicles present are "design vehicles." Design vehicbs are ' lf-t
ll -t
selected to represent approximately the 85th percentile vehi- ACCESSIBLE LIff-\
cle in a range from smallest to largest. In the recent past, \ _
small or comoact ca. stalls were often separated from large or \ A-_-,---J
standard stalls in parking designs. However, a deciine in
l" To 3'-o ;F_i- ACCESSIBLE 3 -s ro 4 - r o" -J-\_L_W_L
smaller car sales and the increasing use ol light trucks, vans,
and utility vehicles (LTVUS) for personal transportation have Llff
made small{aronly stalls ineffective as a design l@1. There vt/HEELCHAIR LIFT VAN
fore, while smll car and large car design vehicles-as well as a
composite encompassing both small and large-have been
given here for relerence, parking design must be based on a
composite passenger vehicle that includes not only cars but
light trucks, €ns, and sporvutility vehicles.
BOAT TRAILER
a"To 14'
PASSENGER CAR
RV-CONVENTIONAL TRAILER
LIGHT TRUCK
RV_FIFTH WHEEL (PICKUP-BASE)
(FT-rN.) (LB)
lnc.;Indianapolis.
Mary S. Smith.P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, lndiana
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING fl
r04 VehicleDimensions
']
4
II AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
VehicleTurning
Rqdii r05
(
lt I
f-t
i{/
Il
||l
irl
COMPOSITE CAR INTERCITY BUS GARBAGE TRUCK
(-_\
',L'/
Source: American Association of State Highway and Trans- N OTES held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of
portation Officials (MSHTO). the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on
1. Minimumturn radiiat lessthan 10 mph. driveways and roadways.
{columns,walls,light poles,etc.)shouldbe
2. Obstructions
Inc.;lndianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Indiana
Single-threadedT
Outside diameter Do 60'4' 74'-O' 88'-0' 102'4'
Inside diametef Dr 24',4' 36'{' 48',-0' 60'{' NONCONCENTRIC TWO.WAY
Double-threadede
LANE WIDTH (TURNING}
Outside diameter Do 80'{' 95' 0' 11 0 ' { ' r25'-0'
lnside diameter9 Dr M\0' 57'-0' 70'{' 83'{'
ramp slope s 16Vo 14yo l2v. 1jvo
ansrtronlength t- 10'-0' | 1'-0' t2'-0'
Gated/controlled widthlo 8'-9' 9{' 9',3'
Source:Mary S Smith, Parkng Structures:Planning,Design,Maintenance and Repair, 2d ed. (Chapman and Hall, 1996).
1 The design parameters recommended 5 For all levels of
are for design service, use a 20Jt lane to allow room to
speedsrangingfrom 10 mph (LOSD) to 2b mph {LOSA). pass a brokendown vehicle. per AASHTO '1990 figure
Additionaldimensionsfor parkingaccessaislesand lurn- 1 1 1_23.
ing bays are providedon the AGS page on parkingdesign 6 The
diameters given measure from outside face to out-
parameters.
side face of the walls (6-in. walls assumed).
2 For all levelsof service,use a 1
s-ft laneto make room lor 7 Turning radii/iane width
,ncreased 3 ft because of multiple
passtnga brokeniown vehicle_
Turns.
3 The clearancegiven is from
the edge of a lane to a wall, 8 Decrease
3 lt 6 in. to provide 2o-tt lane in order to leave
column, parkedvehicle, or other obstruction,as cited in ADDED 3'.O' FOR
room to pass broken-down vehicles.
American Associationof State Highway and Transporta- 9 Ramp slope, MULIIPLE TURNS
tion Officials,A Policyon Geometiic Designof Higiways minjmum lane width. and clearance to walls (TO OUTSIDE)
and sr/eers (r gg0l IASHTo 19901,figure 11 t,25. control dimensions for double-threaded helix.
a The dimensionsgiven for l0
LOS D are {rom AASHTO'1990 The dimensions given assume a straight approach to lane;
figure 111-23, exceptthe clearancecited in that figure has check turns into lanes with temolate.
beenreducedto 2 ft, per tigure111-25.
FULL HELIX
fl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
Drivewqysqnd Roqdwqys 107
dure for developing any drive configuration, given the design NOTE
GENERAL
vehicle and its turning radii (R). The tangent (TG)dimension is tor Rr Br, Ro, Wq, Wr, and Tc, see lhe AGS page on vehl
Veh,cledimensaons are shown on the AGSpageon design an approximate minimum required for transition from one
a proce- cle tuinrng ridrr. Fbr L. OB. and W. see lhe AGS page on
vehicles.The U-shaDeddriveshownhereillustrates turn direction to another. design vehicles.
UNLOADING
AREA -
L
I O',-O" I o'-o"
RADIUS RADIUS
LP+
r---
CENTERLINE OF STREfl
+-r +
I
CENTER
ON DOOR
l/'\
i" \.1
FORWARD
/
R"/t
CUL-DE-SAC DIMENSIONS
lnc.;Indianapolis,
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers. Indiana
A
ROADS,AND PARKING
AUTOMOBILES, I
108 PorkingDesignPorometers
r3s .O'
+301O"
+2O-o
+lO'-O tr
+: + -- sc + t+
FLOOR TO FLOOR
I ooD L|NES i
f I
I
5 \,,
LLjlll_uilfl|i||tI
if-tilfnT ttilTiflTtlf . ' z \
| |
=
NOTE
lf the bay run is greater than the "small car" dimension, pre
vide a short circuit to help traffic flow.
u
A
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
PorkingSpoce Dimensions r09
pARKING spAcE t OV
DlMENsloNs rrt--tru.) "f
ALL LEVELS OF SERVICE
OF CURB
i1
VEH ICLE
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION WALL OFFSET OVERHANG STRIPE OFFSET
1G3
13-8
SP
1--"
75
90
LEVEL OF SERVICE A
STALL
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MODULE AISLE INTERLOCK
STALL NOTE
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MOOULE AISLE INTERLOCK
Stalls adjacent to columns must be wider to provide the
0 8-3 28€ 124', 0{ same level of service of turn.
0 8-3 21-03 0,0
SHORT SPAN CONSTRUCTION
45 11 - 8 474 12-10 2-11 DETAILS
50 10-9 48€ 23
55 4$9 13-7 24 NOTES
60 96 51-4 146 1. Parkingstallsfor a design vehicle6 ft 4 in. wide and 16 ft
I in. long shouldhave a stripe prcjectionof 16 ft 3 in. and
65 9-1 52$ 154 1-9 parallel stalllengthof 20 ft 9 in.
70 8-9 53-9 rG5 Smalkar€nly stalls (7 ft 5 in. wide by 15 ft long) should
75 8€ 5il l7-10 only be used at constrained lGtions or in remnants of
space. The number of these stalls should not exceed
90 8-3 59{ 24.o 0{ 10% of total parking capacity at a site.
LEVEL OF SERVICE D Angles between 76 and 89" are not recommended for
one-way design because these angles permit drivers of
STALL smaller cars to back out and exit the wong way.
ANGLE OF PARK PROJECTION MO DU LE AISLE INTERLOCK
Angled parking is not recomrend€d for use with twe
0 8{ 274 t1{' 0{ wav aisles as drivers often attemot to make a U-turn into
35-O r 9{r 04 stalls on the other side of the aisle.
0 8{
Add 1 ft to the module for surface parking bays without
45 I 1-4 4m 10 2-10 curbs or other parking guides (freqrent poles or columns
50 tG5 47-6 2-2 2-7 or walls) in areas with frequent heaw snowfall.
55 9-9 48-9 -7 24 To maintain the same level of seruice (LOS), reduce the
module (M) by 3 in. for each additional inch in stall width
60 93 5G4 3€ 24 (SW) while maintaining minimum aisle width (see toot'
65 8-r0 516 1€ notes 2 and 3 to accompanying chan), For example,
I ft I in. @ 90'on 61-ft module = LOS A
70 8$ 52-9 t5 14
9 ft 0 in @ 90'on 60-ft 3-in. module = LOS A
75 8-3 54{ 6-10 l{
Columns and light poles may protrude into a parking mod
90 8-O 58{ 234 0{ ule a combined maximum of 2 ft as long as they do not
' All dimensrons are rounded to the nearesl rnch. affect more than 25yo ot the stalls in that bay For exam-
ple, a 2-ft encroachment by a column on one side of the
2 These are minimum aisle widths for one-wav traffic at each levelof seryice
aisle or 1 ft each from columns on both sides is permissi-
3 Figures given are widths for twcway traffic. ote.
4
AUTOMOBILES, AND PARKING
ROADS, 1
I l0 PorkingLofEntryqnd ExitDesign
GENERAL
ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guide
gorurc.
lines for Buildings and Facilities,36 CFR 1 191. July 26, 1991 I
requires all cashier booths in new construction (and in alter-
ations that result in the removal of existing islands) to be
accessible "to and through" the door This mandate is found i
under the requirements for employee work areas or sta- o
tions. A booth can meet this requirement if it is recessed in ii!
the pavement so the interior floor is at the same elevation as
the driving lane. An accessible cashier booth can also have a
curb ramp and appropriate latch side clearance for the rear
swinging d@r. I
b
ADMG recommends-but d@s not require-that at least
one booth be a fully accessible workstation {have a s-ft DffECTOR
LOOP, TYP,-\
drameter wheelchair turning space, adjustable counter, ac
cessible controls, etc-). A booth can meet this requirement I
with accessible doors on both sides, which allows T turning I
movemenls.
:
KEY TO DRAWINGS o
TERM ABBREVIATION @
SYMBOL
Autogate AG
.- | 316" I
Ticket dispenser TD
E NTRAN C E O R E X I T W I T H
E A D E R ONLY
CARD
"l:l '
GALVANIZED)
%- NEOPRENE l=l
PAD lil RECESS BOOTH IN
lt ln l ISUND SO FLOOR
IS LEVEL WITH TOP
SEAUNT ALL
AROUND lz -[- OF ISUND AT DOOR
l=l ?
lt sgl l BOLURD. TYP.
NOTE 6L
Place bollards so they are plumb
N
PIPE BOLLARD EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE CASHIER
BOOTH AND CARD READER
h /////////,/
P
ta
tI \N
-+
lt tl-N\
J---rj--rr t
-
,+
I --tl + +-
RECOMMENOED PI.AN WITH INAOEQUATE TURNS
+t
5ECTION AT BOOTH RECOMMENDED PUN
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.;Indianapolis,
Indiana
A
tUl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
PorkingLotDesign ill
sw*r'-o"-\, l tvP+t-o
,/-i-wHEELCHAIR
I / I RAMP - LIGHT
PEDESTRIAN
io.o
RADIUSI POLE
NN
PEDESTRIAN I STALL
: RADiUS
LIGHT TRAVEL OV
o
1-
l URGER
ii
o OFT
3','6
5', O"
' RADiUS
SIDEWALK
PEDESTRIAN
TRAVEL *
lu
,l) - to-o"
RADI6
FACE OF b+
c UJ
l''
I
o
SMALL LOT WITH ONE.WAY TRAVEL MULTIBAY LOT WITH TWO-WAY ENO AISLE
20010"
._::":':'
r)*
+
l+
t-)
tl
LJ
:
l+
,l+
I]
l:
: -=>
rT----\
l,
ltl
j+
:+
)
J
ANGLED PARKING
NOTES
1I PARKING
N OTES
1. GPA = 200 ft x 56.33 ft x 2 = 22,532 sqlr 1. GPA = 200 ft x 60.5 It x 2 = 24.200 sq lt
2. Capacity = 80 vehicles 2. Capacity = 80 vehicles
3. Efficiency = 22,532 sq fV80 vehicles = 281.7 sq fvspace 3. Etliciency = 24,200 sq ftl80 vehicles = 302.5 sq ruspace
ii
-#
CONCRETE BUMPERS CREATE
TIPPING HAZARD AND ARE
NOT RECOMMENDED
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.:lndianapolis,
lndiana
A
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING I
112 PorkingLotDesignGuidelines
CONSIOER DEEPER ASPHALT VEHICUUR TRAFFIC BUILOING ENTRY
OR REINFORCED CONCRETE CONTROL SIGNS.
PAVING AT AREA WHERE CAUTION STRIPES,
HEAVY VEHICLES ( F I RE TRUCKS SPEED HUMPS OR PASSENGER/LOADING ZONE
BUSES, FTC ) ARE COMMON SPEED AUMPS
AVOIOING CURBS AND WHEEL STOPS SPECIAL UNOSCAPE AND
ALLOWS EASY SNOW REMOVAL PAVING DESIGN EMPHASIS
AND REDUCES PEDESTRIAN AT MAJOR ENTRANCE
IRIPS AND SLIPS
ACCESSIBLE
PARKING AREA AND
RAMP CLOSE TO ENTRY
LANE /
*^;t;;;==-
INTERMEDIATE
ISUND. TYP
PARKING AISLE
ORIENTED
NOTE TOWARO
DESTINATION
Confirmrequirements TRAFFIC FLOW
for fire lanesadiacentto buildings.
Consultlocalcodes {BUILDING ENTRY)
GOMMERCIAL PARKING ARRANGEM ENT
4
U AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING
il3
+35 -O',
+3O'-O"
NOTES
+25 .O"
1. Floorto flry crrculation In a parkrng structure is typrcally
provrded either by parkrng ramps or express ramps
+20'-O" ithose
without parking) or a combination of both.
2. Almost all ramp systems are based on helical patterns,
whether a lully circular express helix or a combination of
strarght runs and turning bays at the end.
3. The two fundamental helical panerns a,e the srnole_
threaded helix, which rises one fuil floor rn each 360; of
revolutaon, and the double-threaded helix, which rises
two floors with each complete revotutron.
SINGLE.THREADED HELIX 4. Express helices can be either single threaded or double
threaded. Parking ramps can also be configured in single-
and double-threaded patterns.
+3O-O" +3O'-O
5. On a site that can accommodate two parking modules in
width but is short (less than 200 ft), a single-threaded
helix can be used only with tweway traffic flow and 90"
+2O -O
parl(ng.
6. Application of a twebay single-threaded helix arranoe,
ment may be limited by the desirable number of turis,
spaces passed, etc. of the selected level of service and/
+ I O'-O" + | O'-O" or by flow capacity considerations.
o
o
DOUBLE.THREADED HELIX
TWO-WAY FLOW
TWO.BAY SINGLE-THREADED HELIX
/ NOTES
1. The twobay double-threaded helix can be taller and
accommodate more spaces than the two-bav sinole-
threaded model: however, it requires a longer srte (tfpi-
cally more than 200 ft in length). Because thrs desrgn
may offer less desirable wayfinding and user-friendlineis
to unfamiliar users, it is most often used for predomi-
nantly employee parking.
2. A two-bay double-threaded helix may have either one-
way or tweway traffic flow. The former has one up and
one down route, while the latter provides two up routes
and two down ones.
TWO.WAY FLOW
TV\/O-BAY DOUBLE.THREADED HELIX
NOTES
'1.
The split-level design is a modification of the singte-
threaded helix in which the parking bays are flattened and
spe€d ramps are used to accomplish a vertical rise. split-
level parking structures may have either two-wav or one-
way traffic flow.
2. Although they provide a level lacade, split-level parking
structures have a number of disadvantaqes. The main
ones are loss ot stalls (compared to a typrcal twebay sin
gle-threaded helix), difficult design for turns and speed
ramp. and poor efficiency (the square footage of parking
area per stall is roo high).
SPLIT LEVEL
4
AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,AND PARKING I
I l4 PorkingStructureDesign
NOTES
,-J,
/t'-
-
1. On wider sites, a combination ol sloped parking bays a!rc
flat bays in single-threaded patterns can provlde leve
facades with superior wayfinding and user-lriendliness
These facilities may be limited primarily by height (too
much height yields an excessive number of turns) or flon
capacity {the number of spaces passed on the path ol
travel).
2. On longer sites. single-threaded helices can be combined
in a camelback helix to provide one-way traffic llow. This
one way llow offers better wayJinding tor unfamiliar
users than a double-threaded helix. However, because
there are more turning bays, the efficiency (sq fvparking
space) of the garage will be affected.
THREE-BAY SIDE-BY-SIDE FOUR.BAY SIDE.BY.SIOE
ENO.TO.END CAMELBACK
NOTES
1. Traffic can be routed in either a single-threaded or double
threaded pattern on the same configuration of tlat and
sloped parking bays.
2. The three-bay double-threaded helix option provides
quicker vertical circulation and better flow capacity. How'
ever, because the flow is different on every other floor,
making ir confusing for unfamiliar users, this design
works besl for employee parking.
3. The interlocked helix offers better wayfinding (because t
has the same flow pattern on every floor) but reduced
flow capacity. The flow capacity is especially low during
periods of high turnover because inbound and outbound
traffic must merge at every floor
--2,--l
{-=-> \
$Y\';=::
--\ ->- i
-_7-,-_\'\
--''
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
Inc.; Indianapolis,
Indiana
4
tUl AUTOMOBILES,
ROADS,
AND PARKING
Truckqnd TroilerSizes il5
DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
VEHICLE LE N GTH WIDTH HEIGHT WHEELBASE OVERHANG OVER HANG
LENGTH (FT-IN.)
TYPE (L) (H) (wB) FRONT (OF) REAR (OR) WEIGHT SEMITRAILER AND TRACTOR
7',-11 1 0{ ' 13'-2'
unrttruck' 30'{' 8'6' 20 4 -O', 6',0' 20.000tb
50'-o' see table 13 t23',tA'- 60'
WB-50truck' 60 -o' 8',€' oerow 16',t426 t4 3',{)' 2o', 80.000tb
10'no't10'tla' 2',4' 5 -O"
*Generally in conformance with AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Stteets
l'19901
N D .I D
OF
MA, NH, NJ
AZ, IN. IA, KS,MT, NV,OH. RI
oF wB oR
STRAIGHT BODY TRUCKS
SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK
PATH OF LEfr
FRONT WHEEL PATH OF LEil zF
FRoNrWHEELTa.44 - -
>*--
46 -3"
/,
/)
1'' \1
i / rI , ' 4 s ' - o ' M r N 42',-O',MtN 24 .3'
I, /TURNING TURNING MIN.
nnotus-
L/ | 7
RADIUS
PATH OF
||
TRIPLE SEMITRAILER AND TRACTOR'
":
PArH oF
!
I
0
I RIGHT REAR -/
tI
ffT]
ffiffi-- *" so'ESTGN
*HEELT
N
r"A SEMTTRAILER
coMBrNATroN Az, CO. OH. MT, IN, SD
| |
tl
tl
m0
IntII
WB.5O SEMITRAILER DESIGN VEHICLE SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK OESIGN VEHICLE I Two axles-35 lt; three axles---4oft
'Maximum allowable length not permitted. except in
TURNING RADIUS those stateslisted.
A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS tl
U
I l6 TruckDocks
NOTES
1. Allow for off,street employee and
driver parking.
2. Entrances and exits should be of rein-
torced concrete when excessive twist-
ing and turning of vehicles are
expected.
3. Average gate (swing or slide) 30 fr
O in. wide for two-way tratfic. People
gate 5 ft 0 in. wide with concrete walk-
way 4 ft 0 in. to 6 fr O in. wide.
4. For yard security use a 6 It 0 in. high
chain link lence with barbed ware on
top.
5. On-site fueling facilities are desirable
n
for road units.
6. Provide general yard lighting from lix-
tures mounted on building ot o^ 24 tl
0 in. high minimum poles at fence line.
Mercury vapor or high pressure sodium
preferred.
7. Tractor parkirig requires l2 ft O in.
wide x 2O ft 0 in. long slot mrnimum.
Provide motor heater outlets for diesel
engines in cold climates.
8. Trailer parking requi.es l0 ft 0 in. wide
slot minimum. Provide 10 ft 0 in. wide
concrete pad for landing gear. Score
CArcPY ryERHEAD concrete at 12 ft 0 in. o.c. to aid in
correct spotting of trailer.
9. 4 tt 0 in. wide minimum concrete ramp
from dock ro grade. Slopes ot 3 to 1 5%
{ 10% average}, score surlace for trac-
CONCRETE UNDING tion.
1O. Vehicles should circulate in a counter-
clockwise direction, making le{t hand
tu.ns, permitting dfiver to see rear oI
unit when backing inro dock.
1 1. Double trailers are backed into dock
separately.
OPTIONAL RAMP
L + ro -o L + 5-O L+5-O'
TO NEAREST PROVIDE MEANS TO FERRED LONGEST VEHICLE
OBSTRUCTK)N EXHAUST FUMES AS gY
EXECTTD SET STATE LAW 5 -O
CUSHION SHELTER OR CANOPY
OEFLECT RAIN OR SNOW
o
I
4'-O" to 4'-6"
AVERAGE WIDTHS OF DOCKS
4'.O" ro 4'-2"
TYPE OF TWO-WHEEL FOUR.WHEEL AUTO SPUR
3'.8" to 4'-2" OPERATION HANO TRUCK HAND TRUCK DRACLINE
2'-O" to2'-8" Dock width (A) to 14010"
Reler to other pagesfor truck and trailer sizes.
NoIE: Refer
NOTE: Work aisle(B) 15'-0" 1010" to 1510" 1010"to 1510"
RobertH. Lorenz,AIA; PrestonTruckingCompany,lnc.;preston,Maryland
The Operations
Council,AmericanTruckingAssociation;Washington,D.C.
A
U TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
Rqilroods tl7
o' NOTES
l. Given clearances are the .ecommended minimums ol
the American Railway Engineering Association. Ac'
t-/ \
tual reouirements varv from state lo state.
SINGLE RACK 2. Clearances shown are for the tangent track and new
construclion. Clearances for reconstruclion work or
for alteration a.e dependent on existing physical con-
ditions and, where reasonably possible, should be im'
proved to meet the requi.ements for new
R= 6 -O'
conslrucllon.
I 3. On curved track, the lateral clearances each sade of
0 track center line shall be increased 1'/, i^. pet deg.ee
tr of curvalure.
F
4. Common state requiremenl lor laleral clearance of
L
o p o l e s i s I t t 6 i n . ( v a r i e st r o m 8 t o l 2 t t ) .
o 5. Standard American railroad gauge ol 4 fr 8% in. is
-o measured between the inner faces of the rails.
o'- o" 3
eRtDGts/ dl ,\
ro6,g5 ryl19 -J--
TRACK CENTERS
FOR REFRIGERATOR
8 MAX.
5l
cAR
(l
il
il NOTE
'fhe
6 tt 4 in. dimension will accommodate cars with
o either flush sliding d@rs or plug doors. Cars with hinged
double doors reouire lull clearance oI I fi. Where 6 lt 4 Ramp travels laterally on rail mounted to edge of dak
in. plattorm is used, full clearance should be provided on tor positioningto rail car opening.lt adiustsabde and
opposite side, except inside buildings. (Several states below dck lsel and lmks to the rail wtren in the low-
allow a platfofm height of 4 ft 6 in. for refrigerator cars ered position. Self-storesin vertical oosition when not
only, if the tull lateral clearance of 8 ft is provided.) in us. Availablein varyinglengthsand widths.
RAILWAY CLEARANCES RAIL OOCK RAMPS
TENSION EARS
SHOCK
____'-.T FREE
FLAT VERTICAL ------Trlnqlfg
---Ar{ll ,uoo
/ SURFACE
TYPE I TYPE 2
ELEVATION ELEVATION
TYPICAL BUMPING POSTS
| : q a . F
e}=g)E
LOG CAR TRILEVEL AUTO CARRIER TANK PASSENGER CAR
CAR- 2O.OOO GAL
A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,AND BOATS I
I l8 Conoeing,Koyoking,Rowing,Surfing,ond WindSurfing
AOJUSTABLf, SEAT
PAOOLE AND'
AND BACKREST
RUDDER LINES
T IEDOWNS
FORWARO CARGO
HATCH
OINGHIES
SELF-ADJUST
ING BLOCKS Dinghiesare smallboats used as auxiliariesto largercralt.
They alsocan be sailedand racedon their own. They vary
in lengthirom 6 ft. to 16 ft., andthey are 2 ft. 10 ins.to
5 ft.6 ins. in beam.Th€y are constructedof wood or
fiberglass,and they can be riggedfor sail, rowing, or mo-
toring.
FASTENINGS
5 3ze cauvaNrzEo
2X4 PRESSURE \ BOLTS COUNTER-
TREATED LUMBER K
FOR ALL
MEMBERS
SCULLING OAR
Dinghy racks store the small boats year round, and should
be weather-treated. The rack m€mbers are fastened with
coontersunk bohs to avoid damaging dinghies. Racks must
be able to support the weight of the boats and anyone
climbing on the racks.
RO\^/ING SHELL
A
I TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
Sqilboqls il9
CATBOAT RIG
Traditionallv puts a lot ol sail area on one short masl, as
shown here, which is stepped far forward an the boat.
SLOOP
SHROUDS ON
Design with two basic sails, mainsail and headsail; the
EOTH
SIDES (ONE OELETED latter, called a "l.actional rig," is set either to the mast-
FOR CLARITY ) head or some distance below the masthead.
CUTTER
HEAOSTAY Like the sloop, a cutter rig has one mast carryrng lwo
headsails instead of one. The inner sail as the fore.
stav sail and the outer sail is the jib.
KETCH
RUOOER Like the yawl, the ketch as also a two masred rig; how-
ever, the mizzen mast is stepped forward o{ the.udder
post and is larger than the vawl's mizzen. This placemeor
dictates a saller mainsail.
SCHOONER
Usually two-masted bul can be three-masted. Commonly
the foremast is the shorter of the two, and may be gaff
or marconi rigged or at times a combination of both.
DEFINITIONS
'1. A combination of mast and rigging placement (where the
Length overall-LOA*boat's greatest len$h excluding
mast as steppedl, along with size, type and number of
bowsorils rudder or other extensions.
sails, make up the main differences in sailboat rigs. Today
2. Length of water line-LwL-boar's greatest length at
the most common is the marconi.ig distinguished by a
the wate. level excluding extensions such as rudders.
triangular mainsail, but it is not unusual for boats to be
FULL 3. Beam-boat's maximum breadth. rigged with a lraditional gaff. which is a foursided sail
KEEL
4. Draft-distance lrom the waterline tothe boilomof the that hangs from a spar called a gart. ln some insrances
boai's keel determining the least depth of water the marconi and gaff rigs are used together as shown on the
boat can oDerate in: i.e., the amount it draws. schooner below.
5. Displacement-weight of the water rhal the boat dis- Headsails are triangular sails set ahead of the mast. Basic
Dlaces. headsails are the iib, working iib, staysail, and 9enoa. The
working iib, unlike other jibs, does not overlap the mast
and is often aitached to a boom tor easier control. Jibs
and genoas do overlap the mast and mainsail. The fore-
FIN }<ETL NOTES FOR BASIC RIGS
stavsail is combined with the iib to create a double-head
LATEEN sail and is used prima.ily on cutters and schooners.
Ancestor of the tore and aft rigs shown here. lt dates back Spinnakers, usually the largest sail set before the mast,
thousands ot years and is strll used In many parts of the come in several different shapes and sizes according lo
world. use.
/
EXAMPLES
AEAM ORAFT
FIN KEEL/CENTER EOARD FULL KEEL BOATS
Folkboat 25'-10" 191tO" 3'-11"
CapeDory 45 45',-3' JJ -O 13',-O- 6'-3"
F I N K E E LA O A T S
Tanan 28 23'.3" 9',-10"
O'Day 35 35',-0" 28'-9" 1 1',,3- 5'-7"
FIN/CENTERBOARO UP oowN
CENTER BOARO
CapeDory 12701 27',-3" 20'-9" 3',-0" 7',O"
Tartan 37 37'-3" 2a'-6" tt-Y 4',-2' 1',-9"
MONOHULL -
BASIC UNOTRWATER HULL SHAPES CENTERBOARD UP DOWN
Suniish l 3 ' .r o " t 3 ' -1 0 " 4'-Vr' 2'.8'
Laser r3 ' - 1 0 " t2'-6" 4',-6' z',-a-
€l Toro 8'-O" 3',-10" 1',-lo-
MULTIHULLS
Hobie16 16'-7"
MULTIHULL
CUTTER
A
TRAINS,
TRUCKS, AND BOATS I
r20 Dock ond MorineDevelopment
STEPS AS NECESSARY
TO FINGER
MAIN WALKWAY
t
PROTECTION CAP
ON WOOO PILE i.'o,'
NOTES
1.Wood marine constructionmust be pressuretreated
>i \
with a preseryative. Wood preservatives for use in
marineappliGtionsfall into two generalcategories{re-
osote and waterborne.To select a specificpreseruative,
the wood-attackingagents in localwaters must be identts
\ 6'' MIN REINFORCED CONCRETE SUB lied. A preservativemay then be chosen based on the
ON 6'' COMPACTED SUBGRAOE standardsol the American Wood Preseryer'sAssocia-
tion.In some saltwaterlocations, wood constructionmay
not be a viableoption.
2. Waterborneoreseryatives are recommendedJor decks
NOTE S becausecreosotestainsshoes and bare teet- Optional
l - Launchingrampsare for shelteredwaters only. deckmateflalsincludeuntreatedwood materialssuchas
the ramp. In tidal waters, these piers should be o{ float- cedarand recycledplasticproducts.
2. A finger pier or courtesy pier may be providedalongside ing construction.
3. The preservativeselected should be approved by the
BOAT LAUNCHING RAMP Environmental ProtectionAgencv.
4. Optionalmaterialsfor piles includesteel,concrete,and
fiberglass.Wood, steel, concrete,alumrnum,and vinyl
AISLE
may be used for bulkheads.
HEADER PIER
5 -O' MtN. 5. Deck height above water is determinedby averagedeck
WIDTH levelsand probablewater level.Maintaina 12 in. mini
l.5TO r.75X L mum dimension between water and deck. Floatinq
roNcesr sure MOORING FOR d@ks may be requrredin tidalwaters.Consultmanufac--
I LARGg VESSEL turers for construclioninformation.
TEE PIER 6. Cross-bracingshould be minimized to avoid entangle-
5 -O" MrN ment ol swimmers.
I loouarr
sLrPS
I
I
I STNGLE
,- y,?35')9^.
8',O' MrN
DOCKING PLAN
fl TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS
FlootingDocks 121
FINGER PIER,TYP
TREAD PUTE
3'.O..WIDE RAMP. TYP
WITH ROLLER
A,,RIAAED DECKING
FLOATING DOCK
FLOTATION
2 X A PRESSURE-TRE
FENDER
PIPE HANDRAIL
60".66" OR 72"
It
q-; ROLLER
GANGWAY
FLOTATION AT
ENO OF GANGWAY
FLOATING DOCK
FLOTATION
GANGWAY-DETAIL
StephenB, Soul6:Soul6andAssociates.
P.C.;Salisbury,
Maryland
A
TRUCKS,
TRAINS,
AND BOATS I
122 AIA Documents
INTROOUCTION DOCUMENT SYNOPSES the contractor is the cost of the work plus a fee. 41.ll
More than 75 AIA contract and administratrve forms aTe in adopts by reference and is intended for use with AIA Docr.
Thesesynopsesare meantto be usedas a qurckreference ment 4201, General Conditions of the Contract for Con
print today. The ancestor of all of these was the Uniform lor determiningthe appropriateuses for each of the con- structron, thus together the two documents offer a.r
Contract, an owner{ontractor agreement first published in tractdocumentsand administrative formspublishedbv the
I888. This was tollowed, in 191 't, by the AIA'S first stan- integrated pair of legal documents.
AmerrcanInsttluteof Architects.Ihat pu.posenalurallvpre.
dardized Gene.al Condttions for constructron. The 1997 edi- sumesindependent judgmenton the reader'soart,as well A121lCMc (AGC 565). STANDAD FOBM OF AGBEEMEN.
tion of AIA Document 4201 is the fifteenth edition of those as advrceof counsel. BETWEEN OWNEB AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEF
General Conditions.
WHERE THE CONSIRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO THE
A SERIES CONSTRUCTOR: This d@ument represents the collabora
Many practjces common in the construction industry todav
The documentsin the A Seriesof AIA documentsrelateto tive efforts of the American Institule of Architects and the
became estabfished through their inclusion In the AIA Gen-
eral Conditions lor Construction and other AIA standardized varioustorms of agreementbetweenan ownerand a con, Associated General Contractors of America. The AIA desio
IracIor. nates lhls document A121lCMc, white AGC cails rl ACi
d@uments. Arbitration, the one-year correction period, and
Document 565. A1 21lCMc is intended {or use on oroiects
the architect's role in decidrng disputes are iust three of
lhese. Whrle the ArA documents have had d piolourJ rnilu- A 1 0 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN for whrch a construction manager, In addrlron to serving a
OWNER AND CONIRACTOR-STTPULATED SUM, is a advrser to the owner, assumes financial resoonsrbilrtv l.
ence on the rndustry, the influence also flows the other
way. The AIA regularly revis€s its documents to take into standardform of agreementbetweenowne.andcontractor colSlrJclron. Ihe conslruclton manager provrdeS lr.
for use when the basis of paymentis a stipulatedsum owner wrth a guaranteed maximum plce proposal, whrch
account recent developments in the constructjon industry
and the law. New standardized documents for design/build (fixedprice).The A101documentadoDtsbv referenceand the owner may accept, (eject, or negotiate_ Upon the
is designedfor usewith AIA DocumentA201,GeneralCon- owner's acceptance of the proposal by execution of an
and for different types o,f constructron management were
pub|shed in the late 1990s, and documents for interna ditionsof the Contractfor Construction, thus providingan amendment, the construction manager is contractuallv
integratedpair of legaldocuments.When used together, bound to provide labor aod materials for the proiect.
I'onal praclrce are under constderatron
4101 and 4201 are appropriatefor most projects.For
projects of limited scope, however, use of AIA Document A1 21lCMc divides the construction manager's services int.
Because lhe AIA documents are trequentty upoaled. use s
A107 mightbe considered. two phases: the preconstruction phase and the construc
should consult an AIA component chapter or obtain a cur
'AlA tron phase, ponions of which may proceed concurrently in
rent copy of th€ contract Documents price List' to
A101/CMa, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT order to fast track the process. 4121lCMc is coordinated
determine which are the current editions
BETWEENOWNER ANO CONTRACTOR-STIPULATED tor use with AIA Document 4201, General Conditions oi
The relationship of the documents to the industry-influ- SUM-CONSTRUCTIONMANAGER-ADVISER EDITION. the Contract for Construction and 8141, Standard Form ot
is a standardtorm of agreemenlbetweenowner and con. Agreement Between Owner and Architect. Check Article 5
encing at,and in turn being influenced bV it-is paralleled bv
the relationship of the documents lo the law AIA docu- tractor for use on projectswhen the basisof pavment is a of 851 1 for guidance in this regard.
ments are intended for nationwide use and are not drafted stipulatedsum (fixedprice)and when, in additionto the
to conform to the law of any one state. With that caveat, contractorand the architect.a constructionmanagerassists Caution: Io avoid confusion and ambigujty, do not use thrs
AIA contract documents provide a solid basis of contract the owner in an advisorycapacityduring design and con- constructton management document with any othe. AIA or
provisions that are enforceable under the law existino at the struction. The document has been preoaredfor use with AGC construction management document.
time of publicatron. Case law on contracts for desion and AIA Document MollCMa, GeneralConditionsof the Con-
tract for Construction-ConstructionManager-AdviserEdi- A131/CMC (AGC 566), STANDARD FORM OF AGREE
construction has for the past century been based larjely on
tion. This integrated set of documents is appropriatefor MENT BETWEEN OWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MAN
the language of AIA standardized documents and contracts
use on projectswhen the constructionmanagerserues AGER WHERE THE CONSTRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO
derived from them. These court cases are listed in fhe
only in the capacityof an adviserto the owner, rather than IHE CONSTRUCTOR-COST PLUS A FEE, NO GUABAN
American lnstitute of Architects legal Otator. in which
recent cases are summarized with all cases keved to the as constructor{the latter relationshiois reoresentedin AIA TEE OF COST: Similar to 412tlCMc, this CM{onstructor
specific provisions In the AIA documents to wh,ch they documentsA121lCMcand 4131/CMc).A101/CMais suit- agreement is also intended for use when the owner seeks
retale. able for prqects when the cost of constructionhas been a constructor who will take responsibility for providing the
predetermined,either by biddingor by negotiation. means and methods of construction. However, the method
The AIA documents are organized in two ways: in a letter of determining cost of the work diverges sharply in the two
series and in cross-series families: A105, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN documents: A121lCMc allows for a ouaranteed maximum
OWNERAND CONTRACTOR pflce (GMP). while A13l/CMc useJ a conlrot esrimate
FOR A SMALL PROJECT,
The document letter series is a system of classification that and 4205, GENERALCONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT 413l/CMc employs the cost-plus-a-fee method, which
FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL PROJECT,are allows the owner to monitor cost through periodic review
cuts across the various families and identifies the specific
purpose of each document. The letter desiqnations indrcate intended to be used in conjunctionwith one another.The of the control estimate, which is revised as the proiect pro
the following: two documents are only sold as a set, and thev share a ceeds.
common lnstructionsheet.Theyhavebeen dev€lopedtor
A Series{wner{ontractor documents use when payment to the contractorjs based on a stiou- It rs rmportant to note that, while the CM{onstructor is
B Series<wner-architect
lated sum (fixed price) and when the proiect is modest in assuming varied responsibilities, there are still iust three
documents pnmary players on the prcject-the
size and brief in duration.4105 and 4205 are two of the owner, the architecl,
C Series-architect-consultant documents three documentsthat comprisethe SmallProjectsfamilyof and the CMc. The 4201 General Conditions continue to
D Series-rchitect-industry documents documents. They have been developedfor use with AIA apply, although they are modified (in part) by the A1 31/CMc
DocumentB'155,StandardForm of AgreementBetween agreement_
G Series-architect's oflice and project forms
Owner and Architectfor a Small Proiect.Thesedocuments
are specrtically
coordinated for use as a set. Caution: Io avoid contusion and ambiguity, do not use thrs
Documents grouped in a family are coordinated to tie
construction management document with anV other AIA o{
together the various legal and working relationships for the
Caution:AlthoughA105, 4205, and B't55 may sharesome AGC construction management document.
same project types. Documents within the same family
may be in different series but are linked bv common termi- similaritieswith other AIA documents, the Small proiects
documents should not be used in tandem with other AIA A171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
nology and procedures. Documents in a tamily may adopt
document familieswithout carefulside-bv-sidecomoarison OWNER AND CCNTRACTOR-STIPULATED SUM-FOF
one another by reference_ For example, the relevani terms
of contents. F U R N I T U R E , F U R N I S H I N G S ,A N D E O U T P M E N T ,i s u s e d
of 4201 are adopted by reference in 4101. A1jj. 4401.
tor acquisition of furniture. furnishings, and equipmenl
8141,8151.andC141.
4205 is consideredthe keystone document oI the Small {FF&E) when the basis of payment is a stipulated sum
Projectsfamily, since it is specificallyadoptedby separate (fixed price). 417l adopts bV reference and is intended for
The preceding paragraphs contain several references to
'standardized referenceinto both A't05 and 8155. 4205 is a viratd@u- use with AIA D@ument 4271, General Conditions of the
d&uments,'a term that covers most AIA
ment, in that it is used to allocateproper legalresponsibili- Contract tor Furntture, Furnishings, and Fqurpment. lt ma!
d@uments. AIA standardized dcuments are intended to
ties among the parties, while providing both a common re used rn any arranqerent belween the owner and the
be used in their original, printed torm. Much of the effi-
ground and a means of coordination withjn the Small contractor in which the cost of FF&E has been determined
ciency these documents bring to a transaction depends on
Projectsfamily. ln order to maintainthe condensednature an advance, either through bidding or negotiation.
this use. When people with experience in the construction
rndustry see a standardized document, thev are familiar of this document. arbitrationand other alternatedisoute
with it and can quickly evaluate the proposed ttansaclion resolution(ADR)provisionshave been omitted. ADR orovi- 4177, ABBREVIATED OWNER-CONTRACTOR AGREE
sionsmay be includedin Al05 underArticle6. MENT FORM-STIPULATED SUM-FOR FURNITURE,
based on the modifications made to it-if those moditica-
FURNISHINGS, AND EQUIPMENT, is an abbreviated docu,
tions stand out. lf modifications are blended into retvoed or
A107, ABBREVIATED STANDARD FORMOFAGREEMENT ment that philosophically derives much of its content lrom
scanned d@ument text, this advantage as lost.
BETWEEN OWNERAND CONTRACTOR FORCONSTRUC. a combination of the more complex and lengthy A171 and
TION PROJECTSOF LIMITED SCOPE-STIPULATED A271 documents. lts abbreviated lerms and conditions mav
Modifications used with AIA documents may themselves
SUM. As an abbreviated form of agreement between be used when a conlractor for furniture, furnrshrngs, and
be derived from another type of document publ,shed bv the
owner and cont.actor, this document is intended for use equipment (FF&E) has a prior working relationship with the
AlA. I hese are model documents, the language of whrch rs
when the basisof paymentis a stipulated sum {Jixedprice). owner or when a project is relatively simple in detail or
intended to be reproduced and adapted by users. One such
It is appropriatefor constructionprojects of limited scope short in duration-
repository of model text ts A51 1, whi(h rs rntended for use
In developing supplementary condrtions, an rmportant com nol requiringlhe complexityand lenglhot the combinatron
of AIA DocumentsA101and A2Ol. A107containsabbrevts Caution.Ittis document is not intended f or use with maior
ponent of the contract {or construction. 851 1 serves a simi
ated GeneralConditions.lt may be used when the owner conslruction work that may Involve lile satety systems o
lar purpose with respect to owner-architect agreements.
and contractorhavealreadyestablished a workingrelation- structurat components.
AIA documents are currently available in both printed and shrp (e.9.,a previousproiectof like or similarnature)or
when a project is relativelysimple in detailor short in dura, A 19 1 . O W N E R - D E S I G N / B U I L D E R
A G R E E M E N T S .c o n t a i n s
electronic form. The software package Al,A Contract Docu-
tion. two agreements tO be Used in sequence by an owner con-
rents: Electronic Format for Windowsru enables users to
tractrng with one entity serving as a single point of respon
access and print out the AIA documents. Modifications are
A , I 1 1 .S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
T€TWEEN sibility for both design and construction services. Design/
clearly shown: deleted language appears with strike,
OWNERAND CONTRACIOR_{OSTPLUSA FEEWITHA build entities may be architects, contractors, or even busl-
throughs, and added Ianguage is underscored.
NEGOTIATED GUARANTEED MAXIMUMpRrCE.Thissran- nesspersons, as long as they comply with governing Iaws,
dard torm of agreementbetween owner and contractoris
appropraate for use on most projectsrequiringa negotiated
guaranteedmaximum price, when the basisof payment to continues on following page
A
-lI
U CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIADocuments 1 2 3
Document Svnopses, A Series, contnued frcm ptevious addition, 4312 oblrgates the surety to act responsively to an aid to practitionerspreparingsupplementary conditions
pa9e the owner's requests for discussions aimed at anticipating for inleriorsproiects.lt providesinformationto help users
or preventrng a contractor'S detaUlt. addresslocalvariations in project
requirementswhen A27'l,
GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Furniture,Furnish-
especially those pertaining to licensing and public procure- 4401, STANDARD FOBM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN ings,and Equipment, is used.
ment regulations. The first agreement covers prelimjnary CONTRACTOR AND SUBCONTRACTOR is intended for
design and budgeting services, while the second deals with use in establishrng the contractual relationship between the 4 7 0 1 ,I N S T R U C T I O N
TOS B I D D E R Si s, u s e d w h e n c o m
final design and construction. Although it is anticipated that contractor and subcont.actor lt spells out the responsrbili petitivebidsare to be solicitedfor construction of a proiect.
an owner and a design/builder entering into the first agree- ties ot both parties and lists their respective obligations, Coordinated with A20l and its relateddocuments,4701
ment will later enter into the second. the parties are not which are written to parallel AIA Document A20l, General containsinstructionsfor proceduresto be followed by bid
obligated to do so and may conclude their relationshipafter Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Blank spaces dersin preparing and submittingtheirbids,includingbond-
the terms of the first agreement have been fulfilled. are provided in which the panies can supplement the ing. Specificinstructionsor specialrequirements. such as
details of their agreement. 4401 may be moditied for use the amountandtypeof bonding,areto be attachedto A701
4201, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONIRACT FOR as a subcontractor-sub-subcontractoragreement. as supplementary conditions.
CONSTRUCTION: The Generai Conditions are an integral
part of the contract for constructron in that they set {orth A491. DESIGN/BUILDER-CONTRACTOR AGREEMENTS: A 7 7 1 ,I N S T R U C T I OTNO
SI N T E R I O RBSI D D E R SS:i m i l atro
the rights. responsibilities. and relationships of the owner, This document contains lwo agreements to be used in A701.A111is used for projectsdealingwith furniture.fur-
contractor, and architect. While not a party to the contract sequence by a design/burlder and a construction contractor nishings,and equipment(FF&E).lt parallelsA701 but con
for construction between owner and contractor, the archi- The first agreement covers management consulting ser- tainsminorchangesto maintainconsistency with 4271 and
tect d@s panicipate in the preparation ot the contract docu- vices to be provided during the preliminary design and bud- its relatedFF&Edocuments.
ments and performs certain duties and responsibilities geting phase ot the project. The second agreement covers
described in detail in the General Conditions. Because 4201 construction. lt is presumed that the design/builder has B SERIES
is typically adopted by reference into certarn other AIA doc contracted with an owner to provide design and construc-
umen-ts {e.9., owner-architect agreements. ownertontrac- The documentsin the B Seriesrelateto variousforms of
tion services under the agreements contained in AIA Docu-
tor agreements, and contractoLsubcontractor agreements), ment A191.
agreementbetween an owner and an architectfor profes-
it is often called the'keystone' document. sionalseryices.
Although it is anticipated that a design/builder and a con-
Since conditions vary by locality and by project, supplemen- tractor entering into the first agreement will Iater enter into
8 1 4 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N T
BETWEEN
tary conditions are usually added to amend or supplement the second, the parties are not obligated to do so and may
OWNEBAND ARCHITECT WITH STANDARDFORM OF
portions of the General Conditions as required by a particu-
conclude their relationship after the terms ot the first agree-
ARCHITECT'S SERVICES, is a flexiblecontractingpackage
lar projecl. Review the model language provided in A51 1 as ment have been fulfilled. Panies also may lorgo entering that allows architectsto offer a broad range of seNices to
a guide when creating supplementary conditions for A201. into the first agreement and pr@eed directly to the second. clients spanningthe life of a proiect, Irom conceptionto
completionand beyond. lt is structured in a multipan for-
A201lCMa. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT 4 5 0 1 , R E C O M M E N D E D G U I D E F O R C O M P E T I T I V EB I D .
mat consistingof an agreementform-the StandardForm
FOR CONSTRUCTION-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER- DING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT AWARDS FOR
of Agreement,which containsinitialinformation,terms and
ADVISER EDITION, is an adaptation of AIA Documenr A201 BUILDING CONSIBUCTION: This guide outlines appropri-
conditions,and compensatioHnd a seryices form-the
developed for construction management proj*ts with a ate procedures in the bidding and award of contracts when
StandardFormot Architect'sServices:Designand Contract
founh player-a construction manager-added to the team competitive lump sum bids are requested an connection
Administration.which defines th€ architect's scope of ser-
of owner, architect. and contracto.. Under A2ollCMa, the with building and related construction. The guide is a joint
vices.The s@pe defined approximatesthe levelof seruices
construction manager has the role of independent advis€r publication of the AIA and the Associated General Contrac- in the prioreditionof 8141.The separation of the scopeof
to the owner- thus the document carries the CMa suffix. A tors of America {AGC).
seryices from the rest of the owner-architectagreement
major difference between 4201 and A201lCMa occurs in allolvs users th€ freedom to ch@se alternativescooes of
Article 2, Administration of the Contract. which deals with A 5 1 1 , G U I D E F O R S U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I T I O N S i s a
services.The AIA intends to publish additionalscopes of
the duties and responsibilities ol both the architect and the guide for modifying and supplementing 4201, the General seryicesthat correlateto the termsandconditionsof 8141.
construction manager-adviser. Another major difference Conditions of the Contract tor Construction. Although A201
implicit in A201lCMa is lhe use of multiple construction is considered the keystone in the legal framework of the 8151, ABBREVIATED STANDARD FORMOF AGREEMENT
contracts directly with trade contractors. construction contract. it is a standard document and thus BETWEENOWNERAND ARCHITECT, is intendedfor use
cannot cover all the paniculars of a specilic proiect. A51 1
on constructionprojects of limited scope when the com-
Caution: ll is vital that A201lCMa not be used in combina- provides model language with explanatory not€s to help
plexityanddetailof AIA Document8141,StandardFormof
tion with documents that assume the construction man- users adapt A201 by developing supplementary condrtions
AgreementBetween Owner and Architect,are not required
ager will take on the role of constructor, give the owner a that address local circumstances.
and when seryicesare based on these five phases:sche-
guaranteed maximum price, or contract directly with those matic design, design development. construction docu-
who supply labor and malerials lor the project. This document is printed with a column containing the
ments, bidding and negoliation, and construction. This
model text and an adjacent column of explanatory notes. document may be used with a variety ot compensation
A2O1lSC, FEOERAL SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS OF The AIA Dermits excerotion of the model text under a lim- methods,includingpercentageof constructioncost, multi-
lHE CONTRACT rOR CONSIRUCTION, rs Intended for ple of directpersonnelexpense,and stipulatedsum. B151
ited license for reproduction granted for drafting supple,
use on cenain federally assisted constructron prolects. For / mentary conditions for a particular project.
is intendedfor use in conjunctionwith 4201, GeneralCon
such protects, A201/SC adapts A2Ol by provrdrng(1) neces- ditionsof the Contractfor Construction.
sary modifications of the General Conditions. (2) additional A511/CMa. GUIDE FOR SUPPLEMENTARY CONDI'
conditions, and (3) insurance requirements for federally TIONS-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER.ADVISER EDITION:
8155, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
assisted construction projects. Similar to A511, the A51 1/CMa document is a guide ro
OWNERAND ARCHITECTFOR A SMALL PBOJECT.is
model provisions for supplementing 4201lCMa, the Gen-
intendedfor use on a project that is modest in sizeand brief
4271, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR eral Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Construc-
in duration.lt adoptsthe A205 d@ument by referenceas it
FURNITURE, FURNISHINGS, AND EOUIPMENT: When the pertainsto the architect'sresponsibilitiesin administering
tion Manager-Adviser Edition. A51l/CMa should only be
scope ol a contract is limited to turniture, furnishings, and employed-as sholld A201/CMa{n proiects for which the constructioncontractbetween owner and contractor.
equipment (FF&E),4271 is intended to be used in a manner the construction manager is serving in the capacity of
similar to that in which 4201 is used tor construction adviser to the owner (as represented by the CMa docu-
8155 is one of three documents that comorise the Small
projects. The document was jointly developed by the AIA
ment designation) and not in situations in which the con-
Projectstamily oI documents. lt has been developedfor
and the Ameri€n Sciety of Interior Designers (ASlDl. struction manager is also the constructor (CMc document-
use with AIA Document 4105, Standard Form of Agree-
Because the Unitorm Commercial Code (UCC) has b€en based relationships).
ment Between Owner and Contractorfor a Small Proiect.
adopted in virtually every jurisdiction, A271 has been and 4205, GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construc-
drafted to recognize-the commercial standards set forth in Like A51 1, this document contains suggested language for
tion of a Small Project. These documents are specifically
Article 2 ot the UCC and uses cenain standard UCC termi-
supplementary conditions, along with notes on appropriate
coordinatedfor use as a set.
nology. Except for minor works, A271 should not be used
usage. In addition, many important distinctions are made to
for construction involung life safety systems or structural
ensure consistency with other construction manager-
Caution:Although4105, 4205, and Bl55 may sharesome
components. adviser documents.
similarities
with other AIA documents.the Small Proiect
documentsshouldnot be used in landem wrth other AIA
4305, CONTRACTOR'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT: An Caution: CMc docum€nts are based on utilization of the documentfamilieswithout caretul side-by-sidecomparison
owner preparing to request bids or to award a @ntract for a 4201 document, which in turn should be modified usinq of contents.
construction proiect often requires a means of verifying the A511asaguide.
background, history. references, and financial stability of 8161, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
any contractor being considered. The time trame for con-
A52,I, UNIFOBM LOCATION OF SUBJECT MATTER, iS A
OWNERAND ARCHITECT FOR DESIGNATED
SERVICES,
struction and the contractor's performance history. previ- joint publication of the AIA and the Engineers Joint Convact hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
ous experience, and financial stability are imponant factors Documents Committee (EJCDC),which is composed of the
for an owner to investigate. This form provides a sworn, National Society of Engine€rs. American Consulting Engi A I A D O C U M E N T8 1 6 2 , S C O P EO F D E S I G N A T ESDE R -
notarized statement with appropriate attachments to elabo- neers Council, and American Society of Civil Engineers. By VICES,hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163.
rate on imponant aspects of the contractor's qualifications. consensus of these organizations, the AIA and EJCDC doc
uments follow the tabular guide in A521 with regard to the
8163, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN
4310, BID BOND: This simple one-page form was drafted placement of subject matter among the various contract OWNERAND ARCHITECT FOR DESIGNATED SERVICES,
with input lrom the maior surety companies to ensure its and bidding documents. 4521 is a tabulation to guide the
is the most comprehensiveAIA owner-architect agree-
legality and acceptability. A bid bond establishes the maxi-
user an the proper placement and phrasing of information
ment. This three-part document contains, among other
mum penal amount that may b€ due the owner it the customarily used on a construction project. This document things. a thorough list of 83 possible seruices divided
selected bidder lails to execute the contract and provide shows the imponance of maintaining uniformity in location among nine phas€s. covering preiesign through supple-
any required performance and payment bonds. and language from document to document with respect to
mental services.This detailed classificationallows the
subject matter. Inconsistencies in either area may cause architectto estimate more accuratelythe time and person-
4312. PERFORMANCE BOND AND PAYMENT BONO: This confusion, delay, or unanticipated legal problems. nel costs requiredfor a particularproject. Both owner and
form incorporates two bonds, one covering the contractor's architect benefit from the ability to cleady establish the
performance and one covering the contractor's obligations
A 5 7 1 , G U I D E F O R I N T E R I O R SS U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I -
to pav subcontractors and others for material and labor. In TIONS: Similar to A51 1, AIA Document A571 is intended as
continues on following page
A
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS 1
124 AIA Documenls
Document Synopses, B Seles, continued frcm prevtous tect agreement,for example,to show the team of profes,
page vrdes a choice between two methods of joint venture oper
s onalsand consultantsexpectedto be emplovedon the 'Division
ation The of Compensation' method assunre
owner s prolect_ that servtces provided and the compensation received w
scope of setvrces requ red tor a projecl. as respons'brlities be drvided dmong the partres in the proportions ag,eed to a
and compensation issues are negotiated and defined. The 8 7 2 7 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B
TETWEEN the outset of the projecl. Each party's profitabitity ther
archatects compensation may be calculated on a time/cost OWNERAND ARCHTTECT FORSpECtALSERV|CES, is rhe depends on individual performance of preassigned taskr
basis through use of the worksheet provided in the instruc- most flexibleof the AIA owner-archttect aqreements in that and is not directly tied to that of the other panies. The.Dr!
tionsto 8163. tne oescriptron of servicesis lelt entilelyu-pto lhe Ingenurty sion of Profit and Loss'method is based on each party per
ot the parties.Otherwise,manyof the termsandconditions forming worl and bill;ng the ioint venture at cost plus
Part One of the document deals with variables tvoical of are very similarto those tound in AIA Document8141. nomrnal amount for overhead The ultimate Orofit or loss o.
many ownetrarchttect agreements. such as compensation 8727 is often used for planning,teasibilitystudies.and the joint venture is thus divided at completion of the projecl
and scope of seruices. The scope of services is delimited otherservtces(suchas construction administratton) that do between the partjes based on their respective interests.
through use of a matrix that allows the parties to desionate not follow the completephasingsequenceof seryicesset
their agreed upon servrces and responstbilities. part Two torth in 8141 and other AIA documents.lf construction D SERIES
contarns detailed descilptrons of lhe speciIc se'u'""t lornO administration seryicesare to be Orovided. care must be
In the matrix. Part Three contains general descrptions of taken10coordrnate B /27 with the appropflate The documents in the D Series, known as the Architec.
GeneralCon
the parties' duties and responsibilitjes The list of servrces drlionsof lhe Contracttor Constructron lnduslry documents. are applicable to a broad range ,
in 8163 has been expanded to include construction man- prolects.
agement and interiors services. 8801/CMa, SIANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT
BETWEENOWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGER D1 01, METHODS OF CALCULATING THE AREA AND VOL
8171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENI EETWEEN WHERETHECONSTRUCTION MANAGERIS NOTA CON- UME OF BUILDINGS, estabtishes definitions for and
O W N E R A N D A R C H I T E C TF O R I N T E R I O R D E S I G N S E R - STRUCTOR. is intendedfor use on proiectsfor which con- describes methods of calculating the architectural area anc
VICES, is intended for use when the architect aqrees to structronmdnagemenlservicesare assumedbV a single volume of buildings. D101 also covers interstitial soacF
pruvide an owner wtth des'gn and admrnrslratrve:servrces entrtywho rs separateand independent from the architect olfice, retarl, and res,denltal areas.
for the procurement of interior furniture, furnishings, and and the contractorand who actssolelyas an adviser{CMa)
equipment (FF&E). Unlike 8141, which is used for buildjng to the owner throughoutthe courseof the project. D200, PROJECT CHECKLIST, is a convenient lisr of tasks a
design, this document ancludesprogramming of the interio; practitioner may perform on a given project. This checklisl
spaces ano requrements as part ot the overall package of 8801/CMais coordinated lor usewith AIA DocumentB14ll wall help fhe architect recognize required tasks and locate
basic services. The authority to reject goods is left in the CMa, StandardForm of AgreementBetweenOwner and the data necessary to fulfill assigned responsibilities. Bv
hands of the owner rather than the architect. since the oro, Architect-{onstruction ManagerAdviserEdition. Both providing space for notes on actions taken, assignment of
curement of goods rs govetned by the Unrtorm Commeicia 8801/CMaand 8141/CMaare basedon the oremisethat tasks. and time frames for completion, D200 may also
Code (UCC). which would in turn make the architect,s mis lnerewrllbe a separate.and possiblymultrple,
constructton sefve as a permanent record of the owner's, contractor's
taken rejection or acceptance ot goods binding upon the contractor(s)whose contractswith the owner are iointlv and architect's actions and decisions.
owner. 8171 is coordinated with and adopts bv reference adminrstered by the architectandthe construction
manage.
AIA Document M7l, Generat Cond'lions of the Contract under AIA DocumentA201lCMa,GeneralConditionsof the F SERIES
for Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment. When BtTl is Contract for Constructiorconstruction Manaoer-Adviser The F Series offered accounting forms for architects. With
used. it is anticipated that 4271 will form part of the con, Edrtron the exception of F5002, INVOICE FOR ARCHTTECTURAL
tract between the owner and the contractor for FF&E. SERVICES, separate editions of F Series forms have been
Caution:g801lCMa is not coordinatedwith and shouldnot discontinued due to the preponderance of commerciallv
B177, ABBREVIATED FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR INTE, be used with documentsin which the construction man, available computer software on this subiect. F1 001 throuah
RIOR DESIGN SEBVICES, is simitar to Bt71 but has tess ager acts as the constructor(i.e.,contractor)for the project, F3002 are lncluded rn the book StandardEed Accountinq f"o,
complexity and detail. 8177 may be used when the owner suchas AIA DocumentsA121lCMcor A131/CMc Arch,fecrs bv Boben F Mattox. FAIA.
and architect have a continuing relationship from previous
work togelher or when the prolect is felatrvelv simple rn 8901, STANDARDFOBM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN G SERIES
detail or short in duration. DESIGN/BUILDER AND ABCHITECT. containstwo aoree-
ments to be used In sequenceby a design/burldera;d an The documents in the G Series relate to office administra
818I, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN architect. The first agreement covers preliminarydesign, tion, securing of goods and services, and administering and
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOB HOUSTNG SERVICES. has and the second coversfinal design. lt is presumedthat the closing out ot proiect agreements.
been developed with the assistance of the U.S. Depart- design/builderhas previouslycontractedwith an owner to
ment of Housing and Urban Development and other {ederal provide design and constructionseNices under the aoree- G601, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-LAND SURVEy, ailows
housing agencies. lt is primarily intended for use in multi- ments containedin AIA DocumentA191. Althouohit is owners to request proposals from a number of surueyors
unit housing design. 8181 requires the owner, rather than ant'cipatedthat a design/builder and an architecte-ntering based on information deemed necessary bv the owner and
the architect, to furnish cost€stimating seruices. 81g1 is into the lirst agreementwill later enter into the second,the architect. G601 also allows owners to fine-tune a request
coordinated with and adopts by reference AIA Document partresare not obligatedto do so and may concludetheir for proposat (RFPI by checking appropriate boxes and tiillnq
A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction. relationshipafter the terms of the first agreement have rn project specifics to avoid costs associated with reouest
beenfulfilled. ing unnecessary intormation. The document may also torm
8I88, STANDABD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN the agreement between owner and land survevor once an
OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOR LIMITED ARCHITEC. Design/buildentities may be architects, contractors. or understanding is reached.
TURAL SERVICES FOR HOUSTNG PROJECTS. is a unique even busrnesspersons, as long as they complywith the
addition Io the AIA Documents coilect.on Untite,ls drstant governrng laws.especiallythosepertaining to licensingand G602, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-GEOTECHNICAL SER
cousin 8181. 8188 is intended for use when the architect publicprocurementregulations. Priorto proceeding in this VICES: Similar in both structure and format to AIA Docu
willprovide limited architectural serujces in connection with fashionor enteringinto eitheragreementcontainedin this ment G60'1, G602 is an RFP that can evolve to form a.
a development housing project. lt anticipates that the document with any other entity, architectsare advisedto agreement between owner and geotechnical engineer
owner will have extensive control over management of the contacttheirlegal,insurance,andmanagement advisers. G602 allom the owner to tailor th1 proposal reqr_iest to
pro,ect, acting in a capacity similar to that of a developer or address the specific needs of a oroiect. In consultation with
speculative builder of a housing proiect. As a result, the C SERIES the architect, the owner establishes the Darameters of ser
owner or separate consuttants retaaned by the owner likelv vice required and evaluates submissions based on criteria
The documents in the C Series relate to variousforms of such as trme, cost, and overall responsiveness to the terms
will provide the engineeflng seryrces, specifv the bran;
agreem€ntbetween an architect and other orofessionals. set forth in the RFP. When an acceptable submission is
nares of materials and equipment. and admtnrster oav-
including
engineers,consultants,and otherarchitects. selected, the owner signs the document in triplicate,
m€nts to contr&tors. among other project responsibilities.
8188 is not-c@rdinated for use with any other AIA standard returnrng one copy to the engineer and one to the architect
form contract-
C141. STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN thus establishing an agreemenl between owner and geo,
ARCHITECT AND CONSULTANT, estabtishesthe resoec- technical engineer.
trve responsibilities
and mutualrightsof the archrtectand
8352, DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIESAND LIMITATIONS OF
the consultant.C141 is most applicableto engin@rsbut G604, PROFESSIONAL SERVICES SUPPLEMENT, i5
AUTHORITY OF THE ARCHITECT'S PROJECT REPRESEN.
may also be used for consultantsin other disciolines
who intended to formalize procedures for authorizing supple
TATIVE: When and i{ the owner wants additional oroiect provideseryicesto architects.
representalion at the consl.uctton sile on a full- or part trme
Theprovisions of Ct41 are in mental professional actions. such as expanding the scope
accordwith thoseof 815'l and4201, GeneralConditions of of basic services, incutring relmbursable expenies, or pro-
basis, B'l4l and other AIA owner,architect agreements ref-
the Contractfor Construction. ceeding with certain additional seryices. The document
erence 8352 to establish the duties, responsibilities. and
limitations of authority of the proiect representative. should only be used in conjunction with an earlier agree
C142,ABBREVIATED ARCHITECT-CONSULTANT AGREE- ment for professional setuices and is meant to p.ovide a
The project rep.esentative ts emploved and supervrsed bV
MENT,adoptsthe terms of a prime agreementbetween wfltten record of such authorizations, with Darticulars of
owner and architectby reference. actrvrtres,ttme spans, and comDensatron involved
tne archttect. In conlrasl, up untrl the early 1950s 8352
predecessor d@uments called the reoresentative .the
C727, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN G 6 1 2 , O W N E R ' S I N S T R U C T I O N SR E G A R D I N GI H E C O N
Clerk of the Works,'because such pe,sons were hired by
ARCHIIECTAND CONSULIANTFORSPECIAL SERVICES, STRUCTION CONTRACT, INSURANCE AND BONDS, AND
tne owner but supervised by the archrtecl. The SO||l
is Intended for use when other C Series documents ar€ BIDDING PBOCEDURI-S, rs formarted as a questronnaire In
between hiring and supervision caused numerous prob
Inappropriate.lt is olten used for planning,teasibility
stud, three parts Part A relates to the contracts, Part B covers
lems, which have been resolved under 8352 by designating
ies, post{ccupancy studies,and other servicesthat require insurance and bonds, and Part C deals with biddinq oroce
the architect as both employer and superviior. 8152 ii
specializeddescriptions. dures. The sectrons tollow a prolect s normal chron'oiogrcat
coordinated for use with both 8141 aod 8163. as well as
with 4201. sequence to provide information when it will be needed.
CBO1, JOINT VENTUREAGREEMENTFOR PROFES, Eecause many of the items relating to the contract will
SIONALSERVICES. is meant to be used bV two or more have some bearing on the development of construction
8431, ABCHITECT'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT. iS A
partiesto providefor their mutualrightsand obligations.lt documents, it is important to olace Pan A in the owner's
standardized outline of information that a client may wish to
is intendedthat the joint venture,once established, will hands at the earliest possible phase of the project. The
rev€w.prior to selecting an architect for a particular project.
enter Into a prolect agreement with the owner to provide owner's responses to Part A wall lead to selection of the
It may be used as part of a request for proposals (RFp) or as
professional seruices.The partiesmay be all architects,
all
a final check on the credentrals of an architect. Under some
qrcumstances, 8431 may be attached to the engineers,a combination of architects and engineers,or
owner_archi- another combinationof professionals.The document pro-
continues on following page
A
T CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIADocuments 125
Document Svnooses, G Series, contnued frcm previous G7O6A, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF RELEASE OF REFERENCES
pa9e LIENS, supports AIA Document G706 in the event the Information on the AIA documents mav be oblarned fronl
owner requires a sworn statemenl of the contractor statlng
the oublications listed below. Information on the docu-
appropriate delivery method and contract torms, including that all releases or waivers of liens have been received. In
menis is also available on the AIA website at www\aiaon-
the general conditions. Part B naturally {ollows afte/'1he such event, it is normal for the contractor to submit G706
l,ne.com.
selection of the general conditions, because Insu.ance and and G706.4, along with attached releases or waivers of liens
bonding information depends on the type of general condts for the contractor. all subcontractors, and others who may 'AlA
Conlract Documents Price List.'This publication is
tions chosen. Answers to Part C will follow as the contract have lien rights against the owner's property. The contrac-
available lree from AIA distributors or by calling (800) 365-
documents are further developed. tor is required to list any exceptions to the sworn statement
2724. lr lists the current edition of each AIA document
provided in G706A and may be required to furnish the
G701. CHANGE ORDER, may be used as written documen- owner with a lien bond or indemnitv bond to protect lhe
American fnstitute of Architects. The Architect's Handbook
tation of changes in the work, contract sum, or contract owner with respect to such exceptrons. 'l2th
of Prcfessional Practice, ed. Washrngton, D C.: The
time that are mutually agreed to by the owner and contrac- AIA Press, 1994. The Handbook has been the architecture
tor. G701 provides space tor the signatures of the owner. G707, CONSENT OF SURETY TO FINAL PAYMENT: By ob- profession's premier manual of p.actice since it was first
architect, and contractor and for a complete description of taining the approval of the surety for final payment to the published in 1917. lt contains sample copies of most oi the
the change. contractor and the agreement cf the surety that final pay-
AIA documents.
ment will not relieve the surety of any of its obligations. the
G701/CMa. CHANGE ORDER-CONSTRUCTION MAN- owner may preserve its rights under the bonds.
The Documents Supplement Service. This is a subscription
AGER'ADVISER EDITION: The purpose ot thas document is seryice through which users of the Handbook can receave
essentially the same as that of G701. The majo. difference G7O7A, CONSENT OF SURETY TO REDUCTION IN OR
sample copies of new AIA documents as they are pub-
is that the signature ol the construction manager-adviser is PARTIAL RELEASE OF RETAINAGE. is a standard form tor
fished. Subscribers also receive the Supplement, a newslet-
required along with those of the owner, architect, and con- use when a surety company is involved and the ownerton-
ter of articles and comment on the AIA documents.
tractor to validate the change order. tractor agreement contains a clause whereby retainage is
Subscriptions may be obtained by calling IB0AI 365 2124
reduced during the course of lhe construction project.
G702, APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, When duly executed, G707A assures the owner that such 'Promises,
Promises: Forging Healthy Proiect Relatron-
and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: These documents pre reduction or partial release of retainage does not relieve the
ships.'This as a series oI continuing educatron manuals,
vide convenient and complete forms on which the contrac- surety of its obligations.
each of which may be used either for seminar presentation
tor can apply for payment and the architect can cenity that or {or self-study:
oavment rs oue. G709, PROPOSAL REOUEST, is used to obtain price quota-
tions required in the negotiation of change orders. G709 is
Advanced Conttact Concepts. This manual covers the
The forms require the contractor to show the status of the not a change o.der or a direction to proceed with the work;
essentials of contract law: the elements of a contract. the
contract sum to date, including the total dollar amount of it is simply a request to the contractor for information
fundamental principles of agency and negligence law, and
the work comoleted and stored to date. the amount of related to a proposed change in the construction contract.
the use of standard contract documents. lt also includes an
retainage (if any), the total of previous payments, a sum- overyiew of the recent, maior changes to two AIA standard
mary of change orders, and the amount of current payment G710, ARCHITECT'S SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTIONS, iS
contract documents: A201, General Conditions of the Con-
requested. G703, Continuation Sheet, breaks the contract used by the architect to issue additional instructions or
tract for Construction, and 81 41, Standard Form of Agree-
sum into mrtions of the work in accordance with a sched- intepretations or to order minor changes in the work. The
ment Between Owner and Architect.
ule of values required by the general conditions. form is intended to assist the architect in perlorming obliga-
tions as interpreter of the contract document requirements
Design Serulce. This manual addresses the general respon-
The to.m serves as both the contractor's application and in accordance with the owner-architect agreement and the
sibilities of the architect and the owner in 8141, Standard
the architect's cenification. lts use can expedite payment general conditions. This torm should not be used to change
Form of Agreement between Owner and Architect. Specifi-
and reduce the possibility of error- lf the application is protr the contract sum or contract time. lf the contractor believes
cally, these responsibilities include establishing a program
erly completed and acceptable to the architect, the archi- that a change in the contract sum or contract time is
and budget, setting basic poject parameters, and agreeing
tect's signature certifies to the owner that a payment in the involved, other G Series documents must be used.
on the architect's scooe of seryices. The manual also
amount indicated is due to the contractor. The lorm also includes an overyiew of the Standard Form of Architect's
allows the architect to certify an amount different than the G71 1, ARCHIIECT'S FIELD REPORT. is a standard lorm lor
Seryices: Design and Contract Administration, the first
amount applied for, with explanation provided by the archi- the architect's project representative to use in maintaining
scooe of seryices oublished with 8141.
led. a concise record o{ site visits or, in the case oI a full-timb
project represen'tative. a daily log of construction qctivities.
Design and Contract Administation: Conttact Conditions.
G7O2lCMa. APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAY- Contract conditions {orm the framework within which the
MENI-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, G7l 2, SHOP DRAWING AND SAMPLE RECORD, is a stan-
owner and architect carry out their responsibilities to one
and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: Though the use and dard form by which the architect can schedule and monitor
another. This manual addresses the contract conditions that
purpose of GTO2|CMa is substantially similar to that ot shop drawings and samples. Since this process tends to be generally apply over the course of the owner-architect rela-
G702. the construction manager-adviser edition expands complex. the schedule provided in G712 shows the
tionship, including compensation and billing, project timing
responsibility for certitication of payment to include both progress of a submittal, which in turn contributes to the
and duration, responsibilities of the owner. and ownership
architect and construction manager. Similarly, both archi- , orderly processing of worl G7l2 can also serve as a per-
and use of documents.
tect and construction manager may certify a different ta manent record of the chronology of the submittal process.
amount than that applied for. with each initialing the figures
Contract Administration SeNices. This manual covers roles
that have been changed and providing written explana- G714, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, .eplaces
and responsibilities of owner, architect and contractor as a
tion{s) accordingly. The standard G703, Continuation Sheet, former AIA Document G71 3, Construction Change Authori- project moves anto construction.
is appropriate for use with G702lCMa. zation. G714 was developed as a directive lor changes in
the work that, if not expeditiously implemented, might
Contract Administration-4ffice. This manual addresses
G704, CERTIFICATEOF SUBSTANTIAL COMPLETION, iS A delay rhe project. ln contrast to a Change Order (AlA Docu-
contract administration from the architect's oersoective
standard form tor recording the date of substantial comple ment G701). G714 is to be used when the owner and con-
when'back in the office'and not in the field visiting the
tion of a work or a designated portion thereof. The contrac- tractor, for whatever reason, have not reached agreement
owner's site. lt covers project initiation, submittals,
tor prepares a list of items to be completed or corrected, on proposed changes in the contract sum or contract time.
changes. timing issues, suspension and termination. and
and the architect verilies and amends this lis1. lf the archi' Upon receipt of a completed G714, the contractor must
special provisions, such as propeny insurance.
tect linds that the work is substantially complete. the form promptly proceed with the change in the work described
is prepared for acceptance by the contractor and the therein.
Construction Contract Administration Conditions-Field.
owner. Aooended to the form is a list of items to be com-
This manual addresses construction contract administration
pleted or corrected. The form provides lor agreem€nt as to G714lCMa, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, CON-
conditions relevant to the architect's services on the iob
the time allowed for completion or correction of the items, STRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, is designed to
site, administering the contract, and evaluatjng the work as
the date when the owner will @cupv the work or des- eftect the same type of substantive changes in the work
it progresses, as well as subcontractor relations. contrac-
ignated portion thereof, and a description of responsibilities described in the svnopsis of G714, above. The difference
tor's payments, claims, corrections to the work. and proiect
lor maintenance, heat, utilities, and insurance. between the two lies not in purpose but in execution:
closeout-
Whereas the owner and architect must both sign the G71 4
c705, CERTIFICATE OF INSURANCE, has been replaced in order for the directive to become a valid contractual
Sweet, Justin. Sw@t on Construction lndustry Contrccts:
by AIA Document G71 5. instrument. G714lCMa requires execution by owner. archi-
Majo( AIA Documents. Vol. 1 of Construction Law Library.
tect. and constructton manager-advrser.
New York John Wiley & Sons. 1996.
G706, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF PAYMENT OF
DEBTS AND CLAIMS: The contractor submits this affidavit G722lCMa. PROJECT APPLICATION AND PBOJECT CER-
Sabo, Werner. Legal Guide to AIA Documents, 3rd ed New
with the final request for payment, stating that all payrolls, TIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, and G723lCMa, PROJECT '1992.
York: John Wiley & Sons,
bills for materials and equipment, and other indebtedness APPLICATION SUMMARY: These documents are similar in
connected with the work for which the owner might be purpose to the combination of G702 and G703 but are for
Stein, Steven G. M., ed. The American lnstitute of Archi-
resoonsible have been oaid or otheNise satisfied. G706 use on construction management projects on which a con-
tects Legal Citator. New York: Matthew Bender. 1997
requires the contractor to list any indebtedness or known struction manager seryes as an adviser to the owner.
claims in connection with the construction contract that 'You
and Your Architect.'This booklet, available free to AIA
have not been paid or otheNise satisfied. The contractot Each contractor submits separate G702lCMa and G703/
members, reviews issues to be conside.ed by an owner
mav also be required to furnish a lien bond or indemnrty CMa documents to the construction manager-adviser, who
preparing to retain an architect.
bond to protect the owner with respect to each exception. collects and compiles them to complete G723lCMa. G7231
CMa then seryes as a summary of the contractors' applica-
tions, with proiect totals being transferred lo a G722lCMa.
The construction manager-adviser can then sign the form.
have it notarized, and submit it along with the G723lCMa
(which has all oI the separate contractors' G702lCMa forms
attached) to the architect for review and app.opriate action.
A
'rl
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS U
126 CSIUniFormot
INTRODUCTION umenls. The methods described are not rigid; rather, they Format to one organized according to MasterFormat ma\
are meant to help UniFormat users develop ao understand be easrer if MasterFormat extensions are used. lf thes.
It asuseful to have different ways of organizrngconstructton ing of the system that will allow them to apply it consis fiveiigit number extensions have been added, a documel
-intormation so the varyrng rnterests of those who view, tently. lnformation is included about using UniFormat to organized according to UniFormat can be searched or
use, and manipulale it can be accommodated. UniFormat organize cost information and preliminary prolect descrip soned according to a MasterFormat five-digit extension 1.
and MasterFormat offer two commonly acCepted ways of trons, arrange project manuals, and organize facility man- regroup intormation according to MasterFormat.
organizing information about construction projects and agement and construction market information.
building operations.
Level 1 UniFormat titles cover the major categories of con USING UNIFORMAT
MasterFormat emphasizes a vrew of construction focused struction information according to function. These letters
on products, offering the perspective of product manufac- and titles are fixed and should not be changed in applica- Below and at the beginning of the next AGS page are expla
turers, suppliers, speci{iers, and contractors. MasterFormat tion: nations of several uses for UniFormat.
names components (buildtng materaals,products, and activ-
ities) that have specifiable characteristics. PROJECI DESCRIPTION ARRANGING COST INFORMATION
A-SUBSTRUCTURE The list of elements or systems in UniFormat can be usec
UniFormat locuses on performance requirements and coin- as ihe basis of a system tor organizing cost informatior
cides with the way users, owners, and designers vLew con B-SHE LL
which may be reported in varying degrees of detail. Al
struction. UniFormat names systems and assemblies that C-INTERIORS design decisions are made, information about costs can b.:
have a determinable function. D-SERVICES refined. This arrangement makes possible a comparison ol
E-EOUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS cost information for various building elements, which may
MASTERFORMAT be particularly uselul during early design phases.
F-SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
MasterFormat, with its list of products and activities, looks
at construction an the way the parls are specified, pur, G-BUILDING SITEWORK A UniFormat cost model can be used in tandem with a cosl
chased. and inslalled. The term products here means mate- Z_GENERAL modeLorganized according to MasterFormat. The two mod
rials, components. and equipment that a contractor els render a different view of a project and provide detai:
incorporates into the work of a proiect. The category Project Description is a collection of basic appropriate for differenl requirements. For example, a cosl
intormataon that introduces a project and includes bidding, model organized according to UniFormat can provide inlor
MasterFormat arranges information for project manuals proposal, and contract requirements. lt can be used as a mation about the cost ot a concrete structure as comoared
into six ma,or groups (introductory information, bidding stand alone contracting structure for construction projects to the cost of a steel structure. A cost model organized
requirements, contracting requirements, tacilities and and is especially suitable for design{uild applications. The according to MasterFormat can provide information aboul
spaces, systems and assemblies. and construction prod, Project Description level does not have a letter designation, the cost of all the concrete and steel on a project regardless
ucts and activities). For details, see the AGS pages on Mas- allowing it to appear first in the list of titles. of the structural system chosen-
terFormat.
Like the Project Description, Category Z-General does not Value analysis requires a consistent naming scheme carried
Archit€cts use MasterFormat in the tollowing ways: represent a building system or assembly. lt is designated throughout a project. UniFormat is particularly useful lor
by the last letter ol the alphab€t to keep this category last if this type of analysis, which requires attaching a cost to a
1. To arrange information in proiect manuals
the system is expanded beyond building construction for a particular use or facility function rather than to particular
2. To catalog product information with the numbers and prolecr. products and activities. Using MasterFormat numbers as
titles used to specify those products and activities in con- suf{ixes to element designations helps the value analyst
struction documeots Level 1 ca'tegories are divided into classes of information to evaluate change proposals.
3. To arrange cost information and build a cost model for make level 2 categories. These €rry the letter ot their par-
construction activities and associated products according ent category plus a twodigit number. Alphanumeric desig- ARRANGING PRELIMINARY PROJECT
to how thev are speciiied in construction documents nations and titles of level 2 classes are fixed and should not DESCRIPTIONS
4. To prepare keynotes for drawings that assciate items be changed in application. Preliminary project descriptions are described in the CSI
'Preliminary
with specifications in construction documents Manual of Practice in chapter FFl180, Project
Levels 3 and 4 are created by funher subdividing level 2 Descriptions and Oulline Specifications." A preliminary
5. To arrange facility management and construction market
classes. These subclasses carry the alphanumeric designa- prcject description helps an owner understand the various
information in the way products and activities are speci-
tion of their parent category and class plus a twoiigit num- components and systems proposed by an A,/E for a project.
fied in construction d@uments
ber. Level 3 designations should not be changed in It also serues a requirement normally included in a design
UNIFORMAT application. Alphanumeric designations for level 4 are unas- seryices agreement for which the A,/E must submit a report
signed within a group of level 3 subclasses and number after completing the schematic design but before proceed
UniFormat is a meth6d oI arranging construction informa- extension are assigned by the user. The user-assigned ing to design development. These descriptions may serve
tion td a range of building types based on the physical sys number should carry the alphanumeric designation of the as th€ basis for an €stimate of orobable construction costs
tems and assemblies that make up a facility. Construction parent level 3 subclass plus a twodigit number or the corre
is viewed according to the way in which elements are used, sponding MasterFormat number. UniFormat provides a logical sequence of systems and
thus systems and assemblies are characterized by their
assemblies tor describing a construction project before al
function with no identification of the oroducts thev com, Titles presented below level 4 are level 5 subclasses, devel- materials and methods have been determined. UniFormat
prise. Nine level 1 UnrFormat categories and therr associ- oped by presenting specialized design solutions of the level is used to organize, and serves as a checklist for preparing
ated classes and subclasses define the basic oarts of a 4 parent subclasses. Particular materials may be identified preliminary project descriptions at various levels of detai
building, each characterrled by irs funct,on. to differentiate one specialized solution from another. Titles As a design progresses, both descriptions and estimates of
at level 5 are examples of information included in their level probable construction costs can be refined.
Titles in UniFormat levels 1 through 3 can be applied to 4 subclass.
most project descriptions and preljminary cost estimates.
ARRANGING PROJECT MANUALS
Levels 4 and 5 are available for use on detailed, complex No alphanumeric designation is assigned. Users may assign
projects. Levels 4 and 5 titles and detailed lists provide a extensions. Level 5 and some level 4 titles correspond to Arranging project manuals, or portions of them, according
checklist to ensure comprehensive and complete applica- MasterFormat numbers and titles. to UniFormat is appropriate when performance specifica-
tion of UniFormat. tion is the method employed for all or some of the proiect.
The UniFormat numbering system can expand to allow for Performance specification can be used at many levels, from
UniFormat is int€nded to help architects achieve consis- additional numbers and titles at any level. Userdefined a single product to maior subsystems or entire projects. 11
tency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance design numbers and titles that fit within the established frame- allows the owner to access a range of options, from exist
program idormation reponing; and promote consistency in work of UniFormat can be added. ing technology to innovative systems and developing tech
filing intormation for facility management, drawing details, nologies. As well, performance specification encourages
and construction market data. More specificallv, it is used full bidding competition based on nonrestrictive require
to organize design descriptions, cost summaries, and per- SELECTING UNIFORMAT ments. Design-build projects make use of performance
lormance specilications of systems and assemblies (e.g., NUMBERS specification in its broadest application.
AND TITLES
HVAC systems and exterior wall assemblies).
Not all UniFormat titles will b€ used for every proiect. Uni- Whether an entire building or only a portion of it is specified
fuchitects use UniFormat for these tasks: Format is an expandabl€ structure that can accommodate using performance specifications, UniFormat can be used
additional titles to meet specific requirements. However, to organize this type of specification for elements crossing
l.Performing economic analysis of construction alterna- designated numbers and tilles should not be changed in MasterFormat section and division boundaries. For conven-
tives, particularly in early design stages order to maintain a consistent arrangement. tional proiects with project manuals organized according to
2. Building an evolving construction cost model arranged by MasterFormat, specifiers can include systems and assem
the tunctional parts of a facility UniFormat titles are generic. descriptive titles independent blies before Division 1-General Requirements. According
o{ any design solution. They are the starting point for to UniFormat, systems and assemblies can be numbered
3. Arranging descriptions of the functional parts of a project describing systems and assemblies. Be sure to incorporate and sequenced in this part of the project manual with the
so they communicate how a design is intended to these parent titles when creating a userdefined level 3, 4, appropriate assignment of UniFormat numbers and titles
accomplish an owner's construction program or 5 title, so systems and assemblies titles are complete, CSI Manual of Practice chapters FFl120. "Methods of
4. Arranging project manuals for applications when design- clear, and descriptive. Users can add further systems and Specifying," and SP/090, "Performance Specitying." pro.
build delivery is employed assemblies numbers and titles for proiects that include vide detailed discussions about this aoolication.
5. Filing drawing details items other than building construction, such as heaw civil
engineering construction or preess facilities. ARRANGING CONSTRUCTION MARKET
6. Filing lacility management and constructaon market infor-
INFORMATION
mation
Some users may want to add MasterFormat materials and
Market inlormation reporting agencies can use UniFormat
methods information to a document organized accord ng to
to describe the lacility being reported. UniFormat can also
UniFormat. MasterFormat numb€rs may be added through-
APPLICATION OVERVIEW be used to assemble, store, and report information about
out the design process as materials and methods are deter-
elements separate from and in addition to reports on prod
On thisand the followingAGSpageon UniFormat are basic mrned.
st.ategiesfor numberingand titling informationabout sys
tems and assemblies for usesotherthanconstruction doc The transition from a document organized according to Unf
conilnues on nen page
The Construction
Specifications
Institute;Alexandria,
Vrrginia
'tl
J1
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CSIUniFormot 127
continued from the previous page 1020ProjectProgram D40 Fire Protection
1030 ExistingConditions D4010 Sprinklers
ucts and actisties This helps show trends for major ele- 1040OwneasWork D4020 Standplpes
ments containing products and activities crossing
1050 Funding D4030 FireProtectionSpecialties
MasterFormat section and division boundarres.
D4090 Other Fire ProtectionSystems
2O-PROPOSAL,EIDDING,AND CONTRACTING
ORGANIZING DRA\^/INGS
2010DeliveryMethod D50 Electrical
UniFormat numbers and titles can be used as a file-naming Serviceand Distribution
2020OualificationsRequirements D5010Electrical
convention tor library files of standard details and sched-
ules. The Uniform Drawing System (UDS) provides a 2030 ProposalRequirements D5020Lighlingand BranchWiring
detailed description for this appli€tion. 2040 8id Requirements D5030Communications and Security
2050 ContractingRequiremenls D5090Orher ElectricalSystems
Library files are named difterently from proiect files
b€cause the classification and indexing requirements are D60 BasicMaterialsand Methods
3O-COSTSUMMARY
different. Library file naming should be group€d by building
systems, assemblies, or use because that ls the most natu- 3010 ElementalCostEstimate
E L E M E NET-EOUIPMENT A N DF U R N I S H I N G S
ral way to search for them. Project detail files must also be 3020Assumpt'onsandOualifrcatrons
organized to make it easy to produce proiect contract docu- E'10Equipment
3030Allowances
ments, record documents, and facility management docu- E1010Commercial Equipment
ments from several liles. Naming a detail file for a project
3040 Alternates
Equipment
E l 020 lnstitutional
requires the sheet identification. coordinates on the sheet, 3050 Unit Prices
E'1030 Vehicular Equipment
and a detail identitier.
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND E1090OtherEquipment
UDS recommends an 8{haracter designalor for naming ASSEMBLIES
library schedule files. A numbering system based on Uni- E20 Furnishings
ELEMENTA-SUBSTRUCTURE
Format can be used for preliminary phases of a project. Uni- E2010FixedFurnishings
A10 Foundations
Format numbers can be used during the construction E2020MovableFurnishings
documents phase for schedules made up of assemblies of A1010 StandardFoundations
materials that might otheMise have separate MasterFotr A1020SpecialFoundations ELEMENTF-SPECIAL CONSIRUCTIONAND DEMOLI
mat numbers. A1030SlabOn Grade TION
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
F10 SpecialConstruction
ARRANGING 420 BasementConstruction
INFORMATION F1010 SpecialStructures
A2010 BasementExcavation
UniFormat is used for preliminary prcject descriptions to F1020 IntegratedConstruction
systems and assemblies concepts to a build-
A2020 BasementWalls
communi€te F1030 SpecialConstructionSystems
ing owner. Once preliminary project descriptions have been
ELEMENTB-SHELL F1M0 SpecialFacilities
refined, UniFormat can be used to communicate a build-
ing's functional systems and assemblies for real eslate B1OSup€rstructure F1o5oSp€ciaiControlsand Instrumentation
dueiiligence reports and to organize maintenance and B l 010 FloorConstruction
operation programs and data. F20 SelectiveDemolition
81020 RooI Construction
F2010 BuildingElementsDemolition
UniFormat sn be used to document how systems and F2020HazardJusComponentsAbatement
820 ExteriorEnclosure
assemblies function; therefore, it is an organizational con-
cept well-suited to describing systems design intsnt during 82010ExteriorWalls
ELEMENTG-BUILDINGSITEWORK
facility commissioning. Proiect descriptions can be refined 82020 ExteriorWindows
throughout the design pr@ess, makng it easaer to carry out
G10 SitePreparation
82030 ExteriorDoors
the commissioning authority's pertorrunce testing and G1010SiteClearing
acceptance program. Facility personnel can then use the 830 Roofing G1020SiteDemolitionand Relocations
proiect descriptions to store information about systems
83010RoofCoverings G1030SiteEarthwork
maintenance and operations.
83020RoofOpenings G1040 HazardousWaste Remediation
ARRANGING INFORMATION FOR DESIGN-
BUILD APPLICATIONS ELEMENTC-INTERIORS G20 Site lmprovements
Design-build proiect delivery has created a need for an C10 lnteriorConstruc'tion G2010Roadways
organizational structure that allows owners and deslgn- ,/ C1010Partitions G2020ParkingLots
burld entrties to communicate functional performane' C1020InteriorDoors G2030PedestrianPaving
requirements. UniFormat provides this organizational struc-
C1030Fittings G2040Site Development
ture.
G2050Landscaping
C20 Stairs
UNIFORMAT AND C2010StairConstruction G30 Site Civiutvlechanical
Utilities
MASTERFORMAT USED C2020StairFinishes G3010WaterSupply
TOGETHER G3020SanitarySewer
C30 InteriorFinishes G3030Storm Sewer
UniFormat and MasterFormat can be used in all appli€-
tions that have traditionally been the domain of MasterFor- C30'10Wall Finishes G3040HeatingDistribution
mat. The 1998 edition of UniFormat includes cross- C3020FloorFinishes .
G305OCoolingDistribution
references to MasterFormat to help users apply both orga- C3030CeilingFinishes
nizational principles. These applications include organizing G3060 FuelDistribution
proiect manuals; asslgning specification numbers and titles; ELEM€NTD-SERVICES G3090Other Site MechanicalUtilities
and organizing and filing cost information, drawing details,
and facility management and construction market informa-
D10 Conveying G40 Site ElectricalUtilities
tion. D1010Elevatorsand Lifts G4010 ElectricalDistribution
D1020Escalatorsand MovingWalks G4020Site Lighting
Both systems can be characterized as "single," "serial." or
D1090 Other ConveyingSystems
"parallel": G4030Site Communicationsand S€curity
1. Single applications use only UniFormat or MasterFormat D20 Plumbing G4090Other Site Electri€l Utilities
exclusively throughout the application. D2010PlumbingFixtures
2. In s€rial applications, such as a project manual, a number
G90 Other Site Construction
D2020 DomesticWater Distribution G9010 ServiceTunnels
and title are aoolied to each item based on either UniFor-
mat or MasterFormat. Both organizational principles can D2030 SanitaryWaste G9090Orher Site Systems
be used in the same aoolication. D2040BainWater Drainage
3. Parallel applications are those in which each item is D2090Other PlumbingSystems ELEMENTZ-GENERAL
named with numbers and titles from UniFormat and Z1OGene.alRequirements
MasterFormat. This is a powerful method in many appli- D3OHeating,Ventilating, (HVAC)
andAir Conditioning 21010Administration
cations, such as organizing cost information, in which D30'10EnergySupply
information about a cost€stimate line item can be 21020OualityRequirements
tracked to a product and to a system or assembly.
D3020HeatGeneration 21030TemporaryFacilities
D3030Refrigeration 21040 P@jectCloseout
D3040 HVACDisrribution 21050Permits,Insurance,
and Bonds
LEVELS I THROUGH B NUMBERS D3050Terminaland PackagedUnits
AND TITLES 21060Fee
D3060 HVACInstrumentationand Controls
PROJECT DESCRIPTION D3070lesting,AdJusting,and Balancrng 220 Contingencies
1O-PROJECTDESCRIPTION D3090Other SpecialHVACSystemsand Equipment 22010 DesignContingency
1010ProiectSummary 22020EscalationContingency
22030 ConstructionContingency
4
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION I
128 CSIMqsterFormot
INTRODUCTION TITLES B I D D t N G R E O U T R E M E N T Sa n d C O N T R A C I N G R -OVis,oi,
EOUTRE
MasterFormat is a master list of numbers and titles MasterFormat arranges related construclion products and MENTS: Often referred to as Series (rather ttin
for or
gantztng information aboul constructton requirements, activities into l6 level one titles, called divisions The num Zero documents, th€se documents are not specifrcatton:,
products, and activities into a standard sequence. bers and titles of the divisions are as follows: but def'nilions of the relatronShips,processes. and resoon
Many dif_
ferent delivery methods, products, ana instattation srb,Jrlrestor projects. The Bidding Requirements dbcu
tirpis
are used on construction projecls Successful compleiion Division 1-General Requirements melts do not become a part o{ the construclron contracl
ot projects requires elJective communication amonq the
Divisron 2-Site Construction _rne Lontracltng Hequtremenls documentS are conlrd(r
people involved. lnformation retrieval is nearty impoJsiOie torms and conditions of the contract.
wrthout a standard ftltng system famrliar lo each user. Division 3-Concrete
Mas_
lerFormat offers a standard filing and retrievdl scheme Division 4-Masonry In these two groups, level two and level three MasterFor
applicable throughout the constfuctron industry. ll rs a Division 5-Metals mat n_umbers have been assigned to provide a consistenl
uni_
torm system used for organizing information In proiect ldentrtrcalron,bul it iS not necessary to renumber or retrtle
manuals, organizing cost data, filing product informaiion Division 6-Wood And Plastrcs p(nted forms and standard documents published
by vari
and other technical data. identitying d;awing objects, and Division 7-Thermal And Moisture protection ous professional societies.
presentng construction market data Division 8*Doors And Windows
FACILIIIES AND SPACES and SYSTEMS AND ASSEM
Division g-Finishes
MdsterFormat rs prod_dcedlorntly by the Conslructron Spec BLIEST MasterFormat indicates a location but does no1
fr€ttons Instttute (CSIJ and Construction Specrfrcations Division 1O-Specialties include standard numbers and titles for these groupings
Canada (CSC). ll rs updated periodicaily: the iniormatron on Division 11-Equioment Facility- and space titles are often project speciti6, anO riel
the pages in AGS comes trom the I 99S editron. Division 12-Furnishings ther CSI nor CSC has a master list of numbers and titles for
these groupings. Refer to UniFormat for svstem and
Division 13-Special Construction assembly numbers and titles.
HISTORY Division 14-Conveying Systems
Division 15-Mechanical CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACTIVtTIES: The hearr
Since it was introduced in 1963, the i 6-division CSI format
of MasterFormat remains the 16 divisions aefined by ihe
has been widely accepted for slandard practice In the Division 16-Electrical
Ievel one specification titles. Divisions 1 through l6 rmain
Unrted States and Canada. Frrst pubIshed as part of the CSI
a complete method of numbering and titljng sections of
Format Jor Constructron Speciticatro.s, tt was later used The level two-tittes (formerly cailed broadscope trtles) iden
as specificatrons, both for arranging master guide specifica
tne basrs^lor the Uniform System for Constructron Specrti_ Iry clusters ot products and activities that have an idenl,fy_
lrons or lor arranglng a proiect specrfrcatron.
cations, Data Frling and Cost Accou.trng_litle One Build_ Ing characteristtc in common. Usually, the tltles are a loorcil
ings, published in 1966. The Unifolm System was categorization of the division title. Sometimes, panrcjarty
in,divisio.s 2, 13. 1 5, and 16, they are arbitrary bieakdowni PROOUCT DATA
developed and endorsed by the American Institute of Archi_
tects, Americ_anSociety of Landscape Archrtects, Associ_ ot tne drvrston to reduce it to a more manageable size. ldentifying product data with MasterFormat numbers and
areo benerat Uontractors of America, Counctl of MechaniGl Level two titles are the highest level generally uaed in titl,no titles is practical because of the relationship between prod
Specialty Contractin-g Industries (now the Associated Spe_ and arranging units ol construction information. ln Masreri ucts and specitications. particular uses in this application
cialty Contractors), Producers, Council, National Society-of Format,. level_two titles are presented as all uppercase iet- anclude arranging publications in a technical library; filing in_
Professional Engineers, and Construction Speciircatilm ters and boldface tvoe. formation on products, methods, suppliers, and subcont-rac,
lnslitute. In t966 a similar effort in Canada pioduced thi tors; and inventorying construction products.
Building Constructron Index {BCl), which was based on lhe M6sterForrut shows both numbers and titles at level
rb{rvrslon rormat that had been Introduced by the Specifi_ three. Level.three titles are presented as frrst letter uppei_ COST ESTIMATING
cataon Writers Association of Canada (renamed Construc_ case and boldface type. Level three numbers are presented
as the last three digits of the five-digit designatidn in 6qh- MasterFormat is useful for identitying unit prices and cost
tion Specifications Canada in 1974).
race rype. report items for products and activities, arranging a data_
In]-972 the U.S. and Canadian formats were merged and base ol product and activity unit costs, arrangirig ind tabu
published as the Unitorm Construction tnAex MasterFormat suggests titles at level tour but does not indi- ralrng a prolecl budget according to a product and activity
tUCtt. ine UCt breakdown, and relating cost items to specifications and
was a comprehensive framework for organizing information cate numbers. Users should create numbers by interpolat_
Ing between assigned numbers when using level fourtitles drawings. MasterFormat is not panicularly useful for value
contained in project manuals, as well ai a bas-e of informa_
lon lor tiltng data and classifying prolect costs. or creattng new tifles. Level tour titles are pr€sented alpha- anarysts, whtch requrres assigntng cost to panicular func-
betically in r€gular (nonbold) type tronat etements, rather than to particular products and actrv
rIres.
ln 1978 Constructron Specifications Canada joined wrth the
Uonstruction Sp€crfications lnstitute to produce the first A key word index of requirements, products, and activities
editim ot MasterFormar, introduced by CSI as Mp-2,1 and rs Includad in MasterFormat to help find appropriate num_ ORAWING ELEMENTS
by CSC as Document OO4E. This document tncorpoiateJ i bers and titles for construction subjects. Alpnabetized Masterlormat is used to keynote applications and has b€en
comptete organizational format for project manuais, includ- entries may refer to €ither level two or level three numbers. lound useful for linking drawing objects to specification
ing bidding requirements, contract forms, and conditions of sections. lt is also used to identify CAD layer organizations.
the.conkact in addition to the loiivision tist of numbeis
and titles primarily used for speci{ications. RELATIONSHIP TO UNIFORMAT CONSTRUCTION MARKET DATA
CSIand CSCalsopublishUniFormat, which providesnum_ Market dala reponing agencies routrnely use MasterFormal
The-first revised edilion of MasterFormat, published in
bers and tilles for the functional elements that make uo to lrsl products for a project being bid. Thrs practice allows
I 983, retained the basrc pnnciples of organiiation from
prevtous edrtton but added rnformatron to respond
the constructionproductsystemsand assemblies.UniFormat users to quickly identify sales potential lor their products
to the can be used to organizeprojectdescnptionsand preltmi_ and servrces on a partacular project.
needs ot lhe engineering disciphnes. tte tbgg eOir,;n,
naryspecifrcations. lt is padicularly
surtedto organrzing
cost
based on input from MasterFormat users, Incorporated revi_
estimatesfor vaiue analysisbecauseits organization by FACILITY MANAGEMENT
srons€nd.additions recognizing new products and develoF
tuncton corresponds to valueanalysistechnlques. Master
ments In the Construclion industrv Facility managers can identify data associated with prod,
formar ano unr.Formatare complementary for appftcations
In wnrch reierenceto both productsand {uncttonalele. ucts.used rn the butlding they manage with MasterFormal
The 1995 edition. the tittes of which are pubtished in the numDers. they can be used in frltng systems for mainte.
ments may be usetul (e.9., proiect manualsand cost esti_
tenth edition ot Architectual Graphic Siandards, is iii nance and op€rating instructions, procurement, mainte,
malrngl.
result of an extensive public review and coordination with nance work orders, shop drawings, warranties. operating
Industry users. lt incorporates many minor revrsions in
The 'l995 editionof MasterFormatestablishesa locationfor nrsrones, operattng costs, and other data related to the life
numbers and titl€s and several changes in style and presen_ cycle of a lacility.
these systems and assembliesbut does not includethe as_
tation. Some significant rearrangements oi numbers and
sociated numbers and titles, deferring to UniFormat for
lltles, paillcutarty in divisrons 1. 2. 13, 15, and 16, have
these.In MastetFormat systemsand as-sembliesfallrmme.
Deen made. LEVEL T\^/O NUMBERS AND
diatelyb€fore the list of construclionproductsand activities
lDivisions 1-16) (see the list of level two MasterFormat TITLES
titles on th€ accompanyingAGS page).
BASIC ORGANIZATION Thelistof subordinate
titlesfleveltwo)undereachMaster-
Format divisiontitle (levelone) outlines the scooe of each
Thenumbers
andtitlesin MasterFormat
aregrouped
under division.
these general headingsi APPLICATION OVERVIE\^/
The followingbrief discussionis an overuiewof how to use INTRODUCTORYINFORMATION
INTRODUCIORY INFORMATION {00001 to 00099)
MasterFormatnumbers and titles for variousapplications_
BIDDING REOUTREMENTS(OOlOOto 00499) Referto the CSIApplication 00001 ProjectTattePage
Guidefor mo.e detailedanaly,
CONTRACTING BEQUIREMENTs (oO5Ooto oo999j srs_ 00005CertificationsPage
FACILITIESAND SPACES (no numbering) 00007SealsPage
PROJECT MANUALS 00010Tableof Contents
SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLTES (no numbering)
CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACT|VtTIES MasterFormat is the fundamental
standardfor titlinganda.- OO015 List of Drawings
{Divisions ranging.projectmanuals containing bidding requi;ments,
1-16) 00020Lisrof Schedules
contractrngrequtrements,and specifications_
I.he flst grouping, Introductory Inlormalron, ts used tor in. B I D O I N GR E Q U I R E M E N T S
o*ng. the^second and third groupings, Bidding Requrre_
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION: Indexjngdocumentsin-
cluded.inthis groupingare found at the beginningof prol.ect 00100Bid Soliciration
m€nts and {,ontracting Requirements, are for deitning rela_
tonshrps, responsibilrties, and prOcesses lor constrrction. manuals.They are not actual contract documenis but may 00200 Instructionsto Bidders
lhe tast thtee groupings, Facrirties and Spaces, Systems fre Incorporatedin a contractdocument by reference. 00300 InformationAvailableto Bidders
ano Assembhes, and Construction products and Acttuties, 00400 Bid Formsand Suoolements
are used to describe the physical aspects of construction.
00490BiddingAddenda
4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CSf MqsterFormof 129
continued from the previous page 07400Roofingand SidingPanels 11660 ObservatoryEquiPment
07500MembraneRoofing 11680OfficeEquipment
CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS 07600Flashing and SheetMetal 11700 MedicalEquipment
oosdo Agreement 07700RoofSpecialties andAccessories 11780 MortuaryEquipment
'l 1
00600 Bonds and Certificates 07800 Fire and Smoke Protection 850 NavigationEquipment
00700GeneralConditions 07900 Joint Sealers 11870 AgriculturalEquipment
00800 SupplementaryConditions 11900ExhibitEquipment
DIVISION8-DOORS AND WINDOWS
00900 Addendaand Modifications DIVISION12-FURNISHINGS
08050 BasicDoor and Window Materialsand Methods
FACILITIES ANO SPACES 08100 MetalDoorsand Frames 12050Fabrics
08200 Wood and PlasticDoors 12100Art
SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLIES
08300 SpecialtyDoors 12300 ManufacturedCasework
CONSTRUCTION PROOUCTS AND 08400 Entrancesand Storefronts 12400 Furnishingsand Accessories
ACT IV IT I ES
08500Windows 12500 Furniture
1 - G E N E R A LR E O U I R E M E N T S 'l2600
DIVISION 08600Skylights MultipleSeating
01 100 Summary 08700Hardware 12700SystemsFurniture
01200 Priceand Payrent Procedures 08800Glazing 12800InteriorPlantsand Planters
'1
01300 AdministrativeRequirements 08900GlazingCurtainWall 2900 FurnishingsRestorationand Repair
01400 OualityRequirements
01500 TemporaryFacilities andControls D I V I S I O9
N- F I N I S H E S DIVISION13-SPECIALCONSTRUCTION
01600ProductRequirements 09050BasicFinishMaterialsand Methods 13010 Air-SupportedStructures
01700 ExecutionRequirements 09100MetalSupportAssemblies 13020BuildingModules
01800FacilityOperation 09200PlasterandGypsumBoard 13030 SpecialPurposeRooms
'l
01900 FacilityDecommissioning 09300Tile 3080 Sound,Vibration,and SeismicControl
09400 Terrazzo 13090 RadiationProtection
DIVISION2_SITECONSTRUCTION 09500Ceilings 13100 LightningProtection
02050 BasicSite Materialsand Methods 09600 Flooring 13110 CathodicProtection
02100Site Remediation 09700Wall Finishes 13120 Pre-Engineered Structures
02200 Site Preparation 09800 AcousticalTreatment 13150SwimmingPools
'13160Aquariums
02300 Eanhwork 09900 Paintsand Coatings
02400 Tunneling,Boring,and Jacking 13165 AquaticParkFacilities
02450 Foundationand Load-Eearing Elements DIVISION1O-SPECIALTIES 13170Tubsand Pools
02500 Utility Seruices 10100 VisualDisplayBoards 1 3 1 7 5l c e R i n k s
'10150 'I
02600 Drainageand Containment Compartments and Cubicles 3185 Kennelsand Animal Shelters
'10200 13190Site-ConstructedIncinerators
02700 Bases.Ballasts,Pavements,and Appurtenances Louversand Vents
'10240 13200StorageTanks
02800 Site Improverents and Amenrtres Grillesand Screens
02900 Planting 10250ServiceWalls 13220FilterUnderdrainsand Media
02950 Site Restorationand Rehabilitation 10260Walland CornerGuards 13230DigesterCoversand Appurtenances
'13240
10270Access Flooring OxygenationSystems
DIVISION3-{ONCRETE 10290 Pest Control 13260 SludgeConditioningSystems
'13280
03050 BasicConcreteMaterialsand Methods 10300 Fireplacesand Stoves Hazardous MaterialRemediation
'I
03100 ConcreteForro and Accessories 0340 ManufacturedExteriorSpeciallies 13400 Measurementand Control lnstrumentation
03200 Conc.eie Reinforcement 10350 Flagpoles 13500 RecordingInstrumentat,on
Concrete
03300 Cast-ln-Place 10400 ldentiticatronDevices 13550Transportation ControlInslrumentation
03400 PrecastConcrete 10450PedestrianControlDevices 13600SolarandWind EnergyEquipment
'10500 '13700
03500 CemenritiousDecksand Underlayment Lockers SecurityAccess and Suryeillance
03600 Grouts 10520FireProtection Specialties 13800BuildingAutomationand Control
03700 Mass Concret€ 10530 ProtectiveCovers 13850 Detectionand Alarm
03900ConcreteResttrationandCleaning 10550 PostalSpecialties 13900 FireSuppression
10600 Partitions
DrvrsroN -MA',NRY / 10670StorageShelving DIVISION 14-CONVEYINGSYSTEMS
04050 Basic MasonryMaterialsand Methods 10700 ExteriorProtection 14100Dumbwaiters
04200 MasonryUnits 10750TelephoneSpecialties 14200Elevators
04400 Stone 10800Torlet,Eath and LaundryAccessories 14300Escalatorsand Moving Walks
'14400
04500 Refractories 10880Scales Lifts
Masonry
04600 Corrosion-Resistant 10900WardrobeandClosetSpecialties 14500MalerialHandling
04700 SimulatedMasonry 14600Hoistsand Cranes
04800 MasonryAssemblies DIVISION1] -EOUIPMEN'I 14700 Turntables
04900 MasonryRestotationand Cleaning 11010 Maintenance Equipment 14800 Scaffolding
11020 SecurityandVaultEquipment 14900Transportation
DIVISION5-METALS 11030Tellerand ServiceEquipment
05050 BasicMetal Materialsand Methods 11040 EcclesiasticalEquipment DIVISION 15-MECHANICAL
'15050
05'100StructuralMetal Framing 11050LibraryEquipment BasicMehanical Materialsand Methods
05200 Metal Joists ' 11060Theaterand StageEquipment 15100BuildingServicesPiping
'15200Pr@essPiping
05300 Metal Deck 11070Instrumental Equipment
05400 ColdFormedMetal Framing 11080Registration Equipment 15300 Fire ProtectionPiping
05500 Metal Fabrications 11090 Checkroom Equipment 154OOPlumbingFixturesand Equipment
05600 HydraulicFabri€tions 11100 MercantileEquipment 15500 Heat4eneration Equipment
05650 RailroadTrackand Accessoraes 11110 CommercialLaundryand Dry CleaningEquipment 15600 Refrig€rationEquipment
'|
05700 OrnamentalMetal 11120VendingEquipment 5700 Heating,V€ntilating,and Air ConditioningEquipment
05800 ExpansionControl 11130 Audiovisual Equipment 15800 Air Distribution
05900 Metal Restoratimand Cleaning 11140VehicleServiceEquipment 15900 HVAClnstrumentalionand Controls
'111 ParkingControlEquipment 15950Testing.Adiusting,and Balancing
50
DIVISION6-WOOD AND PLASTICS 11160 LoadingDockEquipment
06050 BasicWood and PlasticMaterialsand Methods 11170SolidWasteHandlingEquipment DIVISION16-ELECTRICAL
06100BoughCarpentry 11 190 DetentionEquipment 16050BasicElectrical Materialsand Melhods
06200 FinishCarpentry 112OOWater Supplyand Treatment Equipment 16100WiringMethods
0&00 ArchitecturalWoodwork I 1280Hydraulic GatesandValves 16200ElectricalPower
0650OStructuralPlastics 11300FluidWasteTreatmentand DisposalEquipment 16300 Transmissionand Distribution
'l
06600 PlasticFabrications 11400 Food SeruiceEquipment 6400 Low-VoltageDistribution
06900 Wood and PlasticRestorationand Cleaning 11450Residential Equipment 16500 Lightang
11460Unit Kitchens 16700Communacataons
DIVISION7-THERMALAND MOISTURE PROTECTION
11470 DarkroomEquipment 16800Soundand Video
07050 Easic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials 11480 Athletic, Recreational,and TherapeuticEquipment
and Methods
11500Industrial andProcessEquipment
07100 DampproofingandWaterproofang
11600 LaboratoryEquipment
07200 ThermalProtection '1650Planetarium
1 Equipment
07300 Shingles.RoofTlles,and R@f Coverings
The ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute;Alexandria,Virginia
ConstructionSpecificationsCanada
A
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION I
130 ArchitecturolProgromming
GENERAL be negotiable for different building types The tndex estab
PROGRAMMATIC CONCEPTS
lishes the intetrelationship of informat on regarding goals,
The steps of the Problem Seeking@ process cover both tacts, concepts, and needs The programmatic concepts illustrated here and on the ner
qualatatrve(establish the goals. uncover and (est concepts.
page refer to abstract ideas intended mainlv as functiona
and state the probtem statements) and quanlilalive lcollect The Problem Seeking methodology covers four maior cate- solutions to clients' perlormance problems without regard
and analyze fact and determine needs) information. gories of information: funclion refers to people. activities, to physical response. These diagrams briefly explain some
and relationships; form includes site, quality, and social/psy- of the concepts that recur on nearly eve.y project, regard
The informatron index is a framework of key words used to Lhologrcal envrronment, economy dddresses operatrng less of building type.
seek inlormation. These words are sDecific enouah to costs and life{ycle costs; and time entails historical
cover the scope ol major tactors and untversal enou-qh to aspects, present conditions, and future oroteclrons
INFORMA.TION INDEX
PROBLEM
FUNCTION
Feople Mission
and rmportant
Activities Maximum number Area parameters People grouping pertormance requtre-
Relationships lndividual identity Personnel forecast Activity grouping by spacetype ments that will shape
Interaction/privacy User characteristics Priority oYume building design
Hierarchy of values Community characteristics Hierarchy by location
Prime activities Organizationalstructure Security controls Parkingrequirements
Security Value of potential loss Sequential flow Outdoorspacerequirements
Progression Time-motion study Separated flow Functionalalternatives
Segregatibn Traffic analysis Mixed flow
Encounters Eehavioral patterns Functional relationships
Transportation/parking Space adequacy Communications
Efficiency Typelntensity
Priority of relationships Physicallychallenged guidelines
FORM
btas on stte elements 5rteanalysrs Ennancemenls Srtedevelopment costs
Environmenl Environmental response Soilanalysis Specialfoundations Environmental influenceson cost
Ouality ationsthat will affect
Efficient land use FABandGAC Density Buildingcosvsqft buildingdesign
Community relations Climateanalysis Environmental controls Buildingoveralleff iciencyfactor
Community improvements Codesuruey Safety
Physical comfort Surroundings Neighbors
Lite safety Psychological implications Home base/officingconcepts
Sociafpsychological environmenl Point of reference/entry On premise:fixed, free, group
Individuality Cosvsqft aooress
Way-finding Buildingor layoutefficiency Off premise:satellite,
telecommut,
Projected image Equipmentcost ang.virtualoffice
Client expectations Areaper unit Orientation
Accessibility
Character
Ouality@ntrol
ECONOMY
preseryaljon
lmplications
Static/dynamic activities Spaceparameters Tolerance and groMh on long-
Change Activities Convertibiiity range performance
Growth Projections Expansibility
Occupancy date Durations Linear/concurentscheduling
Availabilityof tunds Escalation factors Phasing
o Nh
o
PRIORITY
t o
The concept of priority evokes questions regardjng order of The concept of character is based on a goal concerning the
SERVICE GROUPING
%N
Should seryices be centralized or decentralized? Each dis-
rmportance, such as relative position, size, and social value. image the client wants to project in terms of values anJ the tinct service will be one or the other to imolement a soecific
generac nature of a project. goal.
n
HIERARCHY
[][]L]
llll
4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
ArchilecturqlProgrqmming l3l
Prcgzmmatc concepts continued frcm the ptewous page
Oo^
^ n><L,
o a,G
"o" ?ffio
'*f)v
u"o /'
SEPARATEO FLOW SAFETY
PEOPLE GROUPING
A goal tor segregation may relate to people (such as prison- Which maior ideas will implement the goal for life safety?
Look for concepts derived from the physical, social. and
individuals, in small era and the public), to automobiles (such as campus traffic Look to codes and safetv precautions lor {orm-giving ideas.
emotional characteristics ot people-s
groups, and in large groups. and urban tralfic), or to people and automobiles (such as
pedestrian traffic and automobile traffic).
HOME BASE
Home base is related to the idea of territoriality-an easily
defined place where a person can maintain his or her indi-
MIXEO FLOW
Commonsocialspaces,such as town squareor building
lobbies,are designedfor multidirectional,multipurposetraf-
3Etr
SECURITY CONTROLS
The degree of security control varies depending on the
value of the potential loss.{inimum, medium, or maxi-
fic. The conceptof mixedflow may be aproposil the goal is mum. These controls are used to protect propeaty and to
vidualitv.
to oromotechanceand planned€ncounters. control oersonnel movement.
t-t [l
I I -t____l
RELATIONSHIPS
The correct interrelationof spaces promotes efficiencies
SEAUENTIAL FLOW
The progression oI people (as in a museum) and things (as
ENERGY
trE
CONSERVATION
There are two general approaches to achieving an energy-
in a factory) must be carefully planned. A flowchart diagram efficient building: {1) keep the heated area to a minimum by
and effectivenessof p€ople and their activities.This con-
will communicate this concept of sequential flow much making use ol conditioned but nonheated outside space,
ceot ol functionalalfinities is the most common prografr
more easily than words- such as exterior corridors, and (2) keep heat flow to a mini-
matc conceDr.
mum with insulation, correct orientation to sun and wind,
comoactness, sun controls, wind controls. and reflective
surfaces.
oo
EXPANSIBILITY CONVERTIBILITY VERSATILITY
ls there a goal {or sociality? Will the prciect be completelY Flexibiiity covers the following three concepts: expansibility Will phasing ol construction be required to complete a
(accommodating groMh through expansionl, convertibility project on a time and cost schedule if the project proved
independent or is there a mutual desire to b€ interdepen-
(allowing for changes in function), and versatility (providing infeasible in the initial analys's? Will the urgency for the
dent, to cooperate with nsighbors?
'l $l'
the most lor the money through multifunctional spaces). occupincy dale determine the need for concurrent sched-
uling or allow for linear scheduling?
4
A C C E S S IB I L I T Y
Can Iirst-time visitors{ind shere to enter the proiect?The
concept ol accessibilityalso applies to provisions{or per-
TOLERANCE
This concept may well add space to the program. ls a par-
ticular space tailored precisely for a static activity or is it pro-
COST CONTROL
This concept is intended as a search far economy ideas thal
will lead to a realistic oreview of costs and a balanced bud-
likely to get to meet the extent of available funds.
sons with disabilitiesbeyond signs and symbols. Do we vided with a l@se fit for a dynamic activity{ne
needsingleor multipleentrances? change?
Houston,Texas
FAIA;HOK Consuitants;
StevenA. Parshall,
4
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION u
132 AIA MASTERSPEC
INTRODUCTION 0 1 2 s o - C O N T R A C T M O D t F t C A T t O Np R O C E D U R E S _ T h i s 01633-5UBSTITUTtONS (FF&E)-This Sectaon specifre:
The MASTERSPEC@master specrficatronsystem is a prod Section specifies administrative and procedural reouire- requrrements tor substitutions when specified goods
n e n l s f o r C h a n g e st O t h e C O n l r a c tS L n a . d t h e C o r l r d r I ar.
uct ol the American Instrtute of Archrtects and is published not available. lt includes submrttals required for'propose..
lrme, and the Contractor's Oreparar,on of Droposal
by.Archilecturat Computer Servrces, Inc {ARbOM) lt subslrtuttons.
Hequesls lor changes to the Cont,acr
Includes libraries for architeclural/structural/crvrJ.
structural/
cNd, mechanical/electrical, interiors construction, interiors 01700-EXECUTION REOUIREMENTS-This Section
01270-UNIT PRICES-Ihis Section specrfies provisrons specifies administrative and procedural requirements fol
FF&E, and landscape architecture and has*malt project, for unit p(ces. lt includes a sample list of unit prices and a
outlrne, short form, and full lenglh versrons. The MAS i ER_ examination ol conditions, preparation for constructior
sample untt pnce schedule to help the specifier develop the construclton layout, field engtneering and su.veyrnq. qen
)rEL System ts endorsed ot recommended by major 5eclron. erat Installation of products. coordinalion of Ownerrnltafteu
design and construction documentation organizations in t'he
products, progress cleaning, starting and adjusting, protec
UnatedStates. 01290-PAYMENT PROCEDURES-Thrs Section speciftes
administrative and procedural requirements for the iontrac- tron of installed constructlon, and correction of thtVvork.
MASITRSPLC@ specrfrcatronsecllons are used to produce tor's Applications for Payment. This Section also contains 01703-CONTRACT CLOSEOUT (FF&E)-This Section
prolect specificatrons tor bidding and construction. These requtrements for preparing and submitting the Schedule of specitaes administrative and procedural contract closeoul
specticatrons descflbe materrals and products, assembhes Values. provisions. lr is primarily a summarv Sectionj most ot the
anO systems lor a construction, as well as reeuirements lor provis,ons in this Section are the termination of require
submrttals, manufacture, installation, performance. and 01303-SUBMITTALS (FF&E)-This Seclron soecifres
adminElratrve and procedural requrremerls for processing ments specified in other Sections. Basjc contract closeou:
warranties. Bidding requirements, conrracl requtrements. .equirements are in the General and Supplementary Condr
and project specifications are usually bound together in the Shop Drawings, Product Data, and Samptes Ihe Secrroi
rnc,udes the lollowing: tions.
project manual.
0131o-PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COORDINA 01731-CUTTING AND PATCHTNG-This Section specifies
MASTERSPEC@sections are numbered and tiiled accord- TION-Thjs admrnistratjve and procedural requirements for cutting and
Section specifies administratjve orocedures
ing to CSI MasterFormat and include ail 16 of its divisions. patching. lt must be carefuliy coordinated with otheaSec_
required for ProJect management and coordindlron of con_
Each section includes a broad range of products and structron operations and activities, including scheduling and tlons to avoid overlapping or conflicting requirements, such
options for each subject area. Users edit each section to tai, conducting Project meetings. as those contained in Divisions I 5 and i 6.
lor rt to a sp4ifig!!olect When a firm does repetitive types
of projects, M,ASTERSPECsections may be edited to pro_ 01320-CONSTRUCTION 0i 732-5ELECTIVE DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies
PROGRESS DOCUMENTA-
duce ollice masters that contain only those D.oducts and TION-This Section specifies administrative and procedural the demolition of selected portions ol existing buildings,
materials lypically specrl,ed by the frrn or by a panrcular cll requirements for the Contractor's Construction Schedule. structures, and site improvements, and the removal. sal
enl rnese oilrce masters are then ed,led to produce jndi various schedules and reports requrreo lor pe,formance of vage, and disposal ot demolished matenals
vadualproiect specif ications. the Work, and construction photographs lt includes both 0177o-CLOSEOUT PROCEDURES-Th|S Secrion speci.
Uantl{hart and critical path method {CpM) schedules lies administrative and procedural contract closeout orovr-
sions. Most of the provisions in this Section cover the
MASTERSPEC SECTION 01322-PHOTOGRAPHTC DOCUMENTATTON-This Sec-
complelion of rgqqjls6gng5 specrfred rn other Sectrons
DESCRIPTIONS tion specifies requirements for submitting construction
pholographs and videotapes The seryrces c;ntarned In this rhrs sectron specities provisions for proiect Record Docu
sectron can vary extensively. For many projects, the tew ments, operatton and maintenance manuals, and demon_
DtvlstoN I
paragraphs in Division 'l Section .Construction progress stration and training. lf these subjects require more detailed
01ooHENERAL REOUTREMENTS-This Section treatment, delete them from this Section and use the aooli,
Documentation'may eliminate the need for this sep-arate
includes the Evaluations only. lt contains background infor_ cable MASTERSPEC Supptemental Sections.
)ecton.
matron on vaflous subjects, including specification formats
and contractrng procedures, that apply to all Division I Sec- 01 330-5UBMITTAL 01781-PROJECT RECOFD DOCUMENTS-Thjs Section
PROCEDURES-This Section speci-
!ons. fies Action and lnformational Submittals, including Shop specifies procedures to be followed when developing
Drawings, Product Data, Samples, and other miscellineoui Prcjecr Record Documents. lt should be used when lpei
01013-SUMMARY OF WORK (FF&E)-This Section sum_ cific Project requirements are more extensive than reouire-
submittals.
manze: the_Work of the Furniture, Furnishings, and Equip- ments specitied in Division 1 Basic Section .Closeout
ment (FF&E) contracts and provides inform;tion to thode 014oo-OUALITY REOUIBEMENTS-Th;s Secrion speci- Procedures.' The Section Text deals primarily with Record
who do not have access to the Agreement or biddtng infor_ fies general.quality-assurance and quality{ontrol require_ Drawings because they are the one type of Froject Remrd
mation. The Section includes Ihe foilowing: ments. Specific requirements for individual elements oi the Document mst likely to be expanded beyohd require_
Work are specified in the appropriate Sections in Divisions ments in the Basic Section.
01o23-ALLOWANCES (FF&E)-This Section specifies
2 through 16. The Section Text is prjmarily for field tests
provisions for lump-sum and unit-pflce allowances for 01782-OPERATION AND MATNTENANCE DATA-This
Furni_ and inspections of fabricated in-place consrructron rather
rure, Furnrshrngs, and Equrpment (lf&E). Il defines allow_ Section specifies requirements for preparing and submit
than standard product testing.
ances, describing what is and is noi included, and lists trng emergency, operation, and maintenance manuals.
allowance quantities and amounts. 014o3-OUALITY CONTROL (FF&E-This Section speci-
fies provisions for product or material testing when it is the 01 820-DEMONSTRATTON AND TRA|NtNG-This Section
O1028-APPLICATIONS FOR PAYMENI (FF&E)-This sec. specifies administrative and procedural requirements for
responsibility of the FF&E Contractor. The Section includes
tion specilies admrnrstrative ano procedural requirements anstructingOwner's personnel in the operation and mainte-
responsibilities for tests, inspections, and sample taking;
g_ov_erningthe Furn,ture. Furnrshrngs, and Equipment nance ot systems, subsystems, and equipment. lt should
written test repons; qualitication of testing agencies; anl
(FF&E) Contractor's Applications for payment. be used when specific Project requirements are more
h alsb con_ repair and protection of the Work exposes ro testtnq and
larnsJequrrements for prepar,ng and submittrng the Sched- extensive than requirements specified in Division 1 Basic
sample tat ing
ule of Values Section'Closeout Procedures.'
01 420-REFERENCES-This Section specifies general def_
01033-ALTERNATES (FF&E)-This Secrion specifies prG DIVISION 2
initions for the Specifications and other Coniract Docu
visions lor proposed changes recerved before the Furniture,
ments including the Drawings. Delinitjons in this Section 02060-EUlLDlNc DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies
l-urnrshings, and Equipment (FF&L) Contracl is awarded.
are not Intended to intrude on legal and construction aqree- the demolition, removal, and disposal of existing buildings,
Ine seclron descflttes add alternates. deduct allernates.
ment malters: they supplement lnose defrnitions contarneo structures, and site improvements; and the removal, sal
and alternates for the purpose of cost comparison.
in AIA Document 4201. 1997 edition. Most of the Section vage, and disposal of demolished materials.
01038-MODIFICATtON pROCEDURES (FF&E)_This Sec- Text can be considered basic procedural requirements
lion specifres procedu.es tor changrng the Furniture, Fur- 0208O-UTILITY MATERTALS-Th|s Section soecities
01422_REFERENCE SIANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS matenals and methods for application with utrlity piping
nrshrngs,and Equrpmenr (FF&E) Contract Sum or Schedule.
{FF&f)- This.Section specitres general detinrtronstor Spec Installations outside the building. Piping specialties, joining
01043--COORDtNAT|ON (FF&E)-This rtrcatrons and other FF&E Contract Documents Includrng mateflals,,ornt construction, identification materials an.i
Sectton specities
coordin€tion with the Work of construction contraciors and Drawings. Definitions in this Section are not intended t; devices, and installation requirements common to more
other Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) con- intrude on legal matters; they supplement those definrtions than one Division 2 Section are included. This Section sup
tractors. contained in AIA Docurent 4271, 1990 edition, and in plements other Division 2 Sections: it must b€ edit€d and
ASID Document 1D320, 1996 edition. Most of the Section used with other Sections for a complete piping system
01 1oo-SUMMARY- I his Sect,on provrdes a lramework in Text can be considered basic procedural requirements. specitication.
wnrch to summanze the Work ol the p.oJect as covered In
detail in the Contract Documents. lt also provides general 01500-TEMPORARY FACILtTIES AND CONTROLS-This 02085-INTERCEPTORS-This Section specifies interceo-
information to individuals who need to know geneil con_ Section specifies requirements of a temporary nature, tors us€d with sanitary sewerage and storm drainage sys-
tract provisions. ancluding items not actually incorporated into the Work. lt tems. These interceptors are l@ated outside the buildino
rncludes temporary utility services, construction and suF dnd include melal and concrete types.
0112s-SUMMARY OF MULT|PLE CONTRACTS_This port facililies, and security and protection facalities.
Section specifies the contractual responsibjlatiesof each 02230*5ITE CLEARING-This Section soecifies sire clear-
contract and the Poject Coordinator relating to the Work, 01600-PRODUCT REOUTREMENTS-This Secrion speci- Ing. Including tree and vegetation removal and root grub-
coordination. and temporary tacalitiesano controts. fies general requirements for products, materials, and brng, tree protection, topsoil stripping and stockpiling,
equrpment_ includrng their delivery, storage, and handling. cappiog and removal of site utilities, and removal of min6r
0114o-WORK RESTRTCTIONS-ThjS Section specilies ano sereclron ot products by lhe Contractor. This Section sIe rmprovements.
restnctrons on the Contractor's use of the oremises and also specifies administrative and procedural requirements
requirements for contrnued Owner occrpancy and Owner for handling requests for substitutions made after award of 02231-TREE PROTECIION AND TRtMMtNG-This Sec
occupancy of the Project before Substantial Completion. the Contract, and general and procedural requirements for tion specifies the protection and trimming oI trees that
warrantres. interfere with, or are affected by, temporary or new Work.
01 2 1O-ALLOWANCES-This Section specif ies provisions
for cash allowances, including lump-sum, unit-cost, contin_ 01613-DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND HANDLING (FF&E)- 02240-DEWATERING-This Section specifies construc-
gency. and lestrng and inspectrng allowances lt also speci. This_Section specifies requirements for handIng goods on tion dewatering requiring more extensive treatment than
res pfovlstons tor quanlitv allowances the Pro,ect Site. that specrfied rn other Division 2 Sections.
u
A
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC I33
02666-POND AND RESERVOIRLINERS-ThiSSection 02956-GROUND COVER AND PTANTS*ThiSSection
02260-EXCAVATIONSUPPORTAND PROTECTION- pond ano resetr specifiesgroundcoversand plantsandincludespreparation
This Seclion specifiesgeneral proceduresand prlmary specifiesimpervious.flexible-membrane
voir linerslor use with neutralaqueoussolutions.Consult of plantingbeds,topsoil,soil amendments,fertilizers,
and
requirementsfor excavationsupporl and proteclionsys- mutcnes.
rems. membranemanufacturersfor propermembraneselectionif
requiredfor lining or covering complex liquid toxic-waste
023OO-EARTHWORK-ThrsSection specifies excavating, holdrngponds DtvlsloN 3
compacting.and gradinginsideand
fillingand backfilling, 03300-CAST-lN'PLACE CONCRETE-ThisSectionspeci-
outsidebuildinglimits.ThisSectionalso includesbaseand 02711-FOUNDATIONDRAINAGESYSTEMS-ThiSSEC. fies cast-in-place,normal-weight and lightweightconcrete
subbasematerialsfor pavements;granulardrainagecourse tion specifiesIoundationand underslab,subsoildrainage for generalbuildingconstructionincludingrelatedform-
under slabs4n€rade; drainage and separationgeotextile systems.lt also includesin-planewall drainagematerials work. reinlorcement,concrete materials and admixtures,
fabrics;and trench excawtion and backlillingfor utility and that work separatelyor in conjunctionwith other foundation vaoor retarders,concrete mix requirements,placement,as-
undergroundseryices. drainage products. repairs,and field qualaty
cast and appliedfinishes,curing,
02751-CEMENTCONCRETEPAVEMENT-ThiSSection control-
02361-TERMITECONTROL-ThisSectionspecifiesinitial
soil treatment by applyingchemicaltermiticidesto the soil soecifies cast-in-placeconcrete pavement constructlon 03301-CAST.IN-PLACE CONCRETE(LIMITEDAPPLICA.
rncludrngrelatedfoamwork,rerntorcement. concretemix
under and aroundsusceptiblestructuresduringconstruc- TIONS)-This Sectionspecifiescast-in-place concretefor
iion tor preventivecontrolof subterranean termates,and proportions,placement, and f inishes- proiectsusing small quantitiesof concreteor noncritical
the option of using bait products to supplementsoaltreat- 02764-PAVEMENT JOINT SEALANTS-Th|S Section aoolicationsof concrete. lt is for simple projects where the
ment. According to the EPA-RegisteredLabel. one manu- {or con-
specifiesiointsealants,includingbackermaterials, Archilect edits the Section Text with minimal or no drrec-
facturer's bait product may be specilied without also crete-to{oncreteand concrete-tGasphaltpavementjolnts. tion trom the structuralengineer.The Section Text permits
specilyingsoil treatment,if permitted by authoritieshaving the settingof minimumqualitystandards for the Proiectby
iurisdiction. 02768-STAMPED CEMENT CONCRETEPAVEMENT- referencing ACI 3O1,Specificationfor StructuralConcrete.
This Sectionspecifiescement concretepavement,erther For projecGrequiringdetailedspecifications and significant
02455-DRIVENPILES-ThisSectionspecifiesEvaluations integrallyor surface colored, receivinga surfaceimpranted control of cast-in-placeconcrete, use Division 3 Section
only for the following Sections covering types of driven stampedfinish.
'Castrn-Place Concrele'
pnes:
STEEL PILES_Th|SSCCIiON 02780-UNIT PAVERS-ThiS Section speci{aespaving for 03331-CAST]N-PLACEARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE-
02456-CONCRETE.FILLED exteriorapplcationsusingbrick,concrete,rough-stoneand This Section sDecifiescasl-in-place,formed, architectural
specifiesconcrete-{illedsteel shell and steel pipe piles. asphalt-blockpavers installedby severalmethods. Installa- concrete that requires special concrete materials' form-
02457-PRESTRESSED CONCRETEPILES-This Section tion methods include ungrouted. mortarless applications; work, placement,andfinishes.
specifiesprestressed,precastconcretedriven piles. portlandcement monar setting-bedmethods; and bitumr
nous setting-bedapplacations. 03361-SHOTCRETE-ThisSectionspecifies requi.ements
02458-STEEL H PILES-This Section specifies steel H- for pneumaticallyappliedshotcretework that may be used
sectionpilesand protctive coatings 02791-PLAYGROUNDSURFACESYSTEMS-Th|SSec- for repairrngexistingconcretestructuresor fol new con-
tion specifiesboth loose fill and non]oose {ill, impact-atten- struction. Materials.mixes, and applicationprocedureslor
02459-TIMBER PILES-This Section specities preserua- uating protective surfacing systems for outdoor use at both the wet- and dry-mixprocessesare included.
tive-treatedround timber Piles. oround-levellocations,made from naturalorganic or inor-
0341o-PLANT-PRECASTSTRUCTURALCONCRETE-
lanic materialsor syntheticrubber-basedformulations,and
02466-DRILLED PIERS-This Section specifies drilled designedlor use underand aroundpublicplaygroundequitr This Section specifies plant-precast,conventionallyrein-
piers with straightor belledshafts and includesexcawtion. ment. Surfacesystems that have and have not been deter- forcedand prestressed, structuralconcreteunils.
casings. slurries. reinforcement,concrete fill. and testing mined to be accessible according to ASTM PS 83, 03450-PLANT-PRECAST ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE'
and inspecting. Specification for Determinatiq of Accessibility of Surface This Section specilies plant-precast,conventionallyrein-
0251o-WATER DISTRIBUTION-This Section specifies Systems undet and around Playground Equipment, ate forced, architecturalconcrele units wilh conventionalfin-
water pipingand specialties tor potable-water seryiceand specified. ishes, thin brick facings, or stone facings. Pretensionedor
firerrotdction water seMce outside the building.This Sec- posttensioned, precast. prestressed concrete unils and
02813-LAWN SPRINKLERPIPING-This Sectionspeci-
tion is not intendedfor municipaldistributionsystems. fies piping and valves. sprinklersand irrigationspecialties, noncomposite insulated, precast concrete units are also
and bontrcls and wiring for lawn sprinklerpiping. Compc included.
0251I-HOT-M|X ASPHALI PAVING-ThiS S€ction speci-
fies hotflix asphaltpavingfor new and existingpaverents nents in this Section will be downstream trom the water 03470-TILT-UP PRECASI CONCRETE-This Section
and emulsified€sphaltsurfacetreatments. distributionpiping, valves,backflow preventers'and water sp€cifies tilt-up concrete wall panels that are site precast
meters specifiedin Division2 Sectionl/Vater Distribution.' andfinished.andtiltedintoplaceon-site.ThisSectionspec-
02525-WATER SUPPLYWELLS-This Section specifies ifies relatedformwork,Ieinforcement,concretematerials
cable-tool,rotary drilled, reverse-rotarydrilled. and driven 02821-CHAIN-LINKFENCESAND GATES-ThisSection
soecifieschain-linkfence fabric,framing,fittings,swing and and admixtures,concretemix requirements.placement,as-
water wells Wth iel, line-shaftturbine,and submersibletur- cast and appliedfinishes.bondbreakers.curing,repairs,and
bine well pumps and accessories. slide gates, privacy slats, gate operators,and accesscon-
trol lor residential,commercial,and industrialapplications field qualitycontrol.
02530-SANITARY SEWERAGE-ThiS Section specifies accordingto ASTM standardsand the ChainLink Fence O349HLASS-FIBER-REINFORCEDPRECAST CON.
sanitarysewerageoutsidethe building. ManufacturersInstitute's (CLFMI) Product Manual Resi-
/ dentialfenceand gateheightsare limitedto 6 feet (1.8ml
CRETE-ThisSectionspecifiesplant-manufactured, glass-
fiber{einforced precast concrete units stiffened and suP
02s35-PROCESS MATERIALSEWERAGE_ThiSSECIiON with fence line posts at a maximum spacingof 10 {eet (3 poned by plant-attached{raming panels produced from
soecifies orocess material sewerage outside the building m) o.c. Industrialfence and gate heightsa.e limitedto 12
and includes chemical-wastedrainage piping' structures. cold-Iormed steel studs or rolled carbon-steelstructural
feet (3.66m) and less with fence line posts at a maxrmum shapesusedprimarilyto cladbuildrngexteriors.
and neutralizationtanks;double{ontainedpipingand struc- '10 feet (3 m) o.c. Galvanized{oated,Zn-s-Al-
spacing of
tures;and chemical-waste lorce mains. MM allovtoated Cinc-s percent aluminum-mischmetal 03511-CEMENTITIOUS wOOD-FIBERDECK-This Sec-
alloy),aluminum{oated, and Pvc{oated steel and alumi- tion specifies cementitious wood-fiber deck consisting of
02540-5EPTIC TANKSYSTEMS-This Sectionspecifiesa fencingareincluded.
sewage disposal system for use where a public sanitary
num-alloy units composed ol long strands of wood fibers combined
seweragesystem is not available. with either ponland cement or magnesiumoxysulfate
02832-SEGMENTALRETAININGWALLS-This Section hydrauliccement. and bonded under pressure.Monolithac.
Sectionspeci- specilies freestanding retaining walls built from dry-laid composite,and insulatedcomposite tile or plank units a.e
02551-HYDRONICDISTRIBUTION-ThiS concretemasonryunits designedspecificallyfor construct-
fies piping for hydronic distribution systems outsid€ the used to constructrool decks or form decks.
includes pipes, fittings, valves, insulation, ing segmentalretainingwalls. This Section includes both
building. Piping
earth-reinforcedretainingwalls and gravity retainingwalls. 03520-LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ROOFINSULATION-
and specialtiesfor the following: Alternateprovisionsare includedto leave selectionof the This Section specifieslightweight concrete rool insulation,
02553-NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIOi{-This Seation particularretaining wall unit design up to the Contracto(, with an oveniry unit weight not exceeding 50 lb/cu. ft.
sp€cifiesnaturalgas distributionpiping and sp€cialtiesout- within some generalappearanceparameters,and to requlre (800 kgr'cu.m), primarilyused as fill over metal roof deck or
side the buildingto the point of delivery.The point of deliv- that the Contractorprovide structuraldesign for the walls structuralconctetesubstrates.
ery is the servic+meter assemblyoutlet. This may be only basedon the unitsselected.
the seryice-regulatoror seryice-shutoffvalve if there is no 03532-CONCRETEFLOORTOPPING-This Sectionspec-
02881-PLAYGROUND EOUIPMENT AND STRUC. ifies tactorypackag€d, high-srrength. iron-aggregateand
meter. TURES-This Seclion specifiespublic playgroundequiF €rery€ggregate cementitiousconcretetloor toppings.
02554-FUEL-OlL DISTRIEUTION-ThisSection specifies ment suitable for children 2 through 12 years old and
tuel distributionpiping and specialtiesand lueloil storage locatedin play areasat child{are lacilities.institutions,mul- 03542-{EMENT-BASED UNDERLAYMENT-This Sec
tanks and accessotiesoutside the building. Equipment in tiple-familydwelling sites, parks,sch@ls, recreationalfacili tion specifi€s cement-based,polymer-modilied,self-level-
this Sectionis suitablelor use with GradesNo. 1 or No. 2 ties.restaurants,andsimilarpublicareas. ing underlayment lor application below interior finish
fuel oil. flooring.
02900-LANDSCAPING-This Section specifies trees.
02555-STEAM DISTRIBUTION-IhiS Section specifies shrubs. ground covers, plants. and lawns. The Section 03930*CONCRETE REHABILITATION-This Section
oroinofor lowtressure sleamand condensatedistribution includespreparationof planting pits and beds, topsoil, soil specifies concrete patching and repair including the
;vslms outside the buiidrng.Pipingincludespipes, fit- amendments. and mulches.
f enilizers, removalof deterioratedconcreteand reinforcement.Patch-
tings. valves,insulation.and specialtiesfor the following: ing materialsspecified include job-mixed patchingmortar,
02930-LAWNS AND GRASSES-ThiS Section specifies packaged{ementitious and polymer-modified patching
o2s84-UNDERGROUNDDUCTSAND UTILITYSTRUC- plantingmaterials,includingtopsoil,soil amendments,and monars, cast-in-placeconcrete, and preplacedaggregate
TURES-This Section specifies products used in under- fertilizersfor new seeded. sodded, sprigged.and plugged concrete. This Section also speci{ies lloor joint repair,
ground eleclrical dtstribution tor power and lawns and grassedareas.This Section also includesprovi- treatments,poly-
epoxy crack injection,corrosion-inhibiting
communications,includingducts, duct banks. handholes, sionsfor hyd.oseedingand reconditioningexistanglawns. mer overlaysand sealers,and structuralreinforcementwith
and utility structuressuch as vaults and manholes. both steel and composites.
0295s-TREES AND SHRUBS-This Section specilies
02630-5T0RM DRAINAGE-This Section specilies grav- trees and shrubs and includes preparationof plantingpits
itv-Ilow and force-mainstorm drainageoutsidethe building. and beds, topsoil, soil amendments, lertilizers, and
mulches.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
Virginia
ARCOM:SaltLakeCitv,Utah,and Alexandria'
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION u
A
134 AIA MASTERSPEC
otvtstoN 4 starntess steel, Includrng nosrlgs and tread ptale. lhe
0 r ' 4 1 0 - S I O N E M A S O N R Y V L N F TR t h , s S e c r r o r lon Inctudes mrscellaneous sleel framing,or
Sec 0613O-HEAVYTTMBERCONSTRUCTTON_This Section
spec, supporling specifiesconstructionusingrectangular
res slone tatd in mortar and app|ed erther ove.rheaddoors,.cerIng hung torlel compariments operab16 sotiO_rcoO riami^,,
lo conc.eie or 5 inchesnomrnat{t t 4 mm actuailand targer.
maso-nryback-up or to frame construction lt Includes partrtrons, wood framrng. counteflops. l1:I9.lt
stone and varrous equrp ootnOrmenSrons
nsraileo In rubble, ashlar. and polygonal or mosaic menl. fttmbers)
patlerns
maoe trom cut stone, split stone, or qough 06150-WOOD DECKING-IhrsSectronspecrfres
sione as 05511-METAL lonoue
e'tracted fiom ihe quarry or as collected irom STAIRS-Thrs Section specifies straight and€roovewood deckrng,bolh sold and lamrnated
stream run, steel,framed stairs with metal-pan, abrasive<oit-inl_
Danks and similar depostts. lt includes veneers mechant-
caily attached to the back up by anchors or ties built into frnished formed-melal, merat plate. and steel bar 06185-STRUCTURALGLUED-LAMINATEDTIMBER
the oratrrio
monar lornts and veneers adhered with mortar similar lreads. tt Includes preassembled melal stairs lor coirmei This Secrion specifies structural gtuea]iminareJ intr.
to cial applications, industrial stairs, and steel-framed
the settrng method used for ceramic wall tile. The orna_ rncludingbeams,purlins,arches,trusaes,and@lumns.
Section mentat statrs. lt also jncludes steel tube rajlings
is written primarily for exterior veneers for buildinqs for
and for preassembled metal stairs. 06192-METAL.PLATE-CONNECTED
concrete retarning walls. but could easily be modified WOOD TRUSSES-
to This Sectionspecifieswood trussesfactory tiOri"riJ-tri_
include interior facings of stone masonry.
05521-PIPE AND TUBE RAtLtNGS_thrs Section drmensionlumber and metal connectorplates.
soeci.
04720-CAST STONE-This Section specifies cast tres pipe and rube handrarts and rarlings raorrciteo-i,om
stone steel,_aluminum, and stainless steel While thrs 06200-FlNtSHCARpENTRy-ThisSectionspecifiesnon
burldrlg unrts used as archrtecturat featUes. fac,nq SectDn
tilm oi specifres pflmdnty functtonal, rather than ornamental, skucturatcarpentrywork that is exposedto view and is not
sire accessofles. Cast stone rs defjned as archneciuiaf ratl_
o,e_ Ings, I coutd atso be used to specify ornamental ratlings specifiedin other Sections.Includedare standingand run
cast concrete building units intended to simulate natural cur
StOne made from pipe and Iube shapes ning.trim,^statrsand railings,extelor srding,arid inrer,o
panerng btdrngIncludeslumber.plywood,and hardboard
0481O-UNtT MASONRy ASSEMBLIES_This
05530-GRATINGS-This Section specif;es metal bar qrar srdrng panetrngincludesplywood,hardboard,and boa.o
Section ings, expanded merat gratrngs. toimea-metai pfant
specities clay and concrete masonry for engineered-inl iiai panerrng.Standardmanufacturedpanelingrs specifredrr
emprrically desrgned applicahons. Ings, and extruded aluminum plank gratings. this Section,while customwood panelingis specifiedjn
0558O-FORMED-METAL . 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORKanci
04815-GLASS UNIT MASoNRY AsSEMELIES-This FABRTCATTONS_This Section
Sec specifies miscellaneous items that are shop fabricated . 06420-PANELWORK.In general,
tion specilies glass unrt masonry assembles for watt,
w]n- frcm use thrs Secrronro
oow, skytrghl, and floor applicatrons. lt Includes extelor ferrous- and nonferrous melal sheer to custom destqns work thal rs not shop fabricdled and for sldinq and
and and oanel
Inreilor apptrcattons and three rnstallation methods. that are not specified rn other Sections p,oo"iG mit Ing types that are rncluded onlv in this Sectron
One be included are sheet metal fabrications th"l il;;;;;;; "*ii
method requires edges ot glass_block assemb|es
to be formed to a custom or semicustom design; Zt aie 06401-EXTERIOR
rerarned by perimeter channel frames or chases eiporeO ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK-
A second to Mew where appearance is the primary concern: and This Section specifies tabricated wood products for
method allows edges of assemblies to Oe sepiratea 3) use on
ir-orn= are not normally furnrshed as part of other work, such the exterior of the building. Architectural woodwork is
pe.rmeter construction but anchored as dLs
to it by perforated wrnoow tflm made by the window manufacturer ThJs
metal strips lcalled panel anchotsl embedded'in Sec_ lrngutshed trom other forms of wood construclron bv
horizonial berna
mortar joints of glass-block assemblies and fastened-to uon ncludes onty a limited number of examples of items manufactured in a woodworking plant and bv
penmeter conslruction at ends. A third satisfying the above criteria; other examptes iricfuOe muttion wrth standards of quality for material and *orimanst
"ori.otu,no
method uses a ip. ti
metal grid Into whrch the glass block is insened cov6rs, miscellaneous boxes, counters, cabinets, and Includes ttems of woodwork permanently attached
anO adhe_ to the
srvetvsecured with a silicone sealant shelves ouilorng and expos€d to view. Architectural woodwork
oen
erally involves items custom fabricated for an indiviiual
04851-DIMENS|ON o570o-ORNAMENTAL METAL-This Section specifies project, as opposed to mass-produced motOings
STONE CLADDING_ThIS Section or furni_
products custom fabricated from various
spectttes dimensron stone, set wtth monar or sedlant metifs ariJ uieJ ture. tt required, woodwork €n be specitred to be
ioints. in building construction for functional, arcnitecturat,-anJ shop frn.
ror exreilor ctadding of buildings. Dimension ished rather than field finished.
stone cl;ddino decorative purposes where appearance ts the pflmary
may De.specttred as field set, with or without mortar, con_
an; cern. Urnamental metal includes both items made 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORK_rhis
wrrn Indrvrctuatanchors or a grid-type anchorinq entirely
system h from Section specifies fabricated w@d oroducts lor use on
m€y atso be specified in the form of prefabricJted _custom-fabncated components and those made the
assem_ enrtrety or partjally from $andard manufactured products inreror oJ the buitding. Architectural *ooO*o,[-i"
blie-s.Dimension stone.cladding systems may be specified Oi"iin
ro oe engtneered by the lnstaller lo comply with Inal requtre some custom fabricatron,finishing. and assem_ gurshed trom other forms of wood construction
oerfor_ bv beino
mance cntefla or may be fully designed and detailed. bly. The emphasis in this Section is on cusrom metat that is manufactured in a woodworkrng plant and bv comolvrnd
fabricated, finished. and instailed to exacting slin;a?i wrth standa.ds of quality for material and worimansi'rip. li
requiring highquality materials and skrllful *6,f.manstrip. rncludes rtems of wmdwork
91901_ CLAY MASONRY RESTORATTON AND CLEAN_ -;;liiy permanently attached to the
ING-This Section srecifies requirements f;, vvnere prooucts meet these criterra and are not part ourrorng and exposed to view Architectural woodwork qen
of
masonry restoration. Some requirements are other assemblies and systems, such as wtndow erally involves items custom labricated for an indivi"duat
suitabie for walls,
nrslonc restoGtion projects, and some are more ooors and entrances, hardware, or pretabricated specialty project,. as.opposed to mass{roduced motdrngs
suited for -or or fun.
orotnary rehablttation and cleaning of nonhisloric rt€ms, they belong in thrs Section. ture..Woodwork can be specified to be shop
struc- fietd f in
tures. Because masonry restoratio; worf en invotve rshed_
in 057,| s-FAgRICATED SptRAL STATRS-Thrs Secrron soec.
assortment ot materials and conditions, it is difficuh
qevelop a master section to ifies metal spiral stairs wrth steel pipe or tube 0642o--PANELING-This
that includes restoration and Section specifies custom-manu
creantng procedures other than those that are typical. ponrng cotumns and radiating treads produced ""nt,"i!uo factured paneling. Board paneling, flu"t *ooJ p"n"ling
The as standaid
Intenl is to manutactured producls. lamrnatedad paneling, and sttle and rail paneIng
_provide guidelrnes and information tnit can Ue Included. Paneling tabricated from premanufactured
ar"e
aoapteo to ttt rndrvrdualcases s6ts ot
o572o-ORNAMENTAL HANDRAILS AND RAILINGS- sequence-matched panels and custom-veneered paneling
04902-STONE This Section specifies ornamental handrails and railings are rncluded
RESTORATION AND CLEANTNG_This fab-
Section specities requirements for qrarrry slone restora_ ricated from aluminum, copper alloys, starnless
ste;|, and
Iron. Some requirements are suitable tor hjstoric restoration sreet and rron. tt also includes grass_and plastrc-suDooned 06605-INTERIOR PLASTTC ORNAMENTATION_This
railrngs,.andriluminaled ratlings. Thrs Sectjon covers Section specifies molded- or extruded-plastjc ornamenta,
some for ordrnary rehabrtrtation ana cieaninl rerlnos
?l"199tjt
or ?i9
nonhtstoflc assemDted trom standard shapes rather than those tion tor rnteflor use, made of polystyrene, polyurethane,
structures. Because stone restoratton wori co; o,
cm involve an assonment of materials ano conoitons, s,uucted trom custom shapes. Ornamental railings roergrass{etntorced polyester (tBp), including columns,
iiii made
orrrcu[.to devetop a master section that Includes Trom custom shapes a.e specitred jn Divisron 5 moldrngs, chair rails, panel moldings, medallioni, rosettes.
restora_ -Urnamental Section
Metalwork' oomes, dome flms, stair brackets, niches, pilasters, pedl
19n,"19 ll:"n,.]n.O,ocedures other rhan those rhat a,e typi_
car. ne Intent ts to provrde guidelines and rnformation menrs, wtndow and door casings, plinths, wainscots,
.r that 0581.1-ARCHITECTURAL JOTNT SYSTEMS_This Section and
can m adapted to tit individual cases. cusrom snapes.
specftes exterior and interior building joint systems,
with
and.without fire barriers, that accommmafe
otvrsroN 5 resulting from one or more causes such as
movement DrvtstoN 7
thermal
05120-STRUCTURAL
STEEL_This
Sectionspecifies
tats changes, seismic forces, or wind swav_ 07131-SELF-ADHERING SHEET WATERPROOFING-
ficatng and erecling structural steel for buildr;g construa_ This Section s-pecifies self-adhering. positive-side sheet
tron, Inctudrng miscellaneous subframing units otvtsroN 6 waterproofing for concealed substrates, both venical and
that may be horizontal. oJ plaza decks, below{rade walls, and plante,s.
pa.t of the general framing system.
Also Included are 06100-ROUGH CARpENTRy-This Section specifies con-
exl_mrve opttons tor surface preparation and rl atso spectttes olaza deck oavers
shop prim€ ventional wood traming for floors, ceilings, roofs, walls.
oalntrno ind
panrnons as weil as sheathrng, subfl@ring, 07132-ELASTOMERTC SHEET WATERpROOFTNG_This
and underlav_
oszr olsfeef- menr. Atso trctuded is incidenlal rough carpentry required Section sp€cifies EPDM or butyl sheet waterproofing for
JOTSTS-This Sectron specifies open-web
K-series steel joists, LH-series long_span steel joists, for suppon or attachment of other construction concealed substrates, both venical and horizontal, ol
DLH- and not flaza
sefies deep tong-span steel specified in another Section. Exposed ilems of rough car_ decks,. below{grade walls, and planters. lt also specifies
ioists, and steel jorit grrders as pentry Inctuded in this Section are limited, generjlty, plaza deck oavers.
defined by the Sleel Joist Inititure ro
structural framing members. Timbers incidenial to wood
0531.0-STEEL DECK-This trame construction are included as well as 07I33-THERMOPLASTIC SHEET WATERPROOFING-
Section specifies steel roof engineered
and floor deck classified as roof deck, acousticat iooi wood products. This Section specifies PVC positive-side wateroroofino for
Oeci, concealed substrates, both
c€llular rool deck, composrte floor deck, cettutarmliat-flooi horizontal and vertrcal, of;laza
oeck wrth eleclrical drstfibutron, noncomposrte form 06105-MISCELLAN€OUS CARpENTRy_This decks,, below€rade rells. and planters. It also specifies
deck, Section
ano noncomposrte vented Iorm dec[. specifies miscellaneous wood framing, incidental rough plaza deck oavers.
car
pentry required for support or attachment
of othei con
0540O-COLD,FORMED METAL FRAMING_This structron, structuraJ-use panels, underlayment, mrnor 07141{OLD FLUTD-AppLtED WATERpROOFTNG_This
Section Section specrlies cold ftuid-appliedpolyurethane and late\
specifie-s coldformed steel, loadbearing, anO rnteflor wood trim, shelving, and clothes rods. ll is intended
curtiin_;i rubber waterproofing for concealed substrales. both vert;-
studs; floor aLq rojf joists; rafters and-ceiling joists: ror pro,ects that do not require wood framing
inJ or extensive
root trusses. This Section also includes gypsum use or otner Carpent.y rtems The Section includes pres- cal and ho{tzontal, of plaza decks and below{rade walls. Il
sheathing arso specftes Dlazadeck oavers
and air-infiltrationba.riers. sure?reSeruative-treated and ftre{etardant lreated wood.
Mrsceilaneous concealed rough carpentry such as furrng,
0550G-METAL FABRTCATTONS-This Section specifies and naiters can be specrfred us,ng this
representatrve products made from steel and iron, l'-o-".11n9.,.9_lould",
includinq 5ectron. Il the Project requires significant amounts ot wood
shapes,.plates,bars, sheet, tubes, and prF€. lt als; ramm_g_
in;il;; _sheathing. of subfl@ring, - use 06t0O_BOUGH
serected labflcalrons made from alumtnum, bronze. CARPENTRY insread
and
MASTERSPEC@ntinues on the next Daoe
/1
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC 1 3 5
07142-HOT FLUID-APPLIED WATERPROOFING-This 07313-METAL SHINGLES-This Section specities metal 07610-SHEET METAL ROOFING-Thls Section specifies
Section specifies hot fluid-applied, rubberrzed-asphalt shingles, in both indivrdualshingles and panel form. In most custom-fabricated {shop- or fieldjormed versus factory-roll-
waterproofing for concealed subst.ates. both vertical and cases, shingle panels resemble hand-split cedar shakes. formed) metal roofing. This Section also includes prefin-
horizontal. of plaza decks and below-grade walls lt also rshed, field-painted, and uncoated metal roofing.
07315-SLATE SHINGLES-This Section specifies natural-
specifies plaza deck pavers. 07620-SHEET METAL FLASHING AND TRIM-This Sec'
slate shingles for steep, sloped, standard-slate roofs includ-
07160-8ITUMINOUS DAMPPROOFING-Thas Section ing underlayment, flashing, and accessories tor slate roof- tion specifies sheet metal flashing and trim work related to
specifies bituminous dampprooling for use above and ing. or used in coniunction with roofing work and the general
below grade, including hot-applied asphalt and both emul- waterproof integrity of the building structure. This Section
07317-WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES-This Section includes shor and field-fabricated sheet metal accessories,
sion- and cut-back- (solvent) type, cold-applied asphalt com-
pounds of {ibrated, semilibrated, or nonfibrated types specifies wood shingles and shak€s lor both roofing and trim, and flashing commonly used at the perrmeter or pene-
wall applications. Western red cedar shingles and shakes, trations of rooling or waterproofing work and where not
07161-MODIFIED CEMENT WATERPROOFING-This southern yellow pine shakes, western red cedar shingle integral with membrane systems. Metal waterproofing,
Section specities acrylic- and polymer-modified, cement- panels, and fancy-butt western red cedar shingles are flashing. and cap flashing are usually included in this Sec-
based waterprooling. lt is usually applied on exteraor, included. tion.
below grade concrete and masonry walls, but may be
07320-ROOF TILES-This Section specifies both hard- 0771 0-MANUFACTURED ROOF SPECIALTIES-This Sec'
aoolied on the interior of exterior walls and tloors.
fired clay tile and concrete tile lor roofing applications. A tion speci{ies manufactured roof specialties including coP
07162-CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING-This Section variety of shaped and flat tile units, including Spanish'S,' ings, fasciae. gravel stops, gutters and downspouts,
specif ies cementitious waterproof ing treatment with crys- Mission Batrel, Roman, French, and flat units, are included. reglets, and counterflashing. This Section covers roof spe-
talline-type waterpr@fing. lt is lrequently applied on inte- Provisions for commonly used special shapes at eaves, cialties listed in the 1995 edition of CSI'S MasterFormat,
rior, belowgrade concrete and masonry walls; may be rakes. ridges, and hips are also included, as well as under- exceot roof exoansion assemblies.
applied on slabs below grade; and may be concealed layments. fasteners, and other accessories normally used
behind or below applied finishes specified in other Sec- with root tales. 07716-ROOF EXPANSION ASSEMBLIES-ThiS Section
tions This product can also be used fo. waterproofing the specifies standard, factory-fabricated, roof expansion ioint
07411-MANUFACTURED ROOF PANELS-Th|S SECIiON cover assemblies, including products designed to resist the
exterior of walls below grade.
specifies factory-preformed metal roof panels for field effects ot earthquake motions. This Section can be used
07163-METAL-OXIDE WATERPROOFING-This Section installation without field forming. The Section includes pan- alone, or provisions can be included in other Division 7 Sec-
specifies metal{xide waterproofing, which is an oxidizing els of aluminum- and metallic{oated steel with and without tions.
iron and cement mixture. lt is usually applied on anteriorsur- applied finishes; and copper, stainless steel, and terne-
faces ol walls and slabs below grade, and maY be con- coated stainless steel, which do not have applied finishes. 07720-ROOF ACCESSOBIES-This Section specifies
cealed behind or below applied finishes specified in other Insulated roof oanels and metal oanel assemblies that are accessory units installed on or in roofing, including curbs
Sections. This product can also be used lor waterproofing substantially preformed but require final mechanical seam and equipment supports, relief vents in the Jorm of gravity
the exterior o{ walls below grade. closure in the field by means of a portable seaming ventilators, ridge vents, roof hatches {also called scuft/es),
machine are also included. heat and smoke vents of both collapsible dome (gravity)
07170-BENTONITE WATERPROOFING-This Section type and pop-up (hatch) type, and snow guards.
soecifies oarel and sheet membrane b€ntonite waterproof- 07412-MANUFACTURED WALL PANELS-This Section
ing systems used underground for types of construction specifies factory-preformed metal wall panels for tield 07810-PLASTIC UNIT SKYLIGHTS-This Section speci-
where room to ex€vate beyond the walls is limited, where installation without field forming. The Section includes pan- fies prefabricated skylights with formed, monolithic, single-
the walls are to be constructed against piling, or where the els ol uncoated stainless steel and oI aluminufr and metal- and doublcsheet plastic glazing, and integral curb or curb-
excavation must be backfilled over or against concrete lic{oated steel with and without applied finishes, Insulated mounted frame design.
before the concrete has had time to cure (such as a tunnel wall panels. both factory and tield assembled, are also
FIRE-RESISTIVE MATERIALS-This
07811-SPRAYED
under a streetl. included.
Section specifies sprayed firHesistive materials for prc
071 8o-TRAFFIC COATINGS-This Section specifies cold 07460-5lDlNG-This Section specifies vinyl, aluminum, tecting structural steel lor both concealed and exposed
liquid-applied. elastomeric, waterproof-barrier coatings with and steel siding including commonly used accessories. applications. lt includes not only lowiensity cementitious
integral wearing surfaces for building areas housing equiP and sprayed-fiber products used predominantly lor con-
075'11-BUILT-UP ASPHALT ROOFING-This Section cealed locations but also a variety of medium- and highien-
ment or subiect to redestrian and vehicular traffic.
specifies built-up asphalt roofing, including roofing insula- sity products lor exposed locations requiring a more
071go-WATER REPELLENTS-This Section specifies tion. base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for pro- finished appearanco and greater resistance to physical
clear, liquid-applied, penetrating, and film-lorming water tected membranes, rogf walkways. and auxiliary roofing abuse, deterioration lrom weather, air erosion. and high
repellents lor vertical and nontraffic horizontal surfaces of materials. humidity.
brick, concrete unit masonry, concrete, portland cement
plaster (stucco), 07512-BUILT-UP COAL-TAR ROOFING-This Section 07821-BOARD FIRE PROTECTION-This Section speci'
and stone-
specifies built up coal-tar roofing, including roofing insula- fies calcium sili€te and slag-wooffiber boards used lor fire
0721 o-BUILDING INSULATION-This Section specifies tion, base llashings, aggregate and paver ballast for prc orotection of steel columns, steel beams, metal- and wood-
common types of general building insulation that are tected membranes, roo{ walkways, and auxiliary roofing framed walls, and solid walls. These materials form the
installed at the Project site as separate elements rather maleflals_ encasing material for various assemblies with fire-resis-
than as components of a prelabriGted or field-assembled
svstem soecified in another Section. Exterior insulation and
/ 07531-EPDM SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-
tance ratings. Another use lor mineral-fiber board fireproof-
ing is protection of HVAC ducts.
This Section specifies EPDM single-ply membrane roofing,
finish systems are examples of such assemblies. AIso
including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and 07841-THROUGH-PENETRATION FIRESTOP SYS'
included is insulation that could be specified here or in
paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing materials. TEMS-This Section specilies through-penetration frrestop
other Sections. Examples of this include insulation used lor
masonry, gypsum board assemblies, and veneer plaster systems.
07532-CSPE SINGLE PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-ThiS
that are typically installed at the same time and by the same Section specifies CSPE single-ply membrane roofing, Section specities ioint
07920-JOINT SEALANTS-ThiS
personnel performing noninsulation work. including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and sealants including elastomeric sealants, solvent-release-
paver ballast, walkwavs, and auxiliary roofing materials. curing sealants, latex sealants, acoustical sealants, and pre-
07241-EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEMS'
CLASS PB-This Section specifies Class PB exterior insula formed sealants tor a variety of applications.
07533-THERMOPLASTIC SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE
tion and finish systems (EIFS) consisting of a decorative ROOFING-This Section specif ies thermoplastic singlef ly
protective composite coating, or lamina, and an inner layer DlvtstoN I
membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base tlashings,
of rigid. cellular thermal insulation. Both field-applied sys- aggregate and paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing 081 1o-STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-This Section spec-
tems and prefabricated panels are specified. Systems with marenars. ifies standard steel d@rs and frames labricated to comply
molded, expanded pelystyrene board flype l] and glass- with ANSI 4250.8 and established Steel Door Institute stan-
libertaced polyisocyanurate insulation are included. Exte- OTs4MOATED POLYURETHANE FOAM ROOFING_ dards.
rior cement-board sheathing is included tor both standard Thls Section specifies sprayed polyurethane foam insula-
applications and prefabricated panels. Other types of tion with an elastomeric protective coating for roofing appli- 081l4-{USTOM STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-ThiS
sheathing and metal framing for prefabricated panels are cations. Section soecifies commercial hollow-metal doors and
included by reterence to other Sections specifying those lrames custom fabricated from steel, galvanized steel. and
materials. An option is included for specifying joint sealants 07551-APP-MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE stainless-steel sheet to specific design requirements. This
in Division 7 Section "Joint Sealants" or in this Section with ROOFING-This Section specifies APP-modified bitumi- Section includes provisions Jor glazing, louvers, sidelights,
reference to the "Joint Sealants" Section. nous membrane roofing. including roofing insulation, base and transoms ol similar construction. Provisions are also
flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected mem- included for fire-. sound-. and thermal-rated assemblies.
07242-EXTERIOR INSULAIION AND FINISH SYSTEMS- branes, and auxiliary rooting materials-
CLASS PM-This Section srecifies Class PM exterior insu- 0812s-INTERIOR ALUMINUM FRAMES-ThiS Section
lation and finish systems {EIFS) consisting ot a deco.ative 07552-SBSMODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE specifies extruded-aluminum framing members for intertor
protective composite coating, or lamina. and an inner layer ROOFING-ThiS Section soecifies SBs-modified bitumi (usually) wood doors; glass sidelights, bo(owed lights,
of rigid, cellular therml insulation. Only field-applied sys- nous membrane roofing, including roofing insulation, base clerestory glazing, and fixed windows: and gypsum wall
tems applied with extruded-polystyrene toam insulation flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected mem- board partitions.
(Type lV) are specified. branes, roof walkways, and auxtliaryroofing materials-
08163-5LIDING ALUMINUM-FRAMED GLASS DOORS_
07311-ASPHALT SHINGLES-This Section specifies 07553-5ELF-ADHERING MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEM' This Section specifies sliding aluminum-tramed glass doors
asphalt shingles for r@ting applications. Shingles with fiber BRANE ROOFING-ThiS Section specifies self-adhering, for exterior locations.
mats (fabric core) ot either organic {elt or fiberglass are cold-applied, rubberized-asphalt composite sheet rooling
for protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation. 08211-FLUSH WOOD DOORS-This Section specifies
included. A variety of generic shingles are specified in the
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver non-fire-rated and fire-rated architectural flush wood doors.
Text, and other types can easily be added. This Section
ballast are also included. Both solid- and hollow{ore units are covered, including
applies to roofs with a slope lrom 2 inches pe. foot (1:6) to
those with face panels of wood veneer, plastic laminate,
very steep slopes, such as mansard roofs. when manufac- Section
07561-HOT FLUID-APPLIED BOOFING-This and hardboard.
turers' recommendations are considered.
specifies hot fluid applied, rubberized-asphalt roofing for
protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation,
mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver
ballast are also included. MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
A
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION I
136 AIA MASTERSPEC
08212-STILE AND BA|L WOOD DOORS-This Section 08510-STEEL WTNDOWS-This Section soecifies readitv
specifies stile and rail doors made from lumber_ wood 08825-DECORATIVE GLASS-This Section specifies
dvdi'able stocl and cuslor rypes ot sleel w.ndow units li glass products for interior applications,incluainqaclJ
veneers. and wood compos,les Incluo,ng plywood. paflrcle.
descnbes wndow types (operataons)and window orades etched.sandblasted,
Ooard. lrDerboard, and lamrnated-srrand lumber Doors ol silkscreened,beveled,pattern;d.anc
{classrlic€trons) In addrtton to performance,"qu,re"-ents laminatedglasswith integraldecoration.
special design and construction, which mav include cus- and finishes. and other oDtions
tom made doors, are specifred along witd doors of stock
08840-PLASIIC GLAZTNG-IhisSectionspecifieslioht
OeSrgn and cOnStruction. Fire{ated doors with wood 08520-ALUMINUM WTNDOWS-This Section specifies transmrftrngplaslicsheetsthat are glazedinto openrnoia
veneered and €dged mineral{o.e stiles, rails. and oanels various types of commonly used stock aluminum wndow subslrtutesfor glass.Includedareacrylicglazrngin theiorr
are also Included. units. The Section includes normaliy available oDtions tor of monolithicsheets and double,walled,structuredsheets.
wrndow type, grade, and performance class ll also and polycarbonate glazingin the form of monolithicsheets
08263-5LIDING WOOD,FRAMED GLASs DooRs-This includes different glazrng methods, finrshes. and other
Section specrfres sttdtng glass doors, bare- and primed anddouble-walled, structuredsheets.
oplions- The Section is primarily Intended for generrc speci_
wood tramed, and wood framed and clad wrth alumrnJm or rytng ot compettltve wtndow types When spectfrc manu_ 08920-GLAZED ALUMINUM CURTATNWALLS-This
vrnyt on extetor exposed surfaces, for exterior locations. raclurers product names are inserled. lhe Texl can be Sectionspeciliesstandardand custom glazedaluminum
08305-ACCESS DOORS-This Secrion sDecilies orime, shortened to facilitate proprietary specifying curtainwall systemsinstalledusingstick,unit,andunit,and
painled sleel, /inc , oated sleer. and stainless steer mulltonsystemmethods.
access 08550-WOOD WINDOWS-This Section specifres vari
doors rnstalled in acousttcal ceilings and masonry, concrete. ous types of commonly used stock wood window un/ts. 0892s-STRUCTUBAL-SEALANT.GLAZED CUBTAN
gypsum board assembltes, and plasler walls and cerlings.
The Sectlon includes a variety ot normally availabteoptions WALLS-This Sectionspecifiesstandardand custom,4
tor_window type and performance grade tt also Includes sided and 2-sided, structural-sealantglazedcurtain walls
08314-SLIDING METAL FIRE DOORS_This Section
specifies sliding metal fare doors of composite and hollow- drilerent glazing methods. finisfes and other options. The incorporating
aluminumf ramingsystems.
metal construction These doors are primarily intended for Sectton is primarily Intended tor geneilc specrfying ot com
petrtrve wndow types. When spec;frc manufacturers prod_ 08960-5tOPED GLAZTNG SYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci
fire separation doors in industrial and commercial applica-
ucl names are rnserted. the Text can be considerablv fies standardand custom conventionally
glazedand siruc
tions
sirortened to lacilttate proprietary specrfying tural€ealant-glazed
sloped glazingsystems incorporating
08321-INSULATING SECURtry DOORS-This
arumlnumlramlngsystems.
Section 08610-ROOF WINDOWS-This Section soecifies ventino
specifies standard insulating security door assemblies,
manulaclured as a unit, complete with door, frame and and. fixed insulating€lass units fo. rnstaltjtron on stopini DtvlstoN 9
rooT sunaces.
hardware- Although intended primarily for lire and theft pro_ 0921o-GYPSUM PLASTER-ThisSectionspecrfresovo
tection of documents in file rooms, they are also used for 08630-METAL-FRAMED SKyLtcHTS-This Section speci- sum lath dnd plaster;metal lath,turring,accessories,
lno
vault protection ot other valuabies ties.alumanum-framed skylights with retaining{ap- or struc_ supportsystems;and plasticaccessories.
tural-sealant{lazing systems and glass or plastic glazing.
08331-OVERHEAD COTLINGDOORS-This Secrion spec- 0921s-GYPSUM VENEERPLASTER-ThisSectionspeci.
ifies flexible metal{urtain type overhead coiling kolling)'seF 08631-TRANSLUCENT-INSUTAIING-PANEL SKYLIGHTS- fies gypsum-based veneerplasteron gypsum base, unit
vrce ooors anct counter doors, including fire,rated This Section contains only the fvaluations for the foltowrng masonry, or monol,thic concrete. Melal support systems,
assemblies. Overhead coiling doors are fabrjcated from new S-ectrons that specrty aluminumfiamed skylights gtazel sound-altenuationinsulation, thermal insulation, and
steel. stainless steel, and aluminum. Fire_rateddoors aae with different types of translucent, insulating paneli: cementitiousbacker units are also specified becausethev
fabricated from steel and stainless steel. are integratedwith veneer plasterconstruction.Veneei
. 08632_POLYCARBONATE-INSULAIING-PANEL
SKY. plastermater€lsand applications may be cross{eferenced
08334-OVEBHEAD COtLtNG GRTLLES-This Section LIGHTS from other Drvisiong Sections,such as 'Gypsum Boatd
specifies galvanized steel, stainless-steel. and aluminum . 08633-FIBERGLASS.SANDWICH-PANEL Shaft-Wall
SKYLIGHTS Assembties.'
overhead coiling kotling) grilles with straight in_linepattern
and with the option of glazed panels. 08632_POLYCARBONATE.INSULATING-PANEL SKY.
09220-PORTLAND CEMENT pLASTER-This Section
LIGHTS-This Section specifies atuminum-f.amed skylights specifresportlandcement plasterincludingmetal framing
08343-lCU/CCU ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion spec! turflng,lath,and accessories;
glazed with translucent, cellular-polycarbonate insula-ting plasticaccessories;
tob_mired
fies combination swing/slide manuat ICU/CCU entr;nce ponlandcement frnish;and factorytreparedfini;hessuch
pan6ts.
d@r assemblies. as stucco,acrylicbased,and exposedaggregate.
08633_FIBERGLASS-SANDWCH,PANEL SKYLIGHTS_
08346-SOUND CONTROL DOORS-This Section speci_ 09251-FACTORY-FINISHED
fies non-fire-rated and fire-rated swinging steel door and
This Section specifies aluminum-framed skylights incorpo GYPSUMBOARD-ThisSec-
ratrng translucent, insulating, fib€rglassjeinforced_poly_ taon specifies vinyl-film-faced,gypsum board panels and
frame systems with minimum sound tr;nsmission class
(STC)ratings ranging between 43 and 52. mer, sndwich panels. associated trim.
0871 0-DOOR HARDWARE-This Section specifies Evalu_ 09253-GYPSUM SHEATHTNG-This Section soecifies
08351-FOLDING DOORS-This Section specifies nona- paper-surfaced
ations only for the following new Sections covering differ and glass,matgypsumsheathingattached
coustrcal and non-fire-rated accordion and Danel foldino to steeltramlngon exteriorwallsand air-infiltration
ent specifying methods lor door hardware: barriers
doors with vinyl, wood, and other finishes; and bifold door; installedoverthe sheathing.
of wood, metal, and polyvinyl chloride (pVC) consrruction. 08711-DOOR HARDWARE (SCHLDULID BY NAMING
I hese doors are intended as visual separalion devices and PRODU_CTS)-.This Section specifies hardware apptied to 0926HYPSUM BOARD ASSEMBLTES-ThiSSecrion
primarily apply to commercial and institutional installations; doors, formally called finish hardware, builder's hardware. specifiesgypsum board assembliesand metal supportsys
however, by appropriate modification, they may accomml_ ot architectural finish hatdware. The Sectton uses manufac_ tems. Sound attenuation insulation and cementitious
date light commercial and resrdentialconsiructi;n. turers'product names or references to BHMA standards in backerunits for tile are also specifiedbecausethey are
the Door Hardware Schedule to indicate door hardware often componentsof gypsum boardassemblies.
08361-SECTIONAL OVERHEAD DOORS_This Section requirements.
specifies sectional overhead doors moved by a counterbal- 09265,.€YPSUMBOARD SHAFT.WALLASSEMBLIES-
ance mechanism?nd rollers along a steel track system and 08712-DOOR HABDWARE (SCHEDULED BY DESCRIB- This Section specifies nonloadbearing. steel-framedgyp
IaD(cated lrom ilat steel o. ribbed sreel panel Sections ING.pRODUCTS)-This Secrion specifres hardware appl€d sum board assemblies that provide fireresistance-rited
framed with steel members; paneled wood or flush wood to doors, formafly called fin6h hardware, builder's hard- enclosuresfor verticalshafts and horizontalenclosures_
panel sections framed with wood members; and aluminum, ware, or architectural finish hardwarc. The Sec|on uses
translucent {fiberglass{ernforced} plastic, and glass or plas_ product descriptions in the Door Hardware Schedule to indi_ O92Tl.GLASS.REINFORCED GYPSUMFABRICATIONS-
tc vtsron pdnel sections framed wtth alumrnum members. cate door hardware requirements.
This Section specifies factoryfiolded products fabricated
wrth glass-reinforced
gypsum (GRG),for interioruse.
0841o-ALUMINUM ENTRANCES AND STOREFRONTS- 08716-POWEB DOOR OPERATORS-This Section speci-
This Section specifies standard interior and exterior aluml fies power door operators normally furnished separ;tely 09310-CERAMIC TILE-This Section specifies unglazed
num entrance and storefront systems. Entrance systems from doors and frames. These door operators are adaotable and glazed ceramic tile, includingceramic mosaic, q:uarry.
Include swinging doors, framing, hardware. vestibule enclo- paver, and wall tile; tile setting and grouting materjals;
to a variety of door designs and sizes. power door ooera-
sures, lransoms, and sidehghts. Sto.efront systems include tors that aid the physrcally handicapped by aclrng as an
accessofles; and installationrequirements.
Trxedglazrng areas and framtnq. aulomatrc d@r operator and that comply with the require 09385-DIMENSTON STONETtLE-This Sectionspecifies
ments-ol BHMA Ai 56.19. ADA accessibiiity guidetines, and naturalstone tile for flooring,wall tacing.and trim for com
08450*ALL-GLASS ENTRANCES-This Section specjfies '17-1
ANSI A'l are also included. mercialand residentialinstallations.Dimension stone tite is
frameless tempered-glass entrances, includino swino
doors, sidehghts, transoms, and related accessorie-s. 08800-GLAZING-This definedas modularunits less than % inch (19 mm) thick
Section specifies monotithic. tami_
nated, and insulating glass along with the glazrng materia's
fabricatedfrom naturalstone. Stone thresholdsare also in
08460-AUTOMATTC ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion the SectionText.
.equrred tor therr installation. Th's Section setues two Dn-
specifies only the Evaluations for the following new Sec_
mary purposes: 1 ) lt covers glazing work normally subcon- 09400-IERRAZZO-This Section specifies cementitious.
trons covering types of automatic enrrance qoors:
traCted to installers of glazing: and 2) it is the Sectaonthat modified{ement-resin, and synthetic-resin lerazzo lol
08461-SLIDING AUTOMATIc ENTRANcE DooRs-This other Sectaons cross-reference to avoid repeating glazing flooring,base, stair treads,landings,and risers.Cementi
Section.specifies slidtng automatic enrrance ooor systems requirements. ln the latter case, edit this Section ifier th6 trousterrazzoincludesstandardand rustic cast,in_place
svs-
that include not only door operators and controls but also other Sections are substantially complete. tems and precast products. Resinous 'thin-set. terrazzo
aluminum doors, sidelite and transom frames, and accesso- includes cast-in-place,polyacrylate-moditied{ementand
08801-SECUBITY GLAZTNG-This Section specifies glaz
fies_ epoxy-resrnSystems.
Ing products jntended to resrst abuse. physical atGck,
08462-SWINGING AUTOMATIC ENTRANCE DOORS- lorced entry. and ballistics. products included are laminated 09451-INTERIOR SIONE FACTNG-This
glass, glass/polycarbonate laminates, and laminated and Sectionsoecifies
This Section specifies swinging automatic entrance door drmensionstone used for interior wall facing, trim, mold
syslems lhat include not only door operators and controls monolithic polycarbonate sheets. rngs,base,countenops,and windowstools.
bul also alUminum doors. transom lrames, and accessories.
08814-MIRRORED GLASS-This Section. which is new 09511-ACOUSTICALPANEL CEtLtNGS-This Section
Bifolding operation is also jncluded.
to the Basic Version, specifies unframed and unbacked, specitaes ceilings consisting ot acoustical panels and
08470-REVOLVING ENTRANCE DOORS-This fully silvered mirroted glass and pyrolylic mirro,ed glass to; exposedsuspensronsystems,includingspecialuse tvpes
Section
specifies conventional, circular, revolving entance doors mounttng on walls and ceiltnqs lor e\teriorlocations,hrgh-temperature
and .humrdttv toca
consistang of manual and power-assisted door leaves, or Irons.andcteanrooms
wngs,.rolattng about d cenler post wtlh a speed_control
unI lo ttmtt rotatton soeed
MASTERSPECcontinues on the next paqe
4
tl CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC 137
09512-ACOUSTICALTILECEILINGS-Thas Sectionspeci- 09772-STRETCHED-FABRIC WALL SYSTEMS-ThisSec- 10270-ACCESSFLOORING-ThisSectionspecifiesstan-
fies ceilingsconsistingof acousticaltiles and concealed tion specifies concealed-fastener,
site-assembled,
site- dard accessflooringsystems,includingaccessories. Not
suspension svstems. upholsteredsystemsfor ceilingsandwalls onlydoesit includesystemssuitablefor datacenters,com,
puter rooms,cleanrooms,and otherapphcations, but also
09513_ACOUSTICAI SNAP-INMT'IAL PAN CEILINGS- 09841-ACOUSTICALWALL PANELS-ThisSectionspeci- thoseintendedprimarilyfor generaloflice uses.
This Secrionspecifiesceilingsconsistingof acoustical\,nap fies shop-fabricated panelsthatarewall mounted
acoustical
in metal pans and concealedsubpensionsystems.Types of as opposedto freestandingor ceilingbaffles.Both spline- 10350-FLAGPOLES-ThisSection specifies metal and
metal pan ceilingunits includeboth perforatedand unperfo- mountedand back-mounted unitsare included- fiberglassflagpoles,includingground-set,wall'mounted,
rated snap-insteel, stainlesssteel, or aluminumpans. and roof-mountedflagpoles.Metals include aluminum,
09900-PAINTING-This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface steel.stainlesssteel,and bronze.
09547-LINEAR METALCEILINGS-This Sectionspecifies preparation.materials preparation,and applicationprinci-
linearmetalceilings.
strip,decorative, plestor interiorandexteriorpainting. 10405-BANNERS-This Section specifies banners of
woven,nonwoven,and knit materials, for interiorand exte-
09580-SUSPENDED DECORATIVE GRIDS-This Section 09920-INTERIORPAINTING-ThisSectionspecifiesgen- rioruse.
specifiesopenrell grid, plenum mask ceilingsystems. eralsurfacepreparation, materialspreparation,
andapplica-
'10416-DIRECTORIES
for interiorpainting.
tionprinciples AND BULLETINBOARDS-Th|S
09600-STONE PAVINGAND FLOORING-ThiS Section Sectionspecifiesdirectoriesand bulletinboardsfabricated
specifiesdimensionstone pavingand flooringinstalledon a 09931-EXTERIORWOOD STAINS-This Sectionspeci- lrom standardcomDonentscommon to severalmanutactur-
thick, mortar setting b€d. lt also includesmetai edging and fies generalsurfacepreparation, materialpreparation.
and ers. The Sectioncan be used for specityingcustomized
stone thresholds. principles
application for exteriorwood stains. unitsby insertingadditionalrequirements for materialsand
labrication.
09621-FLUID-APPLIED ATHLETIC FLOORING-ThisSec- 09945-MULTICOLORED INTERIOR COATINGS-This
tion specifiespolyurethanelloorings. intended for use in Sectionspecifiespolychromaticpaint. 10425-SIGNS-ThisSectionspeciliespanelsigns,dimen'
athletic-activityareas, that are homogenous or installed sional letters and numbers,and cast metal plaques.lt
over resilientunderlayment. 099so-WALL COVERINGS-ThisSection specities vinyl,
Jiberglass, wall coveringsandwallpaper.
and.lextile includestypicalmaterialsandprocesses
commonlyusedby
a wide numberol signmanufacturers.
09622-RESILIENTATHLETICFLOORING-ThisSection
specifiesrubber.vinyl.and thermoplastic-rubberblend tloor 09960-HIGH-PERFORMANCE COATINGS-ThisSection
specifies highrerformance coatings tor architecturaland 10436-POSTAND PANELSIGNS-ThisSectionspecifies
coveringsin interlocking-tileor roll form and designed for exterior,lreestanding,illuminatedand nonilluminated post
use in athletic-aclivity
or supportareas. tndustrialaoolications.
and panelsigns.lt coverstypicalmaterialsand processes
09963-ELASTOMERIC COATINGS-This Section speci- used by a varietyof sign manutacturers.The most com-
09635-88ICK FLOORING-Th|SSectionspecifiesbrick
fies a speciallydesignedacrylicpolymer containingelastc monlyused panels,from the single-sheet varietyto illumi
llooring for interior applicationssubject to pedestrianand
meric coatings for use on the exterior of masonry, nated hollow-box-lypeunits. are specified.Graphicimage
light vehiculartraffic. Three setting methods included for pr@essesare alsoincluded.
the specifier'schoiceare loose-laidbrick flooringwith sand- concrete, and stucco structures. These coatings are dirt
filled, hand-tight joints; thickset mortared brick fl@ring. resistant,llexible in a rangeof temperatures,and very high-
build materialsthat bridgesmall cracks and protect against 10437-PYLON SIGNS-This Section srecifies treestand-
with or without groutedjoints; and thirset mortared brick ing, illuminatedand nonilluminated pylon signs.lt covers
tlooring. also with or without grouted joints. Where the deteriorationresulting from moisture penetration of the
substrate. typical materialsand processes used by a variety of sign
same brick pavers are selected for both {looring (interior manufacturers.The most commonly used signs. from the
appli€tions) and paving (exterior applications)and use 09967-INTUMESCENT PAINTS-ThiS Section specifies upright-slabtype to the tall, slender,squarepylon-typeunit,
either the sme or different setting methods and beds, intumescent-type,fire{etardant paint primarilyfor interior are sp€cified.Graphicimage processesare also included.
there can be advantagesto combiningthem into one Sec- combustible
and noncombustible substrates.
tion and ch@sing a section number that represents the 10505-METAL LOCKERS-Th|sSection soecifiesstan-
maiorapplication.Brickflooringcould also be includedwith 09975-HIGH.TEMPERATURE-RESISTANT COATINGS_ dard, factory-fabricatedwardrobe and athletic metal lock-
unit masonryif the bricklayer'smethod is used for installa- This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface preparation,materi- ers. Commonlyspecifiedaccessoriesand optionalfeatures,
ton. als preparation,and applicationprinciplesfor high-tempera- such as locker-roombenches,are also included.
turejesistant coatingsused on the interiorand exterior.
09636-CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICK FLOORING-This 10520-FIRE-PROTECTION SPECIALTIES-ThisSection
Sectionspecifieschemical-resistant brick tlooring installed o998o-WOOD-VENEER WALL COVERINGS-ThiSSec- sp€cifiesportablefire extinguishers;their mounting brack-
with mortars, grouts. and setting b€ds that offer varying tion speciJiesflexiblewood-veneerwall covering. ets; and cabinets for fire extinguishers,hose valves, and
degrees ot chemical protection based on specific user rackand hoseassemblies.
requirements.The Section may also include a protective 09981-CEMENTITIOUS COATINGS-ThisSectionspeci-
membraneon the subfloor. lies polymerflodified cementitiouscoatingsto us€ above 10550-POSTAL SPECIALTIES-ThisSection soecifies
or below grade on the exterioror interiorover masonryand standardmail chutes, receivingand collection boxes, hori-
09640-WOOD FLOORING-ThiSS@tion specifies solid- concrete. After curing, these coatings produce a durable, zontal-and vertical-typemailboxes,neighborhooddelivery
and engineered{ood fl@ring that is either tactory or site hard,weather{esistant surface. and collectionbox units, and parcellockers.
finished.
DtvtstoN I o 10605-WIRE MESH PARTITIONS-This Sectionspecifies
09644-WOOD ATHLETIC-FLOORINGASSEMBLIES- standard-and heavyduty wire mesh partitions,exterio, (gal-
This Sectionspecifieshard maple, finish flooring and sub
flooringassembliesdesignedfor use as athletic playingor
/ 1010o-VISUALDISPLAYBOARDS-Th|SSectionspeci-
fies the most commonly used types of standard chalk-
vanized)partitions, wire mesh window guards, stairway
partilions,and insert panelsfor railingsystems.
exercising surfaces. Subflooring systems include those boards,markerboards,and tackboards.Emphasisis placed
with enhancedshock-absorbing properties. on prefabricatedunits.Provisionsare also includedfor tradi- 10615-DEMOUNTABLE PARTITIONS-This Section
tionalslate chalkboardsand other lield-assembledtvoes. includesonly the Evaluations for the followingSections
09651-RESILIENT TILE FLOORING-ThisSectionspeci- specityingdemountablepartitions:
fies solid vinyl, rubber,and vinyl compositionfloor tile and 10155-TOILET COMPARTMENTS-ThisSectionspecifies .10616-5ITE-ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PABTI-
resilient wall base and accessoriestypi€lly installedwith standard metal, plastic-laminate,and solid-plastictoilet TIONS
resilientfl@r tile. companmentsandscreens.
.10620-DEMOUNTABLE UNITIZED-PANELPARTI-
09652-5HEET VINYL FLOORCOV€RINGS-This Section 1018o-STONE TOILETCOMPARTMENTS-ThiS Section TIONS
specifiessheet vinyllloor coverings,with and without back- specifies marble and granite toilet compartments and
ings.for commercialprojects. screens. companment doors, and associatedfittings and 10616-SITE.ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PARTI.
hardware. TIONS-This Section specifiesreusabl€.demountablepar-
09653-RESILIENT WALL SASE AND ACCESSORIES- tition systems consistingof gypsum board panelsor metal-
This Section specities rubber and vinyl wall base, stair l01gHUBlCLES-This Sectionspecifiescurtainand lV faced gypsum board panels supportedby concealedfram-
treads, and accessoriesfor use with resilient flwing and tracks and curtains and accessoriesfor cubicles,dressing ing. This new Sectionreplaces
carpet. areas.tubs.and showe6. . 10617-DEMOUNTABLE GYPSUMPANELPARTIIIONS
09654-LINOLEUM FLOOR COVERING$-ThiS Section 10200-LOUVERS AND VENTS-This Section specifies and
specifieslinoleumtile and shset floor coverings. fixed and adjustable metal louvers, a@ustical louvers, . 10618-DEMOUNTABLEMETAL PANELPARTITIONS,
blank{ff panels for louvers. and wall vents (brick vents). bothdated11192.
09671-RESINOUS FLOORING-This Section specilies Louversconnectedto ductwork, and those that are not, are
decorative.generafure. and highferformancs or special- properlyspecifiedin this Section.This Sectionspecitieslou- 10620-DEMOUNTAELE UNITIZED-PANEL PARTI.
applicationresinousflooring systems appli€das self-level- vers made from extruded aluminum, formed galvanized IIONS-This Sectionspecifiesreusable, demountable,patr
ing slurriesor t.oweled or scr@dedmortars. steel, and formed stainlesssteel. Fixed-bladelouversspeci- tition systems consisting of tactory-assembledunitized
fied includethose with horizontaland verticalblades,drain- panels.
09677-STATIC-CONTROL RESILIENTFLOOR COVER. able and nondrainableblades, and sightproof blades.
INGS-This Sectionspeciliesstatic{issipativevinyl compo' Adiustablelouvers soecified include those with drainable 10651-OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-ThisSection
sition,homogenous(solid)vinyl. and rubberfloor tile; static- and nondrainableblades,both tixed and adjustableblades specifiesacousticallyrated. manuallyand eleclricallyopetr
dissipativerubber sheet floor covering;conductivehomog- combinedin a singleframeandsingle-blade units,and insu- ated,Ilat-panelpartitionssupportedfrom an overheadtrack.
enous (solid)vinyl and rubberlloor tile; and conductivevinyl latedunits-
and rubbersheet fl@r covering. 10653*FIRE.RATED OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-
10265-IMPACT.RESISTANT WALL PROTECTION-This This Section specifies acousticallyrated, manually opeL
0968HARPET-ThiS Section sp€cifies tufted, fusion- Sectionspecitiesva.ioustypes of impact-resistantwall pre ated. Ilat-panelpartitions.lire rated one hour or one and
bonded,and woven carpet,as well as carpet cushion for tection systems, includingwall guards. handrails.and cor- one-halfhours,suoportedfrom an overheadtrack.
commercialinstallations- ner guards, as well as door and door frame protection
svstems. lt also includesrelatedimoact-resistantwall cov- 10655-ACCORDIONFOLDINGPARTITIONS-Th|S Sec'
09681--{ARPET TILE-]his Section specifies carpet tile tion specifies acousticallyrated, manually and electrically
f or commercialinstallations. ering products.The Sectioncan be expandedto includeany
complete protectionsystem or streamlinedto specificwall operated,accordionfolding panirionssupportedfrom a sin-
and corner€uardapplicationsonly. gle overheadtrack.
09771-FABRIC-WRAPPEDPANELS-This Section speci-
f ies custofrfabri@ted. back-mounted,fabric-wrappedpan-
els for ceilingsand walls, in which the fabric is not adhered
to the core material.
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaoe
A
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS 1
I38 AIA MASTERSPEC
10671-METALSTORAGE SHELVING-ThisSectionspeci . 12347-METALLAEORATORY
CASEWORK
or 12523-HEALTHCARESEATING-This Sectronspecifie:
ties post andsheltstorageunils. . 12348-WOOD LABORATORY patientand guest seatingin hospitalsand extended-car.
CASEWORK
10680-MOBILESTORAGEUNITS ThisSectionspecifies facilities.Sleeperchairsfor guestsand reclinersand roc,
manuallyand electrically 1169s-MAILROOM EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies ers tor patientsare alsoincluded.
operatedstorageunitsconsisting
of carriagesthat glide on rails to open an aisle where equrpmentused to processincomingand outgoingmail. lt
r e p l a c e sS e c t i o n1 1 9 1 o - M A I L R O O M 1252s-PLEATEDSHADES-ThisSectionsoecifies2 basc
accessis required. E O U I P M E NATN D typesof pleatedshadesiaccordionpleatedshadeswith 1
FURNITURE. dated10/88,that is beingwithdrawnfrom the
Inte.iorsLibraryConstruction labric thickness and shades with multipleJabricthicl
1o75o-TELEPHONESPECIALTIES-IhiSSectionspe* Version.
fies prefabricated telephone specialties, including tele, nessesformingair spaces(sometimesreferredto as cellu
phonebooths and other enclosures,telephonehousings, DtvtstoN t 2 lar shades).
telephone€nclosure entrances for built-in telephone 12050-FABRICS-ThisSectionevaluatesfibers,textiles, 12551-TRADINGDESKS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodular
booths, and directory storage units. The Text is based on and leatherfor use as wall coverings,verticalhangings, desk units and equipmentsupportlor tradingrooms for
standard products of several manufacturersbut can be floorcoverings,andfurnitureupholslery. banks, insurancecompanies,and other financialinstitu
adapted to specify similar standardand customdesigned tions; tradingsupport;data processing;reseryationcenters
units. '121oG*ART-This
Sectionevaluates
the integrationof art, 911 emergencyfacilities; andvideoproductionfaciljties.
both as a form of culturalexpressionand as decoratrve
10753_WALL-MOUNTED TELEPHONEENCLOSURES* enhancement,rnto commercialinteriorsproiects.Project 12562--CLASSROOM FURNITURE-ThisSection spec
This Sectionspecifiesprefabricated, wall-mounted. shelf- coordinationwith work of othercontractsand wrth a team fies lecterns,chairs,chair desks, desks, and tablet-arn
type telephoneenclosuresand wal-mounted,panel,type of consultants
is discussed. chairslor use in preschools.gradesK through12, and co
telephone housings.The Text is based on standardprod- reges.
ucts of s€veralmanufacturersbut can be adaptedto specity 12311-METAL FILE CABINETS-ThisSecrionspecifies
similarstandardandcustomiesignedunits. v€rticalandlateralmetallile cabinets. 12563-DORMITORYFURNITURE-ThisSection speo
fies dressers, desks, chairs, nightstands.wardrobes
10801-TOILET AND BAIH ACCESSORIES-ThiS Section 1232o-RESTAURANIAND CAFETERIACASEWORK- tables,beds, and other furnitureitems for residenceha
specilies standardtoilet and bath accessoriesand mirror This Sectionspecifiescashiercounter,wait stationsand toomsanotoungeareas.
unrtscommonlyused in commercialand institutional appli- other caseworkfor food servicefacilities.
This sectioncan
cataons. be modified to include more extensive custom disolav 12567-LIBRARY FURNITURE-This Section specifies
equipmentby inclusionof additional
detailedrequirements. libraryseatingand furniturefor the display,storage,review
DlvlstoN I I and checkoutof librarymaterials.
12347-M ETALLABORATORY CASEWORK-ThisSection
11o54-LIBRARYSTACKSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoeci- specifiesstandardmanufacturedmetal laboratorycasework 12571-AUDIO-VISUAL SUPPORTFURNITURE-This Sec
faes stationarysingle-tierand multitier shelving for library and commonaccessories, tion specifies lecterns. presentationequipment carts, anc
includingcabinets,countertops,
malenats. sinks,andservice{ixtures. cabrnels.
11062-FOLDINGAND PORTABLE STAGES-ThisSection 12348-WOOD TABORATORY 12574-OUTDOOR FURNITURE-ThisSection soecifies
CASEWORK-ThisSection
specifiestoldingand portablestage platforms,seatingflat- specifiesstandardmanufacturedwood laboratorycasework movable,w@d or metal tablesand chairsdesignedto with,
form risers,standingchoral risers,and acousticalshell sys- and common accessories,includingcabinets,countertops, standtemperatureextremes and limited weathering.
tems that might be used indoorsrn schools.churches, sinks, and seryice fixtures. The Text includes both wood-
banquetfacilities,
and multipurpose auditoriums. faced cabinetsand plasticlaminate-faced 1261o--FIXEDAUDIENCESEATING-ThiSSectionspec.
cabinets.
fies upholstered and nonupholstered interior assembly
I 1063-STAGE CURTAINS-ThiS Section smcifies exam- 12353-DISPLAY CASEWORK-This Section soecifies spaceseating.Althoughexteriorseatingis not included,the
ples of stagecunarnfabrrcsand draw-travel
curtainrigging Section Text could be modified to soecifv exterior lixed
manutactured
cabinetsand displaycasesfor retarlslorage
commonly used in small- to medium-sizedtheater/auditG and merchandising. seatingin stadiums.
rium installations
withoutflv soaces.
12356-KITCHEN CASEWORK-This Section specifies 12630-RESTAUBANTFURNITURE-ThisSectionspecr
11132-PROJECTIONSCREENS-ThisSectionspecifies stock-manufactured kitchon and vanitycabinetsmade trom {iestablesand seatingfor dining.
standardrear-and front-proiectionscreens.lt includesboth wood and wood products faced with wood, plastic lami-
manually and elsctricallyoperated, rolltp front-poection nate. vinyl, or a combinationof these materials.Counter 12634-CUSTOM FURNITURE-This Section specifies
screenswith almost any Screensurfaceand rear-proiection tops made of plastic-laminateand solid-surfacingmaterial speciallydesignedtables,desks,credenzas,etc.
scre€nSmadeof glassor acrylicplastic are includedso all componentsare in a singleSection. 12635-PATIENTROOMFURNITURE-This Sectionspecl
1115o-PARKINGCONIROL EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection 12359-METAL MEDICAL CASEWORK-This Secrron fies bedsidecabinets,wardrobeunits,desks,vanities,and
specifiesbasicparkingcontrol equipmentfor publicand pri- specifies standardmanufacturedmetal medical casework chestsof draw€rs designedspecificallyfor healthcareappll
vate installationsincludinggate operatorsand controlsand and common accessories.includingstainless-steelcounter- catrons.
€shjer's or parkingattendanl'sbooths. tops, sinks, and shelving.lt includescaseworktypically 12638-GUESTROOM FURNITURE-ThiS Sectionspeci
11160-LOADING DOCK EOUIPMENT-This Secrion used in operating rooms, emergencyrooms, x-ray rooms, fies guest r@m furniture sets includingarmoires (perhaps
specifiesdock bumpers,dock levelers,truck levelers.truck central sterile supply,and similarspacesfor the storageof with a bar unit or other built-ins),credenzas,nightstandsor
restraints,dock lifts, dock seals,dock shelters,and trans- instrumentsand supplies,lt does not includelabofatory bedsidetables, writing desks, lounge chairs,and head
parentstrip door curtains.Dock bumpersincludelaminated- casework,which is specifiedin Division12 Section'Metal boards.Also speciliedin this Sectionare mattressesanc
tread. molded- and extrudediubber, and steel-facetvoes. Laboratory Casework,' or plasticlaminate countertops, box springs,and guest bedroomseating.
Both mechanicaland hydraulicdock levelersare covered, which are specifiedin Division6 Section'lnterior Architec-
includingthose permanentlyinstalledin pits and those turalWoodwork.' 12639-BANOUETTES-ThisSection soecifies built-in
attached at the edge of the dock. Truck restraintsinclude upholstered,
customseating.
12361-MAILBOOM CASEWORK-ThisSectionspecifies
both wall- and driveway-mountedtypes. Hydraulicdock lifts manufacturedcasework used in document distributlon 12651-INTERLOCKING CHAIRS-This Sectionspecifies
ot the single-scissorstype for permanentinstallationin pits workroomsand to processincomingandoutgoingmail. multiple seatingsystems {gangedor tandem)with optiona
are the only dock lift included.Dock shelters include rigid
modulartabletopsfor waiting, reception,and loungeareas.
trame,flexibleframe,and inflatable woes. 12483-{USTOM RUGS*This Sectionspecifiescustom-
designed,100percentwool, hand-tufted
arearugsinstalled 12677-0RIENTALRUGS-ThisSectionspecifiesantique,
11172-WASTE COMPACIORS-ThiS Section sDecifies
general-purpose, overfinishflooring. semaantique,and new, handmade imported rugs and rug
commercial,wet- or dry-wastecgmpactor paqs.
unils for processingsolid, nonhazardous,
building{ener 12493-CURTAINSAND DRAPES-ThisSectionspecilies
ated waste. statronaryand movable curtains and drapes, and window 12680-FOOT GRILLES-This Section specifies fool
treatmenthardwarefor commercialinstallations. grilles,which are generallyrigid sectionsot treadsdesigned
113o7-PACKAGEDSEWAGE PUMP STATTONS-ThiS
to remove loot traffic debris set in a recessedframe in the
Section specifies small, and medium,size,factorv€ssem- 12496-WINDOW TREATMENTHARDWARE-This Sec- floor.
bled, sewage pump stations. tion specifies hardware tor manuallyoperatedand motor,
oOerateddraperiesand curtains. 12690-FLOOR MATS AND FRAMES-This Sectionspeci.
114oO-FOOD SERVICEEOUIPMENT-ThisSectionsoeci-
ties food service equipment for use in commercial,indus- fies commonly used types of recessed and surface
12510-OFFICE FURNITURE-This Section soecifies installedfloor mats for buildingsother than slngle-lamily
trial,and institutional
projects. desks,tables,and credenzasfor officeand comouter-suo- residentialwork.
port applications.
1 l 451-RESIDENTIALAPPLIANCES-ThiS Sectionsoeci-
fies major residentialappliances.lt includes freestanding 12700-SYSTEMS FURNITURE-ThisSection specrfies
1251'1-HORIZONTALLOUVER BLINDS-This Section panel-hungromponent systems, Ireestandingromponent
and built-inkitchenand laundryappliances, and both gaa specifies manually operated and motor{perated venetian
andelectricequipmentfor residential systems, desk systems supportingwork-surface-mounted
andincidental nonres- blinds. screensand other components,and beam systems.
identialapplications.
Appliancesrncludedare restrictedto
units that may be purchased as standard manufactured 12512-VERTICALLOUVERBLINDS-ThisSectionspeci- 12760-TELESCOPING STANDS-This Sectionspecifies
items. fies manually operated and motor€perated vertical vane telescoping stands for interior applicationsconsisting of
blinds. multiple-tiered
benchesor chairson interconnected, tolding
11460-UNIT KITCHENS-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard.
platforms.These systems are constructed of steel, wood
and -assembledunit kitchensincludino
factoryJabricated 12520*5HADES-This Sectionspecitiesmanuatlyoper-
and steel, or polyethyleneplasticand steel, and can be
cabrnetry,
appliances,
stnls, laucets,aid accessones. atedandmotor operatedrollshades,including
blackoutand
mesh shades. operatedmanuallyor automatically.
1161o-LABORATOBY FUME HOODS-This Section
specifiesstandardlaboratorytume hoods used for educa, 12521-CUSTOMUPHOLSTERED SEATING-ThisSection 12815-INTERIOR PLANTS-Th|5 Section specifies
tional laboratoriesand researchfacilities. lt includ€s con- speci{iesspeciallydesigned,wood trame, upholstered requirementsfor selecting. laying out, and placing plants
seating. providedby an interiorlandscapecontractor.
ventional hmds, bypass hoods, and restricted bvpass
hoods;with or withoutardoildesrgn.auxrliary air,and vafi- 12830-INTERIOR PLANTERS-This Section specifies
able air volume (VAV) control. lt also tncludeswalkrn 12522-OFflCE SEATING-ThisSectionspecitiesseating
for office and computer-supportapplications movable,decorativeplanterswith or withoutintegralsubif
hoods, perchloricacid hoods, and radioisotopehoods. lt rigationsystems.
includes hood stands and specifies casework supponing
bench-typehoodsby relerencing
MASTERSPEC continues on the next oaae
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
A
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC r 3 9
DtvtstoN | 3 13921-ELECTRIC,DRIVE, HORIZONTALFIRE PUMPS- DtvrstoN | 5
This Sectionspecifieselectricdrive,horizontalfire pumps
13041-MODULARVAULTS-ThisSectionspecifiesmod- for buildingfire-suppression 15050-BASIC MECHANICALMATERIALSAND METH.
systemsand includesthe lol-
ularvaultpanelsand doorsthat are prefabricated
and site lowrng: ODS-This Sectionspecifiesmaterialsand methods for
assembled. applicationwith mechanicalequipment and piping system
13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS-This installations
insidethe building.Pjpingspecialties,,oining
13o52-SAUNAS-ThiS Section specities panel{uilt, or materials,joint construction,identificationmaterialsand
Section specifiesdieseldrive,horizontalfire pumps for
modular.saunasand custom{ut, or precut, saunas.-tutr devices.and installationreouirementscommon to more
buildingfire-suppression
systemsand includesthe tollow-
nishedas completeunits includingheating,lighting.con- ing: than one Division15 Sectionare included.This Sectionsup-
trols, and accessories. plementsother Division15 Sections.lt must be edited and
13926*ELECTRIC.DRIVE.VERTICAL.TURBINEFIRE used with other Sectionsfor a complete system specifica-
13090-RADIATION PBOTECTION-ThisSectionspecities PUMPS-This Section specifies electricdrive, venicaltur-
materialsand methods for typical radiationprotection sys- tion.
bine fire pumps for buildinglire-suppressionsystems and
tems used in medical x-ray rooms and radiationtherapy includesthe lollowing: 15060*HANGERSAND SUPPORTS-ThisSectionsoecF
rooms. lt includeslead sheet, lead glass, and lead glazing fies hangers and supports for mechanicalsystem piping
plastic;lead-linedfinish materials:and other lead-linedprod- 13927-DIESEL-DRIVE, VERTICAL-TURBINE FIRE and equioment.
ucts. such as doors, frames, view windows, modular PUMPS*This Section specifies dieseldrive. venical-tur-
shieldingpartitions,and film transfercabinets.The Section bine fire pumps for buildingfire-suppression
systemsand 15075-MECHANICAL IDENTIFICATION-ThisSection
also specifies lead bricks, borated polyethylene,and neu- includesthe following: specifiesidentification
materialsand devices,and installa-
tron shieldingd@rs and frames for radiationtherapyappli- tion requirements.Use this Section for complex pojects
cations.Signsindicatingthe thicknessof the lead shielding 13956-FIRE-EXTINGUISHING FOAM PIPING-This Sec- requiring comprehensive specifications for labeling and
providedare also included. tion specilies fixed. low€xpansion, aqueous film-forming identifyingmechanicalinstallations.
Use the Specifications
loam, fire€xlinguishing systems for hydrocarbon-liquid in Division15 Section '8asic MechanicalMaterialsand
131oq-LIGHTNINGPROTECTION-ThisSection speci fires. Foamsystemsare normallyused on, but nol limated Methods' for simple projects.
fies lightningprotectionfor buildings,buildingelements. to, ClassI (flammable-liquid)
fires.
andbuildingsite components. 15081-DUCT INSULATION-ThisSectionspecifiesrigid
13966-HALOGEN AGENT EXTINGUISHING PIPING- and flexibleduct, plenum, and breechinginsulationand
1311o-CATHODICPROTECTION-This Sectionspecifies This SectionspecifiesHalon1301 halogenagent,fire€xtin- field-applied jackets {or HVAC systems. This Section
passivecathodic protection systems that use magnesium guashingsystems. includesapplications lor indoorandoutdoorducts.
or zincsacrificialanodesto protect steel and iron pipingand
tanks. Modify the SectionText to include aluminumpiping I 3967-{LEAN-AGENTEXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS-This I 5082-EOUIPMENTINSULATION*This Sectionspecities
and tanks; include electricalconduit protection by adding Sectionspeciliesclean-agentextinguishingsystems.These blanket,board,andblockinsulation
andfield-applied
iackets
'steelconduit'to'piping.' systems use alternativeagents that are substitutes for for HVACequipment.This Sectionincludesapplicationsfor
fixed,Halon1301extinguishing systems.Specifiedagents indoorand outdoorequipment.
13'|25-METALBUILDINGSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoeci- and relatedcomponentsin this Sectionare limited to lhose
fies metal buildingsystems,complete with structuralfram- that are FactoryMutual approvedand UndeMriters Labora- 15083-PIPE INSULATION-ThisSection specifiespre
ing, rofing and siding panels,personneldoors, windows, tories listed. Other agents are includedin NFPA 2001, lormed pipe insulationand tield-appliedjackets for plumb-
ano accessones. Clean Agent Firc Extinguishing Systems. See the Evalua- ing and HVACpiping systems and for diesel€nginecooling
tionsfor furtherdiscussion. pipingand exhaustpipes.This Sectionincludesapplications
13720-INTRUSION DETECTION-This Section specifies for ind@r and outdoor piping.
local intrusiondetection eouigment- lt includes the detec- 1397s-STANDPIPESAND HOSES-Ihis Sectionspecifies
tion devices and the central control and processingand standpipesfor buildingsand includesthe following: 151oo-VALVES-ThiS Section specifies general duty
equipment necessarytor control. The Text of this Section valvescommon to most mechanicalpipingsystems.Valves
sp€cifiesa system readyto be monitored by a remote sta- DlvtstoN t4 specifiedin this Section includegate, globe, ball, butterfly,
tion if requiredby a project.Varioustypes of remote signal- plug. and check valves.
ing systems are ac@mmodated,but Specificationsare not 14100-DUMBWAITERS-This Section specifies preengi-
includedtor those externalsystems.The Sectionmay also neeredelectricdumbwaiterunits,commonly used for fl@r 15121-PIPE EXPANSIONFITTINGSAND LOOPS-This
tGfloor transter ot small-sizedmaterials such as books, Sectionspecifiespipe expansionfittings and loops for steel
be edited to secify intrusiondetection that €n interface parts, f@d, etc.. in a low- to medium{ise application.Car
with an integratedbuilding managementsystem specified and copper piping for mechanicalsystems, and the tollow-
io anothorSection. size is limited by the Codeto 9 sq. ft. (0.84 sq. m) oI plat- tng:
form and a heightof 4 feet (1219mm).
1381HLOCK CONTROL-Th|S Section specifies svs- 15122-METERS AND GAUGES-ThisSectionspecifies
14210-ELECTRIC TRACTIONELEVATORS-ThisSection melers and gauges for mechanicalpiping syslems; thetr
tems for displayingautomaticallyadjustedtime throughoul
specifiespreengineeredelectrictractionelevatorsfor either mometers, pressuregauges, and test plugs: Ilow-measur'
a {acility,for initiatingtimescheduled audibleand visualsig- passengeror freight use. Substantialgeneric descriptions
nalsto announceevents,and tor initiatingscheduledequip- ing systems; floweters and tlow indicators; thermal-
are included, however, to enabl€ manufacturers to bid energytlowmeters; and water meters.
ment operationvia relays.The components specitied use
hard-wiredor carriercurrent distribution of time and prc either custom or preengineeredequipment. This Section
gram signalsfrom a master unit. Equipmentincludesmas- can be modilied to specify custom electric traction eleva- 1517o-MOTORS-This Section soecilies small and
tors. mediumelectricmotorslor useon ac power systemsup to
ter clock- aird program{ontrol units, and various types of
600 V. accordingto NEMA standards.The Sectionincludes
indicatingclocks and audibleand visual signal equipment, { 14240-HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS-ThisSection specilies the common requirements for referencing by other Sec-
such as bells, horns, lights, and mechanicalequipment. preengineeredhydraulicelevators,including holeless and
This Sectioncovers a combinationmaster clock- and orq tions where motors are integralcomponents of the speci-
roped hydraulictypes, for either passengeror freight use. fied equipment.ThisSection does not include dc motors,
gram{ontrol system. However,it can be modifiedto cover Substantialgeneric descriptionsare included,however. to synchronous motors, woundrotor motors, and motors
an independentmaster clmkrontrol system or an indepen- enable manufacturersto bid either custom or preengr.
dent prograreontrol system. rated more than 600 V. Specialmotor types and features
neereoeouroment_ are also not included;these items may be covered in the
13845-LIGHTING CONTROLS-This Strtion soecifies 143,|o-ESCALATORS-ThiS Section specifies standard individualequipmentSectionsor addedto this Section.Pre-
wired, programmable,lighting control systems using low- preengineered,heaW.duly,and exteriorescalators. vious Edition:Same Section number and title. dated 3/91.
voltage control circuits. Manual. low-voltage lighting con- RelatedSections:Reter to the SpecificationsCoordination
trols are alsospecified. 14320-MOVING WALKS-This Section specifies moving checklistat the end of this Section.Summaryol Changes:
walks as defined by ASME 417.1, which includespower- The tollowingchangeswere made in this edition:
13851-FIRE ALARN,I-ThiS Section sp€cifies local fire driven, continuoustreadway units used for conveyingpas-
alarm and detection systems for buildings.lt includesthe . Sl (metric)units were added.
sengers along either a horizontalsurface or an inclined
panels necessaryto control the syst€ms and the various ramp. lt is intendedlor specifyingpreengineeredunits lor . 'Submittals'Articlewas addedto the Text.
peripheraldevicesasseciatedwith detectingfires. initiating normalinstallations,travelingeither horizontallyor between . UL standardin 'Oualiv Assurance'Anicle was deleted
alarms, and indicatingalams with audible and visible sig- floors, rising one story at a time. The SectionText can be trom the Text.
nals.The Sectionalso includesesuioment tor communicat- amplifiedro cover custom€ngineeredunits and units with . Servicefactor was based on NEMA MG 1 reouirements.
ing alarm. superyisory,and trouble signals to a remole specialrequirementssuch as exceptionallylong or curved
alarmreceivingstation. runs or rises.custom profiles,or the use of custom materi- . List of unusuals€ruiceconditionswas addedto'Basic
als in balustradeconstruction. Motor Requirements'Aniclein the Text.
13915-FIRE-SUPPRESSION PIPING-ThisSectionspeci- . Specificationfor en€rgy€tficient motors was updated.
fies combined systems of standpipes and sprinklers for 14420-WHEELCHAIRLIFTS-This Section soecifiessoe-
buildingsand includesthe following: . Teminology was changedto match NEMA MG 1.
cial-purposelifts used to transpon nonambulatoryand
semiambulatorypersons from one level of a building to . Specificationtor temperature rise and insulation class
13916-FIRE-SUPPRESSION SPRINKLERS-ThisSection was added.
specifieswet- and dryfipe, fire-suppressionsprinklersfor another.lt includesvedcal wheelchairlifts. inclinedwheel-
chair lifts, and inclinedstairway chair lifts. lt also includes . Bearingspecificationand specificationtor motors applied
buildingsand includ€spiping,sprinklers,specialties, and
accessories.Use Division13 Section'Fire-Suppression Pip- requirementstor standard runway enclosures offered by on variable-frequency controllerswere improved-
ing' for preactionand delugepiping, sprinklers,specialties, manufacturersof venicalwheelchairlifts. . Option for requiringthermal protectionon motors above
and accessories;and combined (standpipeand sprinkler) 14512*TRACKVEHICLESYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci- a cenain size was added.
svstems. fies self-propelledcontainersystems that travel on electri- . "Source Ouality Control" Paragraph was added to
fied tracks. "PolyphaseMotors" Article in the Text.
13920-FIRE PUMPS-This Sectionincludesonly the Eval-
uationsand DrawingC@rdinationand SpecificationsCoor- . Installationrequirementswere uDdated.
14559-5ELECTIVEVERTICALCONVEYORS-ThisSec-
dinationchtrklists for the lollowing Sectionscoveringfire tion specifiesvenical transportsystems operatedby a sin- . "Commissioning"Article was deletedfrom the Text.
pumps for buildingtire-suppressionsystems: gle motor that continuously moves a chain in a single '1518'l-HYDRONIC
. 13921-ELECTRIC-DRlVE, HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS direction,much like a ferris wheel. Containershook into the PIPING-ThisSectionspecifiespiping
. 13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS chainas it passestheir receivingstationand are transported systems fdr hot-water heating. chilled-watercooling, and
to other verticallocations. condenserwater. This Sectionincludespipes. fittings. spe-
. 13926-ELECTRIC-DRIVE, VERTICAL.TURBINE FIRE cialduty valves,and hydronicspecialties.
PUMPS 14560-CHUTES-This Section specifies gravity-type,
.13927-DIESEL-DRlVE. VERTICAL-TURBINEFIRE metal chutes used to conveywaste and linen.
PUMPS MASTERSPEC continues on the next page
ARCOM:SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
Virginia
A
CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATIONSYSTEMS I
140 AIA MASTERSPEC
15182-STEAN4 AND CONDENSATE PtPtNG-ThisSecrion 15466-MEDICALAIR EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspeci- 1552o-FEEDWAIER EOUIPMENT-IhiS Secrionspec
specifiessteamand condensatepipingand specialties for fies medicaland dentalair equipmentand accessories for tres feedwaterequipmentused to returncondensateanr
systemsup to I 25 psig {860kPa).insidelhe building healthcarefacilitres.Typicaiequipmenlapplicableto this makeupwater to both high-and low-pressuresteam bo
15185-HYDRONICPUMPS-This Secrionspecitjesthe Sectionincludesair compressors,dryers,air purification ers. Feedwaterunils specifiedin this Sectionincludeva(.
followingcategoriesof hydronicpumps for hydronicsys- systems,andtilterassemblies. uum unitsand thosewith cast-ironor steelreceivers.
temsi 15467-MEDICAL VACUUM EOUTPMENT-ThiS Section 15530-REFRIGERANTPIPING*This Section speciie.
specifiesmedicaland dentalvacuumequiomentandacces- refrigerantpiping used for air{onditioningapplicatron:
15186-STEAM CONDENSATEPUMPS-This Section
soriestor healthcare
facilitiesTypicalequipmentapplicable Includrngpipes, tubing, fittings, specialties,specral,dut,.
speci{jessteam condensatepumps for low-pressuresteam
to this Section includes vacuum pumos and vacuum valves,and refrigerants.
systems.
exhausters(oralevacuationl.
1518g-HVAC WATERTREATMENT-ThiS 1ssS0-BREECHINGS,CHIMNEYS,AND STACKS-ThS
SectionsoecF 15469-WATER SOFTENERS-ThisSection specifies
fies automaticand manual wate.-trealmentsvstems tor Sectionspecifiesbreechings, chimneys,andstacksfor fuel
water softenersand accessoriesfor watetrsupplysystems. burning equipment, including double-wall metal vents
hot-walerheating,sleam and condensateprping.chrlled-
water, and condenserwater systems;and water-treatment refraclory-linedmetal breechingsand stacks,and fabrjcated
1548G-DOIVESTICWATER HEATERS-ThiS Section
cnemrcals. oreecnrngs.
specifiesonly the Evaluationsfor the following water
heaterSectionsfor domesticwatersystems: 15560-FUEL-FIREDH&V UNITS-This Secrioninctude
15191 FUELOIL PIPING-ThisSectionsoecifiesfuet oil
and dreseltuel prping,specraltres,and accessoileswith n onlythe Evaluationsfor the followingnew Sectionsspecijy
15481-COMPRESSED-AIR PtPING-ThisSectionspecj- ing fuel-firedH&V units includingdirect-and indirecttirec
the building.Equipmentin this Sectionis suitablefor No.2 fies pipingand pipingspecialties
ior buildingcompressed-
and lighterfueloil anddieselfuel. unitsanddestratificationH&Vunits.
air systemsoperatingat 200 psig(1380 kPa)and less.
. 15561-DIRECT,FIRED. MAKEUPAIR UNITS
15194-FUEL GAS PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies natural 15482-MEDICAL GAS PIPtNG-This Section specifjes . 15562-INDIRECT.FIRED,
and fiquefredpetroleumgas piprng,speciallres. PACKAGED H&V UNITS
and acces medicalgas pipingand specialties
tor healthcare facilities.
sorieswilhinthe building. . 15563-DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS
Typicalmedicalgas systemsapplicable to this Sectionare
15212-LABORATORY oxygen,arr,vacuum,nrtrousoxrde,nitrogen,carbondiox-
AIB AND VACUUMPIPtNG-This rde, waste anestheticgas evacuation, 15561-DIRECT-FIRED, MAKEUPAIR UNITS-This Sec
Section specilies laboratory compresseo-alrano vacuum and dentalvacuum
(oralevacuation). tion specifies direct-fired, makeup air units that do nol
piping,designatedas'laboratoryair' and'laboratoryvac- employ heat exchangers.Gas is burnedin the airstream.
uum'j laboralorygasalarmsystems;andrelaledspecraltres. Is48s-ELECTRIC,DOMEST]CWATER HEATERS-ThiS and products of combustion are introduced to the sDace
Sectionspecilieselectric water heatersand accessoriesfor Theseunitsincludeonly thosethat are nalural{asand p.
15221-CHEMICAL-WASTE PIPING-ThiSSecttonsoeci- pane€asfired and that are suitablefor indoorand outdoo,
fies chemical-waste domesttcwater systems_
and ventpiping,andspecialties
foi Iab- aoolications.
oratorysystems. 15486-FUEL-FIRED, DOMESTIC WATERHEATERS-ThiS
Section specifiesfuel-firedwater heatersand accessories 15562-INDIRECT-FIRED, PACKAGEDH&V UNITS Th]::
15241-MECHANICAL VIBRATION CONIROLSAND SEIS. Sectionspecifiesindirect-fired,packagedH&V units factory
for domestic water systems.
MIC RESTRAINTS-ThisSection specifies vibration isola- assembled from standard components. Custom compo
tors, vibrationisolationbases,vibrationisolationroof curbs. 15487-DOMESTICWATER HEAT EXCHANGERS-This nents and accessoriescan be added.Units typicallyinclude
and sersmicrestrarnts and snubbers. Sectionspecifiesheat exchangersand accessoriesfor gen- duct turnaces in parallelor series airtlow, depending on
1s2s2-LABORATORYAIR EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection erating hot water for domestic water systems.and the lof heatingrequirements,with attachedplenums housingfans
rowng: mixing sectlons, and other accessories.Units are suitable
specifies compressed€ir equipment and accessoriesfor
laboratory applrcatons.Typicatequipmentapplicable for indoorand outdoorapplications.
to th's 15501-HEATING BOILERSAND ACCESSORTES-ThiS
5ectronIncludes a,rcompressors, dryers,airpuo-
receiverS, SectionincludesEvaluations, DrawingCoordination. and 15563*DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS-This Section
flcation systems,and air-filterassemblies. SpecificationsCoordinationonly Ior the following Sections specifiesdestratificationH&V units that are large,fuel-fired
covering fuelfired and electric boilers used for building unitsconsistingof a fan, casing,and an industrial, fire-tube
15253-LABORATORYVACUUM EQUIPMENT-This Sec-
heatingsyslems: heat exchanger.These units are used to heat largeareasof
tion specities vacuum equipment for laboratory applica-
tions. Typicalequipm€ntapplicabl€to this Sectionincludes . 15512-CAST-IRONBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or industrialbuildingsand warehouses.They are centrallv
vacuumpumps and recetvers. combination gas/oil-firedboilers for hot water or low- placedin the spac€and circulatelargevolumes of air to dis
pressuresteam. tribute the heat throughoutthe spaceand ro limit stratifica,
15411-WATER DISTRIBUTIONPtPtNG-This Section . 15513-CONDENSINGBOILERS:cas,firedboiterslor tion. Accessori€sare limit6d.
specifieswaterdistribution-pipinginsrdethe building.Most hot water-
prprngspecrltedrs suttabtetor potabtewater,but some non_ 15585-DEAERATORS-This Section specifies deaerators
potable-waterpipingis included. . 15514-FINNEDWATEB-TUBE BOiLERS: Gasjiredboit- used to heat feedwater to steam boilers and to remove
ers lor hot water. oxygenand other gases.
15420-DRAINAGEAND VENT PtPtNc-lhis Section . 1551S-STEELWATER-TUBE BOILERS:Gas-fired.oil-
specifies soil, waste, and vent piping and storm drainage 1561o-FURNACES-ThiSSectionspecifiesgas- and oil
fired, or combinationgas/oil-fired,heatingor power boil- fired lurnaces used in residentialand light{ommercial con
pipinginsjdethe building. ers for low-temperatureand high-temperaturehot water
struction.lt also specifiesauxiliaryequipmentused with
15430*PLUMBINGSPECIALTIES-Thjs or low-pressure and high€ressuresteam. furnaces,includingcontrols,filters.air cleaners,and humid
Sectionspecifies
plumbing specialtiesfor water distributionsystems; soil, . 15518-FIRE-TUBEBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or ifiers.
waste, and vent systems; and storm drainagesystems. combination gas/oilfired boilers; Scotch or Scotch
marineboilersfor low-temperatureand high-temperature 15620-FUEL-FIREDHEATERS-This Section specifies
15440-PLUMBING FIXTURES-ThisSection soecifies hot water or low-pressureand high,pressuresteam; and gas- and oil-fired unit heaters and duct furnaces and qas
plumbingfixturesand relatedcomponents,includingthe fireboxboilerslor hot water or low-pressuresteam. trred,tube-type,infraredheaters.The unit heatersspecileo
following: . 15519-ELECTRICBOILERS:Etectric-resistance includethe types normallymounted overheadindoors.The
boilers ducl turnacesincludeboth indoorand outdoor tvoes. Tube
15441-\i/ATER DISTRIBUTIONPUMps-This Section fof hot water or steam.
type intraredheaterscovered includetorceddraft and vac
specifiespumps for buildingpotable-watersystems. uum-vented-typeunits and multiple,burner,vacuumvented
15511-RADIANTHEATINGPIPING-ThisSecrionspeci-
15444-PACKAGED BOOSTER PUMPS-This Section fies radiantheatingpiping,includingpipes and tubes for systems.
sp€cilies packagedbooster pumps to maintainpressurein embedded heat-transterheating loops, manifolds,fittings, 1562I-INDIRECT-FIRED ABSORPTIONWATER CHILL
the buildingwater distributionpiping:compact,packaged specialiuty valves,and pipingspecialties. ERS-This Section specifies indirect-fired.hot-water and
booster pumps; constant-speeftrive, packaged booster steam absorptionchillers. One- and twestage absorption
pumps; and variable-speeddrive,packagedb@sler pumps. 15512-CASTIRONBOILERS-ThisSectionsoecifiesqas-
fired,oilJired,or combrnatron gas/orl.fired chillers are specified. Single-stageabsorption chillers are
boitersfor h;aL availablefrom about 10G.to 1ToGrons {350- to 6000 kW)
15445-5EWAGE PUMPS-This Secrionsrecifies sewaoe ing hot watef or low-pressuresteam
pumpsfor the buildrngsanitarydrainagesystems,and w;! cooling capacity.Two-stageabsorptionchillers start at 350
prt-mounted.verticalsewage pumps; quickdisconnecl,sys- 15513-{ONDENSINGBOILERS-ThisSectionsDecities tons (1230 kW, with lhe largestunits providing1500-tons
gas-firedboilersfor heatinghor water. (527skw) chilling capacity.They are used with aircondi
tem, submersibiesewage pumps; stationary,submersible
sewage pumps; sewage-pump,reverse,flowattachment; tioning systems applicableto public,institutional,commer
15514-FINNED WATER-TUBEBOTLERS-ThiSSection cial, and industrialbuildings.The Sectiondoes not appiy to
subrersible, grinder sewage pumps; submersible,cutter specifiesgas-firedboilersfor heatinghot waler.
sewage pumps; sewage pump basins;packaged,sewage chillers used for process chilling or other industrial pur
pump unrts;andpackaged, poses,no. does it applyto direct-firedabsorptionmachines
wastewaterpumpunits. 1551s-STEEL WAIER-TUBE EOtLERS-This Section
specifies gas-fired, oil-fired, or combination gas/oiffired 15622-DIRECT'FIRED. ABSORPTIONCHILLEBS-This
15446-5UMP PUMPS-This Secrion specifies sumo heatingor power boilersfor low- and high-temperature
pumps for buildrngstorm drainagesystems,and wet-pri Sectionspecifiesdirect-fired,two-stageabsorptionchillers
heatinghot water or low- and high-pressuresteam. Theyrangefrom 3G to 1'loGtons(10O,to 3B7O-kW) chiilina
mounled.veflrcalsump pumps;submersiblesump pumps;
compact,submerstblesump pumps;sump pump basins; capacity D'rectfired, twcstage absorptronchillers are
15518-FIRE'TUBEBOILERS-ThisSectionspecifiesaas
sump pumpprts:andpackaged, lired,orl-frred, used with air{onditioning systems applicable to public,
drainagepumpunits. or combrnatron
gas/orlJrred
boilers;Scotci o' instrtutaonal,commercial,and industrialbuildings.Absorp
Scotchmarineboilersfor low tempe.atureand high,tem tion chillersare not commonlyused for processchillingor
1545o-POTABLE-WATER STORAGETANKS-This Sec- peratureheatinghot water or lowpressureand high-pres
tion specifiespotablewater storagetanksfor indoorinstal, otherindustrial OUrDoseswhereloadsare more volatile.
sure steam; and firebox boilersfor heatinqhot water or
lations-This Sectionmay also be used lor nonpotable-water low-pressuresteam.
appilcatlons. 15625-CENIRIFUGALWATERCHILLERS-ThisSection
specifieselectrically
drivencentrifugal
waterchillers.
15519-ELECTRICBOILERS-ThisSectionspecitiesetec
15465-COMPRESSED-AtR EOUTPMENT-ThisSecrion tric-resistanc€boilersfor heatinghot warer or steam.
specifiesequipmentand accessoriesfor buildingcom- 15628-RECIPROCATING WATER CHILLERS-ThisSec
pressed-atrsystems operatingat 200 psig (1380 kpa) and tron specifiesreciprocatingwater chillers, includingwater
less. cooled,condenserless,and outdoorair{ooled types.
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria,
Virginia
A
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC t4l
15640-PACKAGEDCOOLING TOWERS-ThiS Section 15782-ROOFfOP UNITS-This Sectionspecitiesrooflop 15990-TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING-ThiS
updatedspeciliesfactoryJabricated,mechanical{raf1cool- coolingunitsused lor air{onditioningsystemsin commer Section specifies testing, adjusting, and balancing air and
ing towers. cial,industrial. buildings.Units containair-
and institutional water distributions, measuring electrical performance of
cooled,direct€xpansion with heatingoptions
refrigeration HVAC equipment, selting quantitative performance of
15661_FLUtD COOLERS-ThisSectionspecifies factory- suchas gasfired,hot water,andsteam. HVAC equipment. verifying that automatic control devices
fabri€ted, packaged.closed{ircuit. mechanical-drattfluid are properly functioning, measuring sound and vibration,
coorers. 15783-COI'lPUTEB,ROOM AIR-CONDITIONINGUNITS- and reporting results of the activities and procedures speci-
ThisSectionspecifiesfloor-andceilingmountedunitaryair- fied in this Section.
15663-EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS-This Section intendedspecifi'
conditioningunits,and their accessories.
packagedevaporativecondens-
speci{iestactory-fabricated. callyfor computer-roomapplications. DtvtsloN l6
Virginia
ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria.
4
SYSTEMS
INFORMATION
CONSTRUCTION u
142 AIA MASTERSPEC
16145-LIGHTING CONTBOL DEVTCES-This Section 1641g-FUSED POWER CIRCUIT DEVTCES-ThiS Secrion 1 6 7 2 3 - S C H O O LI N T E R C O MA N D P R O G R A ME O U I P
specifies devices {or automatic control of lighting including specifies bolted-pressure switches and other high-pressure MENT This Sectionspecifiesvoice intercommunicatioi
time switches, photoelectric relays, occupancy sensors. contact switches rated 800 ro 6000 A, 600 V or less, and equipmentfor use rn elementaryand secondaryschool:.
and multipole lighting relays and contactors. accommodating Class L or Class T fuses. The Sectionpermitsthe specifierto selectbetweenmanu
1621s-ELECTRICAL POWER MONIIORING AND CON, allyand microprocessor-switched equipment.The manuaIy
1643o-SWIICHGEAR-This Section soecifies metal-
TROL-This Section specifies an electronic interface with switchedsystem is specifiedas the conventional. direcl
enclosed, drawoul power. crrcurt.breakerjwilchgear rated
circuit protective devices in a power distribtrtion system for connected,keyed system. The microprocessor swrl,.., r
600 V and less. for use in ac systems.
both remote and local monitoring, metering, and control of systemis user programmable and can be upgradedIn thi
individual circuits. lt also specifies optional integration with 16441-SWITCHBOARDS-ThiS Section sDecifies dead- tuture-Both systemsare specifiedwith the usualootrons
the building automation system to extend the capabilities of tront distribution switchboards rated 600 V and less. for selectivepagingand for clock and programinterface
that system. The abilityto transmitprogrammedaudiomaterialto ctass
16442-PANELBOARDS-This Section specifies branch- rooms and other spacesis also specilied.
16231-PACKAGED ENGINE GENERATORS-This Section circuit and distribution panelboards rated 600 V and less. lt
specilies simple systems using a single diesel€ngine gen- includes loadrenter type and powetrdistribution panel- 16725-NURSECALL-This Sectionspecifiesbasicvisua
erator set for emergency or standby electrical power appli boards with circuit-breaker or fused-switch devices. The and audiovisualpatient-nursecommunicationeouioment
catrons. Use this Section to specify systems with standbv Section also includes panelboards with integrally mounted for healthcarefacilities.Sectionorganization
permits the
ratrngs lrom 20 througn I 500 kW, sLpptying systems rated transrent voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) devices, panel, specifierto selectbetweentwo equipmentoptions:visua,
600 V and less. boards with motor-starter branch devices, and oanelboards tone and audiovisual/voice.Both types of equipmentare
wrth Internal conlactors and other fealures primarilyused in smallinstitutions.
The selectionis based
16264-STATIC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY- on communication needs,existingequipmentcoordination
This Section speci{ies 3-phase, on line, static,type, uninter 16450-ENCLOSED BUS ASSEMBLIES-This Section requirements.staff preference,and budgetaryplanning.
ruptible power supply (UPS) units rated from 5 to 750 kVA specifies standard low-voltage feeder and plugjn enclosed
{or systems 600 V and less. This Section can be used to bus assemblies for power distribution in buildings. 1 6 7 2 6 - P U B L I CA D D R E S SA N D M U S I CE O U I P M E N T
specify lower{ated units in this range that are suitable for ThisSectionspeciliespublicaddressand musiceouiomenr
rocalon In a computer room or other finished space. 16461-DRY-TYPE TRANSFOBMERS (1OOO V AND It canbe used to specrfyequipmentfor background mus,.
Higher-rated units are usually installed separately from the LESS)-This Section specifies dry-type djstribution and spe- announcements, and pagingand lor givinganstructions tn
loads seryed. cralty transformers rated 1000 V and less. Soecraltv trans- such locationsas stores, public places, waiting rooms.
tormers Include buck-boost and control and stgnal unrts. warehouses,offices, industrialplants,and schools.Fea
16265-CENTRAL BATTERY INVERTER-This Section tures covered in this Section, such as the paging console,
specifies central battery inverters lor supplying power to 16481-MOTOR CONTROLLERS-This Sectjon specifies can be deletedfor projectsthat do not requirethem. Othef
emergency and standby lighting and power circuits. These general-purpose controllers rated 600 V and less used for featuresmay be added.
unrts combane a battery source wjth a charger and invener. slarting, stopping, and controlling the speed of ac motors.
Units obtain power from a normal ac supply and are This Section specifies manual controllers and magnetic and 16727-SOUND-MASKINGEOUIPMENT-This Section
arranged to sense failure of that supply. When failure solid-state units. lt also specifies auxiliary devices such as specifies electronic sound-masking equipment to hetp
occurs. units transfer the load to the battery throuoh the
push buttons, selector switches, prlot lights, and control achieve privacy for normal conversationin indoor soaces
inverter. The approximate capacity range of equi-pment relays used with controllers. This Section specifies individu- panicularlyin open office areas.
specified in this Section is {rom 0.5 lo 20 kVA. ally enclosed and mounted controllers. Basic controllers for
use in group-mounted installations such as motor{ontrol 16740-{0MMUNICATION AND DATA.PROCESSING
16280-POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CAPACITORS- centers, switchboards, and motor-staner panelboards are EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies basic interior wirinq
This Section specifies capacitortype. power factor correc- specified in their respective Sections. for telecommuni€tionssystemsin buildingsThe commu
tion equipment lor use in electrical power systems rated nicationwiring specifiedin this Sectionis suitablefor local
600 V and less. lt dlso specrfres fixed capacitors and auto- 16482-MOTOR-CONTROL CENIERS-This Secrion spec- areanetworks (LANS)and telephonesystems for voice and
matac power {actor correction units. ifies conventional, modular, freestanding motor{ontrol cen- data communications.LAN media included in this Section
ters operating at 600 V, ac and less. suppon generaclow- and high-speedLANSfor data trans.
16288-VOLTAGE REGULATORS-ThiS Section soecifies mtssronrates up to 100 Mbps or more. system compo,
voltage regulators and the power distribution units that 16491-FUSES-This Section specifies canridge fuses. nentsincludedin this Sectionare itemssuchas coDoerand
often combine voltage regulators with other equjpment for rated 600 V and less, for use in switches, panelboards, fiberoptic cable, connecting bl@ks, outlet assemblies,
particular application in computer rooms and other environ- switchboards, controllers. and motor{ontrol centers. Use crossconnects,and patch panels.
ments. this Section with Sections specifying the above equipment.
16850-TELEVISION EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies
16289-TRANSIENT VOLIAGE SUPPRESSTON-This Sec- 16511-INTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section soecifies fac- closed{ircuit television (CCTV)and master anlenna televi
tion specilies t.ansient voltage surge suppressors tor applr tory-fabri€ted Interior hghting frxrures and lghting trxlures sioo (MATV) systems. For MATV systems, this Section
catron on low-voltage electrical power systems. mounted on exterior building surfaces used for general, ancludesthe options of off€ir antennas, a community
supplemental, task, and emergency lighting applications. antenna television {CATV)service, a l@al CCTV svstem
1631 2-SECONDARY UNtT SUBSTATTONS-This Section and televisionreceive{nlyearthstationsas signalsources
specifies indoor and outdoor secondary unit substations. 16521 -EXTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section specifies fac-
tory-labri€ted exterior lighting fixtures, poles, and accessG for televisionprogram material.Both fibercptic and copper
including common types and configurations of incoming
fles. cablingare includedfor transmitting video signals.
and transformer sections. This Seclion does not specify
secondary drslr,bution equipment drrectly bUt relers to 1655s-STAGE LIcHTING-Thts Section soecifies staqe
other Seclions Ior tf'ose requirements. hghting equipment for live performances in moderale-siie
1631s-OVERHEAD ELECTRTCAL DtSTRtBUTION-This auditoriums in schools, community centers, museums, and
Section specifies medium- and secondary-voltage overhead corporate centers. This Section also specifies stage laghting
electrical power distribution up to 35 kV. lt lncludes pole fixtures and control systems, including dimmer bankslnd a
mounting transformers and other equipment and materials control console. Use this Section lor limited-scope projects.
used tor upgrades or for extensions lor proiects associated
16570-DIMMING CONTROLS-This Section sDecifies
with burldrngsor related construclton.
threee types of modular dimming systems and a range of
16341 -MEDIUM-VOLTAGE wrred, programmable, low voltage lighting contro' svstems
SWTTCHGEAR-This Section
specifies {usible metal€nclosed interrupter switchgear and lrme swttches, photoelectric relays, and occupancy sen
metal{lad circuit-breaker switchgear used in ind@r and sors are Included. This Sectton also specitres relavs and
outdoor equrpment up to 34-kv class. This section also Contactors required to execute 04off control commands for
specifies major accessory components used with medium- lighting circuits. Manual, low-voltage lighting control
voltage switchgear, including grounding and test devices, switches are also speci{ied.
tuses, emergency operating stations, and switchgear con_
1671s-PHEMISES T€LEPHONE WtRtNc-This Section
trol batte.ies and chargers.
specifies premises wiring for residential and light{ommer-
16350-MEDIUM.VOLTAGE TBANSFORMERS-ThiS Sec- cial telephone distribution, with one to four seryice lnes
tron specifies transformers up to about 2SOO kVA with installed. Some projects may require that the cable and
medium-voltage primaries. Translormers in this Section are cable-terminating work for the system be provided under a
tor both indoor and outdoor installation and are liquid-filled separate telephone equipment contract. In such cases,
and dry-type distribulron and power transformers. delete those items and use this Section to srecifv the
empty raceway system and the seruice provisions that will
16410-ENCLOSED SWITCHES AND CIRCUIT-BREAK- be required lor the system.
ERS-This Section specifies enclosed switches and circuit
breakers rated 600 V and less where applied as individuallv 16 7 2 2 - I N I E R C O M M U N I C A T t O N E O U I p M E N T - T h i s
mounted drsconneclrng means, service dtsconnecltng Section specifies direct-connected, manually switched and
means, and circuit overcurrent protection. Enclosed user programmable, multichannel, microprocessor_
swatches include fused and nonfused tyres rated BO0 A switched, voice intercommunication equipment indepen-
and less. Circuit breakers include integ.ally fused circuit dent of telephone and other voice-data communication svs,
breakers and moldedrase circuit breakers with thermal- tems. This Seclron includes commercral, Institutronal and
magnelic and electronic trip units. industrial applrcations, but not residentral svstems. either
single or multifamily.
16415-TRANSFER SWTTCHES-This Section specilies
transfer switches and associated equioment rated 600 V
and less for emergency and standby power systems. lt
specifies automatic transfer switches with and without
bypasslsolation swrtches, and it soecifies nonautomatic
transfer switches. It also specifies the remote annunciator
panels and annunciator and control panels sometimes used
with automatic transfer-switch installatlons.
4
I CONSTRUCTION
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
CHAPTER TWO
SITEWORK
DETAILED SUBSURFACE
INFORMATION
After seltrtion of a potential site a subsurlaceand
laboratory test investigationshould be carried out
by a qualified geottrhnical engineerbetore design is
undertal(en.
Gravel
ur Red Poorly gradedgravel,or gravel-sand
mixtures,little or no fines Good None Excellent
and
gravelly
GM
,%: Silty gravels.gravel-sand-silt
mils Yellow mixtures Good Slight Poor
Sand It-lrr'
SP
lO r r Red Poorly gradedFnds, or gravellysands,little or no fines Fair None Excellent
and
undy
soils SM Yellow Silty snds, snd-silt mixtures F a ir Slight Fair
SC
'/a Yellow Clayeysnds, end-clay mixtures Fair Medium Poor
MH Blue Inorganicsilts, micaceousor diatomac$us fine sandyor silty soils.elasticsilts Poor Very high Poor
Silrs
and
clays
LL>50
CH
ry, Bl u e Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays Very poor Medium Imperyaous
Highly
OH
%z Bl u e O r g a n i c l a y so f m e d i u mt o h i g hp l a s t i c i t yo, r g a n i cs i l t s Very poor Medium lmpervious
organic oils Orange Peatand other highly organicrcils Not suitable Slight Poor
NOTES
l. Consultgeotechnicalengineersandlocalbuildingcodesforallowablesoilbearingcapacities
2. LL indicates liquid limir.
SUBSURFACEINVESTIGATION
ExcovotionSupportSyslems I45
EMBANKMENT STABILITY
FOR OPEN EXCAVATION
EXCAVAT
HEIGHT
NorE {
Cantilever sheel piling is used for shallow-depth excava sorL 3
uonS_
":",1:l':*'1"\ GRADE
SOLDIER PILE T
CONCRETE HEEL
OR FOOTING
CONTINUOUS
WALE
SHEET PILE
SOLDIER
=IN[:JE t...-
*ooo sHEETTNG
TIMBER UGGING
PILES WITH
UGGING
BOARDS
SUBGRADE
TIMBER SHEETING
RAKER BRACE
STEEL SHEETING
SUBGRADE
S E C U R I N GN U T
WITHO G
W A S H E RO R
EOUIVALENT
EXCAVATION
HOLE DRILLED THROUGH SUPPORT WALL
SOIL AND INTO ROCK:
ANCHOR ROO OR TENDON
INSERTED: HOLE GROUTED
EXCAVATION SUPPORT COM PON ENTS
EXCAVATIONSUPPORTSYSTE
MS
146 PileFoundotions
W
lI
w
)tl lltl ilr
AW
Yll-- vffw
qtw
CONCRETE
FILLED
STEEL
SHELL
TIMBER
PRESTRESSEO
CONCRETE
WOOD, SHELL
OR PIPE
P|LESaEM -J
M W ,Mis.+._ w
STEEL PIPE H.PILE
;h??"J'illv CONCRETE
FILLED
SECTION
PRECAST
CONCRETE
TIP
TIMBER ANO STEEL PIPE AND H - PILE AND PILE STEM WITF
3'J5*.*o E'Jot*o.*o CONCRETE CONCRETE FILLED PRESTRESSEO PRECAST
FILLEO SHELL SHELL CONCRETE CONCRETE TIP
t)
TOP OF
BEARING CROSS
STRATUM \ SECTION
(FLUTED SHELL) PIPE.
(,
PRECAST
CONCRETE
PRESTRSSSED
ryffiff
CYLINDER UNCASED
DRILLED
OR UNCASED
ENLARGEO
WITH
BASE
MINIPILE SHELL
WITH MANDREL
CROSS
SECTION
(SPIRAL WELDED
SHELL)
SECTION
SHELL
ROCK
SOCKET \
NO MANDREL
DRILLED-IN.
CAISSON
concrete filled
PrpHlosed end to4 0 "
concrete filled
concrete tilled
straight or taper
concrete filled
unileGrn carsson
concrete filled
CONCRETE
or
ptles or prers
COM POSITE
oncrete - lmber 5 -]0 trp
12-20butl
oncrete - prpe 3'0"to4
H - piie
1 9 - 4 1b u t t
NOTE
Applacable material specifications Concrete,Acl 31 8; Tim- 4690. For selection ot type of pile, consult a foundation
berASTM D25: Structural Sections ASTM 436. 4572. and engineer.
PILES
AND CAISSONS
DomesticWqterSupplySystems 147
TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY
Water supply systems commonly emploYed tor resrdential
use are public water supply systems (mains): wells; cisterns/
rainwater catchments; natural sprlngs; natural waterways
(ponds, lakes, streams, rivers); and distillation
GENERAL NOTES
1. All water supply systems should be inspected, tested,
and approved by l@al or state authorities, as required,
before operation.
2. Flush nev!,1v installed systems with tresh water, disinfecl
to remove contaminants, and perform bacteriological and
chemical tests as required. Repeat testing on a regular
basis, biennially or as recommended bY health authorities. ZSANITARY WELL
.ft (or COVER (VENTED)
3. Surface contamination can extend to depths of 20
greater, depending on soil material). Seal casrng/piping
joints and voids surrounding the piping to prevent con-
tamrnatron seepage.
4. Depending on the source, groundwater is generally PROVIDE
cleaner and more pure than surface water. The ultimate
use of the water {for toilet or laundrY, irrigation, waterlng
farm animals, human drinking and bathingl determines
purity requiremen!s. Consider disinfection and filtration LOCKING DEVICE
systems to remove harmful bacteria and excessive impu
PITLESS ADAPTER
ritaes and minerals that affect water taste or quality. DETERMINING RECOMMENDEO PUMP CAPACITY
\/vELLS e;
Welldetails given here are generally from the Manual of lndi'
vidual Water Supply Systems prepared by the Environmental u>
:F
Protection Agency's Office of Drinking Water (1982). >.]
SUBMERSIBLE
u0
WELL LOCATION: Wells should be l@ated at least 100 ft U<
from (septic tank) sewage disposal. Check local codes. GO
to stop evaporation) that stqe rainwater collected from r@fs only or for garden watering, cleaning, toilet flushing, bathing,
laundry, dishwashing, or other, nonpotable uses. SAND FILTER DIVERSION VALVE
or paved areas called catchrents. Cisterns are made of steel,
polyethylere. @ncrete, and other chemically inert materials. CISTERN TYPES FOR \^'ATER
Major factors used to estimate cistern capacity are amount of PURIFICATION
rainfall in the catchment area, effective collections surface,
TYPES OF V\/ELLS storage capacity, user water consumption per day, longest NOTES ON CISTERNS
dry period for the region, and availability of other s@rces of
TYPE DEPTH DIAM. REMARKS 1. Locate cisterns as close as practical to the ultimate point
water tor emergencies. Basically, cistern size cores down to
Dug To 50 ft 3-20 ft "Wishingwell" type;masonry the relationship between how fast the tank is emptied and of use and away from potential fl@ding to avoid contami-
lining;can absorbsurlace nation.
how fast it is filled and how much of a bufler is required. For
contamination; susceptible to residential use, consumption ranges from 30-50 gal/person/ 2- Screen inlet and outlet piping to prevent the entrance of
periodicdry spells day. Water is produced at a rate between 0.4 and 0.6 gal/sq ft debris. insects. or animals.
Eored To 100ft 2-30 in Bored with augers; vitrified tile of catchment area per in. of rain. Consult ltral metmrological 3. Provide sump, drainage, and lockable access for annual
or steel pipe casing: seal joints records and codes to determine cistern design. cleaning and disinfeclion of the storage tank.
to 20-ft depth to prevent sur-
Iace contamination CAPACITIES OF TANKS AND CISTERNS (GALLONS)
Driven T o 5 0 f t 1 - 2 , r . Drivenby welltoints; cou- SQUARE TANK SIZES ROUND TANK SIZES (OIAM.)
pledpipesectioncasing;quick DEPTH
and cheap but shallowdepth ( FT) IO FT 12 FT to F-r l4
To l00O fr 4-24 in Drilled by percussion or rotary 1920 3000 4320 1500 2350 3380 4610
bit; plastic or steel casing in- 4500 6480 2250 3520 5070 6920
2880
stalled alter lull depth is
drilled; expensive, large ma- 3840 6000 8&0 3000 4700 6760 9220
chinery required but greatest 4790 7500 r 0.800 3760 5870 8460 11,520
10
depths/water availability and
consrancy 12 5148 8976 12,960 4510 7040 1 0 , 15 0 I 3,830
WATERDISTRIBUTION
148 SubsurfoceDroinogeSystems
GENERAL cdrly a,e smaller rn srze anl capac'ty, designed to Inlercept
Subsurface drainage systems are very different engineering lne srower underground flows of a nalural g/oundwaler P A V E M E N TS U B
designs than surface drainage systems. gurface-drainao; table, underground stream, or infiltration of soijs from sur OR OTHER
lace sources. Surface and subsurface systems SURFACE FEATURE
systems intercepl dnd collect storm water runoff and co-n_ rypically
vey it away from a building and site with the use ol large requrre discharge either through a pumping station or bV
gravity drainage to an adequate outfall. ] 2' OVERUP
Inlets and storm drains. Subsurface drajnage systems typi-
GRAVEL \ -/
) OF FABRIC
DAMPPROOFING
2" ro 4"
BACKFILL OIAMETER
SLOPED WEEP
TUBE (PVC TYP )
CONNECTED
ceorexrlre -l FROM ORAINAGE
FABRIC -_I BUNKET TO
WRAPPEO I I DRAIN OR
ALLAROUND I J PERIM-ER
GRAVEL CHANNEL o
!
ft
_iI CONCRETE SUB
(INSUUTE
FREE-DRAINING
t- UNDER5UB
AS NECESSARY
FOR CLIMATE)
4" TO 6"
DIAMETER
GRANUUR PERFORATED
MATERIAL DRAIN, SLOPED
4" TO 6" OIAMtrER
PERFORATEO DRAIN
(SLOPE ORAIN TO FREE,ORAINING
SUMP OR OUTFALL) GRANUUR MATERIAL
DRAINAGE BOARD
(PROVIOES
NOTES
VERTICAL AND CONCRflE
HORIZONTAL FLOW FOOTING 1. The depth ol a draindetermineshow much subsurface
FOR SUBSOIL WATER) water levels will be reduced.
FOUNDATION WALL
2. When a perforateddrain is used, install it with the holes
TYPICAL PERIMETER FOOTING DRAIN raclngdown.
3. When used to intercepthillsideseepage,the bottom of a
trenchshouldbe cut a minimumof 6 in. into underlvino
SURFACE imoerviousmaterial
TYPiCAL SUBSURFACE DRAIN
MANHOLE
STORM OR INLET
vf ,st RUNOFF (SIZE VARIES)
LINE
LOWERED
WATER TAaLE -'
7 . UTERAL
SUBDRAIN
SPACING
S1
-..-
4" TO 6" DIAMETER
PERFORATED
DRAINPIPE, TYP
SECTION o.r% MtN.sLoPE UNDER.SUB
I il ri'li -*t
rl,, ,, li il i -- -- ;l ll r i--lg
il *i i i lrlr,{ , rrrr r{ i r r { ti OVERFLOW
RELIEF LINE
i rr{ GEOTEXTILE
I ir
il
| -.-
t+l+
ti
Jll
_r-
il
_lL.:L
---
11 | I
lLj_A
----.-/
iL,' 1t-riir FABRIC
AROUND
PERIMETER
TO ADEOUATE
OUTFALL
ii,ii,ii,ii,ll,
SUBDRATN ,/ \ To FREE,DRATNING ./
o t% MtN sLoPE - \ ^--. GRANUUR MATERIAL -
AHEA FOR oUTFALL
LOWERED
PLAN
WATER TABLE
-i L__ [__ ___ J_. Lr___ t_____r aL___*i rLT
LJ-\+]_ l_ A NOTE
z
NOTES || ,t l Dry wells provide an underground disposal system tor sur
1. Subsoil drainage systems are laid out to meet the needs I lace runoff, but their effectiveness is in direct Drooonion to
=====1t the po.osity of surrounding soils, and they are etticrent onl\
ol a site. A grid, parallel lines, or random pattern at low I
l for draining small areas. High rainfall runoff rates cannot be
pornts In the topography is used to collect subsurface I
SUMP PUMP DISCHARGE/ absorbed at the rather low p€rcolation rates of most soils, so
water.
UNDER-SUB TO THE BUILDING ,/ the difference is stored temporarily in a dry well. Efficiency
2. Depth and spacing of subsoil drainage pipes depend on DRAINAGE SYSTEM /
SUBDRAINS is reduced during extended periods of wet weather, when
soil conditions. Geotechnical design may be required to
receiving soils are saturated and the well is refilled before it
ensure eflective operation of a subsoil drainage system.
drains completely.
UNDER-SITE SUBSOIL DRAINAGE UNDER-BUILDING SUBSOIL DRAINAGE DRY WELL
PIPE CONNECTOR
PIPE CONNECTOR PIPE CONNECTOR CONNECTOR COL4R
COLUR
COLUR BAND
/4TO6ROWS GEOTEXTILE
/ OF %'OIAMEAER
-4TO6ROWS FABRIC WRAPPED
HOLES (BONOM SLOTS 2" O C
HALF ONLY) ALL AROUND
OF %" DIAMflER ALL AROUND
HOLES (BOfrOM
HALF ONLY)
CROWN, TYP
4- TO 6"
DIAMETER
PVC OR C O R R U G A T E DM E T A L
POLYETHYLENE
INVERT, TYP
TYPE B TYPE C
SUBSURFACE DRAINPIPES
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
SurfoceDroinqgeSystems 149
-
NATURAL CHANNEL--\
PAVEO CHUTE ON
Lro**,"o .o. -,
./v
,/v
SHEtr ,/
RUNOFF ON
IMPERVIOUS
PAVING SURFACE
0
closed system. fARKING LoT, ALLOW LOT WITH
RUNOFF POROUS
OVERFLOW PAVING
The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale and culvert, is
INTO (LEVEL
used in less densely populated, more open areas where the GRAVEL
flow of water above grade €n be accommodated fairly eas- SURFACE)
\
ily. The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an inlevcalch j
basin, and manholes. is used in more urban, populated /
areas, where land must be used efficiently and water
brought below the surface quickly to avord interlerence with f STRIP
human activity. The two systems are commonly combined f
ASPHALT SURFACE C=O.g
where terrain, human density, and land uses dictate.
ro.msofl POROUS PAVING SYSTEM
A petuaous or porous paving system is often used for parking 43,560 SO ryACRE
and other hard site surfaces. This drainage system allows POROUS PAVING MATERIALS
water to p€rcolate through the paved surface into the soil, The two principal types of porous paving are a monolithic sur
similar to the way the land would naturally absorb water. N OTE
facing material and unit pavers. Monolithic porous paving is
Followingis a simplifiedmethod for calculatingthe approxi- stone aggregate bound with asphalt or portland cement. The
NOTES mate runoff of areaslessthan I 00 acres: aggregate must be sorted to exclude the "fines" or sand-
1. All slopes, grates, swales. and other drainage features O=CxlxA sized particles that normally fill the voids between larger
must be laid out according to the ADA, without restricting O = flow (cu rusec) pieces. Wilhout the fines, the paving material allows wateato
accessible routes for persoos with disabilaties. C = surfacerunoff value (see table) run through it. Generally, porous asphalt and concrete are
2. Lay out grades so runoff can safely llow away trom build- | = antensity(in./hr;obtainfrom localcodes) both strong enough for parking and roadway surfaces and
ings. lf drains b€core bl@ked, backed-up water should A = areaof site (acres) pedestrian uses. Precast unit pavers, with shapes that allow
Forexample,assumethe l@al code requires| = 5 in./hr: water to flow through them. can also give surface stability for
not acumulate ardnd the foundation.
parking or driveways. Paver types are available for exposed
3. An open system, or one in which water is keil on too ot O=CxlxA placement or for burial just below the surface. ln the latter
the surfa@ as long as possible, is generally more ecc Q=0.9x5x0.23 €se, the soil{ea gravel or vegetation in the pavers js ex
nomical than a closed system. O = 1.04cu fvsec posed and can help percolate precipitation into the ground.
4. Consider the effect ot ice forming on the surtace when O = approximatevolure of water per secondentering
determining slopes tor vehicles and pedestrians. the V{hanrel from the parkinglot To reduce runotf and increase water absorption, porous pav-
5. Consult lsal codes on such criteria as intensitv and dur- CALCULATION ing must be underlaid with a bed of unbound aggregate. The
OF RUNOFF
ation of rainstorms and allowable runoff for the locality unbound aggregate acts as a structural suooon and forms a
reseryoir to hold preopitation until it can percolate Inlo the
6. Formulas given on this page are meant for approximation
soil. Use of porous paving may permit use of a significantly
only. Consult a qualified engineer or lands€pe architect SURFACE RUNOFF VALUES (C) smaller and simpler storm drainage system.
to design a site-specitic system.
NOTE
*8.3% maximum
for handicapped access All values are approximate.
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
r50 SurfqceDroinogeSystems
POROUS OR ASPHALf
GRAVEL STRIP _. CONCRETE CURB WITH CURB
//l waJER CUTS EVERY 4'.O''r, O C
/ n INFILTRATION
6"
nnl"t'u CONCRETE
.\
I I/." TO V2" DIAMETER
BORDER GRAVEL SEfrING
BED AND FILTER
COURSE (NO FINES)
SffiING BED
(NO FINES)
CONCRfiE
PAVERS INFILTRATION
2" TO 3"
STONE
SMING
BED
FILTER
FABRIC
-Kl:
V = (1.486rc.0'15)x 0.25167 x 0 0050I
= 2-6 fvsec (see runoft velocity table
on first AGS surface drainage page).
To check flow, follow these steDs:
O = Va ("a" from channel properties)
= 2.6 x 0.5 = 1.3 cu fvsec.
Use the formula for calculating runoff (O = C x I x A; given on
the tirst AGS surface drainage page) to determine the llow
required for a site; compare it to the capacity of a channel
TRIANGULAR
sized according to the Manning formula to determine
whether the channel design is satisfactory.
7_y- +
N VALUES FOR MANNING
FORMULA
*-rd)
I3W,J
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
SurfoceDroinogeSyslems t5l
TRENCH a" To 51
GENERAL ORAIN TO
The grate design chosen {or a particular application depends COVER
on the priorities assigned to each of the functions listed \=
below. Local conditions mav require inclusion of some or all
of the pertormance {eatures in a desagn. IRENCH
FRAME
CAPACITY: Interception of storm water rs generally consrd
ered the most imporiant function a grate can perform. The |_
geometry and size of the openings affect this ability. Consult
a civil engineer or hydrologist for individual grate capacities.
=lll.
SCREENING OF LARGE DEBRIS: An inlet grate must act as
a strainer to prevent harmful debris lrom entering sewer
lines. A welldesigned grale prevents obiects such as
branches, sticks, sheets of semirigid material. and chunks of
wood, which can easily pass by large curb openings (such as
open throat type). trom entering the catch basin.
long and th€ 16ns6e {crcss) bars ar€ spaced so a bicycle LONGITUDINAL SECTION cRoss sEcTtoN
wheel cannot drop lorer thah Sbout 1 in.; and bars transverse to
METAL TRENCH DRAIN ASSEMBLY
the directaonoI tGffic and stom water flow and slanted to coG
duct water into the €tc't! basin. Grate dosign does not ensure BRONZE OR POLYMER DRAIN
safe usage: atention must be paid to usage patterns of probable ALUMINUM GRATING WITH METAL GRATE
users. Consult tEffic enginegrs and l@l codes for more infoma-
tion.
,,ziR-I ..'o
-/rraarur\- J" WATER SURFACE
--l N-
BEEHIVE / oRTGtNAL
'----/
cneor
STRAIGHT H EADWALL F
lb
oo
illzz,^\\-=r;"
coNvEx
REVETMENT
L o.oo2 MAX
^{t2'-
9'
;" TO NOTE
lz'
Use check dams where channel slope and velocity will cause
STRAIGHT ENDWALL SAOOLE ENDWALL
erosron.
MISCELLANEOUS GRATE DESIGNS HEADV\/ALLS AND ENDWALLS CHECK DAMS
PearseO'Doherty,ASLA; GrahamLandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis.Maryland
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
152 Monholes,Inlets,qnd Cotch Bosins
2-O TO 4 -O" PRECAST
DIAMETER MIN CONCRETE
>a' MANHOLE
FRAME AND
FINISH GRADE
SLOPES TOWARD
COVER
OF CURB
GASKETED INLET GRATE
METAL JOINTS AND FRAME
MANHOLE REOU'RED
STEPS SANITARY PRECAST
CONCRETE,5"
MIN THICKNESS
CONCRETE FILL,
5: I SLOPE
4" TO 6"
OPENIN6
OUTFALL TO
STORM DRAIN SYSTEM
CURB INLET
FLEXIBLE
JOINT FOR
SANITARY
PIPE
CONNECTIONS INLET
CONCRfrE LOCKING
PRECAST CONCRETE BENCH, SHAPED BOLT
7
5" MIN. THICKNESS
TO PROVIDE
CONCRfrE FOOTING POSITIVE
ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE DRAINAGE PUN
NOTES
1. Pargingmay be omittedin constructiono{ storm sewer
:-z VARIES TO PROVIOE
POSITIVE SLOPE TO MULTIPLE PANERNS
mannotes. OUTLS PIPE AVAIUBLE IN A" TO 51 " WIDTHS
2. Wall thicknesson precastconcretemanholesincreases
wathdepths greaterthan 12 ft. INLET GRATE
AND FRAME
3. Brickwalls8 in. thickmay be usedfor manholesup to 12 To 12
ft deep. For that part of the manholedeeperthan 12 lt,
PRECAST
brick-and-blockwalls should be 12 in. thick. Manholes .4th"
CONCRETE, 5"
greaterthan I 2 ft deep shouldhave a base 12 in. thick. MIN. THICKNESS
SLOPE OF i,
SIDES VARIES z<
TO FIT FRAME
PU
r!
sii
9 uq
F24
N"J@
PUN
4TA
SECTION SECTION sEcTtoN
a-
N ()TES
1. Frames and grates are available in many standard shapes 2. Locate drainage structures with grated openings on or
CONCRETE FOOTING and sizes. Constructed of cast or ductile iron. aluminum. beyond the periphery of t.aveled ways to minimize con.
ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE and bronze, they are made for light- or heavy-duty loading tact wilh pedestrian or vehicular traffic Grates that may
conditions. Common shapes include round, rectangular, come into contact with feel or narrow wheels must be
NOTE
square. and linear. In addition, grates may be flat, con- constructed to prevent penetration by heels, crutch and
A pipe trap or hood is required for connections to combina- cave, or convex. Consult manufacturers'cataloos for the cane tips, and slim tires but still have suf{icient openings
tron sewers. full range ol available castings. to pass the expected runofl.
Lr))
/ta/
t_- SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
RunotfControlSystems r53
GENERAL
Natural filtration devices in the envi.onment retain and treat
pollutaOts such as sediment, fertilize., pesticides, and air pol'
lutants before they can enter water bodies. Increasing devel-
opment, however, compromises the ability of the landscape
to prevent water resource contaminatioo TypicallY. when
land is developed, trees that {ormerly intercepted rainiall and
pollutants are felled; natural depressaons that tempo'rarily
ponded water are graded, soil is compacted: and the thick
leaflitter humus layer of the forest floor, which had ab'
o' To
sorbed rainfall. is scraoed olf or erodes. POOL LEVEL I -O-
ABOVE
Once a site has been developed, it can no longer store as o- To l'-o" I POOL
much water, and rainfall is immediately transformed into POOL DEPTH i LEVEL
runoff and transported to rivers, lakes. wetlands, or oth3r
surface water systems Once construction is complete and
some vegetation has returned to the site, expansavejmpeNi'
ous surfaces such as rooltops and parking lots prevent most
runoff from percolating into the soil. lnstead, it must be
directed olf site by a surlace d.ainage system of curbs, cul-
verts, gutters, and storm sewers. SHALLOW EMERGENT MARSH
{PERSISTENT VEGETATION)
Measures for managing pollutants include methods of con - FRESHWATER. NONTIDAL WETLANDS
CROSS.SECTION OF NATURAL
struction and land development that replace natural pollution
tiltration pathways (e.9., forests. wetlands)with similar filter The sensitivity ol wetlands determines appropriatebufter oonds sometimes include a wet lower area for additional
ing mechanisms. Water detention systems retain water, pro- distances between them and developed areas. Buffers, runoff retention. Wet ponds are permanently wet, allowing
vide for percolation to groundwater, and filter pollutants out which may rangefrom 30 to 300 ft or more, should respond pollutants to settle to the bottom. Wet ponds that extend
of water runoft. These systems comprise detention basins. to the eflect runoff may have on the wetland ecosystem. runoff retention time with control devices can remove a very
constructed wetlands, and other temporary and permanent (Consulta wetlandsscientistto formulatebufferdistances.) high percentage of paniculate pollutants.
erosron conlrol measures.
In general,four wetlandsensitivityissuesshouldbe taken Constructed storm water wetlands (engineered, shallow
When choosing appropriate runoff control measures for a into account: hydrology-the wetland's source of water marshlike areas) retain runoff for long periods, allowing pol-
site, consider the following factors: the sensitivity of the could be alteredby development;vegetation-the plant spe- lutants to settle out of the water column and providing bio-
local ecosystem: slope of the site; depth of the water table: cies in a wetland have different levels ot hardiness;ecologi- logical, chemical, and physical processes for breaking down
proximity to b€drock, foundations, and wells; land consump- cal statHore pristine systems are more sensitiveto d+ pollutants. Wetland vegetation slows the velocity of storm
tion: land use restrictions; high sediment input: and thermal velopment and runoff pollution; and animal species-fo. water, reducing erosion and allowing pollutants to settle.
rmpacts to downstream areas. instance,nesting birds need greater buffer distances than Many organic and inorganic compounds are removed from
wintering waterfowl. wetlands by the chemical processes of absorption, precipita-
NATURAL \/\/ETLAND SYSTEMS tion. and volatilization.
Wetlands naturally detain and filter water. Scattered through-
ON-SITE RUNOFF CONTROL MEASURES
Constructed storm water wetlands can also filter excess nutri-
out the United States, from tropical areas to tundra, they form Architectscan use severalon-sitemeasuresto controlrunoff
ents such as nitrogen and phosphorus contained in runoff
in depressions in the landscape where the water table is near in developmentprojects.One ot the most ommonly used is
from gardens and septic tanks. To correctly size a wetland
or at the surface of the soil. They may be as small as a table- a simple open storagearea for runoff. The contigurationof
used lor storm water runoff control, consider the total volume
lop or span tens of thousands of acres. There is no single, cor- such open systemsvaries,dependingon the desiredlevelof
and vel@ity of water entering and leaving the system.
rect. ecologically sound definition for wetlands, primarily pollutanttreatment.Typi€lly €lled storageponds, detention
because of their diversity, These systems are an imponant basins.or (when made to resemblea naturalenvironrent) a
Potential advantages of using constructed storm water wet
part of the ecosystem because they produce fmd and timber, constructedstorm mter wetland, open systems generally
lands are that they have relatively low capital and operating
purify drinking water, absorb and store floodwater, suppress operatemore thoroughlywith increasedretentiontirne.
costs, offer consistent compliance with permit requirements,
slorm surges, and help maintain biodiversity. Water is su}
plied to a wetland either by surface sources (e.9., streams or and greatly reduce operational and maintenance costs.
Simplestorageponds are typicallydry between storms after
riwrs) or by groundwater. runoff has evaporatedor infiltrated the groundwater. Dry
CarrieFischer,"Design for Wetlands Preseryation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalBesourceGuide Washington,D.C.: The Amer,canlnstitute of Architects,1992)
ThomasSchueler:Metropolitan WashingtonCouncilof Governments: Washington,D.C.
AND DRAINAGE
SEWERAGE
154 RunoffControlSysiems
STORM WATER WETLANDS PONDIr'VETLAND SYSTEM: A pond/wetland design utilizes Ing water levels, pocket wetlands otten have low plant diver
lwo separate cells for storm water treatment, a wet pond srty and poor wildlife habitat value
Storm water wetlands can be defined as constructed systems and a shallow marsh. The multiple functions of the latter are
explicitly designed 10 mitigate the effects of sto.m water qual- to trap sediments, reduce incoming runofl velocity, and The selection of a partrcular wetland dedlgn usually depends
atyand quantiv on urban development. They temporarily store remove pollutants. Pond/wetland systems consume less on three factors: available space, contributing watershed
storm water runoff ln shallow pools that create growing condF space than shatlow marsh svstems because the bulk of the area, and desired environmental function. However. storni
tions suitable for emergent and riparian wetland plants In treatment is provided by a deep pool rather than a shallow water wetlands are not typically located within delineate.
combination, the runoff storage, complex microtopography. marsh. natural wetland areas, which provide critical habitat and eco
and emergent plants in the constructed wetland form an ideal system seryices and are protected under local, state, and
matrix for the removal of urban pollutants- EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND: In extended detention federal statutes. Storm water wetlands should also not be
wetlands, ertra runoff storage is created by temporarily de- confused wilh constructed wetlands used to mitigate the
Unlike natural wetlands, which often express the underlying taining runof{ above the shallow marsh. This extended de- permitted loss of natural wetlands under wetland protection
groundwater level, storm water wetlands are dominated by
tention feature enables the wetland to occupy less space as regulations. The primary goal of wetland mitigation is to rep
surface runoff. Storm water wetlands can best be described temporary venical storage panially substitutes for shallow licate the species diversity and ecological function of the losr
as semitidal, in that they have a hydroperiod characterized by marsh storage. A growing zone is created along the gentle natural wetland; whereas the more limited goal of storn,
a cyclic pattern 01 jnundation and subsequent drawdown, srde slopes of extended detention wetlands, from the nor water wetlands is to maximize pollutant removal and crealr
occurring 15-30 times a year, depending on rainfall and the mal pool level to the maximum extended detention water generic wetland habitat
imperyiousness of the contributing watershed.
surface.
Storm water wetlands are also distinguished from natural
Storm water wetlands usually fall into one of four baslc POCKET WETLANDS: Pocket wetlands are adapted to serye wetlands that receive storm water runoff as a consequenc€
desrgns: small sites {from one to ten acres). Because the drainage of upstream development. Although not intended lor stornl
area is small, pocket wetlands usually do not have a reliable water treatment, wetlands influenced by storm water arF
SHALLOW MARSH SYSTEM: The large surface area of a base flow, creating a widely fluctuating water level. In most common in urban settings. Storm water runoff that be
shallow marsh design demands a reliable groundwater supply cases, water levels in the welland are supported by excavat- comes a maior component of the water balance of a natura
or base flow to maintain sufficient water elevation to suooort Ing down to the water table. ln drier areas, a pocket wetland wetland can severely alter the functional and structural qual
emergent wetland plants. Shallow marsh systems take up a is supponed only by storm water runoff, and during ex- ties of the wetland. The end result is a storm water-injlu
lot of space. requiring a sizable contributing watershed (often
tended periods of dry weather it will have no shallow pool at enced natural wetland that is more characteristic of a storm
more than 25 acres) to support a shallow permanent pool.
all {only saturated soils). Due to their small size and fluctuat- water wetland than a natural one.
MAINTENANCE
25% OF POND BENCH ISUND
PERIMETER OPEN GRASS
MICROPOOL
FOREBAY
sEcrloN
(*=,: rE:lEI?,."? a?EE
GATE VALVES
PROVIDE
FLEXIBILITY
IN DEPTH
CONTROL
ffi'""'(ff[
$r:4(l|l]J4:s.wr"*
tk +i
25'WffUND BUFFER STORAGE SURFACE AREA
UNDSCAPED WITH ALLOCATION ALLOCATION
NATIVE TREEgSHRUBS
FOR HABITAT NOTE
Most of the shallow marsh system is 0-18 in. deep. a depth
that creates favorable conditions for the growth of emergenl
wetland plants. A deeper forebay is located at the malor
inlet, and a deeo microoool is situated near the outlet
MARSH
ZONE. TYP
-;l*;i1t
u***X***l
ffi-J"--"{ :1{iii
j*"-{ SECTION
P * + + + + l lJr:
-i:-:{i2
f+S
+*f ** tl:t:
{f:i:i:il,
(:i:tX:z
MICROPOOL
*!:if *7i
';K*++
;Fi
MAXIMUM SAFETY
STORM LIMIT
€ro-'fhi f * r MARSH
(30%)
ki1r1
STORAGE SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION ALLOCATION
NOTE
EMBANKMENT The pond/wetland system consists of a deep pond that leads
RISER IN to a shallow wetland. The pond removes pollutants and
EMBANKMENT reduces the space required for the system.
POND/WETLAND SYSTEM
CarrieFischer,"Design lor Wetlands Preservation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalResourceGuide (Washington,D.C.:The AmericanInstituteof Architects, 1992)
ThomasSchueler; Met.opolitanWashingtonCouncilof Governmentsj Washington.D.C.
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGE
RunotfControlSystems r55
COMPARATIVE ATTRIBUTES OF FOUR STORM WATER \^/ETLAND DESIGNS
TTR I B UTE SHALLOW MARSH PO N D,/W ETLA N D EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND POCKET \^/ETLAND
removal capability Moderate; reliable removal of sedi- Moderate to high: reliable removal of Moderate; less reliable removal of nutrients Moderate; can be subiect to resuspension
ments and nutnents nutrients and sediment and groundwater displacement
Land consumption High; shallow marsh storage con- Moderate, as venical pool substitutes Moderate, as vertical extended detention substi- Moderate, but can be shoehorned into
sumes space fo. marsh storage tutes for marsh storage site
Water balance Dry weather base tlow normally recommended to maintain wate. elevations; groundwater oot recommended as primary Water supply provided by excavation to
source of water supply to wetland grounowater
Wetland area/watershed Minimumratioof .02 Minimumratioof .01 Minimumratioot .01 Minimumratioof .01
contributingwatershedarea Drainageareaof 25 acresor more, Drainagearea of 25 acresor more. Minimumof 10 acresrequiredfor extended l - 1 0a c r e s
with dry weather O* with dry weather O* detentron
Deepwater cells Forebay, channels, micropool Pond,micropool Forebay,micropool Micropool,if possible
Outletconfiguration Reversed slope pipe extending from riser. withdrawn approximately 1 ft below normal pool; pipe and pond drain equipped with Broad{rested weir with half-round trash
gate valve rack and pond drain
Sediment clei
cleanout cycle Cleanout of forebay every 2-5 yr Cleanoutot pond every 10 yr Cleanoutof Iorebayevery 2-5 yr : of wetlandevery5 10 yr, on site
(aoproximate) and stockpilemulch
Native plant diversity High. if complex microtopography is High, with sufficient wetland com- Moderatej fluctuating water levels impose physi- Low to moderate, due to small surface
present plexity and area ological constraints area and poor control of water levels
Wildlife habitatpotential High, with complexity and buffer High,with buffer, attractswaterfowl Moderate.with buffer Low, due to small area and low diversitv
'O<o€fficient
of runoff
FOREBAY MICROPOOL
POOL DEEP
l2o%) POOL
(20%)
EXTENDED HIGH
DETENTION MARSH
(45%)
STORAGE SURFACE AREA
ALLOCATION ALLOCATION
TRASH RAC
I
_ __!____,
I
-_-_-_T------
------+------
------T---I
HIGH MARSH
BROAO.CRESTED
WEIR
Carrie Fischer, "Design for Wetlands Preservation," topic ll.A.1 in Environmental Resource 6ulde {Washington, D.C.: The American lnstitute of Architects, 19921
Thomas Schueler; Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Washington, D.C.
SEWERAGE
AND DRAINAGF
r56 UnitPqversond PoverAssemblyTypes
GENERAL texture, the better the slip resistance. Abrasion resis (minimum 6 in. crushed gravel) compacted to 95yo and
tance relers to the wear and tear an assembly is sub- paver sizes B in square or smaller. Consult an engineer 10
Unrt paving assemblies are principally used for applications jected lo under normal use. According to ASTM C902, accurately define paver sizes, shapes, gravel depth, con
such as shopping plazas, building entrances, walkways, "Standard Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic crete base depth, and concrete reintorcement require
patros, residential driveways, and residential parking areas '
Paving Brick, an abrasion index classificationdetermines ments.
However. they may be used for streets with heavy vehicular the type of unit requrred for an intended exposure. A
traflic and lor industrial floors or other special conditio.s. 3. Proper subgrade preparation of areas to be paved is im
dense. hard burned extruded brick with 8000 psi com- portant. Remove all vegetation and organic material. anc
Consult wilh a landscape architect or engineer for appropri pressive strength that contorms to ASTM C902, Class consider the location of existing or proposed under
ate design guidelines. SX. Type 1, resists both abrasion and weathering and is ground utilities and storm drainage, as well as user con
adequate Jor most heavy-traffic exterior applications. venience.
NOTES Molded brick with 4000 psi compressjve strength that
4. Plan for surface and subsurface drainage. Slope paving
1. Paver units are selected according to color, texture, abra- conforms to ASTM C902, Class SX. Type 2, is adequate
away from buildings. retaining walls, etc. atl/s to 'L in
s,on resistance. and resistance 10 weathering. The tex- for most exterior pedestrian applications. It materials
per toot. Bigid paving always requires adequate surface
ture of the unit affects slip resistance-the coarser the other than brick are used for paving, consult the manufac-
drainage, with the long dimension of the mortar joints
turer to learn which products are suitable for use as pav
running parallel to the direction of runoff. Flexible pavin.r
CBAMFER
e.s in a oarticular apolication.
requires both surface and subsurface drainage.
{OPTIONAL)\ 2. Assess potential traffic loads when planning unit paving
5. To prevent horizontal movement of flexible (mortarlessl
installations.Heavy vehicular loads require a rigid or semi-
paving assemblies, use a curb of brick soldier coursing
rigid continuous base, while a flexible base and ilexible
paving are suitable for light vehicular loads (residential- set in concrete, landscape timbers, or other edging mate
nal_
type). Use either base type for pedestrian lraffic. Choose
a bond pattern based on expected traffic patterns; traffic 6. There are three maior types of unit paver joint materia
should travel perpendicular to the long dimension of the mortar, grout (portland cement and sand without hy
SPACERS PROVIDE
l/16" JotNT paving unit. For vehicular areas, use a gravel subbase drated lime), and a dry mixture of 9rout.
LENGTH
\-/ F L E X I B L E { M O R T A R L E S S )P A V E R S RIGID (MORTARED) PAVERS
RECTANGUUR
NEOPRENE
TACK COAT (2%)
-). CONCRtrE
BASE COURS€
(RIGID)
ASPHALT
EXPANSION
SQUARE (SEMIRIGID) JOINT
*,o*t' N OTES
1. Unit paving assemblies are classified according to th€ 3. Membranes are installed in unit paving assemblies for
HEXAGONAL type ot base supporting the paver, either rigid {monared) several purposes: to control the passage of moisture
or flexible {mortarless). Base tvpes are a reinforced or reduce weed groMh, prevent the sand course from filter
NOTE
unreinforced concrete slab on grade that ac€pts either ing into lower courses, and as a bond break. Considel
Rectangular, square, and hexagonal pavers are available in rigid or tlexible pavers {rigid}; asphalt or bituminous con- using bond breaks between rigid paving and rigid bases
both brick and concrete. crete that accepts flexible pavers only (semirigid continu- lo accommodate differential movement. Membranes are
ous): a compacted gravel, sand, or sand{ement maxture of sheet or liquid material that can resist moisture. rot.
TYPICAL PAVER SHAPES that accepts flexible pavers only (flexible);and suspended and decay. Sheet material includes asphalt roofing fell.
diaphragm or structural floor and roof assemblies, which polyethylene film, vinyl, neoprene, and rubber. Liquld
vary by design and accept either rigid or flexible pavers. types are asphalt, modified urethane, or polyurethane
TYPICAL PAVER SIZES IN IN. (MM) 2. Setting bed (cushion) material, placed between base and bitumen; these are preferred for irregular surfaces.
R ECTANGULART paving surface, functions as a leveling layer to help refine 4. Use base materials, including gravel, concrete, and as
the finished grade and compensate for itregularities in phalt. for suppon, drainage, and/or ground swell protec
L W&L L the base and paver unit surfaces. Sefting bed material tion. For maximum drainage efficiency and to prevent
(100) 8 (200) 4 {100} 6 (150) 6 {1501 can be a 1- or 2-in. layer of sand, pea gravel, stone upward capillary action. specify clean. washed gravel.
51"l92l screenings, roofing felt, asphalt (7% asphalt,93% sand
7 51,l1g4) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 {200) 5. Expansion joints can alleviate thermal and moisture move
with a neoprene tack coat), or mnar. Sand for sening rent, especially in rigid or mortared assemblies. Expan
{89) 7 1t" 11901 8 {200) 12 (300) r 2 (300) beds, bases, ioints, and mortar should conlorm to ASTM sion joints are generally l@ated parallel or adjacent to
7 ,le(194) 1 'lal194l 12 (3001 C144, "Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.- Use mortar set- curbs and edgings, at right angle turns, around interrup-
ting or leveling beds only in conjunction with concrete tions {e.9., manhole cover ass€mblies), at set distances in
(200) 8 (200) 16 (400) and asphalt bases: the thickness of the bed may vary long runs of masonry, and where dissimilar materials meet
'Check with manufacturerfor availabilitvof chamfers. from r/, to 2 in.
CONCRflE INTERLOCKING
PAVERS (HOLES FILLED
WITH SOIL AND GRASS)
EEE
[]Et_]
INTERLOCKING
NOTES
']
Vords may be trlled wath grass. ground cover, or gravel 3. Grass rings are available with close ring spacing for pedes-
2. Grass oavers mav be used to control erosion. trian use or wrth wide ring spacing for vehicular use.
DennisCarmichael;
EDAW.Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
UnitPoverDetoils 157
MORTARLESS CUTBACK WELDED WIRE FABRIC
BRICK PAVING ASPHALT PRIMER '/r" ASPHALT 6"X6"X6',
COBBLESTONE
NEOPRENE SENING BED
%" SAND TACK COAT (
SffiING BED
4" GRAVEL
(FLEXIBLE AASE)
' I ' W E E P SA T
1 WEEPS AT 610" O C. (E.W.)
610" O.C. (E.W.) 4" GRAVEL. MIN.. OVER 4" CONCRETE WITH
WELDED WIRE FABRIC
4" MIN 4" GRAVEL OVER ( R I G I DB A S E )
CONCRETE BASE COMPACTED EARTH
BRICK PAVING OVER CONCRETE BASE BRICK, CLAY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK COBBLESTONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE
PAVERS OVER CONCRETE BASE (oR GRAvELi BAsE
WELDED WIRE FABRIC\ /2" STONE PAVER
,2" ASPHALT SEfrING 4 2'' LONDON PAVERS 4" CONCRETE WITH
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS
(PRESSURE-TREATED) WELDEO WIRE FABRIC
I s.LB ROOFING FELT
3/r" ASPHALT
CONCRETE
SffiING BED
BRICK OR STONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON WALKS WOOD BLOCK PAVERS OVER CONCRET€ BASE
CONCRETE OR ASPHALT BASE OVER CONCRETE BASE
GEOTEXTILE
NOTE
Preformed lattice unit grids are used for storm runoff con'
trol, pathways, parking areas, and soil conservation.
MORTARLESS (FLEXIBLE) BRICK CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON GRIO PAVING BLOCKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
PAVING OVER SANO AASE WALKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
MORTARLESS PAVER UNOSCAPE TIMBERS
I " TO I %" SCREENINGS
OR SAND SffING BED 4- MIN. COMPACTED
GRAVEL BASE
GEOTEXTILE
SOLOIER COURSE
GRAVEL
-
BRICK, CUY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK CUT STONE PAVERS OVER SAND o"o t,""-
PAVERS OVER GRAVEL BASE AND GRAVEL BASE "o*.:3r
SITE.FORMED PAVER WALK
PAVINGAND SURFACING
t58 UnitPqverPqtternsqnd Detqils
GEOTEXTILE LAYER
72'TO 1" SAND
CUSHION SffiING BEO
GRAVEL PERMITER ORAINAGE \
WEEP HOLES AT | 6- O C r
EXPANSION JOINT
MORTARLESS
MIXEO RUNNING AND STACK BOND BASKET WEAVE BASKET WEAVE SOLDIER COURSE
EOGING EMBEDDED
IN CONCRETE FOOTING
STACK BOND
PATTERNEO ASHLAR
UNIT PAVERS
N OTES
1. Drainpipes may be omitted at welldrained areas.
2. Provide posriive outflow for drainpipes.
DennisCarmichael;
EDAW,Inc.;Alexandria,
Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
Fountoins
ond DecorofivePools 159
JET FINGER OPERATING MUSHROOM DANDELION
CLUSTER NOZZLE
NOZZLE LEVEL, TYP
4'l
f"
AERATING
CONCRETE NozzLE
CURA \ 7"i n-sw; bEiAirNc
WATER \EATER LEVEL
LINE \
r .-1. n
SURGE REDUCTION
&+ DEVICES
FOUNTAIN LIP SECTIONS
TRIANGUUR CRESTED
VERTICAL
TURBINE
DISCHARGE
LINE
WATER FORM FOR FOUNTAINS line strainer required). Smooth-bore nczzles are character-
GENERAL
ized by a clear, thin solid stream jet of water that breaks up
Materials used in fountain and pool design should be durable STATIC WATER: Form and reflectivity are design consider- into small droplets as it reaches its maximum height or dis-
and resist damage caused by water, cracks, weather, stains, ations for water contained in pools and ponds.
tance. Formed nozzles are typified by a thin sheet of water
and freeze-thaw cycles. Suitable materials include stone, that originates in a jet of varied size and shape. The thinness
concrete, brick, tile, and metals such as copper, bronze, cast FALLING WATER: The effect ot falling water depends on
of the sheet of water makes the tolerances in the jet very
iron, and steel- Fiberglass, acrylic, and waterproof mem- water velocity and volume, the container surface, and the
tight (suction or in-line strainer required).
branes such as PVC, EPDM, and butyl are commonly used. edge over or through which the water moves.
Fountains are usually closed water systems, i.e., the pump
OVERALL DESIGN CONSIOERATIONS FLOWING WATER: The visual effect of a volume of llowing
continuously cvcles the water in the basio to the nozzles and
water can be changed by narrowing or widening a channel,
SCALE: Consider the size of the water feature in relation to back to the basin again. The pumps used to generate water
placing objects in the path of the water, and changing the
its surroundings. oressure and ooerate the water effects of a fountain are
direction of the llow or the slope and roughness of the bot- largely powered by electric motors. Three types of pumps
tom and sides.
BASIN SIZING: For width, consider fountain height and pre- are commonly used: submersible. dry centrifugal, and verti-
vailing winds. For depth, consider weight {1 cu ft water = cal turbine oumps.
JETS: A pattern is created by forcing water into the air with a
62.37 lb). Consider children playing near or in the pool. Allow jet. Jet types includ€ single orifice nozzles, tiered iets, aer-
space for lights. nozzles, and pumps. Local codes may clas- Submersible Dumos, used for low volume fountains, are
ated nozzles, and formed j€ts in a wide va.iety of forms, pat-
sify basins of a certain depth as swimming pools. Nozzle among the simplest pumping systems. A watertight electric
terns, and types.
spray may be wshioned to prevent ercessive surge. motor and oumo are set under the water oI the tountain
basin. The pump is usually equipped with a motor of '/20to 1
SURGE: A contrast b€tween relatively quiet water and a horsepower and moves a maximum o{ 100 gallons per
EOTTOM APPEARANCE: When clear water is maintained.
surge (a wave or a splash) is made by quickly adding water, minute (gpm). This type of pump requires fewer pipe pene-
bottom appearance is important. Enhance the bonom with raising or lowering an object or moving it back and forth in
patterns, colors, materials, three-dimensional objects, or tex- trations in the basin wall than dry centrifugal or vertical tur-
the water, or introducing strong air currents to the water. Drne pumps.
tures. Dark bottoms increase re{lectivity.
WATER EFFECTS SYSTEM
EDGES OR COPINGS: In designing the water's edge, con- Dry centrifugal pumps, most commonly used for larger
sider the difference belween the operating water level and The water effects system comprises lhe pump, nozzles. and water features, consist of an electric motor, a pump, a suc-
the static water level. Loosely defined edges (as in a pond) piping that move water through the fountain. The combination tion line, and a discharge line. This pump type ranges from
of nozzles, spray rings, eyeballs, pipes, weirs, and/or channels !/. to 100 horsepower.
make movement into the water possible both visually and
physically. Clearly defined edges (as in a basin) use coping to in a fountain or pool requires a pump system to generate
delineate the water's edge water pressure, a suction line to bring water to the pump, and Vertical turbine pumps, used in large water features, are able
a discharge line to mve water from the pump to the nozzles. to move tremendous amounts of water. Thev reouire a
LIPS AND WEIRS: A lip is an edge over which flowing water pump and molor, a water sump located in an equipment
falls. A weir is a dam in the water that diverts the water llow Fountaan nozzles come in four basic types: aerating nozzles, vault, a gravity feed mechanism to fill the sump. and a dis-
or raises the water level. lf volume and velocity are insuffi- sprav heads, smoothlcore nozzlgs, and formed nozzles- AeF charge line. These pumps are more energy€lficient than
cient to break the surface tension, a reglet on the underside ating nozzles (also known as bubbler jets. geyser nozzles, or those with suction lines, as gravitv moves water to lhe
oI the edge may overcome this problem. foam nozzles) are characterized by white frothy water cre pump. The electric motor is not submerged in water, making
ated by combining air and water. Spray heads are character- a watertight seal less important. Vertical turbine pumps can
ized by combinations of thin clear water jets comang from a move up to 5000 gpm.
distribution head in the shape oI a fan or circle (suction or in-
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
160 Designof Fencesond Gotes
GENERAL 6" DIAMETER WOOD.
7- .STRAP HINGE
Selection critena to use when choosing a fence for a particu TYP (METAL VARIES)
lar application Include the degree of privacy or openness and FENCE POST
sense of enclosure desired; the aesthetic and stylistic nature (4X4OR6X6.
of the materials and setting: cultural and historical prece TYP.) WITH CAP
-6X6WOOO
dents; and security issues Consider, as well. materials and . RAIL AND POST
COMPRESSION
marntenance requirementsj soil condjtlons at the site and TYP (METAL VARIES)
BRACING
the foundations and anchorage required; topography, cli-
mate, and wind conditions at the site: the effects a desion 2X4
will have on neighbo.s and adjacenl natural features; the srle FRAME
of the property: and the permanence and cost of the struc-
ture-
\.
IO'
Local zoning and building codes often regulate the height of a RAIL ANO POST
{ence and its relationship to the prop€rty line. Fences should t'\-
not obstruct traffic sight lines at antersectionsbut should pre- --8 X l2 HIGH
vent access to potential danger (e.9., unattended children at CONCRETE OR
swrmmrng p@ls or pedestrians at a construction site). STONE
- BRICK
GATE STYLE
USUALLY CONSIS]ENT
WITH ADJACENT FENCING
MASONRY CURB
I X PRESSURE.TREATED
WOOD CAP. IO" SLOPE. MIN
/- ALUMINUM
CAP
WIRE CURB
//-Posl
wooo PosT
ll: 2. Compression bracing extending from the upper extremitv
FROSA LINE to the lower connection point of a gate is often required;
MASONRY WALLS WOOO FENCES /.
tension can be modulated through rods and turnbuckles
to prevent warpage and sagging. Large or heaw gates
GRAVEL can be titted with rollers or wheels to aid ooeration: metal
tracks mounted in paving prevent uneven surface wear.
STONE BASE 3. Hardware should be made of noncorrosive materials.
STONE BASE AND CLEAT
Latches with internal padlock hasps or locking mecha
nisms are available for securitv protection
wooo PosT
r|_ FOOTING
\W
COMPACTED DIAMSER
GRAVEL
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
Metql Fences r6l
WROUGHT IRON
(STEELT RAIL ( lrl2 GATE
STEEL ANGLE
3/." X ]" INTERMEDIATE
SET IN MASONRY
RAIL (STEEL
CHANNEL OPTIONAL)
STOP
METAL PANEL
(OR CAST METAL GATE FRAME BAR SET INTO
MASONRY
ORNAMENT)
PIER (SN IN
REMOVABLE NONSHRINX
GRILLE
GROUT)
FASTENED
TO FRAME
HINGE
WELDED
TO ANGLE
.2" DIAMETER OR
.L" X'/<" PICK€TS. T\P
..- WASHER
PIN SET INTO
NONSHRINK
GROUT IN WALK
NOTE
SURFACE.MOUNTED HINGE GATE PIVOT
Materials used for this type of fence are steel or aluminum in
wrought or cast form. GATE DETAILS FOR \^/ROUGHT IRON
METAL BAR
RAIL END TOP RAIL FABRIC TIE
4" DIAMETER
POST. TYP,
I 2" PAVEO
STRIP TO
CONTROL
GRASS AND
SWING GATE WEEDS
BARBED WIRE
Top rails 1%' outside diameter except some lawn POST SIZES FOR HEAVY.DUTY
fence may be 134'outside diameter GATES
Middle rails On I2'4' fence, same as top .ail S\^/ING GATE
ASA
SCHEOULE 40 OPENINGS (FT)
Gates Single or double; any width desired
Accessible routes require clear opening (tN.)
width of 32'min. and 18'latchside clear-
ance; latches must be accessible
DanielF. C. Hayes.AIA:Washington,
D.C
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
162 Wood Fences
2X4TOPAND
7." X 2 SPACER
BONOM RAIL
2X4TOPAND
BOfrOM RAIL
5/4 X 6 PALES
ON 2" SPACING
3"O" TO
lo'o", TYP
4X4POST
4X4POST
PALISADE OR STOCKADE
BASKET WEAVE
2 X 5/4 UnrCE
32" EXTERIOR DECORATIVE CAP
GRADE PLYWOOD 2X3RAIL
4X4POST I X 4 PICKfrS
2X4TOPAND UTTICE
BONOM RAIL IXrWOOD
STOPS. TYP
2X6TOP
RAIL
2\44
DIAGONAL SUTS
ALTERNATING
2- ANO 4" 6X6POST
SUTS OR SIDING
I X 1 STOPSFOR 3/.- EXTERIOR
PANES TYP GRADE PLYWOOO PANEL
HORIZONTAL OR
PANEL VERTICAL LOUVERS
COMBINATION
2X4WOODFRAME
2 X 5/4 WOOD PICKETS 4" OR 6"
(TOPS MAY BE CUT DIAMETER POSTS
SHAPES)
8. MASoNRY -\Kf J
oc concnrrE i)'.1 '
cuns -----f )-
PICKET OR SUT
.w 2 X 4 HORIZONTAL
4X4OR6X6POST
OF WOOD OR CONCRtrE
4X4POST
3" DIAMETER POST
5/4 X 4 RA|L
I - OIAMETER
RAILS ANO PICKtrS 4" TO 6"
DIAMETER POST
ROT RESISTANT
ruINE
BAMBOO
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
4. Locate assets stored on site but outside the facility while accommodating ADA requirements for parkrng
GENERAL within view of occupied rooms in the facilitY. spaces and their proximity to the building. Place parking
Consistent with the philosophy of crime preventron th.ough within view of occupied rooms or lacilities
5. Minimize the signage or indication ot assets on the
environmental design (CPTED). architects use a combrna- property. 11. llluminate the exterior of the building and/or exterior
tion of design and operational tools to address projects sites where assels are located.
6. Set the tacility a minimum of 100 {t from the tacility
requiring site security. These tools include access contlol of l 2 Secure access to power/heat plants, gas mains watet
boundary, iJ possible.
oedeslilans on the srte, nalural and mechanical sutueillance supplres. and electncal and phone service
7. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the
ol occuoants of the property, and clear detinrtron of pub|c
building. Design elements commonly used to create real and sym-
and private space through a combination of real and sym
bolic barriers to increase site security include bollards/planF
bolic ba(iers. 8. Minimize the number ol vehicle access points.
ers. curbs, vehicle barriers, gates, security lighting, and
9. Eliminate or strictly control parking beneath tacilities. signage.
When terroflsm, workplace violence, or slteet cnme ts pos'
l0.Locate parking as far trom the building as practrcal,
sible on a site, the U.S. General Services Administration
recommends the following for all government buildings: STANDARD
GATEHOUSE
'l. BOLLARD
Eliminate potential hiding places near the lacility.
2. Provide an unobstructed view around the facilitY.
LIGHTING
3. Place the facility within view ol other occupied facilities
ACTIVE
PERIMETER PROTECTION
VEHICLE
BARRIER
PEDESTRIAN
TURNSTILE
9-FOOT-HIGH FENCE
AND SLIDING GATE
REINFORC
SECURED SITE PLAN
/ EXISTING
ASPHALT
t-'
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
Randall L Atlas. AlA. Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
164 SiteSecurityBorriers
INTEGRAL STEEL
CABLE WITHIN
STEEL BEAM
CENTERLINE
STEEL o
REINFORCEMENT
{A REBARS AT
2'-O" O.C
(EPOXY IN PUCE)
ALTERNATING
CONTINUOUS
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
GRADE
CONCRETE
SLIDING GATE IS
Ltfl MORE EFFECTIVE
MECHANISM THAN SWINGING GATE
LItr PUTE
IMPACT
DIRECTION
TRAFFIC CONTROLLER
PORTABLE LIFT PI-ATE
BEAM-TYPE BARRICADE
FIXED LIF PUTE
N OTE
Active barriers at access/egress points in high security
areas should be fully engaged until vehicles are cleared for
passage. A visible signal light or drop arm should indicate
the status of the barrier to approaching vehicles. Operating
time should not exceed 3-4 seconds. In case oJ oower fail
ure, the barrer system must be able lo maintatn rts posrtror
to prevent access but be capable of manual operation; it
also should be connected to emergency power. Remote
controls should include a status indicator.
Edwin Daly, AlA, and Ellen Delaney: Joseph Handwerger, Architects; Washington. D.C
William G. Miner, AIA: Washinglon. D.C.
Randall l. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami. Ftorida
SITE
IMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
allow more creattve opportunities for children, and a variety Most important, a bed of absorbrng ground cover, such as
INTRODUCTION of textures stimulates the sense of touch Children never oine bark or wood chips (12 in. deep), pea gravel (10 in
tire of playing with sand and water. Manutacturers ofter a deep), or sand (10 in. deep), should be installed beneath the
Plavrnqrs v tal lo lhe physrcal, emolronal and socral growth
wide variety of water teatures for the playground, including equioment. Hardwood chips and rubberized surfacing are
ot ihilaren To encourage healthy growlh the plav environ-
wading pools and tounlarns. Water elements also encour- easier for persons with disabilities to travel over' Asphalt,
ment must challenge children at their level of development
age adult interaction. Space for congregatlng can be pro- packed dirt, and exposed concrete are not acceptable play
vet reassure them as they investigate their physical limits.
vided as semienclosed retuge or open areas. Bridges add surfaces.
Lach staoe ol development tesutts in drtterenl types and
tevels oflnteraction and actrvrty The ouldoor pldy envlron interest to equipment and can provide connecttons
between structures: thev also creale more climbing and A safety zone of at least 4 ft should surround the entire play
ment becomes increasingly important as the boundaries oJ
refuqe soace. In addrtiol lo traditlonal plank bridges. there area, with 7 ft in tront of slides, I ft in tront ol swangs, and 4
the child's world stretch beyond the home and primary
are arched. rooe, suspensron, or tire bridges Suspension to 5 ft on the sides of the swings. Allow 65 to 70 sq ft of
care. Ptav equrpment should be selected and designed to
play space per child.
attract. tascrnate,and sustain the Interesl of the age g.oups bridges may be designed to meet specifications provided in
who will use it, while promoting agility, strength and bal- the Americans with Disabilities Act {ADA}.
ance_ WITH
lf a theme such as a ship, castle, or fort is incorporated in EQUIPMENT FOR CHILDREN
Plavrnqmav consrst of rmitation, role play. and fantasy play, the playground, the equipment wiil automatically encourage DISABILITIES
as *eil as -ote act,ue pulsulls. Space and equrpment must the child's imagination. However, don't replicate these
The ADA has raised a new understanding of the need to
be provided to encourage iumprng. climbing, swingrng, sltd- themes too closely. Leave most of the creation to the child
include children with disabilities in play activity wherever
ing, crawiing, hanging, running, building. sjtting, and meet- possible. Several elements will encourage the- participation
ino. Des,oni shouid provide opponunities lor children to be Adults should not be separated from the plaY area. Ample
of children with disabilities. Bump stairs, lransfer platforms,
imlao,nati-veand to Interacl socially. Thrnk of lhe equlpment seating should be provided, and the equipment should be
accessible suspension bridges, and slides (provided there is
as ttlexible. three-dimensional system that allows children interesting to adults. too, srnce therr presence gives secu-
enough lractionl, as well as components that can be manip-
to move in every direction and challenges them wrth a con rity, instruction, and approval
ulated lrom a wheelchair, are all useful. Many persons with
sistently changing space. disabilities have some upperbody mobility, and horizontal
Practrcalconcerns should be taken Into account in desrgn-
ladders and rings can help children strengthen the upper
Three age groups must be considered in designing plaY- ing a playground: how does the equipment appear {rm the
body. Ramps and handrarls should be used wheiever possi
orounds. Toddlers (3 to 5 years) should be separated trom suirounding area? What are the views from the site? How
ole_
6lder children by a fence they €n see through. This makes much noise will travel to and from the playground? The
it easier for caregivers to superyise the younger children design should consider the time ol day the equipment will
but allows the toddlers to feel part of things. Early elemen- be used and be suilable for use all year. Drainage is impor-
tant, especially around swings and berms, and shade is
MANUFACTURED VERSUS
tary (6 to 9 years) and late elementary {9 to 12 years) chil-
dren have traditionally been separated, but another optron especially desrrable over metal sldes. CUSTOM EQUIPMENT
is to design equipment that has several levels of ditficulty, Manufacturers of playground equipment offer products in
allowing use by both groups. timber, plastic, or powd€r{oated steel. Available as eather
SAFETY AND MATERIALS individual items or in predesigned arrangements, these
Most traditional play equipment is designed to stand alone Droducts are durable and easY to install and offer a variety
No playground is completely safe. The potential for acci-
as single units, although thes may be hnked -logether. of accessories. Because theY are designed as modular
dents is inherent in the element of risk involved in most
Where soace or other conditions limit the scope of develoF play. Nonetheless, playground equipment should provide units, they can be used to create a limitless number of
ment, such equipment is reful. However, because a comoositions and can be expanded at a later date. Some
challenging activities in the salest way possible.
child's play activity tends to proceed in a continuous flow, have no need lor loundations. All products must conform to
Inteqrated olav areas have proved more successful than the Consumer Product Safety Code.
Round, square, and rectangular timber should be pine or fir
araioements ot individual items. Combining several mate' (oak warps. redwood splinters). Color should be in the form
rials. iolors. and textures also makes lhe play space more Customiesigned equipment has the advantage of b€ing
of stain, not paint. and all edges should be beveled or
inviting. A variety of options is awilable to the designer in site and situation specific. In addirion. the manipulation of
rounded. Steel pipe, sheets, chain, and drums can be vinyl
both custom and manufactured products- landforms by the designer can result in a much more lnter
coated. Chain, rope, and tires are available in plastic. Use of
esting and creative site. Most of the materials used by
concrete and stone should be kept to a minimum Hard-
ware should be galvanized, and joints and connections cov' manufacturers are readily available to designers, making
DESIGN SUGGESTIONS ereo or recesseo.
custom design of equipment an affordable option
shouldmeetthen€ds andsus-
of a playground
Thedesign
tain the interest of the children who will use the site. Using
nonrepeltive elements and semitransparent features cre- rl
ates mvstery and surprise Dymmic, movable components
POLE
6
POLE
o
)
o J_+t
a
tr
--u
-l
it 4AI U)
FT-mfl-- 4 llll
o
)
o
o
E -ul L
TIRE NETS
n
fl I- f i ?t1r I
N OTES
Two methods o{ expanding the capabilities o{ an integrated
playground are:
AND AMENITIES
IMPROVEMENTS
SITE
166 Siteond SlreetFurnishings
-"<<Y/ *
CONCRETE TREE GRATE CAST METAL TREE GRATE CAST METAL TREE GUAROS
TREE PROTECTION
*<
UI
CONCRETE coNcRETE (W|TH LtcHT) STEEL (WITH BIKE RACK) STEEL CAST METAL
BOLLARDS
ttJ
r/1\r I '{@)
+---*
| /---< ----tr
Fj:.''
H
F+<
F,r:
E:
I I
I
|
I
I
I
|-tl
F:---+--
ll::'
'
l',: | |
[,." | |
|
|
| 36-
llll"'
t.'
l:."
[....
[':.
t'...
t!-
E ::. |- t
I
|
I
I I
|
|
I
|
I
|
|
I12^lt
k_/
METAL CAST METAL
LANDSCAPE LIGHTS
II 1
)
METAL M ETAL
STEEL LEANING POST STEEL LEANING PIPE CAST METAL DRAIN COVERS (PROJECTED) (FLUSH)
MISCELLANEOUS DRIVE / WALKOVER LIGHTS
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
Siteond StreetFurnishings 167
jk--
+--"--J
( )
I l--- --l
lllHl
lllAl
ll:l
ltl
t-l
ffi 1_('
I5"
J- (--
+-<
ll0 m
n
L.zl
t|ill
ltu It
ftN D
U
CAST METAL
LSIffiLBLm STEEL WIRE ANO FIAERGT-ASS CAST STONE
\-
wooD
*--------------\
\ ---:
INFORMATION-RELATEO FURNISHINGS
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.
SITE ANDAMENITIES 2
IMPROVEMENTS
t6 8 Gqrden Structures
PLANTING SOIL
-t x3
DRAINAGE
GRAVEL
l
CLEAR
TAPERED2XAROOF
RAFTERS
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RAFTERS THAT FRAME
OVER POSTS
COPPER SCALLOPEO (4) I/2'' DIAMETEF
ROOF SHINGLES DRAIN HOLES
FLUID APPLIED
WATERPROOFING
INSIOE ALL SIDES
AND BONOM
BUILDING PAPER
I,/2 THtCK WOOD BOX
3 X 3 PRESSURE.
I X 2 SLATS TREATED WOOD FRAME
\^/OOD PLANTER
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT
RANERS OVER POSTS
COPPER SHINGLES
BUILDING PAPER
2XARAN
HURRICANE
ANCHOR
1X2
(2)2X4TOPPLATE SUTS
WOOD COLUMN
COVER
12)2X
4X4WOODPOST PUTE
I X4RAILCAP
2 X 4 SUBRAIL r x6
wooD
2X2 FASCIA
4X4
POST
2X4BONOMRAIL
wooD
COLUMN
COVER
CONCRETE
sua GAZEBO DETAIL
4X4 WOOO
WOOD COLUMN
COVER -
GAZEBO tt"" DtA.
ANCHOR
3/e" x 6" x 12 X 4 DECKING
2 X 12 LEOGER AT 2X6JOISTON
METAL HANGER
2 X 4 EDGER ALUMINUM
BOLTED
ro2xtz
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
AND AMENITIES
Gorden Structures 169
wooD cAP.
COPPER CAP FASTENED AS
coPPER CAP - --\ NECESSARY
2X tOJOIS
EPOM
PONO
LINER
:\
wooD
TIMBERS
VIOUS
FELT PAD
'/2" DtA STAtNLEss
r xa
EPOXY'
COATED
#5 REBAR
THROUGH
POST
CONCRETE
FOOTING
-€POM
Z POND
pine
All wood is pressure-treated LINER
WATER PUMP
WATERPROOF PIPE
OVERFLOW
EPOXY COATING
METAL
PRESSURE
AOHESIVE
STRIP
CONCRETE
FOUNOATION
POND
LINER
- UNDISTURBED
OR COMPACTED
EARTH
coNcRErE I L-_-\
""'.'::::i:?:.\
RIM FOR POND
WITH REINFORCING -___\
I ,/
STONE
FOUNTAIN SECTION
IMPERVIOUS
STEP TO FELT PAD
WATERPROOF
_----J ACCOMMOOATE
-€POM
EPOXY COATING
WATER PUMP WITH
ELECTRICAL JUNCTION BOX
WATER LILY
PUNTERS a ll#R
GRAVEL DRAINAGE BED UNDISTURBED
UNDISTURBEOOR
COMPACTED EARTH OR COMPACTED EARTH
POND DETAILS
POND SECTION
GaryGreenan;Miami,Florida
Maryland
Richa.dJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
AND AMENITIES
SITEIMPROVEMENTS
t70 EmbonkmentStqbilizqtion
GENERAL
Embankment stabilization is required when steep slopes are
subject tO erosion from stormwater runotf or flowing
streams. Erosion can damage the site and pollute water-
<\
2_J
ways with sediment
GROUT-FILLEO FABRIC-
FORMED REVETMENT OVER
SAND OR FILTER FABRIC
\ \\\ --
arogNctngenrrc
MSHODS INCLUOE
PLANTING, LOG
DEFLECTORS,
WILLOW POSTS
GABION (CLOSED
/ 9;' WIRE BASKfr FILLED
IN PUCE WITH STONE)
a ^&
^g--;9"
0 3.""'c
oo'
THICKNESS OF STONE
RIPRAP UYER IS GREATER
THAN MAXIMUM STONE SIZE -J"o'
.*-z dz
-q
STREAMBED
:PTREAMFLOW
EMAED TOE OF RIPRAP
BELOW DEEPEST EXPECTED
SCOUR, MINIMUM 2@% OF
RIPRAP UYER THICKNESS
James E. Sekela.P.E.;Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania
RETAINING
WALLS
RetoiningWolls 171
GENERAL MAXIMUM
SLOPE
Retaining walls are designed and construcled to resist the
thrust of the soil, which can cause the wall to tail by over GRAVEL FILL
turning, sliding. or settling. In stone walls, resistance to soil FOR DRAIN
thrust can be helped by bartering the stonework {that is, FLAT STONES
recessing or sloping the masonry back in successive PREFERRED
courses). (25% OF STONES
Z MUST BE
HEADER-TYPE
Garden-type retaining walls, usually no higher than 4 ft, a.e
LENGTH
made lrom small building units of stone, masonry, or wood.
For higher walls, reinfo.ced concrete is mo.e commonly
= 2h rtMEs
THICKNESS)
used. Terracing may be built with walls of wood, stone. I
brick, or concrete.
@
l1
PUCE STONES
UNDISTURAED
SOIL (BELOW LINE)
NOTE
Staggervenical ioints trom course to course 6 in. min. hori-
zontally.The thicknessot the wall at any point shouldnot be
less than half the distancefrom that ooint to the top of the STONE BANK
wall-
STONE OR
+w | | ler DRY STONE WALL BRICK COPING
2 X HORIZONTALS
IMW
'c:*,Ar610'ocr
(OR CONT!NUOUS
HORIZONTAL DEADMAN)
GRAVEL FILL
FOR DRAIN
ST ON UNDISTURBED SOIL
DonaldNeubauer,
P. E.; NeubauerConsulting
EngineersjPotomac,Maryland
WALLS
RETAINING
172 Concrete RetoiningWqlls
a"
. rMtN.
zt suoptrc \ sLoPtNG
2-MlN+ I 7 BACKFILL
+>t .'
t t l t /
(SURCHARGE)
BACKFILL
(SURCHARGE)
GRAVEL FILL
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
F FOR DRAIN
I
q
U
I
z
'.llil FILTER
FABRIC
FILTER
FAARIC
I
o I TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
DRAINPIPE
; DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO
SLOPED TO OUTLfl AWAY
OUTLET FROM WALL VERTICAL EXPANSION JOTNT
AWAY
(OPTIONAL
(OPTIONAL 2- WEEPS AT
2" WEEPS AT 410" O.C.)
4 -O" O.C.) --+2'MtN
a
I
O 67 H (LEVEL BACKFTLL)
FROST DEPTH
FROST
O€PTH
-o . 5 5 H
I .25 H (SLOPING BACKFIT I .@ H (WITH SURCHARGE)
L.TYPE RETAINING WALLS
o.oa H NOTES
A- MIN 'l-
\sLoPrNG Provide control and/or construction joints in mcr€te
/ retaining walls about every 25 ft. Every fourth @ntrol
BACKFILL
ll'/ (SURCHARGE) and/or constructionjoint should be an expansionjoint.
Coateddowels should be used if avsragewall height on
either side of a joint is different.
FABRIC 2. Consult with a structuralengineerfor final design of all
concreteretainingwalls.
F
I GRAVEL FILL 3. Concretekeys may be requiredbelow retainingMll f@t-
I FOR DRAIN Ing to prevenl sladanqin high walls and those built on
I moist clay. VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
CONCRSE 4. T = the lateralthrust of the soil on the wall in the drawing
I RSAINING of a gravityretainingwall. RETAINING WALLJOINTS
o
o
I DRAINPIPE
SLOPED TO
OUTLET AWAY
FROM WALL
(OPTIONAL
2- WEEPS AT
4,O' O.C.)
-f"- PRELIMINARY DIMENSIONS FOR CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS
o.5 T i-T--- ",t. APPROXIMATE CONCRETE DIMENSTONS (FT-tN.)
fi .o T wtTH
FROST DEPTH BACKFILL SLOPING DlA. = 29o 45i (tV.r | ) BACKFILL LEVEL-NO SURCHARGE
o.5 H
T=O.l3H (0.67 H W|TH HEIGHTOF WI DTH OF WIDTH OF HEEL { E I G H T O F WIDTH OT t/lr'IDTH OF H EEL
(o_tTHwtTH
SURCHARGE) WALL (H) B A S E ( B ) WALL (a) (b) (c) Nr'ALL (H) BASE (B) WALL (A) (b) (c)
SURCHARGE)
3{ 2-a 0-9 t-5 0s 3{ 2-1 0€ 1-0 0-5
GRAVITY RETAINING \iVALL
44 3-5 0-9 24 G8 4-0 2a u{ l-7 0-5
5{ 4€ Gl0 2$ 1-2 fi 3-3 0€ 2-2 0-5
m 54 G10 2-11 1-7 6{ G8 2-5 0,8
74 0-10 3-5 74 0€ 24 'I -O
8{ 74 l{ ?9 24 8{ 4€ 1{ 2-A 1{
LEVEL
BACKFILL
7$ l{ 24 9{ u2 1{ 1{
I TEMPERATURE
I REINFORC€MENT
r0{ 8€ 1-0 4-9 2-9 10{ 5-9 'l{
3-7 1-2
I l1{ l1{ l-l 7-2 2-9 l1{ G7 -l 4-1 1-5
GRAVEL FILL
I FOR DRAIN 124 124 7-10 124 7-3 2 4-l
d
o DRAINPIPE t3{ 14 &5
SLOPED TO
3-3 | 3-0 7-1 0 5-0 1-B
OUTLET AWAY 14-o t4,0 ,5 9-1 -3
I
FROM WALL
35 I4-0 8-5 5-5 1-9
(OPTIONAL 1$0 15{
2- WEEPS AT
3-9 15,0 9{ 5-9 1 - 11
4 -O" O.C.t 'r6{
--T." 16-0 7 1G5 44 16-0 9-7 -5 6-2 24
"'" 174
t8{
14
18{
1€
1-10
11 - 1
€ 4S
174
18-0
10-3
10-10 6
6,7
1-1
2-2
2-3
LINE
r9{ 19{ 1 - 11 124 4-9 r 9-0 I t-c -7 2-5
204 2G0 24 m 20-o 124 7-r0 2-6
STRUCTURAL
214 21.o 2-2 s3 21-O 12-7 -9 a-2 2-A
STEEL REINFORCEMENT 224 22-O 24 144 tu 22-0 l-1 1 a-7 2-9
T-TYPE RETAINING vt/ALL
DonaldNeubauer.P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;potomac,Maryland
RETAINING
WALLS
ReinforcedCMUond PrecqsfConcrefe RetoiningWqlls 173
NOTES SLOPING BACKFILL S ARE GROUTED
(sEE NOTES FOR DESTGN) --\__-,
AND REINFORCEO
1. Materials and construction practices for concrete ma
IN RffAINING WALLS
sonry retaining walls should comply with "Euilding Code /-cR^oE
Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACl
5 3 1) . -
2. Use fine grout when grout space is less than 3 in. in)he
ruO {4 BARS IN
least dimension. Use coarse g.out when the least dr
BOND BEAMS AT
mension of the grout space is 3 in. or more | 6- O.C. OR JOrNT
3. Steel reinlorcement bars should be clean, free from REINFORCEMENT
harmful rust. and in compliance with applicable ASTM AT 8" O.C.
standards for deformed bars and steel wire.
4. Alternate vertical bars may be stopped at the mid height 2h" rN a- wALs,
3" IN 12" WALLS
oI the wall. Vertical reintorcement is usually secured in
place after the masonry work has been completed and
before grouting.
5. Designs shown are based on an assumed soil weight
(vertical pressure) of 100 pcf. Horizontal pressure is DOWEL (SAME
based on an equivalent fluid weight for the soil of 45 SIZE AND SPACING
pcf. AS V,BARS)
ANGLE OF
SURCHARGE PRECAST
VARIES TIE
SLOPE (BATER
r"',u,
r" ,
VARIES ( I :4
DEAOMAN
I
V; DOUBLE.DEPTH
I CU trOF
4" DIAMffER CRUSHED
WEEP HOLES, STONE OR
5!O" TO GRAVEL AT
to-o" o.c., EACH WEEP
HORIZONTALLY HOLE
UNDISTURBED
SECTION
N OTE
P.E.;NeubauerConsultingEngineers;
DonaldNeubauer, Potomac,Maryland
WALLS
RETAINING
174 FreestqndingMosonryGorden Wqllsond Coping Detoils
GRAOE EOUAL
ON BOTH SIDES
TERMINATION
NOTES
NOTES 1. The radius of curuature (R) of a 4in. thick serpentine wall The running bond brick pattern is best {or serpentine
1. Design straight garden walls (without piers) with suffi- should be no more than twice the height of the wall wails.
cient thicknessto providelateralsrability. above finished grade. No r€inforcing steel is used in this type of wall.
2. To resist 10 psf wind pressure,the height above gradq 2. Th€ depth (D) of curvature of a s€rpentin€ wall should be Serp€ntine walls are not recommenoed for use in seismic
(H) and thickness(T) should relate as follows: H < .75T' no less than half the heighr of the wall above grade lmax. areas.
(H andT are in inches). height = 5 ft 0 in., typical).
COPING {ROWLOCK
BRICK SHOWN)
GALVANIZED
OR STAINLESS
STEEL ANCHOR
PANEL WALL
REINFORCEMENT
STEEL, TYP,
BRICK PANEL
(NO FOOTING
WALL
UNDER)
e@e
TERRA.COTTA
24" O.C
FUSHING
PIER REINFORCING
STEEL rlllt n fi|-)
\ ptEn roottruG
( I A- TO 24- DIAMtrER)
l--l t--l
BRICK (NO DRIP SHOWN)
NOTE Erfl /\
L.-r.'--l
In general, throughffill flashing should be used immediately
under the coping of garden walls. However, this decision
depends on several factors, including th€ type of coping PIER-ANO-PANEL SYSTEM
l--l
CAST STONE/CONCRETE
f--_]
used, the number of ,oints used, and ths climatic condilions
of the area (whether there is high or low precipitation and NOTES
the number of frezing and thawing cycl6s).
1. Copings and caps prev€nt water from entering the inner
w-- .%-,%=-,
COPING DETAILS rellfrom abov€ by shedding water to the sides. where it
is thrown clear of the ffill, usually by means ot a drip
REQUIRED EMBEDMENT FOR PIER €dge.
2. Anchor coping 6 necessary. lf the coping material is dif-
FOUNDATION*
(to PsF) ffi''t(ffi"t(ffi':
',,_m l.mi\,M/
.,ru,i
ferent from the wall material, compare their thermal and
moisture expansion characteristics and make provisions
fordifferential movement,
RETAINING
WALLS
Freestonding
MosonryGordenWolls,SeotWolls,ond Slep Detoils 175
FREESTANDI NG GARDEN WALLS Design factors that should be addressed when designing /- 2 X 6 PRESSURF.TRFATFn
freestanding garden walls include these: WOOD OR REDWOOD
Freestanding garden walls provide a physical or visual barrier
-.---! x4wooD
to outdoor areas. Walls higher than eye level (approximately Oualrty and durability of materials (unit material, mortar, %" x 2' wooo SPACER
5 ft 6 in.) provide both a physical and visual barrier; typically and.einforcement) and detailing when exposed over time 3/S" DIAMETER
they are situated near and designed to blend with an adia- to rain. wind, sun, thermal movement, and degradation
cent architectural structure. Walls designed under eyb'le,/el GALVANIZED
provide a sense of partial enclosure while maintaining a Appearance of both sides of the wall THREADED ROD
view, which is sometimes framed by the wall design. Foundation design WOOD PLUG
Adiacent plantings wooD
SCREW.
TYP.
_SLOPEDOWN %" GALVANIZED
STEEL PUTE
tl 1 %" STUCCO
3" DIAMNER
GALVANIZED
COPING WITH 8" OR r2"
STEEL POST
DRIP. EACH SIOE CMU WALL o
%" DIAMETER
BRICK HEADER X 6" LONG
REBAR (AS
(AS PER BOND GALVANIZED
NECESSARY)
PAfrERN) UG SCREW IN
LEAD ANCHORS
PAVERS
FACE BRICK
: %" SAND
SEfrING BED
STONE COPING
(2 STAINLESS
STEEL DOWELS
PER STONE)
BRICK COPING
WITHDRIP STONE VENEER
(4" MIN- DEPTH)
MASONRY
FACE BRICK ANCHORS
GROUT REINFORCED
CONCRETE
REBARS (AS
NECESSARY) BRICK VENEER SEAT WALL
STONE PAVERS
CONCRETE ON REINFORCED
FOOTING CONCRETE SUB TOP AND BOtrOM POSTS FOR %" THICK
RAIL_Sff IN 2" DIAMETER EXPANSION
HOLE. ALL WITH GROUT JOINT FILLER
STONE OR PRECAST
STEP SET IN MORTAR
%" RADIUS OF
CURVATURE AT
LEADING EDGE
(ADA)
NOTES
REBAR IN
NOSING. 1. Provide handrails on both sides of all stairs along accessi
ble routes.
REBAR IN 6" GRAVEL 2. Steo sur{aces should be slooed so waterwill notaccumu-
NOSING.
late on the walking surface.
REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE
FOOTINGS. TO FROST DEPTH FOOTING. TO FROST DEPTH 3. These details are for reference onlv. Consult ADAAG for
tread and handrail requirements for specific applications
BRICK and BOCA for riser-to-tread ratios
EDAW,lnc.:Alexandria,
DennisCarmichael; Virginia
WALLS
RETAINING
176 Freestonding
SloneWollsond Hedges
COPING. TYP
t\
-lf --tt--- t\ -tr
MORTAR JOINTS ## nli
RAKEO OUT %" MIN
--:-f:-T
--__-lf--lr
__Jr I l[
HEADER STONES
-Tr:=--'=--
BATTER BOTH
SIDES OF WALL COURSED WITH COURSED WITH
IRREGUUR COURSES REGULAR COURSES
t\ l-
l--
- ---tr---l p-
-.'-------1>:-
l.!<=4=-
__=_)=/ T V -
l(.-
-l*(
FOOTING (STONE OR COURSED WITH RANOOM-COURSED
CONCRflE, TYP.) BROKEN COURSES RANOOM BONO
HEADER STONES
(25% TO 30% OF WALL)
UNCOURSED WITH
ROUGH RUBBLE
o
COURSED
DRESSED ASHLAR
NER ASHI.AR WITH MARGIN DRAFT
BOTH SIDES
NOTE
Most types of stone canbe used for ston€ walls, but granite,
WELL.COMPACTEO limestone. sandstone, and slate are preferred. Ashlar and
EARTH FILL
rubbl€ are th€ main types of storework used for walls.
soo sTRrPs Ashlar is stone that has been cut and squared and can be
BETWEEN laid in straight courses to create a uniform, stable wall; its
surface can have any texture. Rubblestone has not been cut
FORM JOINTS or dressed. and stability is largely achieved by using header
STONE HEOGE CORNISH
stones that run through the wall, binding it together.
HEDGE
r-a --llrI-
(-
rl
rs9Tfifirgl
r#F F -+-+-C -a'-f--lrY
-\
lrl
--
< n\/
--
'"ffi -ffi r{
?5
-+r-!ffi (
\/
f
./
I
-.>-'l-'l'*:
-r.w+A.e
i--1 am
ffi.'"
R UB BLE
rusqrr[fi] ^nnnnnn
l4rrJd#JAp
-5-t
t1
-jffi.
-=ff
d{,qrl{hilnF''ilnnntr
t- ffi
l J
(
/
)
1
l % I _
+#k1-
!4
BUCK ANO TURF/GRASS
RETAINING
WALLS
EnvironmentolEffectsof Trees 177
GENERAL TREES PROTECT VIEWER
The physical environment of the site, the design needs of FROM GURE OF SURFACES
SUCH AS WATER. PAVING.
the project, and the design character of the trees are all fac
tors that must be considered in selecting trees and preparing
a landscape plan for a build'ng.
CROWN: HEAD OF
FOLIAGE OF TREE
LEAVES: FOLIAGE
UNIT OF TREE THAT
NOTE
FUNCTIONS PRIMARILY
IN FOOD MANUF A combination of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs
NOTE reduces sound more effectively than deciduous plants alone.
Planting trees and shrubs on earth mounds increases the
Large masses of plants physically and chemically filter and
attenuating eff€cts of a bufler belt.
ROOTS: ANCHOR THE TREE deodoriz€ the air, reducing air pollution. (Top) Particulate
AND HELP HOLD THE SOIL matler trapped on the leaves is washed to the ground during SOUND ATTENUATION
rainfall. Gaseous pollutants are assimilated by th€ leaves.
{Bottom) Fragrant plants can mechanically mask fumes and
odors. As well, these pollutants are chemically metabolized
in the photosynthetic process. LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE
COATED WITH THIN FILM OF
AIR FILTRATION WATER HOLDING IT FROM
ROOT HAIRS: ABSORB MINERAS
FROM THE SOIL MOISTURE AND
SEND THEM AS NUTRIENT SALTS
IN THE SAPWMD TO THE LEAVES
PLANTING
178 PlontingDeloils
DO NOT STAKE OR - AVOTD PURCHASING TREES WITH ruO LEADERS SOIL IMPROVEMENT
WRAP TRUNK; MARK // oR REMovE oNE AT pLANTTNG: orHERwtsE. oo
THE NORTH SIOE OF The quality of soil available for planting varies widely fro'
,/ NOT PRUNE TREE AT PLANTING EXCEPT FOR
THE TREE IN THE' SPECIFICSTRUCTURALCORRECTIONS site to site, especially after construction activity har
,/
NURSERY ANO LOCATE occurred. The nature ol construction results in comDaction
TO THE NORTH frl|ng, contaminatron, and grading ot the oilgrnal soil on
, ,' ./ / FOLD BURUP AWAY FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL
IN THE FIELD site, rapidly making it useless for plantlng Previous huma
!:t - '/
!!-..:2 ,/ activity at a site can also affect the ability o{ the soil to sul:
i.;:" ROOT BALL FLUSH TO GRADE OR SEVERAL
,,' /-SEr port plants.
INCHES HIGHER IN POORLY ORAINING SOIE
ffi 8 2 9
FOLD BURUP FROM TOP OF PREPARE SOIL IN THE ENTIRE ffi l0 4 10-
ROOT BALL OOWN INTO GROUND BED USING PROCEOURES
SET TOP OF BALL FLUSH OUTLINEO IN CHART BELOW 1 8-10 11 6
WITH FINISH GRADE
&10 12 1B 13)12
BEFORE PSNTING. ADD 3- TO 4"
2' MULCH (OO NOT OF WELL.COMPOSTEO LEAVES AND 1t lz G t4 20 13r l,
PUT MULCH AGAINST RECYCLEO YARD WASTE TO BED
THE BASE OF THE PLANT) AND TILL INTO TOP 6' OF 1fl, 14 22
PREPARED SOIL 2 2-14 24
2r l, 2-14 28 18r /,
t2" TO 18- (FOR
URGER SHRUB
3 4-16 18 32 19)12
ROOT BALG, UWN OR PAVING
4-16 18 38 23
MAKE DEPTH
MIN,4" DEEPER CONTAINER GROWN PLANT
4 1G18 22 42 25
THAN BALL) WITH ROOTS PULLEO OUT OF BAL - 5 18-20 26 54 32-
*Up to and includingthe 4in. calipersize,the calipermea
SOIL SURFACE ROUGHENED
TO BIND WITH NS SOIL surement indicatesthe diameter of the trunk 6 in. above
ground level. For larger sizes, the caliper measurementrs
a" To 12"
taken 12 in. aboveground l€vel.
PREPAREO SOIL FOR SHRUBS BALLED AND BURUPPED PUNT
NOTES NOTES
1. For conlainergrown shrubs, use fingers or small hand the soil imdiately aroundthe r@t ballat mt€s specified 1. See American Standardfor Nursery Stock, ANSI 260.1.
tools to pull the r@ts out of the outer layerof potting soil; bv the manufacturer. for mmd€te list of nurserystandardsfor other types and
then cut or pull apartany r@ts that circletho perimeterof 3. Confirmthat water drainsout ol the soil duringth€ design sizesof trees and shrubs.
tne contarner. phase;designalternativedrainagesystemsas required. 2. Se IntemationalSmiety of Arboriculture's"Principlesand
2. Incorporate@mmrcialv preparedmyorrhiza spores in Practicesof PlantingTreesand Shrubs," 1997.
SHRUB PT.ANTING DETAILS
GENERAL RANGE OF SOIL MODIFICATIONS AND VOLUMES FOR VARIOUS SOIL CONDITIONS
POSTCONSTRUCTION SOIL CONDITION MIN. \lv|DTH PREPARED SOIL FOR TREES (X) TYPE OF PREPARATION
Good soil (not previously graded or compacted, topsoil layer 6 ft or twice the width of the root ball, whichever is greater Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in
Intact) details above.
Compacted soil {not previously graded, topsoil layer disturbed bul 1 5f r Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in
not eliminated) details above; add composted organic matter to bring the organic
content up to 5% dry weight.
Graded subsoils and clean fills with clav content between 5 and 20ft Minimum treatment:loosenexistingsoil to widths and depths
35v" shown, add compostedorganicmalter to bring organiccontent
up to 5?o dry weight.
Optimumtreatment:removetop 8-10in. or the existingmaterial,
loosenexistingsoils to the widths and depthsshown, add 8l 0
in.of loamtoDsoil.
or qualaty tills, heaw clay soils, soils contaminated with rubble 2011 Remove existing soils to the widths and depths shown, .eplace
toxic malerial with loam topsoil.
PLANTING
TreePlontingond Protection 179
CONSTRUCTION AROUND
EXISTING TREES
<2O
Great care should be taken not to compact, cut, or fill the I
earth within the crown area ot existing trees. Most tree doo
roots are located in the top 6 to 18 in. of the soil and often
spread considerably tarther than the drip line of the tree.
Compaction can cause severe root damage and reduce the
,- wooD, sToNE, oR cMU
movemenl of water and ai. through the soil. To avoid com
pacting the earth, do not operate equipment or store matera- ;ood ,// ORY WELL (WITH NO
FOOTING)
als within the crown spread.
PERFORATED VENT
CAP TO PROTECT PIPE
well into the root save area- Rot and disease that enters GRADE FROM CLOGGING ANO
dying roots in compacted or filled areas can move into the : PERMIT AIRFLOW
tree it root pruning has not been carried out. Install tree prc
tection fencing and silt protection at the limits of construc-
tion activity near trees.
NEW
GRADE T PERFORATED PIPE UID
GRAOE (4" DIAMETER
ON OLD
MtN.)
During construction, apply additional water in the canopy
area to compensate tor any root loss beyond the crown
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH
spread- Have all mature trees inspected by a certified
BEYOND VENT LINE
arborist before construction begins to identify any special
oroblems. Remove all deadwood and treat all tre€s for exist-
ing insect and disease problems. When possible, begin fertil- DRAIN TO
ization and problem treatments at least one full growing DAYLIGHT :t_-:::_::=: 'o" o.c., MIN.
season betore construction. VENTEO T SECTION COLLECTS
DRAINAGE FROM ORY WELL
Removal of significant portions of the crown will affect the AREA CONNECTING TO DRAIN
health of a tree by reducing its ability to photosynthesize in CRUSHED STONE LEADING TO DAYLIGHT
proportion to the mass of its trunk. Younger, healthier trees
FILLING AROUND EXISTING TREE
withstand construction impacts better than older trees.
2X PLANKING
LOOSELY CABLED WITHIN CROWN SPREAD
AROUND TREE WOOD AND
AREA RETAIN EXISTING wtRE sNow
VEGETATION OR APPLY FENCE ON
2- TO 3" MULCH
UNDERGROUND UTILITY LINE NEAR CUTTING GRADE AROUND EXISTING FILLING GRADE AROUND EXISTING
EXISTING TREES TREE TREE
PLANTING
180 TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
CROWN EXPANDS 6" IO I 8"
EVERY GROWING SEASON
INSPECTION
NUTRIENTS
RooM \T
TO GROW
D '
ROOM
TO GROW
[--l o"o'*oo.
\-.2
CLOSELY SPACED TREES (OR
TREES NEXT TO BUILDINGS) CAUSE NOTE
SIGNIFICANT CROWN COMPETITION,
Soil volume provided for trees in urban areas must be suffi
INSIDE BRANCHES DIE AND TREE
DEVELOPS LONG,TERM
cient for long-term maintenance.
STRESS.RELATED PROBLEMS
SOIL VOLUME-REQUIREMENTS FOR
TREES
DRIP LINE OR CANOPY PROJECTION
510" TO 6:0'
RAOIUS AROUND TRUNK IS
ZONE OF RAPID ROOT TAPER INTERCONNECTED SOIL VOLUMES
UNOER PAVING FROM TREE TO TREE
TRUNK FURE EXPANDS AT
ruICE THE RATE OF THE TRUNK NOTE
(€A5ILY DAMAGED AND OAMAGES ROOTS GROW HORIZONTALLY
ADJACENT PAVII{G AND TREE GRATES) WELL BEYONO ORIP LINE The interconnectionof soil volumes from tree to tree has
(12" TO 24" DEEP WITH NO TAPROOT) been observedto improvethe healthand vigor of trees.
TREE STRUCTURE_PARTS AND GROWING CHARACTERISTICS SOIL VOLUME_INTERCON NECTION
PLANTING
TreePlontingin UrbonAreqs r8l
Although it is possible to design uncompacled sorl volumes MAKE OPENING
GENERAL for trees under pavement, this is very expensive and the soil
REINFORCED CONCRETE
AS URGE AS
OVER SOIL TRENCH
Traditional urban designs in which trees are regularly spaced is never as efficient as that in open planting beds. Increasing POSSIBLE
LOOSELY
in small openings within paved areas generally result in poor trunk size can only be accommodated by using tlexible mate-
COMPACTED
tree performance. This is because such designs generally do rials that can change configuration gver time. Urban designs LOAM SOIL
not provide adequate soil for root g.owth and ignore the fact that have flexible relationships between trees, pavrng, aod CONTINUOUS
that trees musl significantly increase trunk srze every year. planting beds and large areas of open planting soil offer the FROM TREE
As well, competition for space, both at ground level and best opporlunity for long-term tree heallh and lowet matnte' TREE
below, is intense in urban areas nance cosls.
CONTINUOUS
MULCHED OR
PUNTEO AREAS
-r
SIDEWALK
NOTE
CONTINUOUS Best design option: Separate planting and walking areas ORAIN LINE
MULCHEO OR Avoid small disconnected soil volumes to minimize roovpav-
PUNTED AREAS ing con{licts.
SIDffALK
STRUCTURAL SOIL
IMPROVED SOILS
+ u'"", _+ MIX CONTINUOUS
OVER ENTIRE AREA
NOTE STRUCTURAL SOIL
Acceptabledesign option: Plantingbetween curbs and side- NOTE
walks in a continuous unpavedplantingbed providesgood Structural planting soils replace subgrade material with a fill
soil levelsfor trees but contributesto roovpavingconflictsas that can be mmpacted to meet normal engineering compac-
rrees malure- tion requirements and still suppon root groMh below the
#i
-O- ' pavement. The principle is that when the gravel is compacted,
\2O'-O- TO 2s
- NARROW SPACING the soil is rct because the amount of soil in the mix is insuffi-
NOTE INCREASES TREE PRoaLEMS cient to fill all the voids. Hydrogel, a crosslinked polassium
copolyrer, is used to help bind the mixture during the mixing
process. The soil mix includes ASHTO #4 gravel (100 lb calcs
10'-o" lated dry weight), shredded clay loam (1t18 lb). hydrogel
OR LESS {0.03 lb}, and water r10 (including the water calculated in the
gravel and the soil). For further information, contact the Urban
Horticulture Institute at Cornell University (lthaca, NY).
10 - o"
OR MORE ROOT PATH TRENCH
SET IN RADIAL CONCRflE
PANERN
CONTINUOUS FROM
GRAVEL,
CONTINUOUS TREE {4" ASTM #57
INTERCONNECTION OF WIOE X
SOIL FROM TREE TO TREE
REOUIRED UNDER PA DEEP)
NOTE
Difficulr design option: In highly developed areas wrth park'
ing adiacent to the curb, planting in long narrow tree open- INTERCONNECTION OF TREE SOIL
ings with an 18-in. wrde walk along the curb accommodales FROM BED TO BEO REOUIRED
pedestrians exiting cars. RmVpavrng conflicts are probable.
NOTE
MAKE Oifficult design option: Shading. slow tree groMh, and poor
OPENINGS health are problems. Roovpaving conflicts are likely.
AS URGE
AS POSSIBLE ROOT PATH TRENCH
Annapolis,
Architecture;
JamesUrban,ASLA;JamesUrbanLandscape Maryland
PLANTING
182 TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
a -o"To |o -o"oPT|MUM
TRASH COLLECTS (COST AND STRUCTURAL
UNDER GRATE
MULCH I " - SLOPE DOWN AT 5%. MIN R E O U I R E M E N T SL T M I TS I Z E )
TO 2" THICK
WATERPROOF MATERIAL
WRAP FILTER WITH PROTECTION BOARD
FABRIC UP SIDES
OF ALL RISERS
PUSTIC ORAINAGE
AND CONDUITS
MATERIAL ON BONOM
AND TIE OFF WITH
AND SIDES TO WITHIN
COPPER WIRE
2" OF FINISHED GRAOE
RING DAMAGES
WOVEN FILTER FABRIC TRUNK OR REAUIRES
\:
lLE_qqErr_iryqa9l!9,/
AND EVENTUAL REMOVAL/
REOUIRED SIDEWALK EDGE
STRUCTURE ALTERS ROOT PANERN
ruO,LEVEL PUNTING SOIL (COMPACTED
SOIL COMPACTION REOUIRED FOR
ROOF ORAIN TO 80% DRY DENSITY)
SIOEWALK SUPPORT REDUCES ROOT ..))
SLOPE DOWN AT 2% NOTE
OVERUP FILTER COMPACT PAD UNOER ALL TREES Tree grates decorate the base of a tr€e but provide no signif
CLOTH JOINTS I 2' WITH 2" CALIPER (TRUNK DIAMETER) i€nt benefit. Many aspects of tree grates can damage a tree
MIN. AND PIN TOGtrHER OR LARGER or reduce its potential for growth.
ROOFTOP PT.ANTER TREE GRATES
SELECTING PLANTS FOR for shrubs.24 in. deep:and for lawns, 12 in. deep ('lO in. if
ROOFTOP PLANTING irrigated).
When choosingplantsfor a r@ftop setting,@nsiderthe fac- SOIL VOLUME: To determino sufficient soil volume- see
tors outlinedbelow: chart on SoilVolumesfor Trees (on anotherAGS pagein this
section).
WIND TOLERANCE:Higherelevationsand exposureto wind
can euse defoliationand incr€asethe transpirationrate of SOIL WEIGHT: The saturated weight of normal soil mix
plants. High parapet walls with louvers can reduce wind rangesfrom 10Oto 120 pcf, dependingon soil type and com-
velocityand provideshelter for plants. paction rate. Soils can be made lighter by adding expanded
shale or perlite. Soils lighter rhan 80 pcf cannot provide
HIGHEVAPORAIIONRATE:The drying effects of wind and structureadequateto suppon trees.
sun on the soil in a planter redu@ soil moisture rapidly.lrri-
gation, mulches. and moistureiolding soil additives (diate DRAINAGEFABRIC:Plastic drainagematerial should be a
roceous earth or organicmatter) help reducethis moisture minimum of 1/,in. thick. Most drajnagematerialcomes with
toss. a filter fabricanached.but the overlapjoints providedar€ not
wide enough tor the unconsolidatedsoils tound in planters.
RAPIDSOILTEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION: The variation A second layer of woven filter fabric, delivered in rolls
in cmduction capacityof plantermaterialsresults in a broad greaterthan 10 ft in width, shouldbe instalted.Tuck the fats
rangeof soil temperaturesin plantersof different materials. ric over the exposedtop of the drainagematerialto keep soil
Cold or heat can causesevere rmt damagein certain plant out of the drainagelayer.
species,Properdrainagehelpsalleviatethis @ndition.
INSULATION:Most plantersdo not requireinsulation:how-
TOPSOIL:lmprove topsoil in planters to provide optimum ever, in colder climates planters with small soil volumes
growing conditionsfor the pbnts selected. A general for- l@ated over heated structures may require insulation.Con-
mula calls for adding fenilizer {d€terminedby soil testing} sult localsourcesfor a list ot cold-hardyolants.
and one part peat moss to fiv€ pans sandy loam topsoil.
More specific requirementstor certainvarietiesof plants or
grassesshouldbe considered. SIZE OF GUARD TO
FIT OUTSIDE OF
ROOTCAPACITY:Choose plant speciesGrefutly, consider- ROOT BALL ANO
NOT DAMAGE
ing their adaptationto the size of the plant bed. lf species SWAYING TRUNK
with shallow,fibrous roots are used insteadof soecieswith
a c@rse root system, consult with a nurseryadvisor_Con-
siderthe ultimale maturityof the plant specieswhen sizinga
otantet- URGE OPENING
ON SIDES ANO
PLA,NTING DETAILS BOTTOM TO AVOID
TRASH REMOVAL
SOIL DEPTH:Minimum soil depth in a planter varies with PROBLEMS
SAND ONLY
the plant type: lor largetrees, the soil shouldbe 36 in. dep
or 6 in. d€eperthan the r@t ball;for srull trss, 30 in. deep:
LOOSE.Sff SUPPORTS
DESIGNEO TO BE SANO.SET PAVERS
REMOVAALE
IN IO YEARS
NOTE
Tree gurds €n protect young trees from trunk damage
- - - - - 7 'I causedby bicycles.lf made too small,however(lessthan 30 LOW FENCE AND GROUND COVER
uwN--t in. in diameter ), th€y can damage the tree as it grows and
are difficult to remove.The high cost and potentialharm to NOTE
NOTE
trees outweigh the minor protetion tree guards afford a Alternatives to tree grates (and guards) include softer, or-
Young tre€s planted in lawn areas face substantial competi- trunk. They should only b€ used in areas with particularlv ganac coverings that suit the purpose better, are less expen-
lion trom the roots of grasses. high traffic. sive, and require less maintenance over the life of the tree.
TREES PLANTED IN LA\ivNS TREE GUARDS TREE BASE PROTECTION
PLANTING
t84 Economyof Concrete Formwork
GENERAL
FLAT BEAM -\
Formworkcosts are a substantialparl of the total cost of
putting concrete in place-anywhere from 35 to 60 per-
COLUMN
cent.Thus,by developingdesignelementsand detailsthat
simplifyor standardizeform requirements,
the architectcan
help containoverallcosts:
N=il6
2. Use a preconstructionmockup:The architectand builder saB
./-
should agreeon the locationand desired appearanceof COLUMN
architecturalsurfaces before any of the exposed con- @LUR
crete work begins. Specify a ful-scale preconstruction @LUMN
mockup to help achieve this and to avoid postconstruc-
tion disagreements.
36rs^?s CONSTRUCT(
3. Handleforms in largepanels:This also reducesconstruc-
tion costs. Wherever possible, make uninterrupted
formed areasthe same size. Increasingthe size of such
areasenablesthe builderto combineform panelsinto
w folP MID-c:c)ST
JOTNT -
HIGH-CO€iT
MID-COST FORMWORK FORMWORK
gangs for efficientcrane use- HIGH-COST
FORM\^/ORK FORM\n/ORK
a. Simplifydesjgn details: Intricaciesand irregularitiescost NOTE
more and often do not add proponionatelyto the aes- N OTE
Flat beams designed to be equal in depth & the floor
thetic effect. In general,the least costly designto form has columnsthe assembly are th€ least costly, since they mod €fficientlv
same width or narrower than the beams they suppon. accommodateflying form construction.Deeps. harrower
allowinglhe beam form to be erectedin a continuoustine. beams cost more, but if deeper beams are necded, costs
In midrost formwork design, the beam bottom foms are can be controlledby making the beam the sam thickness
cut to fit around the column tops. ln high{ost formwork as the column depth and at least panially uFclrrned.The
design, the beam lorms are fitted into p@kets on both most costly option is a column thickerthan the bam, since
sides of the column{orms. this requiresa columncollarwith constructionirirt.
awooD
BEAM-TO.COLUMN
ECONOMIES
FORMWORK sE Cm -
ONOMIES
FORM
FACING 2',-O', 4 €', OR
A'-O' MODULE. WP.
TIES. WP.
(2'O' O.C.. -
STANDffiD
ERTIGL) DIMENSIONAL
AT PANEL LUMBER
JOIMS FORMWORK 7." R,WOOD
FOruWORK
4-'
MODULE OR DEflH G
F@TING
A'O' MODULE DROP
S1-.A,B FORMWOFIK
4'{' TO RECOMMENDED N OTE
8',-O' MODULE
FOOTING DESIGN Adapting design elements to the modular si€ of torm,
NOTE work lumber and plywood and dimensioning p€ns o{ the
structure to fit the modules can save the expme of cus
When stepped footings are required.use lewer steps and lom formwork. For example, to save the waste ild time of
PANEL design them to standardlumber and plwvood dimensions sawing and piecing together the edge form, make the
HANDLE or modulardivisionsof thesedimensions. depth of the drop in a slab equal to the aclual size of stan
WALL FOOTINGS dard lumb€r plus % in. for the pl.iryood's thicknss.
2 €' MtN
CONCRETE STEEL PUTE OR ANGLE
CAST INTO CONCEIE
L-.,,"
frEN WELDED TO
ADOINING WALL NATE
MTTAL
@NCRETE POURED ONTO
EXSTING FL@R %B ON
i*
GroE (FORM LIMRS UID
FORM
oN smB onroN4)
T*EADED
LIMNC
HffiDWARE
C€T INTO
CdCRETE
(4'MrN.)
HOLE FOR
PN (S/EDGE
THROUGH
sLoT rN qN) BLMKOU]
FG
aY cof
FItrING OPENING
NOTES BLOCKING
AND BRACES
NOTE
1. Commonly made of steel-{ramed plywood, panels are EDGE FORMS
also availabl€ in aluminum. Wall tles (typically flat ties) Installing and removing ties and patching tie holes are
and wall forms are held together by slotted pins that run some of the most labor-intensive operations in forming
TILT.UP WALL FORMWORK
through adjoining holes. A wedge pushed down into the wlls. Also. getting a durable, inconspicuous patch often
proves difficult. Avoid this problem by specifying smooth N OTE
slot alongside the wall lorm tightens the joint. SeMce life
can be extended by turning or replacing the plyw@d cone fittings at the tie ends, then either leaving the result- ln tilt-up construction, walls are cast on the completed lloor
Iace. ing unitorm tie holes exposed or plugging them with pre- slab, which must be level, smoothly finished, and treated
formed concrete plugs and a bonding agent. Leave no with a bond-breaking agent to permit easy separation. The
2. Reusable plastic liners may be attached to inner surfaces
exposed corrodible metal within 1r/2 in. of concrete surface. wall is then tilted or lifted into vertical position and lastened
to oroduce oatterned concrete.
Contractors may propose tie spacing wider than 2 ft o.c. to to the adjoining wall piece. This method reduces formwork
3. For maximum economy, panels can be assembled in reduce the total number ot ties to save monev. but this and labor and eliminates transportation requirements that
large gangs and set in place by crane. calls for stronger ties and heavier form suppons. mav limit oanel size.
HAND.SET MANUFACTURED WALL FORM TIE PATTERN TILT.UP WALLS
FORMS
Mary K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
3 CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
ConcreteFormworkfor Columnsond Footings lg5
REBAR ,-2X4
TEMPLATE SPACER
/
2X4TEM-
PLATES FOR
REBAR OR
ANCHOR
BOLTS
7." STEEL
AAND
PANEL OF %'
ROD _'
WITH2X4CLEATS 2X4
STAKE
WALL FOOTINGS
--2X4STAKE
WALL AEOW
ELEVATION
WALL FOOTING PLAN COLUMN FOOTINGS
rt
I
//-2X4 I
f
I
L
ts
I
L
I
I
E
TuckerConcreteFormCompany;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
186 Concrete Formworkfor Wqlls
DOUBLE WALERS
RUSTICATION
(PREFERRED)
EPOXY ON
SILL OR PGTE 45'CUT
WALL TIES
F@TING
(CONCRETE)
TONGUE AND
|')'j'j#
GROOVED t\ /l
(WITH CAULKING) t><l
BRACE TO SOLID t/ \l
CONSTRUCTION.
AS NECESSARY
l -e . i v . I r
TAPED
o.c. l------/l
l-'-----l
: . . .3 : a
SPLINED IT
TYPICAL SITE.BUILT WALL FORM\ivORK (wtTH cA'r.JLKrNG) l\\-/- |
l/-\-l
COIL TIE - REMOVABLE
W@D OR
W@D SruD
CONE
BOLT AND GASKETED WITH
WASHER ruBLE CLOSED CELL rery | \ /
WAERS COMPRESSIBLE |I
MATERIAL |-
| ---"\
TIE ROD
SECTION AT WALL TIE
NE END
SITE-BUILT WALL FORMS TYPICAL EXPOSED CONCRETE
ELEVATION
ruYFORM
SHilTHING
@RNER LOCK
CONCRETE
MO2X4
PLruOOD WALERS
2X4STUD
2X4SruD
NE
lX4SHOE
ruo2x4
WALERS
CONCRETE
NOTE
Verify size and spacing of components for each job. The
combination of plyform sheathing, studs, walers, and ties
must be chosen carefully to safely resist contrete pressure
and limit deflection of the lom face. St€el and aluminum
studs and Mlers my be used in place of wood.
TYPICAL WALL WITH OFFSET TYPICAL CORNER TYPICAL JOB-BUILT WALL SECTION
NOTES
1. The typical wood and plywmd framing details shown
2X4SruD 2X4SruD must b€ modified as necessary to accommdate the lat
eral pressure of fresh concrete on the forms. Studs and
walers of aluminum or steel are frequently used. Lateral
pressure varies depending on the rate at which the torm
is filled. lhe temperature of the concrete, vibration proce
dures. and the type of admixtures used in the concrete.
2. Consult manufacturers'recommendations for sate work
ing loads on ties. Consult the American Concrete Insti
lute's Formwork for Concrete (SP-4) for detailed design
recomrendations,
3. A great variety of form ties are commercially available
(see AGS page on concrete formwork hardware). For
ruo2x4 architectural surfaces exposed to weather, choose a tie
WALERS
that leaves no corrodible metal closer than 1'l, in. from
the concrete surface. Ties should be tighr fitting and
sealed as necessary to prevent leakage at holes in the
forms.
2X4SruD 4- Ties tift€d with wood or plastic cones should leave
depressions at least as deep as the surface diameter of
the cone. Th€ holes may be filled with recessed plugs or
PILASTER TYPICAL T WALL JUNCTION left unfilled if noncorroding ties are used.
5. Provide cleanout d@rs at the bottom of wall torms.
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
Mary K. Hurd;€ngineeredPublications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
CONCRETE
FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
Concrete Formworkfor Slobsond Beoms 187
GENERAL NOTES 3 Patented steel forms or tillers can be special ordered for
unusual conditions; see manufacture.s' catalogs Fiber
1. Scaffolding, steel shores, or wood posts may be used forms are also on the market in simila. sizes. Plyform
under stringers depending on loads and height require- deck is required for forming.
menls. 4. Plyform is usually % in. minimum thickness, Exposure 1
2. For flat slabs of {lat plate forming. metal "flying forhs"
are commontv useo.
CONCRETE
'at'
STRINGER ''-\
2b' \
.:+<
SCREW Foo€*.or- )
WIDE JACK N OTES 5.,a'RIBS) /
BOARD -
-a'To TUBUSR 1. Standard waffle slab forms are square for ease of use
SCAFFOLDING and economy. Dimensions vary slightly from manufac-
turer to manufacturer. Consult ANSI A48.2-l986 tor com'
plete dome form standards.
2. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass.
TYPICAL PAN FORM TYPICAL CENTERING Consult form manufacturer for options in material, tex-
N OTES tures, and dimensaons.
1. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass. naildown lorm but with board insert for smooth aooear- TYPICAL DOME FORM FOR WAFFLE OR
Consult manulacturers for forms with different dimen- (withoutflanges;producessmooth
ance);and adiustable TWO-WAY SLAB
sions and riF.form variations. Typically three types are rab).
FORMWORK SPLIT
available: nailiown llange (simplest, but produces 2. ConsultANSI A48.1-1986for comDleteoan form stan- TO ACCOMMODATE
rough, nonarchitectural surface); slip-in type (based on dards. WATER STOP
- CONCRflE sua
TYPICAL PAN FORM FOR ONE.WAY SLAB
QG SUB
'.'t'
LESS THAN
GUARDRAIL
CENTER BULB
FOLDING
NOTE
Waterslops are flexible barriers used to prevent the pas-
sage of liquids and gasses under pressure through joints in
concrete slabs. Waterstops are typically made of polwinyl
chloride, and their shapes vary according to application. lf a
center bulb is specified, it musl remain unembedded in the
OfRIGGER center of the ioint.
HEAD
SLAB FORMWORK WITH WATER STOP
ADJUSTABLE
WIDTH
THREADED
HANGERS
RYFORM
. -'---- DECK
GUARDRAIL
@NCREE [.
PLYFORM
JI II
BEAM SIDES
ll ll
/- JOTSTS il' tl BAM
LEreER/ STEEL
WALER -.\ l.
\ WPE
HANGER
COIL
AEAM BLOCKING
aofroM
SCAFFOLDINlG
|uNKS BEAM
SIDE
JOIST
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
r88 Concrete FormworkHordwqre
GENERAL waLER PLruOOD FORMWORK \ STItrF BACK
\ CAM:
Concreteformworkhardwareincludesties,anchors,hang-
I'1
ers,and spacersused to holdformsand reinforcements in
placeagainstthe forces of unhardenedconcrete and other
loadsappliedduringconstruction. Concretd.tiesare tensile
units adaptedto hold concrete lorms together and may be
classifiedby use or by loadrarrying capacitta.Classifiedby
use are two main concrete tie types: "continuous single WALL SECTION
member," in which the entire tie rod extends throuoh the
TrE GRTPPEF</
wall and through both sides ol the formwork (this ca; be a
pullout tie or a snap{ff tie},and "internaldisconnecting," CONE
in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded
connectronsto removableexternalmembers.Classifiedby CAM BRA*ET
-fitrlao%'Dra
load{arrying capacityare lightiuty {safe working loads of NorE WALL SECTION
TIE ROD I OOP
up to 3750 lb) 6nd heavy{uty (loadsot more rhan 3750 tb) CONNtrCTS ] O
concreteties. SaIe working load shouldbe set at no more Fiberglassform ties, straight rods secured with reusable
than half the tie's ultimate strength. Other hardwaresvs- external metal grippers, have safe working loads ranging
tems and configurationsmay be available;consult manutac- lrcm 2250 to 25,000 psi. The ries are readilybroken off or
turersfor comoletedetails. cut at th€ concretesurface,then groundflush.
FIBERGLASS FORM TIE
"*1;d+ffiBRAcKtrr
caMBRA.KET=^,.rq-ft+ -\
C:aMCRAN(/ I
srlFF BAcK aM (FASreNS aND -flJ
TIGHENS WRf ICAL STUDS
TO HOR|ZONTAL WALLRS) ,..-/
NOTE
Thislightiuty system is suitablefor iob-setforms.
WALL SECTION
CAM LOCK BRACKET/TIE SYSTEM
CONE
WALER (offiroNAL) SCAF-
FOLDING ,/-FORVWORK
-SETBACK 6'
WALL SEC:TION HE-BOLT MIN.
9', MrN.
SPREADER
BaD. LocarEs HOT FC)RGED
SPRADER WASHER- HAD
COiL-END
LOOP
CONCRETE ANGOR
BREAKBACK
Coil ties are medium- to heavyduty ties fabricaled to WASHER TYPE
ANTITURN FATURE
accepta threadedbolt, which passesthroughthe lormwork (FUT OR CRTMP) WALL SECTION
tummr. PUSTTC CONe
WTH e}REAKBACK -AE-BOII
(C..ATED wlTH
cotL TrEs INSIDE CONE E /-
(
r.- TO /
RELilSE AGENT)
r; orn /
CONE TYPE
\ rrrnnrnnr+m ffi
reDGE NOTE
AND BOLT
Snap ties are a type of through tie for lightduty use, fabri-
"oi= 9ffi3"13.^ --'N
cated so the exposed ends ol the tie cah be snapped of{ at The coil anchor is embedded near the top of a concrete lifr
the breakback (a notch in the rodl. The antiturn device to support the formwork of the succeeding lift. The reus
MOOUUR
j /
FORM makes it easier to break off the exoosed end. able hebolt is threaded into the coil.
a+
secure and space modular wall forms. aNcHoR --__\
cotL TtE __\ l(@--
n A ,*
FLAT TIE
gF;- ilnr .nsmrry- W_E fNSrDe rE RoD
(1hao 1. DA.)-
,/
l
N OTE
NS---_\ - '
@tL noo txctraDco
NOTE corL RoD She-bolts are reusble heavyduty tie components threaded
onto an internal tie rod permanently embedded in the con-
Rmk anchors are used with coil ties to facilitate one-side
crete. They are typiclly used with crane+andled forms.
FUT torming of walls.
WASHER / SHE-BOLT/TIE ROD
ROCK ANCHOR
WALL SECTION
11/4' fO
DIA,
2\h' -- WATER
WASHER
BARRIER
(1'OR
t
I '4. Dta.)
CONE (LENGTH -
1" rO 2.h'frp.)
STAB
TO aCCEPT TrE
)
A,.rir
u)7 dk
34. TO
Steel wedges are placed at the outside threaded ends of HIGH CHAIR SIDE
W
NOTE
pullout or snap tie rods, holding the tormwork in place. N OTE
Generally used lor heavyduty loads of up to 5O,O0Olb, the Plastic or wood cones mav be placed on the tie rod at the Bar supports are used to maintain the reinlorcement's
taper tie system is a versatile forming system whose parts Jormwork wall surface, so that when the formwork is design distancefrom the wall sides or slab bottom. They
are removed after the concrete sets and mav be reused. removed the tie rod ends are set back Jor subsequent fin- are typicallymade ot stainlesssteel or epoxy- or plastic
Tres may be installed after lorms are in place. ishing (with plugs, erc.). coatedsteel.
STEEL TAPER TIE TIE ROD ACCESSORIES REINFORCING BAR AND MESH
SUPPORTS
Ma.y K. Hurd;Engineered
Publications;
Farmington
Hills,Michigan
3 CONCRETE
FORMS
ANDACCESSORIES
ReinforcingBqrsond Wire r89
ffi;==-ffi,-^*
H
GENERAL
Steei reintorcement ior concrete conslsts of rernforcrng
bars and welded wire fabric. Bars are manulactured by hot-
roll p.ocess as round rods with lugs, or deformations, which
inhibit longitudinal movemenl of lhe bar in the surrounding
concrete Bar sizes are indi€ted by-numbers. For sizes #3
through #8, the numbers are the number of eighths of an
inch in the nominal diameter of the ba.s. Numbers g, 10.
and 1 1 are round and cotrespond to the former 1 in., 1rls in., NUME}ER SYSTEM
and 1rL in. square sizes. Sizes #14 and #18 correspond to
ONE LINE MO LINES
the former 1rl, in. and 2 in. square sizes. The nominal diam-
eter of a deformed bar is equal 10 the actual diameter of a MAIN RIBS
plain bar with the same weight per foot as the deforred
SYMBOL OF
bar. Epoxy-coated, zinc{oated {galvanized}, and stainless PRODUCING
steel reinforcing bars are used when corrosion protection is MILL TRANSVERSE --''
needed: stainless steel also has nonmagnetic properties. in LUGS
some instances. a fiberreintorced plastic (FRP) rebar is
used for highly specialized concrete reinforcement because ryPE STEEL GRADE
of its high tensile strength and light weight. corrosion resis- (NEW BILLET) MARKS
tance, and dielectric (nonconductive) properties. FRP rebars GRADE 40 GRADE @ GRADE 75
are manufactured in the same sizes as steel rebars and also GRADE 50
have deformations on the surface. Consult manufacturers LINE SYSTEM
NOTE
for f urther information.
Steel iype grademarks:S-billet (4615).l-rail (4616).lB-
Welded wire fabric is used in thin slabs. shells. and other railmeetingsupplementaryrequirements, Sl (A616),A-axle
designs in which available space is too limited to give (4617),W-low alloy(A706).
orooer cove. and clearance to deformed ba.s. Welded wire
tabric. also called mesh. consists ot cold drawn wire REINFORCING BAR GRADE MARK IDENTIFICATION
(smooth or delormed) in onhogonal panerns; it is resis-
tance welded at all intersections. STANDARD STEEL WIRE SIZES AND GAUGES
PLAIN WEIGHT
Wire in the form of individual wire or groups of wires is WIRE (LB/
used in the fabrication of prestressed concrete. NUMBER LIN. FT)
steel
LOIGITUoINAL
-------#"
Spacing Wire Size LONGITUDINAL
WIRE
1l-'
T R A N S V E R SE
" >- TRANSVERSE
wtR€ -_-/ WIRE
Weldedtabric<W1.2
METHOD OF DESIGNATION FOR Vi/ELDED \^r'IRE FABRIC S i z e> W 1 . 2
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
t90 ReinforcingBorsond Wire
orueNsror I oR G,
DETATLTNG
_-*_'--_--t--t DETAILING DIMENSION
+r____r-.-"..---------..---
|-----T-.------.-;-
-l 14 ("/
'(l
|
.1.-ff
#
oR 2rl2'MIN
STANDARD HOOK
ConcreteReinforcingSteel Institute:Schaumburg,lllinois
CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
Plqcemenlof SteelReinforcement t9t
oowELs
, IcoNTTNUATTON
REINFORCING DETAILS
WELDED
1 . 15 BAR AT TOP OF SUB SPLICE
OPENING MAY HAVE ANY
SHAPE OTHER THAN O
ANGLE
SHOWN HERE
RECTANGLE SMALL
. o rs ( M A X . ) FOR REINFORCING BAR S
APPLICATION
p46E pp AREA (MlN.)
3,,MAX. 2 - *5 BARS AT 4TH FLOOR
lN&'*
REINFORCEMENT
2t t2" ao 4t t2
TO 4't2
6 o125L OI5L(MAX)
C. . C. SPAN L
COLUMN STRIP WAFFLE FUT MIDDLE STRIP 24'TO 36
SLAFSQUARE BAY CONSYRUCTION c.-c.
REINFORCEMENT
CONCRETE
192 Concrefe Admixtures
GENERAL Concrete should be workable, finishabte, slronq. durabte.
NOTES
watertight, and wearaesistant. These qualilres cian usuallv
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other tban
be achreved by selectrng surtable matefials or bv chanaina 1- The effectiveness of an admixture depends on such fa.
portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to
the mix proportions. Sometimes airentrainrno jdm,rt,]rei tors as type, brand, and amount of cement; water con
the mixture immediately before or during.mixing. Admix-
are necessary, but in most cases admixturei can be for_ tent; aggregate shape, gradation, and proponions: mix;ng
tures can.be classified by function as follows: air€ntraininq
gone. No admixture can substitute for good concreting trme; slump: and concrete and air temperatures.
admxturesj water reductng admixtures; retardrng admix.
practice. 2. Trial mixtures should be m€de with the admixture anrt
tures:.accelerating admixturesj superplastjcizers; tinely
divided mineral admixtures; miscellaneous admixtures thai the iob materials at temperatures and humidities antic
The major reasons for using admixtures are to reduce the pated on the job to ensure compatibility wjth otheJ
aid workability, bondrng, dampproofrng, gas-tormrng, grout_
cost of concrete construction; to achieve certain properties admixtures and job materials and to allow obseruation ot
Ing lrcnsnnnk,, and colonng and help reduce p€rmeability
rn concrete more effectively; to ensure the qualitv 6l con_ how the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete
and inhibit corrosion.
crete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in are affected by lmal conditions.
adverse weather conditions; and to overcome certain e;er_
3. The cost ol using admjxtures should be compared wrth
gencies during concreting operations.
lhe cost of changing the basic concrete mixture. Deter
mrne how using an admixture will affect the cost of
TOTAL TARGET AIR CONTENT FOR C O N C R E T E ] kansponing, placing. linishing, curing. and protecting the
AIR CONTENT (PERCENT)2 concrete.
NOMINAL MAXIMUM
AGGREGATE SIZE (IN.) 4. Recommended total air contents for dif{erent exoosure
SEVERE EXPOSURE3 MODERATE EXPOSURE3 MILD EXPOSURE3 conditions are shown for diflerent aggregate sizes in thp
table below.
3,/,
Type C)
€lcium nitrite
d€trainers
dibutyl
silicones
Arr€otratntng admixtures
(/ASTM C 260) resrn);some
._"11"-' proternaceousmateriat;fatry and resinousacidsand rheir sitts; altyibenzene
segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated !..",y^*yl :."lt",of
surronales;sails ol su[onated hvdrocarbons
reoucers
lrthrum and barium, enrrarnrngagents
caoon phthalrcyanine,
(ASTMC 979)
, sodium benzoate, pnosphates
admrxtures
calciumor ammoniumstearateor srearate;
aomrxlures
Cementitious Hydraulic properties; partial cement replacement G@nd granulatedblast-furnaceslag (ASTMC 989)j naturalcemenu hydraulichydratedlime
ASTMC 141r
Pozolans Pozzolanic activjty; improve workability, plasticity, sulfate
shares,
vorcanic pumicites
(AsrM
resistance; reduce alkali reactjvity. pem;ability. heat of
hydration; partial cement replacement; filler
31"Jift1"fi"&i8:3tr""i1"":^3l""i,iJ:r,'; tuffs, c 618,
crass
N);fry
P@olanic and cementi- Same as cementitious and pozzolan caregones High€lcium fly ash (ASTMC 61B, ClassC);groundgranulatedblast-furnacestag
tlm {ASTMC 989)
lmprove workability; filler Marble,dolomite,quartz,granite
Nminally inert
insecticides
powder;r€srnsoap
admixtures,accelerators,retardes
shnnk grout tor sefting steel on masonryor mncr€te, till
regletsand cracks)
grounosrag mtural pozzolans;water
U'rgan|candsynthetic'polymers;organicfloccu|ents;o@
pyrcgenicsiticas;naturatpozzotans(ASTMC 618, CiassN); fty ash
3:y"::t-T-1t?11","ld
oru, LrassesI andC);hyd.atedtime(ASTMC 141) {i
Lignin: sugar; tartaric
B) delay initial set lor difficult placement, or for special finish-
rng, such as exposed aggregate
sates;lignosulfonates
5uperpEs!czer- and
retarder (ASTM C 10't 7
fype 2l
reorcer
TvDeAl
* Superplasticizers
are also referredto as high-rangewater both ASTM 494 a n d C ' 1 0 1 7specilications
reducers or plasticizers.These admixtures often meet neously.
Robert W. Shuldes.P.E.;PorttandCementAssociation;
Skokie.llljnois
3 CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
Concrete Foundotions 193
REINFORCING STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
DOWELS COLUMN
/- FOOITNG
BELow] CONCRETE
/ ,/ CAP
\ /- FINISH
\ FLOOR
GROUND CONCRETE
WATER ,,'\ SHAfl IN
TABLE/ \ TEMPORARY
CONCRETE CASING
COMPACT
FOOTING, TYP
SAND
SLOPE AS caYJ
R E O U I R E OB Y REFUSALOR
LOCAL CODE HARDCUY
(UNDISTURBED
(rrr**
COMBINED
FoorrN) a COMBINED
o MAT OR BELL
E COMBINED DIAMETER
L
\ couuur 3
o
J NOTES
U
FOUNDATION o 1. Test soils to determin€ their allowable bearingcapacity.
Refer to localbuildingcodes.
'H'is tunctionof the passiveresistance of the soil,gen-
SECTION 2. a
erated by the moment appliedto the pier cap.
SPREAD FOOTINGS 3. Piersmay be used under grade beams or concretewalls.
Forvery heaw loads,pier foundationsmay be more ecG
nomicalthan piles,
STRUCTURAL
COLUMN
0
& CONCRETE CAP
FOR MULTIPLE
- COLUMNS
OR PIERS
dz
MJ
ANCHOR
BOLTS
REINFORCEMENT
FOR COLUMN OR
MOMENT DESIGN
CONCRflE SHAtr IN
F TEMPORARY CASING
o
o
E
;o
J
o ^oan----"
I
HAND OR MACHINE I'.
EXCAVATED SOCKET
CUT INTO ROCK
PILE-SUPPORTED FOUNDATIONS
DEPTH OF SOCKET
N OTES (CONSULT ENGINEER)
AREAWAY WALL
MAXIMUM IF NEEDED WITH REINFORCING
STEEPNESS
SEAUNT
SUB ON GRADE
POROUS FILL
FOR ORAINAGE
CONCRETE
FOOTINGS ,/, AREAWAY SUB
ABUTS BUILDING
DISCONTINUOUS FOOTINGS CONTINUOUS FOOTING
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
194 ConcreteSlobson Grqde
GENERAL srderable traffic by hard wheel vehicles. such as forklifts. A r/s"RADrus--
semrrigid filler Shore Hardness "A" of at least gO should be /-PREVENTBoND
Factors to consader in the design and construction of all
slabs on grade include the intended use o{ the slab or slab
used in joints supponing forklitt traf{ic.
'z
section, the condition and preparatton oI a unilorm sub-
grade, quality of concrete, adequacy of structural capacity,
Concrete fl@r slabs are monolithically finished as a qeneral f''-':''1,;;: .>
pr@edure by tloating and troweling to a smooth and-dense
lype and spacrng of,oints, frnishing, currng. and apptrcalion BUTT
top surface finish. ACI 302 provides specific guidance for JOINT CONSTRUCTION JOINT
ol specral surfaces The subgrade support must be reason-
appropriate linishing procedures to control the achievable
ably uniform and the upper ponion of the subgrade (called
floor flatness. ACI 302, ACI 360, and ACI I I 7 Drovide ouid-
the base) should be of uniform material and densitu. Both
ance for tlatness selection and the techniqubs bv ';hich
should be properly compacted. A thin laver of comoactable flatness and leveln€ss are produced and measured. Two
granular fill may be placed rmmediatelv beneath the slab lo
systems are used. The preferred method of measurinq flat-
act as a Oercolation barrier. ness and l€velness (documented in ACI 302 and ACI li 7) ,s BUTT TYPE CONSTRUC:TION JOINT
the F-Numb€r System. Special linrshes are available to
Wear resistance (abrasion) is directly related to the condi- PUSTIC OR PREFORMED
rmprove appearance as well as surface oroDerties. These
tion ol the top portion of the concrete slab. Surface hard- HARDBOARD STRIP
include sprinkled (shake) finishes or high-strength toppings,
ness.and abrasion resrstance may be provided by special
erther as monolithic or separate (two-stage floorl surfaces. IF SAWCUT ONLY,
addrtrves or hardeners to the surface. The quality of the
Where propagation of water vapor is undesirable, a water- FILL WITH SEALER
overall concrete slab will be enhanced by proper water-te proof vapor barier, with permeance not to exceed O.2O (SHORE HARDNESS > 80)
cement ratro, reasonable slump limits, and wellgraded perms, can be used SAWEO OR PREMOLDED CONTRACTION JOINT
aggregates with the maximum size of the coarse aggregate
as large as placing will permit. Exterior concrete subleited PREFORMED METAL
THICKNESS DESIGN OR PLASTIC JOINT
to freeze-thaw cycles should have 4 to 7yo entrained ;ir.
In general, the controlling loading to a slab on grade is the MATERIAL
Rein{orcement in concrete slabS is unnecessary where fre- heavrest mncenirated loading lhat it will carry. This is fre-
quent lornt spacings are used. Where less lrequent ioint quently the axle loading of an industrial lift truck or the set
spacrngs are used, reinforcement is placed in the slab, at or of post loadings {rm heaw rack storage shelves. The con- TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT
above the mid{epth (generally'/3 down from the top sur- cretg slab thickness required will depend on the toading SAWCUT FILL WITH
lace) to act as crack control. Common conlraction ioint itself, the modulus of ruptur€ of the concrete (usuallv based SEALER {SHORE
spacing rs 15 ro 25 ft, depending on the thickness ofthe on the comprossive strength of the concrete). the selected HARDNESS > 80)
slab and the construction type. Checkerboard placemenl oI factor of safety used in th6 design, and the modulus of sub-.
grade reaction (kl of the soil suppon system (subgrade). COAT OOWEL WITH
slabs is no longer recommended bv American Concrete NONBONDING AGENT
lnstitute (ACl) 302.1 "Guide tor floor and slab construc- Procedures and examples are shown in ACI 360, ACI 330,
'1,
tion,' where strip placement of slabs is recommended for and ACI 302. Class 2, and 3 fl@rs should be no thinner CONTRACTION JOINT WITH OOWELS
€rge areas. than 4.or 5 irches. Loading and usage frequently require
floors thic*er than 6 inches. JOINT SEALER
Three types of ioints are remmmended:
EXPANSION JOINT
1. ISOLATION JOTNTS latso cailed expansion joints): Ailow
MATERIAL
movement between slab and fixed pans of the building
such as columns, walls, and machinery bases. AONO BREAKER
DOWEL SIZE AND SPACING (IN.)
2. CONTRACTION JOINTS (also called conrrot ioints):
USE AT NONBEARING
Induce cracktng at preselected locations MASONRY PARTITION
3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: ProMde stopping places dur- WITH 2 *4 REBARS
ing fl@r construction. Construction joints also function CONTINUOUS(MIN.)
as control and isolation joints-
TYPICAL DETAILS
CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE SLABS ON GRADE
RECOMMENDED
RECOMMENDED 2A - DAY
SLUMP COMPRESSIVE USUAL CONCRETE
C LASS 0N.) SPECIAL FINISHING
STRENGTH (PSI) TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS TECHNIQUE
3000 Lrght lool ncsrqciludt Suilaces; braoe tor dralnage; level slabs
mainly with floor coverings suitable for applied coverings; curing
3500 rool unrces and churchesi sunace tolerance 0nctudtnq - elevated
usually with floor slabs); nonslip aggregates nonsliptinish
covenng In specrtrc areas where required
Decorative Colored mineral aggregate; hardener or As required
exposed aggregate; artistic joint layout
c 3500 l-oot and pneurutic Exterrcr walks, drivewavs, Grade tor drainage; proper air l-loat,trowel. or
wheel garage floors, and sidevialks content; curing brmm finish
4 5 4000 l-oot and light rrrS!tu!onal ano Level slab surtable for aoolied
vehicular traffic commetctal coverings; nonslip aggregate trowel finish
ror spectTtc areas an€l cuflng
4000 hdustnal vehaelar Lrght{uty Industrial tloors for u@d unrtormsubgrade;surtac
traff ic---pneumatic whel manufacturing., processing, tolerance;joint.layout;abrasion trowel finish
ano wa16nousrnq restslance;cuflng
4500 Inous(rar ventcu6r lndustnat fl@rs subject Umd unrtormsubgrade:surface SDectal m€tallic or maneral
traffic--+tard whe€ls to heavy traffic; may be tol€rance;ioint lavout;load transfer; aggregate; repeated
subject to impact loads abrasionresistance;curing hard steel troweling
4 6ase Industraal vehicular tsonded twHourse floors odse sraHooo untrorm suborade:
3500 traffic--+lard wheels subject to heavy traffic reinforcement; ioint lavout j lev;l suitable tor subseauenl
and rmpact surface: curino bonded topping
Toppingr-Coriposed of welt!raded Special power tloats
alFmineral or all-metallicaqqreoatei
- with repeated steel
Mrneral or metalhc aggreglie trowelings
applied to high-strengrh plain topping
to toughen; surface tolerance; curing
I opprng As in classes4. 5. and6 Unbondedtopoinas--+reezer Bond breaker on old surface; mesh Hard steel
5000 - 8000 floorson insulition.on otd reinforcement: minimum thickness trorel finish
floors, or where construction 3"(nominal 75mm) abrasion
scheduledictates resrstance. and curing
ot Supertlator criti€l surface Natrow-arsle,hrgh-bay varyrn9 concrete quality requirements
tolerancerequired.Special warenouses: tetevtston Shakmn hardeners cannot be used technrques as indacated in
materials-handling vehicles studios unless special application and great seclion 7.'15 of ACI 302
or roboticsrequiring care are employed. Proper ioint
specifictolerances arrangement
Boyd C Ringo;Cincinnati,
Ohio
3 CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
Concrete Stqirs r95
RAILING TYP
I
F
o
;
E.
F
o
r/2 REeUTRED
N FULLY
WIOTHMIN OPENED, DOOR
SHALL NOT
PROJECT MORE
1t tz" MtNa REOUIRED THAN 7 "INTO
ICLEARANCE THE REQUIRED DETAIL A
WIDTH
SLIP RESISTANT
NOSING AND ANCHOR
PLAN SPAN
't
SLIP RESISTANT
OETAIL B ABRASIVE ON
STEPS AND LANDINGS
Lr==.=
DffAIL A
REINFORCEMENT PRELIMINARY
AS REQUIRED SL.AB THICKNESS
SHOULD BE
DETAIL B SPAN/26
oEr^tL c
//
THICKNESS
REOUIRED TO
ACHIEVE FIRE
RATING AND
STRUCTURAL
NEEDS (ASSUME
r2 -o MAX .NOMINAL FOR
A
OR
CONCRflE)
PRELIMINARY
SUB THICKNESS
PR€LIMINARY SLAB
THICKNESS - SPAN/26
TREADS MAY BE
TILTED INWARD
SLIGHTLY TO
COMPENSATE FOR
THE OUruARO
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
OF SOMEONE
WALKING DOWN
THE STAIR
N OTE N OTE
NOTE
Use of helicoidal concrete stairs depends on very stiff fixed Reinforcement must develop full bond in masonry walls
Extend hinge only as required by stair width, unless other
end support and small support deflection. and have tull development length in concrete walls
wise permifted by struclural engrneer.
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
196 Concrete FloorSystems
GENERAL NOTES
1. Theinformation presentedon thesepagesis intendedonlyas a preliminary designguide.All 2. Spansshownare approilmdleandarebasedon use ol m,ldreinforcrnq steel.Soansmav b,
structural
dimensionsfor slabthickness,beamandjoint sizes,cblumnsizes,eti, U" increased25 to 50yo wrth the use ot prestressrng.
For spansgreateithan ao tt
calculatedand analyzedfor each proiect conditionbt a licensedprofessronar "ioutO
engrneer. Posttensionino_ """ri.r.,
NOTES
l.Advantages: Inexpensiveformwork; ceilings may be exposed; minimum thickness; fast NOTES
erection;flexiblecolumn location. 1. Advantages:Longerspans than flar plate:typicallyposttensioned;minimum thiclness.
2. Disadvantages: Excessconcretefor longerspans;low sh€arcapacity;greaterdsflections. 2. Disadvantages: Must reuse formwork many times to b€ economical.
3. Appropriatebuildingtypes: Hotels,motels,dormitori6s.condominiums,hospitals. 3. Appropristebuildjngtypes: High-risebuildings;sare use as flat plates it flying forms can be
4 is best for moderatespans beeuse it is the most ffinomi€l floor system and used more than 10 tim€s.
l-f]1?l?!"
nas me bwest structuralthickness.Avoid penetrationslor pipingand ductwork through the
- 4- A bandedslab has most of th€ adv€ntagesof a flat plate but permits a longer span in one
slab nearthe mlumns. Spandrelbeams may be necessary.
dirpction.lt can resist greaterlateralloadi in the direition of th; beams.
FLAT PLATE
BANDED SLAB
DRC)P PANEL
DIMENSIONS:
%G OF SPAN
FG EAG
DIRECTON
OtrIONAL
COLUMN
DES;IGN
N OTES
N OTES
1 . Advantages: Economial for design loads greater than 1SO psf. 3. Appropriate building types: Schools, offices, churches, hospitals, public and institutional
2. Disadvantages: Formwo.k is costly. buildings, buildings with moderate loadings and spans.
3. Appropriate building types: Warehouses, industrial structures; parking structures 4. This is the best scheme if slabs are too long for a flat plate and the strucrure rs not exposed.
The slab thickn€ss between joints is determined by fire requirements. ro,sts are most
4. Flat.slabs are most commonly used today for buildings supponing very eco-
heaw ' loads. When nomrcar Ir beams are the same depth as the
live load exceds 150 lb per sq ft, this scheme rs by fa-r tne'mosi e-conomical. ioists. Orient joists in the same direction
throughout the building and in rhe long direction of long rectangular bays.
FLAT SLAB
JOIST SLAB
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,Consutting
Engineer;Cotumbus.
Ohio
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
Concrele FloorSystems 197
\ go rooo w"
NOTES NOTES
'1
1. Advantages:Uses less conqete than joist slab; lower rebar placingcosts; ioist space used . Advantages: Long span in one direction.
for mechanicalsystems.Permitslights and equipmentto be recessedbetween ioasts. 2. Disadvanlages: Beams interfere with mechani€l seryices; mor€ expensive forms than flat
2. Disadvantages:Simalarto idst slab;ioists must be designedas beams; {orms may require Dlare.
specialorder. 3. Appropriate building types: Parking garages, especially with posttensioning.
3. Appropriate buildingrype:Sameas for ioistslabs,especially for longerfire ratings. 4. This scheme is most favored lor parking garages, but the long span of about 60 ft must be
4. Ensurethe availabilityof fmwork before specifyingskip joists. For larger projects.a skip prestressed unless beams are quite deep. Shallow beams will deflect excessively.
joist slab should be less exp€nsivethan a ioist slab, and it permits lights and equiprent
recessedbetween ioansts.
SKIP JOIST ()NE-WAY BEAM AND SLAB
N OTES NOTES
1 Advantages: Longer twcway spans; attractive exposed ceilings: heavy load capacity. 1. Advantages: Long span in two directions; small detlection; can carry conceotrated loads.
2. Disadvantages: Formwork costs more and uses more concrete and steel than a joist slab. 2. Disadvantages: Same as lor one-way beams, only more so.
3. Appropriate building types: Prominent buildings with exposed ceiling structure; same types 3. Appropriate building types: Portions of buildings in which twlway beam framing is needed
as are suitable tor flat slab but wth longer spans. tor other reasons; industrial buildings with heaw concentrated loads.
4. Column spacing should be multiples of pan spacing to ensure uniformity ot drop panels at 4. The high cost of the formwork and structural interference with mechanical systems make
each column. Drop panels €n be diarcndshap€d, square. or reclangular. this scheme unattractive unless heaw concentraled loads must be carried.
Columbus,Ohio
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,C onsultingEngineer;
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
198 Concrete Surfqces,Finishes,
ond IntegrolColor
GENERAL NOTES
Architectural concrete and structural concrete are both 1. Choosing a placing technique (pumping vs. bottom drop
made from portland cement, aggregate,and water, but or other buckel type) is an important step toward achiev, STANDARD
lhey have entirelydifferent concretemix designs.A variety ing a desired architectural concrete surface and finish. JOINT
o{ architecturalfinishes and colors can be achieved bv Evaluate whether architectural concrete forms can also DffAL
changingthe mix of these three simple ingredrents. The be used for structural concrete. Verifu that the vibrators BEARING
cost of productionusuallydetermnes the limlt of finish used are of the proper size, frequency, and power. AREA
choi@s.There are three basicways to changethe appeatr 2. Shop drawings should be carefully checked to determine
ance ol a Concretesurtacelinish: form quality and stel reinforcement placement. Require
approval of forru and finishes; field mockuD is advised to
MATERIALVARIATIONinvotveschangingthe size, shape, evaluate the appearance o{ the concrete panel and the
texture,and color of the coarseand tine aggregate,particu- quality of workmnship.
larlyin exposedaggregateconcrete,and ch@sing whit€ or 3. Release agents are chemical treatments applied to the
graycemenl.
liner or face of the form that react with the cement to
prevent it from sticking to the lorm. The safest way to
MOLD OR FOHM VARIATIONinvolves changingthe tex- select a release agent is to evaluate several products on
ture or pattern of the concrete surface bv means of form a test panel under actual job conditions. The curing com-
design.form liners,or ioinVedgetreatments. pound, used to retard or reduce evaporation ol moisture REruCED
from concrete or to extend curing time, is typically BEARING
SURFACETREATMENTinvolvestreatingor tooling the sur- applied immediately after final finishing of the concrete
AREA
face after the concretehas cured. IMROWS
surface- Consult manutacturers and the American Con- TIGffiNESS
crete Institute for mora detailed informataon about the OF rcINT
Design drawings for architecturalconcrete should show
compatibility of th€se treatments and the form surface
lorm details, including openings, jointi (contraction,con-
material or other finishes and surfaces to be applied to
struction, and rustication),and other important specifics.
the concrete.
Other factors that affect concrete surfacesare mixing and
placing techniques, slump control. curing methods, and
rereas€agents.
surfaces
JOINTS IN FORMWORK
D. Neil Rankins;RGAy'r'irginia;
Richmond,Virginia
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
ond lntegtql Color
ConcreteSurfoces,Finishes, t99
AGGREGATE SURFACE TEXTURE/FORM LINER INTEGRALLY COLORED CEMENT
Aggregate is one of three components ot concrete and Patterned lorms and liners make it possible lo simulate in Colored concrete can provide a cost-effective simulation of
greatly affects the final appearance of the concrete surface. concrete the textures of wood, brick, and stone at a lower natural stone or other building materials. Two standard
Aggregate should be selected on the basis of color, hard cost. The texture and resulting shadow patterns conceal types of cement ar€ available, ot{ering different shades of
ness, size, shape, gradation. method of exposure, durabil- minor color variations or damage that would be conspicu- color: standard gray portland cement and white cement.
itv, availability,and cost. Aggregate hardness and densitY ous and unacceptable on a smooth surface. Use ol rustica- lntegrally colored concrete is made by adding mineral oxide
must be compatible with structural requrrements and tion strips at joints n textured liners simplifies form pigments to concrete mixes made with one of these two
weathering conditions. assembly work. types. Fine aggregates should be selected caretully, since
they can enhance the color effect. The amount of coloring
Sources for coarse and fine aggregates should be kept the NOTES material should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement;
same lor an entire iob to avoid variations in the final surface any excess prgment may reduce concrete strength, and
1. The choice of liner material may depend on whether the strong colors can be achieved with less than 1070 pigment.
appearance, paniculady in light-toned concrete. Following work is precast, cast-in-place, or tilt{p. Thin liners thal
are the common types of aggregate available: White cement is used when lighter, more delicate shades
work well lor horizontal casting may wrinkle and sag in ol concrete are desired, although it is more expensive;
vertical forms, where sturdier liner materials are da.ker hues can be produced using gray cement.
OUARZ is available in clear, white. yellow, green, gray,
required. Form liners such as plastic foams can usually
and light pink or rose. Clear quartz is used as a sparkling be used only once, while many elastomeric liners are
surtace to complement other colors and prgmented good for 100 or more uses with reasonable care.
N OTES
cements. 1. Variations in all components ot the concrete mix make
2. Reusable aluminum wall forms, textured with various
patterns, can also be used; sections are held together color formulas only approximate. After a basic color is
GRANITE is known for its durability and beauty and is avail-
with metal pins. Typical sizes are 3 x 8 {t and larger. selected, the exact shade may be determined by prepar
able in shades of pink, red, gray. dark blue. black. and
ing a number of small panels, varying the ratao ot pig
white. Traprock such as basalt can be used for gray. black. 3. Making a preconstruction mock-up is helpful in choosing ment to cemenl, wrth aggregate playtng a more
or green. patterned liner materials. lf built on site, the mock-up can import3nt role in exposed aggregate mixes. To evaluate
be used as a reference standard for inspectors and work- panels properly, store them for about five days under
MARBLE orobablv offers the widest selection ot colors- ers. lf ribbed liners are specified, the largest aggregate
green, yellow, red, pink, gray, white, and black. conditions similar to those on the construction site. Pan-
pa(icle should be smaller than the nb.
els lighten as they dry.
LIMESTONE is available in white and gray. 4. Typical form liner materials are 2. Batching, mixing, placing, and curing practices must be
a. Plyform: Sandblasted, wire$rushed, or striated ply- uniform, and sources of ingredients must be constant
MISCELLANEOUS GRAVEL, after being washed and form can be used as lorm sheathing or as a liner inside throughout a iob to maintain color uniformity. Avoid
screened, can be used for brown and reddish-brown fin other structurally adequate forms. admaxtures lhat contain calcium chloride, since it can
ishes. Yellow @hers, umbers, buff shades, and pure whate cause discoloration. Ciean forms and nonstaining release
b. Unfinished sheathing lumber: Used to produce rough,
are abundant in riverbed gravels. Check local supplies. board-marked concrete. this lumber can be used as agents are vital. Consult pigment manufacturers'recom-
form sheathing or liner. Ammonia spray on wood will mendataons.
CERAMIC exhibits the most brilliant and varied colors when
raise grain and accentuate the wood pattern. 3. Pigments should meet the quality standards of ASTM
vitreous materials are used.
c. Rigid plastics: ABS, PVC, and high-impact polystyrene C979. Finely ground iron oxides are the most widely
EXPANDED LIGHTWEIGHT SHALE may be used to prc sheets can be molded or extruded to produce nearlv used pigments for coloring concrete. Colors and their
duce reddish$rown. gray, or black aggregate. Porous and any pattern or texture. Although typically supplied in sources include blue (cobalt oxide). brown (brown iron
crushable. this shale produces a dull surface with soft col- sheets of 4 x 8,4 x 10, and 4 x 12 ft, they can be spe- oxide). buff (yellow iron oxide), green (chromium oxide),
ors. lt should b€ tested for iron staining characteristics and cial ordered in lengths up to 30 ft or longer. red {red iron oxide}, gray/slale (black iron oxide).
must meet ASTM C 330. d. Glass tiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP): These look 4. Colorconditioning admixtureso{fer integral color and
much like other plastics but are stronger and more have additives that improve workability, better disperse
RECYCLED CONCRETE aggregate is produced when old color and cement, and reduce color bleeding for
durable, particulady laminated GFRP. Extruded GFRP
concrete is crushed. Primarily used in pavement work, this is less expensive (and less durable). Custom lengths imoroved uniformitv. Consult manufacturers.
material generally has a higher absorbsion rate and lower up to 40 tt are available. STRIP
-HARDWOOD
density than conventional aggregate. lt should be tested for -y /-/ REMOW
R FMOW AND
AND
durability, gradation, and other properties, as wath any new e. Elastomeric plastics: These rubbery liners, typically ---4J--- C A U IK J O T N T
polyurethane, are the most costly, but they are very
aggregate source.
strong and durable and flexible enough to accommq E*+
EXPOSEO AGGREGATE date finer details. Standard sheets in sizes up to 4 x 12 ||lfiJ-------"",
ryru
ft arer available,as are larger custom sheets. Typically -
An exposed aggregate surface is a decorative tinish for con- attached to lorm sheathing with adhesive, they are
\br
crete work achieved by removing the surface cement to sensitive to temperature change and may deform; WOOD FORM INSERT
expose the aggregate. Aggregates suitable for exposure consult manufacturers.
'-
may vary fromr/. in. to a cobblestone more than 6 in. in SHEET METAL WITH
f. Polystyrene foam: Single-use liners are used to pro- WOOD FILLER, RE.
diameter. The extent to which the pieces of aggregate are
duce unaquepat'ternsfor specilic jobs. MOVE AND CAULK
revealed is largely determined by their size. Size is generally JOINT
selected on the basis of the distance from which it will b€ 5. Joints in the forms and Iiners must be executed carefuliy
viewed and the aDpearance desired. and the liners handed properly to achieve high{uality
workmanship. Check liners for compatibility with release
Aggregates with rough surfaces have better bonding proP agents and adhesives.
enies than those with smoother surfaces; bind is impor SPLIT FACE SHEET METAL FORM INSERT
JOINT DEtrH N OTE
tant, particularlv when small aggregate is used. For better SURFACE
OPTIONAL
weathering and appearance. the area of exposed cement In flal concretework, a rotary saw may be used to make a
matrix between pieces of aggregate should be minimal.
contractionjoint.
which makes the color of cement in exposed aggregate
concrete less rmportant. CONTRACTION J()INTS
SUGGESTED VISIBILITY SCALE
AGGREGATE OISTANCE AT WHICH
srzE, tN. (MM) TEXTURE IS VISIBLE, FT (M)
ROUGH MOLDED ENEND
SHIPT-AP BELOW
MASONRY
W,;
PANERN FORM TO
EXERT
MAIMUM
RESSURE
EXPOSED ON GASKET
AGGREGATE ON LUG
* FACE -
rIF**
OffIONAL
f-7- -u'' -o,'
RADTUS
r(
I /rr
'*
t
ROUGH RANDOM
RIETE}ED
TIE ROD CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
BOARD
RADIUS TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION JOI NT
CORNER rcnc-Fr Fq
7.'TO 3'\
'l+
)-f..'.-l +
%'TO
1,/"' ryP. --.
fr NPffi:""J; oFrroNAL-\
PREFERRED
LOCATION
CONSTRUCTION
f-:---7
tl
rol
l.
|
I lr;
.l iro | / / ' 't Ni
JOINT
4't | :i l3' l,/
,iI L---, +- ', /. / 1.ao
2'+
RANDOM STONE STRIATED
X CENTERLINE
TRAPEZOID NOTE GROOVE
(TYPICAL FOR RIGHT TRIANGLE
RUSTICA,TION JOINT) CHAMFER Consult manufacturers for other available patterns
D. NeilRankins;RGA/r'irsinia: Virginia
Richmond,
CONCRETE
CAST-IN-PLACE
200 Concrete Surfoces:Defect Prevention,Repoir,Cootings,ond Treotments
CONCRETE REPAIR REPAIR MATERIALS PROTECTIVE AND
Damage or deterioration of concrete can occur at any time Prepackaged cementitious and latex-modified cementjtious DECORATIVE COATINGS
during service life. Minor repairs may be reqoired durjng ini- repair materials are available, with tormulations tor thin or
tial construction, for example, filling form tie holes; patching thicker repairs. Where aesth€tics are important, use the Concrete
surlacesmayrequirea sealeror coatingto pro
tecl against severe weather, chemicals, or abrasions: lo
lifting l@ps on precast concrete; or repairing broken edgei same cement and aggregates as in the surrounding work.
prevent dusting of the surface layer; to harden the surface
on beams, walls, and columns. Distress my result from Most types of Portland cement are acceptable, but match
lhe origtnal type, rf posstble. Certain prepackaged mrxes layer; or to add a decorative finish.
inadequate design or construction, or deterioration, natural
eftects, or exposure to aggregate chemicals_ Most repairs must conform to ASTM C 928. Aggregates should match
the existing concrete aggregate, it possible. For exoosed Sealers are usually clear and are expected to penetrale thF
rmprove appearance, blending adjacent surfaces by match,
aggregate, matching the texture and color may require spe- surtace without leaving a visible film. Coattngs are clear o,
ing texlure and color. The repair area should be perma
cial mixtures to meet the specitications. Any admixture opaque and, while they may have some penelration. thev
nently bonded to the adjacent concrete and sufficientlv
leave a visible lilm on the surface. Sealers and coatinqs
rmpe.meable lo lquid penelratron lo keep it from shnnkrng used in concrete work can be used in reoair mixtures.
Bonding agents may be requrred for some repairs, espe- should allow vapor emission from the concrele but at the
or cracking. Repairs should withstand freezelthaw cycles as
cially thin ones; they are typicalty either cement-based. same time keep moisture from penetrating after curing.
well as surrounding concrete does.
latex-based (ASTM C 1059), or epoxy-based {ASTM C get ).
Acrylics, methyl methacrylates, and polymers are less Decorative coatings usually protect as well and are formu
The American Concrete lnstitute delines generally accept-
lated in a wide selection of colors. Decorative coatinqs
able architectural concrete surfaces as those with minimal expensive than epoxy bonding agents but are more likely to
shrink. Repaired areas should be sealed or coated to the Include watetrbased acrylic emulstonj elaslomeric acryIr
color and texture variation and minimal surface defects
same specifications as the surrounding concrete work to resin; liquid polymer stain; solvent- based acrylic stain; port,
when viewed at 20 lt. Most architectural concrete contains
protect against natural forces. corrosives, and chemicals. land cement-based finish coating; and water-based acidic
some irregularities, such as blowholes or buqholes. Criteria
for acceptabiltty should be defrned in advancl. but oatches stain {a solution of metallic salts).
SIDES OF HOLE
should match lhe surrounding area as much as posstble AT RIGHT ANGLES -
PROTECTIVE
OULINE
DEFECTIW COATINGS AND SEALERS
CONCRETE
ARA W|TH 1/4.-7.. ./
OEEP SAW CUT
MrN.
+ + CONCRETE ARA
tl
I IMAY BE SOUND
I I EITHER CONCREE LEVEL
I IRECES-
I lsED oR
I IFLUSH NOTE
I lwTa
I ISUR' Larger and thicker patches should be anchored mechani-
I FACE \ cally to the surroundingconcrete.
I. t. \
PATCHING OF DEFECTIVE CONCRETE
SURFACES
GUIOELINES FOR PATCHING
L Designpatch mix to match original,with smallamount of
white cement; may eliminatecoarseaggregateor hand
place it. Trial and error, the only reliablematch method,
shouldbe perlormedon a mock{p lirst_
2. Remov€defectiveconcrete down to soundconcrete:for
expos€d aggregateconcr€te. chrp slightty deeper ihan
maximumsize of aggregate.
EPOXY
OVER TIE SOLID PLUG PATCH 3. Cl€anarea;saturatewith water and arpplybondingagent NOTES
to base of hole and to water of patch mix.
NOTE
1. Floor-hardeningagentsare appliedto reducedustingand
4. Packpatch mix to densityof originat. Increasehardnessslightlyat the surface.
Solid plugs may be made of pre€st mortar, plastic, or lead. 5. Placsexposedaggregateby hand. 2. Consult a quallfied specialistto determine the corect
Monar oI a drytamp consistency will be less likely to smear 6. Bristleirush after setup to match existingmaterial, coatingor sealerfor a particularapplication.
on surrounding concrete_ lf surrounding concrete is
smooth, recess plug or patch. 7. Moistrure to minimizeshrinking. 3. There may be restrictionson the use of solvent-based
8. Use form or finishto match originat. coatingsand sealersin some areasdue to the Dresence
TIE HOLE TREATMENT OPTIONS of VOCs{volatrleorganrc compounds}.
NOTE
Expecl gme cracking in concrete conslruction. Generally, ever, not all cracks indi€te errors or Oerlormanceorob-.
cracking is controlled with ioints and reinforcement; how- lems,andnot all cracksneedto b€ reoarred.
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
- PrecqstLong-SponDecks,Girders,ond Beoms 203
nPLa a-o" ,
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM SPAN FOR STEMMED DECK SECTIONS
/1
frPtra roo"
L DECK
omroNau roeerruo ------.,
I ] TYPE
ffi5ntr
u U---
,lt +ot:
I o o' l-'\vaRrES
- I
| 50'
DOUBLE TEE (DT)
1
i+ 5-o' -
,f +\ 37.'OR 47.'
NOTES
l.Sate loads shown indicatedead toad of 10 psf for
untopped members and t5 psf for topped members.
Remainderis live load.
2. Contactmanufacturersin the geographicareaot the pro-
rcsed structure to detemine availabilitY,exacl dimen-
sions.and load tablesfor wrious sections.
3. Check camb€r for its effect on nonstructuralmemb€rs
{partitions.folding d@rs. elc.), which should be placed
with adequateallowancefor error. Calculationstor top- NOTE
ping quantitiesshouldalso remgnize cambervariataons Strandpattern designation: Toppingconcrete = 3000 Psi
4. Normal-weightconcrete is assumed to be 150 lb/cu ft: - Numberof strands(201
lightweightaoncreteis assumedto b€ 115 lb/cuft. I -S = straisht,D = depressed 150 lb/cuft lc = 5000 psi for normalor lightweightdeck
208 Dr
STEMMED DECK MEMBERS I L Number of dePressionPoints
I Diameterof strandin sixteenths
m=*
[.,'.:;.'lI
f,r,t"I
[.';.l I
|5=-_+ oc te'
-f-9;ftz-
7E+
['l':.1 .,|
l: r'{ |
|
|
l :. -; . : ' -.J_
:: l I . xl
1 .-..: _l_ |
fl -.-.; r. :t: .. :'i;l t ", 1
r I, II
l---+--1
I l--i t__ * J-
I l.;1:'l | |
I Ii::.11 |*'i I
Iri F-"', , i;r--f
, ,Ii l I " Il
'rl
ft :,.;:.'..:,.;.l
'.1:-'.::'.1:.t I
+ +
P
INVERTED TEE
' Safe loads shown indicate507. dead load and 50% live
Ioad;800 psi top tension has been allowed, therefore
additionaltop reinforcerent is required.
ConcreteInstitute:Chicago,lllinois
SidnevFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
CONCRETE
PRECAST
204 PrecqstConcreteWqll ponels
:'fr+
wRrry -- SPECIAL WINDOW WALL PANELS
FINISH - INSUUTTON
FINISB OPENING
a€' Carefully distinguish between the more specialized arcj
tectural wall panel and the structural wall parel that is.
rffi
derivattve ot floor systems. Always work *itt, ^"nuii"ru,
ers early in the design prcess. Careful anention must b.
lil[]ll lNqll
grven lo manufactufing and joint tolerance during
des,a
Inoroughtv examrne ioinl sealants tor adhesron an
expected joint movement.
ill|l|l
F!NISHES
Form liner molds provide a wide variety of sm@th and tex
FI-AT OR
ilLllj_tltNtl *----!J
lured finishes. Fintshes after casling but prior to hardenrnq
Inctude exposed aggregate, broom, trowel, scred. float. o,
stippled. After hardening, linishes include acid€lched
sandblasted, honed, polished, and hammered rib.
.V'GROOVE
?8="ttt s(
SCULPTURED
V,tr?BK SANDWICH
PANEL
HOLLOW
SANDWICH
C:ORE
PANEL coLoRs
Select a color. range, as complete unilormity cannot be
guaranteed. White cement offers the best cols uniformitv
F\-
N
gray. cement is subject to color variations even when
sup
lill
N-
plied from one source. Pigmenls require hrgh{uality manJ
N
tactunng and curing standards. Fine aggregate colo
requires control bf the mixture graduation; c@rse aggra
l/--l
=-J
ill
t{
gate color provides the best durabrlityand appearance.
\\\j
L(::&TE.'OIN
TE .'OINTS - SRUfrURAL
TO OiANNEL \ffiHE
WATER -
SPANOREL AND
TRUSS TYPE COLUMN CI.ADDING MULLION
SRUCTURAI
WALL WHE
PANEL VARIATIONS
f]J,,Ci.-]
NON.
STRUCTURAL
WTHE
RIGID
INSUUTON
PUE \\-
INSERTS smucTURAL
(vvELDED \ffiHE
TGETHER)
STANLESS SEEL
OR GALVANI.ZEO
REINFORONG BAR
PANELS
MESH
RIGID
INSUUNON
BONO BRAKER
IF REOUIRED
WALL N OTE
PANEL TO WALL PANEL SLAB-TO-WALL PANEL
Panel requires accurate location of ties and reinforcemenr
NOTE
and established concrete qualitv control.
Pocket onnection may be at top of panel.
SAND\/VICH WALL CONSTRUCTION
BEARING PANEL CONDITTONS
DISCOMINUE
SAUNT
AT VERTICAL
JOINTS TO
DRAIN JOIM-
SEMM
COMINUES AT
HORZONTAL
JOIMS
HORIZONTAL
MLD BNWEEN VERTICAL JOINT JOINT
CLIP ANGLE AND SEEL BEAM
CASTIN PUTE T\^/O-STAGE SEALANT JOINTS
<SNCRETE FLoOR
SAUM AND
STEEL ANGLE BAAER ROD
WELDED TO
STEEL BAM
CONCRETE
7a" MIN
TAPER OR
REVEAL
SidneyFreedman;PrecasvprestressedConcr€teInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST
CONCRETE
PrecqstConcreteWoll PonelToleronces 20s
GENERA,L alt,
Architecturai precast concrete rs subiect to the same erec_
tion and manulacturing tole.ances as other building materts
als. When srch tolerances are considered in the design
stage, the task oJ determining and specifying them is sim
pler. By requiring realistic tolerances, architects strengthen
and simplify their standards lor acceptance. Unrealistic,
close tolerares are costly, panicularly tor custom-pro-
duced elerents.
Tolerances set the limits of size and shape for precast con-
crete units. Three groups ot tolerances should be estab-
lished in pre€st concrete design: product (manufacturing)
tolerances, erection tolerances. and interfacing tolerances.
Product and etection tolerances usually do not cause site
"1"
oroblems. Tolerances are most oroblematic at the intertace D# dr,
of precast concrete and other building materials. tx
Tolerances should be established {or the lollowing reasons:
' This table should not be used for FEnel thickness selec- bowing and warpage tolerances should be reviewed and
tion. possibly increased. For ribbed panels, the equivalent
, This table shows a relationship between overall flat panel thickness should be the overall thickness of such ribs if
dimensions and thicknesses below which suggested continuous from one end ot the panel to the other.
SidneyFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
CONCRETE
PRECAST
206 PrecqstConcreteConnections
rN TOPPTNG TOPPING
SLAB z-aST_lN
/-ltBARS /. METAI
THREADED . PUTES;
BAR
.WTHOUT
TOPPING RECAST
BAR FLOOR
GROWED SLAB
IN SHEAR
KIY
DOWELS
IMO MIN CAST1N
2'frrcK METAL
TOPPING PUES
BEARING BARING
STRIP STRIP
GENERAL PRECAST
'-
To fasten members lo foundations.set them on shims, COLUMN
tighten nuts to level,then fill spacewith nonshrinkgrout.
PRECASf
CdPLER GIRDER
PRECAST WALL PANEL
POSTTENSIONED RODS
FOUNDANON WEL
OOWEL
frRADED
IMO AN
INSERT IN
BARING PAD
JUST BEFORE
ERECNON
NOTE
The girder sits on the bearingpad, wl]ich providesuniform NOTE
Verticalposttensioningcan be used to resist uplift forces; bearing and accommodates sroll movements du€ to Steel haunches are small€r than concrete bearing pads,
moment resistanceis achi€v€d. shrinkage.creep,and temperaturechanges. which is imrcrtant if headroomis critical-
POSTTENSION ED WALL.TO- DOu/ELED BEAM.TO.COLUM N HAUNCHED BEAM.TO-COLUMN
FOUNDATION CONNECTION CONNECTION CONNECTION
ffiECAST
COLUMN
STEEL
REINFORCING
PRECAST LOCKNU
CAST IN WALL
PANEL (SINGLE @LUMN - RETNFORCING
BAR, OMONAL) BARS
STEEL BASE SHIM
|uE AND
GROf
STEEL
SHIM AND POCKnS
GROUT
SHIMS. 1'MIN.
ruBLE NU'S.
2' MtN.
CORRUGATED
SEEL SLEEE
asT rN
FOUNDANON COLUMN
WtLi FILLED FOUNDANON
WTH GROUT
ANCHOR
PANEL
PUCEMEM
@LUMN
FOUNDANON
ASTIN FOUNDATION
BOLT
SHIM WtG
DRY.PACK OR
NONSHRINK
GROUT
STEEL PUTE
DRILLEDJN WELDED TO
APANSION NOTE ANCHOR FOUNDATION,
BOLT BATED TO WALL
(offroNAL)
Two connections per panel are typical.
(omloNAL) PNEL (OMIONAL)
Sidrey Freedman;PrecasvPrestress€d
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST
CONCRETE
PlecqstConcrete Connections 207
PRECAST
PANEL
-- sHrM (oR
LE€LING BOLT)
OVERSIZE
HOLE OR - STEEL BRACKET
SLEEVE (SHOP
INSTALLED LEWLING
BOLa s
GROUT
COLUMN
STRUCruRAL
COLUMN BEAM J
PRECAST /
N OTE gi*'E.
Shim stacks occur at two points per panel adjacent to con
nection.
DTRECT BEARING CONNECTION DIRECT BEARING CONNECTION ECCENTRIC BEARING CONNECTION
EXPANSION STRUCTUUL
BOLT BEAM
ALIGNMENT
PUTE. WP
CAST.IN
STEEL
PLATE
RECAST
PANEL
WELD
PRECAST WALL
PANEL
NOTES
1. Good shear transfer. N OTE
2. Rigid connection. Alignment plate is welded to one plate only to allow for
3. Possible volume change restraint problems possible volume change ot panels.
.DOWEL
WELDED
TO BOTH
PUTES
CAST1N
STEEL
PUTES PRECAST WALL PANEL
THREADED ROD
OR COIL ROD NOTES
WtrH Nf AND
WASHER 1 . Avoid use ol this detail at both ends of slab to Drevent
excessrve restrarnt. N OTE
INSERTS CAST
IN PANEL 2. Rotation of wall elements and ef{ects on bracing wall Onepiece spandrels may require support and restrict place.
connections and volume changes must be considered. ment of concrete.
Pre€svPrestressed
SidneyFreedman: ConcreteInstituteiChicago,lllinois
PRECAST
CONCRETE
208 Tilf-upConcrete
GENERAL tilevers of 10 ro 1 5 ft. Panels are designed structurally to
resist lifting stresses, which frequently exceed in place TOP OF PANEL -_---\
Tilt-up concrete construction is a fast, economical method loads. Floor slab design must accommodate panel and
of enclosing a building with durable. load-bearingwalls. The crane toaos.
wall panel units are formed and cast horizontally at the job t
BEAM
sate,on either the building slab floor or on a temporary cast-
ing slab. Since the panels do not have tg be transported, FINISH PULLTY
there are tewer restrictions on panel srze. Wood formwork
is typi€lly used to deline the edges, reveals, details, and Most of the finishes used for factorv orecast concrete are
CABLE MIN.
openiogs in the panel. Once the concrete has reached suffi- possible in tilt-up construction. Panels €n be cast either TOTAL LENGTH .
cient strength. the pan€ls are lifted, or tilted up, by crane face down or face up, depending on desir€d finish and PANEL HEIGHT
formwork methods. The faceiown MINUS 1€'-
and placed on isolated or continuous foundations (usually method, however, is
grade beams). The panels are braced against the floor slab usually easier to erect. Casting method, desired finish, and
or a btrace toundation until thev are tied to the roof and floor available aggregates affect concrete mix design. Control of LIflING
the concrete mix design and placement of the concrete in ANCHOR
system and become an integral part of the completed
structure. Although tilt-up concrete construction is mainly the torms are more difficult than with factory{ast units.
restricted to buildings ol one story, walls up to four stories Discoloration occurs if cracks and joints in the castrng are
tall have been cast and lifted inlo position. not sealed. Commonly used finishes are as follows:
CONCRETE
'1. TILT-UP
Sandblasting (light. medium, or heavy exposure)
OESIGN 2. Fracture (similar to bushhammered)
Panel
thickn€ss
variesfrom5112
to 11114
in.depending
on 3. Form liner (metal deck. plastic, fiberglass, EPS) NOTE
height. loads. span. depth of reveals,surtace finish, local 4. Paint {usually textured) The rigging and anchor configuration show is the mo
codes,and conslructionpractices.Full-heightpanelwidths - 5. Brick or tile veneer common for tilt-up coostruction for plain panels withc.
of 20 ft and weights of 30.000 to 50,000 lb are tvpical. openings. Other configurations may be required depend .
Spansof 30 ft are common for spandrelpanels.as are can- 6. Aggfegate (cast lace down in sand bed)
on the size and shape of the panel; consult a tilt-up coi
struction srecialist.
TILT-UP PROCEDURE
UTERAL BRACE
LOATED AT
MID LENGTH
BRACE
(MUST BE
coMNUOUS)
$1r15)
ROVDE END
ARAG FOR
TOTAL BRACE
STABILfr
PIPE
BRACE (PPE)
FLOOR SUB
NAILING
|uEFOR
TATERL BRACE
CONCRETE SPRilD FOONNG
SURFACE-MOUffiD
@UNTERFUSHING
BUILT UP
ROOF
STEEL DECK
STEEL JOIST
++k
rllr
PANEL
RIBBED
REBLS
PRODUCED FROM
FORMED
LINER
OVERHAD
moR
45' JOINT
CHNFER AT JAMB ANGLE
PANEL JOIM (GIVANlzED)
HaynesWhaleyAss@iates,StructuralEngineers:Houston.Texas
RobertP. Foley,P.E.; Con/sr@l Tilt-upSysrems;Dayton,Ohio
3 PRECAST
CONCRETE
210 Mortorond Grout
INTRODUCTION ASTM C 2o7-Hydrated Lime for Masonry purposes is \^/ATE R
available in four types: S, SA, N, and NA. Because unhy-
Mortarand groutare the cementitiousbondingagentsthat Clean. potable water that is free o{ deleterious aclds, atta
drated oxides and plasticity are not controlled in tvDes N or
. ntegrate masonry units Into masonryaassemblages. NA, only type S hydrated lime should be used foi masonry lres. or organacmaterials is suitable for masonry mortar ano
becauseconcrete,rilasonrymonar, and gr6ut contarnlhe grout.
mortar and grout.
samepnncipalingredients, some designersqssumewhat is
gmd practicefor one will also be good praciicelor another.
MASONRY CEMENT COLOR ANO OTHER ADMIXTURES
In reality.the three materialsdifter in proponions,working
consrstencies, methods of placement.and structuralDertor_ These proprietary mortar mixes are widely used in mortar Many difterent types of admixtures can be added to mortar
mance. because of their convenience and good workability. grouts. Admixtures are used in monar to prov.de
color,
Masonry cements. however. should not be used in oroui. enhance workability, reduce water penetration, accelerate
Mortar and grout structurallybind masonryunits together, The requrrements for masonry cement are coverid in curing, and substitute lor @nventional materials. Admix,
whereasconcreteis usuallyitself a structuralmaterial.One ASTM C 91-Standard Specifrcation for Masonry Cement. tures are used an grout to increase flujdity, accele.ate cur
of the most importanttunctions of concreteelementsis lo Masonry cements are prepackaged as types M, S, or N ing, and decrease shrinkage. Admixtures must be used
€rry load. whereas the principal lunction of mortar and monar mixes. Most building codes have lower allowable wrth extreme caution so the performaoce of the masonry is
grout ts to devetopa complete.strong.and durablebond stresses when masonry cements are used. not aftected. Admixtures containing chlorides should never
with masonryunits.Concreteis pouredinto nonabsorbent be used because theV tend lo corrode metal.
tormswith a minimumamountof water. Mortarand orout AGG R EGATE
are placed, with much more water, between absor-ptrve Air entrainment has the detrimental effect of reducing the
torms (masonryunits).The waterrcementratio,as mixed.is Eilher.natural or manufactured aggregate may be used. bond between monar and masonry units or rernforcerienl.
very imponant in concrete work, but it is less imoortantin Uradatron lrmits are giv€n in ASTM C 144 and C 404 tor use.or arr€ntrarnrng ponland cements (typ€s lA, llA, ol
aggregate used in monar and grout. Only tine aggregate .rne
working with mortaror grout for brick masonrv.When mor_ lllA) and air€ntrained lime (types SA and NA) tor masonry
tar or grout is placedwith masonryunits, the water/cement may De used rn mortar; fine and coarse aggregate may be monar and grout may not be appropriate. Two different ai;
ratrorapidlydecr€asesbecauseof the bricks,absorbency.it used an grout. Gradation can be easily altered by adding fine entrarnrng agents should not be used in the same mortar or
is imponanl to distinguish between the requirementsfor or coarse sands. Only clean sand is recommended fo-r use grout. Air€ntraining admixtures should not be used in
concrete,masonrymortar, and grout. in masonry mortar and grout. struclural masonry Euildrng cddes mandate lower allow
able flexural lension stresses rf air€nlratneo cements ol
lime are used in monar.
ASTM SPECIFICATTONS TABLE l: PROPORTToN REQU|REMENTS FOR MASONRy MORTARs*
ASTM C 27O-MORTAR FOR UNIT MASONRY PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
(CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS)
This standardspecificationcovers four typ€s of mortar in
each of two methods: proponion specificationsand Droc PORTLAND MASONRY CEMENT HYDRATED AGGREGATE RATIO
erty specifi€tions. Vvhen specifying a panicular monir CEMENT OR LIME OR {IVIEA5UKEU IN UAMH
type,.erther the proportion or the property requirements MORTAR TYPE BLENDED CEMENT M N LIME PUTTY LOOSE CONOITTONS)
shouldbe given.but not both. When neithei proponionnor lame
propertysp€cificationsare specified,the proportionspecili_ s ovet I14 to 1/2
cation is mandat€d.Table 'l shows the proportionequire_ N ove( l12to 1 114 Not less than 2 r/aand not
ments tor types M, S, N, and O monars. o over 1 ,lato21f more than 3 times the sum of
M I lhe separatevolumesof
Mo.tar mnlorming to the p.operty speciticationsmust be
establishedby tests of laboratoryprepa.edmortar. which
cement
s
j cementttrous materials.
should be mixed from the monar materialsto be used rn
the masonry strucrure. Table 2 provides th6 propertv
requirementsfor types M, S, N, and O monars.
s
N I
AlthoughASTM C 270 uses the same leners to desionate N OTE
mnar type under both the proponion and propertysftcifi_ * Two
etions, the propertiesof these mortar types are not bquiv- airentraining materials stE l not be combined in mortar
alenl. A mortar mixed to the type N proponionspecificaiion
will havea laboratorypreparedcompressivestrenothsionif_
i€ntly higherthan that of a type N mortar requir6dbv-the
prop€rty specitictions. Monars mav b€ made with either
ptrtland cement or masonrycemnl. TABLE 2: MoRTAR PRopERTy SpEC|FTCAT|ON REeUTREMENTS,
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE AGGREGATE
ASTM C 476_GROUT FOR MASONRY STRENGTH RATIO
AT 2A DAYS (MEASUREO IN DAMP
MORTAR MIN. PSI (MPA}
This is the standardspeciticationgoverninggrout for rern- LOOSE CONDtTtONS)
rorceo and nonrentorced masonry assemblies.Two lypes
ot grout, tire and coarse, are specitied by proponionsof
ingredients.Both types should be proportionedwithin the
limits given in Table5. Not less than 2 '/4 and not
more than 3 '/2 times the sum
Grout consists of cementitious materials and aggregate of the separate volumes of
thoroughlymixed with sufficientwater to attainthe desired cementtttous materials_
consistency.Grout should b€ wet enough to pour without
segregationof the constituents.Grout can be used to bond
two wythes of masonry. to provide additionalmaterialto
resist load, or to bond steel reinforcementto masonryso
the two mterials exert common action under l€d. N OTES
1. Laboratorypreparedmortar only.
MATERTALS 2. \Men structuralreinforcementis incorporatedin ementlime morlar, the maximumair content is
12yo.
3 when structuralreinforcerent is in@rporateoIn masonrycement mortar, the maximum air content
PORTLANO CEMENT is l gyo
Portland. @rent. a hydraulic cement, is the principal
cerentitaousingredientof mrtar and grout.ThreeWpesof
ponrandcerent mvered by ASTM C 1so_Standard Specifl
cationfor PortlandC€ment are recommenoeo: TABLE 3: GUIDE FOR THE SELECTTON OF MASONRY MORTAR,
Typel: For general use when the specialpropertiesof MORTAR TYPE
Typesll and lll are not requjred LOCATION BUILDING SEGMENT RECOMM ENDED ALTERNATIVE
Typell: For use when moderate sulfate resistanceor grade LOaOmanng watl
moderateheat of hydrationis desired
l\ SorM
Non]@d bearing wall o2 NorS
Typ€lll: For use when high early strengthis desired Parapet wall N S
The allowable stresses for the structural design of brick grade founoalron wail, retarnrng wall, manholes,
masonry are based on the results ot tests in which onlv or
sewers, pavements. walks, and patios
portlandcementswere used The use of blendedhvdrault;
cerents and naturalcements rs not recommendedunless Load beanng wall l\ orM
the strengthof rhe masonryis tirst establishedby appropii Non$earing panitions o N
ate tests. Ftr nonstructuralmasonry,such cements may be NOTES
substitutedfor regularponlandcement without testino.
1 This table does not include many specializedmortar uses, such as chimney reinforcedmasonry
and acid-resistantmortar.
HYDRATEO LIME 2 Type o mortar is recommendedfor use.where-themason.yis unlikelyto.be frozenwhen saturated,
-' or
- -unlikely
' to be subjected
to high winds or orher significantraterarroads.Types N or s monar shburdbe used i" ;Gr;;;;;;.
Hydra_ted lim, a dry powder, is made by adding water to
quicklime,thus convertinglhe calcium oxide rnio calcrum 3 Masonryexposedto weather in a nominallyhorizontalsurfaceis extremelyvulnerableto wealheriog.
Mortar tor such masonry
hyd,oxide.Hydratedtime can be used without extra prepa_ shouldbe selectedwith due caution.
ration and thus is more convenientto use than ouict<tirire.
MASONRY
MORTAR
Mortqrond Grout 211
RECOMMENDED TYPES TABLE 5: GROUT PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME
AGGREGATE (MEASURED IN A
MORTAR PARTS BY VOLUME OF PARTS BY VOLUME DAMP. LOOSE CONDITION)
PORTLAND CEMENT OF HYDRATED LIME
No s'ng,letype ol mortar rs best surted tor arl purpose!. but OR BLENDED CEMENT OR LIME PUTTY FIN E COARSE
TYP E
there a.e several rules lor selecting mortar lYpe. NevQluse
a mortar that is stronger in compression than nee*d by Ine groul 2 '4'3 trmesthe sum ol
the structural requirements. Always select the mortar the volumes of
weakest in compression that is consistent with the perfoL cementitious materials
mance requirements of the project. However, this guideline grout 2 L - 3 t t m e s t h e s u m 1 - 2 timesthe sum ot
should be coupled with good engineering judgment: for the volumesof the volumes of
example, it would be uneconomical and unwise to change cementitious materaals cementitious materials
mortar types in various parts of a structure lf mortar is
used with reinlorcement in a collar ioint or in a cell of a hol-
low unit, then the air content must be less than 127o for
portland cement-lime mortars and 187o for masonry
cements. The use of mortar is recommended only in unre-
inforced collar ioinls of 3/r in. (19 mm) or less.
2 2x3
2 1 1 x, 3
%WffiW- ffiaz
12 21lt ed sEcrroN a,B
24 3 3 x3
I 1'lz 1 , 1 2x 3
a > Minimum grout space dimensionplus
5 2 2 1 l zx 3
2'1, horizontalbar diameter plus horizontal
12 3 x3
protrusions(seetable)
24 3 3 x4
N OTES
1. Groutspacedimensionis the clear dimensionbetween any masonryprotrusionand shall be increas€dby the diametersol the
horizontalbarswithin the cross sectionof the grout space. GROUT SPACE REQUIREMENTS
2. Areaof verticalreinforcementshouldnot exceed670of the area of the grout space
TYPES OFJOINTS
Monar serves multiple functions:
MORTAR JOINTS
MORTAR
MASONRY
212 Anchorogeond Reinforcement
GENERAL
TH
Masonryconstruction hasnot alwaysrequiredthe inclusion
ot metal elements- Historically,composite masonry con-
structionconsistedof multiple wylhes of masonrybonded
together by headers.However, contemperarvmasonry
walls requireties between the inner and.hJter wthes.
whichare thenancho'red to lhe strucluralframe Manvoeo
ple use the terms wal, ,rb and arcrror interchangeably,but
Elti
J*J
In practrcethe term tie r€ters to combining a wythe oI
masonry to its backing system. while anchor rctets to a
componentthal secures structuralelementsto a structural
STONE TO MASONRY TYPICAL
METAL DOWEL !l ||
ttl
support.A fasteneris a deviceused to attach nonstructural
elementsto masonry.Anchors and ties with flexiblecom-
ponentscan accommodatedifferentialmovemenl between
the structuralframe and the masonrywall by allowing for
In-planemovement.
CORROSION PROTECTION
The durabilityof any metal accessoryis usuallybasedon its
ability to resist corrosion. Since masonry walls are often
@
\L---
lr'l
.l'-fr1
#
ANCHORBOL
ANCHORS,AND REINFORCEMENT
Selectionof anchors and reinforcementis determined bv
the relationshipol the masonry element to the struclur;l
support.Reinforcingbars may b€ placedhorizontallyor ver-
ticallyin masonry.The reinforcementmay be placedin the
cores or cells of masonry units or between vMhes of
rusonry. The use of dovetailslots welded on steel or con-
dete columnsrequirescoordinationduringthe steel or con- ANCHOR BOLT/REINFORCING BAR
SPACERS
crele tabrication stags. Th€ typ€ of anchor specified.
includingits size, diameter, and spacing,should be called
out on the contractdocum€nts. I SIGN
MffAL CAP
FUSHING
THREADEO
ANCHOR AOLT
ROD ANCHOR SET IN
CONCRETE WALL
NUT WITH STEEL
PLATE OR
WEDGE INSERT WASHER AS
NECESSARY
REINFORCING
BAR
SIGNAGE DETAIL
BRICK
TIGHTEN
NUT AY
HANO ONLY
ANCHOR
BOLT
FOUNDATION
NOTE
' Masonry MASONRY WALL TO FOUNDATION
laid in running bond. Consult applicable building code for special bond patterns such as stack bond.
ANCHORAGE DETAIL
4 MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
MosonryTies 213
m MASONRY TIES
run N
connection, transfer lateral loads, permtt In-plane move
1ilil ment to accommodate differential movements, and may
act as hoflz-ontal structural reintorcemenl. As shown on
thrs oaqe, wall ties include unit ties, loint reintorcemenl
adrustable unrr lres. and adiustable ioint telnlorcemenl Wall
trq soacinq rs |sted rn a table on the ACS page on Anchor
aoe and Aeinforcement. The tres should be staggered in
aiiernate ro*s. and only one row of ties should be located
$+
in the same bed ioint to allow proper embedment in the
mortar.
€€€z{\l
WIRE LADDER TRUSS TYPE
TY Corrugated 22
REINFORCEMENT FOR Jointreinforcement
JOINT 9
MASONRY BACKUP Ladderand truss
Tab I
€-r{4l
UNIT TIES_STEEL FRAME
ll a&?
Unit
Bectangular and "2"
Dovetail/channel slot
Corrugated
Connectior slot
Slot plate
Backer plate
Joint reinforcement
Standard section
Tabs
'Thicker diameters and gauges are available
p
-.s9- \" /
s>' V
TIE DET
NOTES
1. Z ties can be used only with solid masonry veneer units
r/, in. onto solid
2. Tie must extend a minimum of 1
masonry unils and be fully embedded in mortar on the
outer face shell of hollow masonry units.
TIE
UNIT TIE FOR MASONRY BACKUP TYPICAL ADJUSTABLE UNIT TIE
ADJUSTABLE UNtT TIE FOR CONCRETE
FRAME BACKUP
ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
214 MosonryAccessoriesond Reloledltems
3 TC 4" OF PEA
GRAVEL (ALSO
RECOMMENDED:
I2" HIGH PUSTIC
DRAINAGE MESH)
FLASHING
PUSTIC METAL WALL
SHELF ANGLE
WEEP HOLE PLUGS Sff IN
BED JOINT
(OPTIONAL
HEAD JOINT
INSECT WRAP
KEPT OPEN MTAL WALL
OVER END)
AND FREE PLUG Sfl IN
OF DEBRIS FLASHING HEAD JOINT
SHELF ANGLE
OPEN HEAD VENT WEEP HOLE TUBE METAL WALL PLUGS
V\/EEP HOLE DETAILS \^/EEP HOLE DETAILS NAILING RECEIVERS (SET IN MASONRY)
GALVANIC CORROSION (ELECTROLYSIS) POTENTIAL BETWEEN COMMO LASHING MATERIALS AND SELECTED
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
-\--{.t u
ucTroN MATER|ALS
l
o
(n
t!
N gO
^^a
:x< u
E U UGF !J
= z U rrX O
\.\ U
E
f
zd
<u
<J
>u
JU o o
N
z
o
)U
z
tr<z
3
Exx F
o
z
FLASHING MATERTALS o J FF
00
<F
(1d
z
il J
c :5f;
f>u ;ige; t
a a o o o O o o o o
Aluminum
o o o o o o O o O
o o a a a a) C a
Zinc alloy
o o o O o o o
Lead
o o o a) o a
NOTES
a o a C o
'1.
i Galvanic action will mur. hence direct contact should be avoided.
ellon ray @cur under cenain circumstances and/or over a period of tim€.
tl ::lwl!c
(J baNanrc actron rs Insrgnttrcant: metals may come into dir*t contact under normalcircumstances
2 Galwnic ctrrosion is apt to occur when water runoff from one material comes
In contact wtth a Dotentaallv reaclve mare1.
MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
MosonryMovementJoints 215
MOVEMENT JOINTS entire structure. The isolation joint is a through-the building
INTRODUCTION joint, including the roof assembly.
The various materials and elements used to construct a Thereare varioustypes of movementioints in buildrngs:
building are in constant motion. All building materials expansionjoints, controljoints,buildingexpansronjoints, A construction (cold) ioint is used primarily in concrete con-
change in volume in response to internal or external stimuli, and construction joints. Each type oI movement ioint is struction when construction work is interrupted. Construc-
such as temperature chang€s. moislure expansion. €nd designedto perform a speci{ictask and should not be used tion joints are located where they will least impair the
elasl,c deformatron due to loads ot creep. Restraining sich interchangeably. strength of the structure.
movements mav cause stresses within the building'ble-
ments, which in turn may result in cracks. Expansionioints are used to separatebrick masonry into
segments to prevent crackingfrom changes in tempera SPACING OF EXPANSION AND
To avoid tracks. the building design should minimize vol- ture, moisture expansion,elasticdeformationdue to loads, CONTROL JOINTS
ume change. prevenl movement, or accommodate ditler- and shrinkageand creep in concreteframed buildings.
ential movement between materials and assemblies. A Expansionjoints may be horizontalor venical. They are No single recommendation on the positioning and spacing
system oI movement joints can prevent cracks and the formed ot elastomeric materials placed in a continuous, of expansion and control joints can be applicablelo all struc-
problems they cause. Movement joints can be designed by unobstructedopening through the brick wythe. This con- tures. Each building should be analyzed to determine the
estimating the magnitude ot the several types ol move struction allows the ioints to close iI the size of the brick- extent of movement expected within that pa.ticular struc-
ments that may occur in mason.y and other building materi work increases.Expansion joints must be Iocatedso the ture. Provisions should be made to accommodate these
als. structural integrily of the brick masonry is not compre movements and their associated stresses with a series of
mised. In some casesexpansionioints are necessaryin exDansion and control ioints.
concrete masonry walls. Architects often designatethese
MOVEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION joints as control joints. Generally, spacing of expansion joints is determined by
considering the amount of expected wall movement and
MATERIALS
Controljoints are used in concrete or concrete masonryto the size of compressibility o{ lhe expansion joint and expan-
The designand constructionof most buildingsdo not allow create a plane of weaknessthat, used in conjunctionwith sion joint materials. Expansion joints are often sized to
precisepredictionof movementsof buildingelements.Vof reinforcementor loint reinforcement,conrrols the location resemble a mortar joint, usually 3/r in. {10 mm) tor/2 in. (13
ume changesdepend on materialpropeniesand are highly oJ crackscausedbV volume changesresultinglrom shrink- mm). The maximum size of the expansion joint may
variable-Age of materialand temperatureat installationalso age and creep.A controljoint, usuallyvenicaland formed ot dep€nd on the sealant capabilities. Extensibility of highly
influence exoected movement. When ntean values oI inelastic materials. will ooen rather than close. Control elastic expansion ioint materials is typically in the range ol
material prop€nies are used in design, the actual move- joints must be locatedso the structuralintegrityof the con- 25 to 507'. Compressibility of backing materials can range
ment may be underestimatedor overestimated.Designers crete masonrywall is not afJected. up to 75olo.
shouldusediscrelionwhen selectingthe applicable values.
The types of movement affectingvariousbuildingmaterials A buildangexpansion(isolation)joint is used to separatea Expansion and control ioints do not have to be aligned in
are indicatedin the table. building into discrete structural sections so that stresses cavity walls; however, they should be aligned in multi-
developedin one sectionwill not affect the integrityof the wythe walls.
CONTRACTION
JOINT
CONTROL BLOCK
PR€FORMED
GASKfl
SEAUNT AND
BACKER ROD INTERIOR EXPANSION
JOINTCOVER -
SASH BLOCK
UNIT VERTICAL EXPANSION JOINTS
BRICK
EXPANSION JOINT AT
MASONRY CAVITY WALL
BUILDING
PAPER
CONTRACTION
JOINT
CORE FILLED
WITH MORTAR
SEAUNT ANO
BACKER ROO
EUSTIC SEAUNT
AND BACKER ROD
CONTRACTION
OUT-OF-PUNE R€STRAINT JOINT HORIZONTAL EXPANSION JOINT OOUSLE WYTHE MASONRY
MASONRYACCESSORIES
216 Floshingin MosonryWqlls
PURPOSE able. Lead and galvanized metal may result in some white ot the recessed portion of the masonry. Plastic flashino i.
staining. but this may be minimal if coated materials are often exposed and cul off llush wrth the tace of lh.
Flashing in masonry construction is necessary to collect used. Choose aluminum as an embedded tlashing only if it masonry lf the flashing is recessed and d@s not reach th.
moisture that enters the wall system and to channel it to is properly coated, so it will not react with the mortar. Poly- surlace, water collected on it may be channeled by mo.tar
the exterior through weep holes. Moisture enters masonry ethylene should not be used as flashing unless it has been under the flashing and back into the wall svstem.
walls through condensation, penetratiotr of winddriven chemically stabilized so it will not deteriorate when
rains, failed sealant joints, interfaces with other compo- exposed to sunlight (ultraviolet radiation). Asphalt impreg Weep holes are required in the head ioints oI the course ol
nents, or other components themselves. such as windows nated building paper (building telt) is not air acceptable masonry immediately above all embedded flashing. Weel,
or roofs. flashing material. Adhered flashings must be held back holes may be open head ioints, holes formed with nvlorl
from the lace ot the wall to avoid deterioration and stainino rope o. oiled rods, plastic or metal tubes, fib.ous rooe. o
There are two types o{ flashing. Exposed {lashings can be caused by high temperatures. conon sash cord. Open head ioints are often titted wrtt
applied to all masonry construction, while use of embedded
vents or screens to keep out insects or rodents. Formed
flashing is usually limited to drainage-type watls. Masonry is
INSTALLATION weep holes should have a minimum diameter of r[ in.;
a durable, long-lasting construction material- Thus, the
tubes used for weep holes should have a minimum inside
flashing materials selected should also be durable and have Embeddedflashing is typi€lly used in drainagewails at the diameter of l/a in. Weep holes are preferred as open head
a long life. especially embedded flashing materials. which base, above all openings,at sills and shell angles,and joints occurring no more than 32 in. on center, although il
are difficult to replace. under copings. Continuousembedded tlashing should be brick masonry it is generally recommended that thev be
lappedat least 6 in. and sealedwith an appropriatesealer. spaced no more than 24 in. on center. lf cord or roDe is
MATERIALS Discontinuousflashing should have the ends turned up at used, the material should be at least 16 in. long. Weep
least I in. to form a dam. Dams Dreventwater collect€don holes other than open head joints should be spaced no
Flashingmay be made of sheet metal {copper,lead, stain- the flashingfrom drainingoff the ends of the tlashingback
less steel, galvanizedsteel, or aluminum).plastic,or com- more than 16 in. on center.
into the wall system or into framingor mullions.
posite materials {usually paper-backed,coated, metallic
Drainage within the wall syslem is critical for proper perfor
sheet, or fibrous glass mesh). When selecting flashing Emb€ddedflashing should extend at least 8 in. vertically mance. Placing two to six inches of gravel or draanage
materaals, avoid those that would have €thodic reactions within the wall system; it shouldextendat least 't% in. into material immediately above embedded flabhing will hetp
with mortar, other metals, or other constructionmaterials. the Interiorwythe and throughthe exteriorwythe at teastlL
The thicknessof the flashingmaterialspecifiedshould take ensure proper drainage within the wall and effective chan
m. to fom a drip. The drip minimizes possible staining. neling of water to the weep holes. The drainage material or
into accountthe span between embedment,bends,or con- Sometimes,it may be necessaryto avoidthe drip, as with
nections.Coppermay cause a patina,which may be desir- pea gravel will act as a drainage field within the wall svstem
rough textured units and ribbed,scored,or fluted masonry and help keep mortar dropprngs from clogging the wepp
unrls. The tlashingmust be €refully broughl to the surtace notes.
CONTINUOUS SON
JOINT
/ RETNFORCED
/ CONCRETE
SPANoREL
/
CONTINUOUS MSAL SILL
I DOVETAIL FLASHING FLASHING
ANCHOR SLOT
CONTINUOUS MASONRY
FUSHING
CONTINUOUS
(:
FLASHING
REGLS SILL FLASHING
- CONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUS REGLET
gEEL
CONTINUOUS
ANGLE SEAUNT FLASHING
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR SPLICE
SLOT CEMENT
FULL
TAL LIPPED
sofl JorNT BRICK HORIZONTAL
SON JOINT
HORIZONTAL
SOtr JOINT
\-- wEEP HoLE
CAVITY WALL FLASHING CAVITY WALL FLASHING OUTSIDE CORNER FLASHING
BACKER ROO
ELASTOMERIC
SEAUNT
SEAUN]
LIP BRICK
CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
STEEL ANGLE
COMPRESSIALE
HORIZONTAL
FI[ER HORIZONTAL
50tr JOTNT
son JorNT
BACKER ROD
WEEP HOLE AT 24" O,C
EUSTOMERIC
SEAUNT TUBE WEEP HOLE
Lsqa!'re D. Sherman,AIA; Lev Zetlin Assmiates, Engineersand Designers;New york, New york
ErianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America;Reston,Virginia
MASONRY
ACCESSORIES
Linlels 217
Simple lintel wth arch actron car- Simple lintel without arch action Lintel with uniform lloor load car- Lintel with concentrated load car- Lrntels at movement lornts requrre
ries wall load only in triangle above carries less wall load than triangle ries both wall and floor loads in ries wall and portion of concen- special design considerations.
opening:C>BandD>B above opening: Hr or H, < 0.68 rectangle above opening: C < B trated load distributed along
length B,
REINFORCED
CMU LINTEL
8'BEARING REQUIRED REINFORCING FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY LINTELS
#4
STEEL LINTEL
WITH FUSHING
MIN.4- AEARING
NOTE
pRECAST CONCRETE LTNTEL DETAIL L i n t epl r o p e r t i e s i w i d t h = 7 % i n . , h e i g h t = 7 % i n . , w e i g h t = 6l b0i 4 i n e a r lf't".= 2 5 0 0 p s i
ACCESSORIES
MASONRY
BRICK BONDS
b?li:r l)
In. {t tn., cuts
interiortace. both
"o,_i{...JL_ €nos,
i J u p p E R \ , r \ l \P
l\ /l zls['.) Yr Interaormortarjoints maintainedat approximatelyr/" in.
_/'
RADIAL \^r'ALLS AND BRICK PROJECTIONS
a\
-Lr
MASONRY
UNITS
Cloy MosonryUnits 219
ent applications in which brick can be used. Bricks must APPEARANCE
BRTCK AND TILE CLASSIFICATION
meet a grade ot SW. MW, or NW based on the weathering
Brick tvpes are related to the appearance ot the unit, and
Brick and tile are classified accordrng to the specific location index and the exposure thev will receive. The weathering soecificallv to limlts on dirensional tolerances. distortion
where thev are used. Standard specificalions have been index is the producl of the average annual number of freez- tolerances, and chippage. The brick type can be selected
develooed to produce uniJorm requirements for brick The ing cycle days and the average annual winter rainlall in
depending on whether a high degree of precision is neces-
American Societv for Testinq and Materials (ASTM pub inches (see map below). The exposure is related to
sary, a w,der range of color or size is permitted, or a charac
lishes the lnost widely accepted standards on brick Stan- whether the brick is used on a vertical or horizontal surface teristic architectural effect is desired. The tvpes of bflck tor
dard specifications include strength, durability, - and and whether the unit will be in contact with the earth (see each soecrfication are listed in table 4
aesthetlc requtrements. table 3). A higher weathering index or a mo.e severe expo-
sure will require face brick to meet the SW requirements
The grade is typically based on physical properties of the TABLE 4: APPEARANCE
CLASSIFICATIONS brick. The grades {or each specification are listed in table 2. AST M TIGHTER LOOSER
A5T M STA N DAR D TOLERANCES TOLERANCES
TYPE OF BRICK UNIT D ES IG NATIO N
TABLE 2: GRADE REQUIREMENTS
Buib-frg_-brcl< c62 FOR FACE EXPOSURES* C 216 Type FBX FBS FBA
Ech-sEak c216 C 652 Type HBX HBS HBB HBA
C652 c 902 PX PS PA
t-tottow brick
AND applicatron
Pavingbrick LS02 C 126 Grade SSS
Ceramic Alazed brick c 126 C1088 Type TBX TBS 'BA
C 1088 ln contact wrth eanh C 32 sewer None
Thinbrickveneerunits None
Not in contact with earth
Smr and manhole brick
ln other than vertical surfaces:
Chemiml resistant brick ' C279 ln contact with earth
AESTHETICS AND SHAPES
l n d u s t r i a lf l o o r b n c k C410 Not in contact with earth
Brick is readilv available in many sizes, colors. textures, and
TYPE OF TILE UNIT *See map below
shapes, all adaptable for vinually any style or expression.
Structural clay load bearing tile C34 Brick's small module can be related to the scale of the wall,
C 56 and its sizes can be combined to create different appear
Sreturet clav non-toad bearrnq tile
ances and oatterns. Sizes available are shown in table 1.
Structural clay facing tile C212
C530
TABLE 3: EXPOSURE When specifying the size of units, dimensions should be
51rus1srs1elav non-load bearing
screen !te listed in the following order; width by thickness by length.
ASTM VERE SEVERE The size of the brick influences cost because larger units
Ceramic glazed lile C 126 STANDARD POSURE EXPOSURE
require fewer bricks, normally resulting in less labor. Spe-
cially shaped bricks are available to add interest to a wall,
C 2 16 Grade SW includrng water table bricks. radials, caps, copings, corners,
C 652 Grade SW and others. Consult the manufacturer lor specilic sizes and
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS MX NX
Termsusedin eachstandard mayinclude
tor classification
C 902 Grade
c 1261 1 availabilitv.
EXPOSURE
Soecific qrades of brick are required to accommodate the RADIAL
v;rious climates found rn the United States and lhe diffeF BRICK
NOMINAL SPECIFIED
DIMENSIONS (IN. JOINT DIMENSIONS' (IN.)
UNIT THICKNESSI VERTICAL
OESIGNATION d N.) COURSI NG
covE
TABLE
BULLNOSE
WATER
TAALE
BRICK SHAPES
! necrtctare wEATHERTNG
N OTES
uoornlre wEATH€RrNG
L Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Actual joint thicknesses vary between bed joints and head joints. I
I sevene weerHERrNG
2. Specified dimensions may vary within this range among manufacturers.
MASONRYUNITS
220 Concrele MosonryUnits
GENERAL VOLUMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL
Concretemasonryunits (CMU)conlormto ASTMstandard
HOLLOW CONCRETE
MASONRY UNrTS (7 "/.x ts % tN.)
specitications.The most common concrere masonryuntts
used in buildingconstructionare load bearingunits a;d c;;_ MINIMUM THICKNESS 2 CORE UNITS
GROSS
cretebrick.Non-ioad bearingunitsmay be specifred for par \^/IDTH VOLUME, CU PERCENT
Irlronsand are commonlyused for lrre protdctronof steel
cotumnsand frre-rated oanittons
ilN.) IN. (CU FT}
432
SHELL (IN.) wEB (tN.) SOLID VOLUME F3l'JXi,'.:t'.,'"?i''
u.t5 0.75 b4
(0.25) 1.00 1.00
Typ_eI or moisture{ontrolledunits are specifiedto obtain a 73 2.66
unitormdegreeot volume changedue to moistureloss in a .00 5l
pa.trcutarctimate.The specification of Type I unils facili_ {0.388) .12 .00 3.43
tatesthe l@€tronof controljoints.Type li or non_moislure .25 .00 64 3.60
controlledunits may be more economicalbut will typically .37 3.A2
requrrecloserspacingof controljoints_ YUU 25
(0.526)
53
12 4.35
ln addirionto type, concrete bricks are specifiedby grade. 50 12 59 4.50
GradeN is intendedfor use as architecturalveneerin! fac-
I 145 .25 12
ing units in exteriorwalls and for use when high strength (0.664) 46 4.62
and resistanceto moisture penetration ana s-everefr6it .37 12 51 4.91
actronare desired.GradeS is intendedfor generalmasonry .50 54 5.20
where moderatestrengthand resistanceto trost actionand 1. 1 2 5.12
morsturepenetrationare required_ (0.803) 1.37 1. 1 2
't.25 46
1.50 49 5.10
Concretemasonryunits are availablein a varietyof colors. 1.75 1.25 52 6.05
sizes,lextures, configurations,and wetgnts to accomme
qate oesrgn,deta,ltng,and @nstruction.Colors
are now
providedwith ligtttfastmetallicoxide pigments conforming
to ASTM C 979. Tle texturesmay be sr;oottr, grouna,spiii The weight of the units also varies.Dependingon the
aggregateused. concrete masonryunits are typicallymade ASTM STANDARD
floDeo,or otheMtse preparedto maxrmizedesign versatil_
rry. )mootn tnrshes and more color options ar6 available usrngMcretes with densitiesrangingfrom g5 to 140pcf. SPECIFICATIONS
with pretaced,'integral glazed"concrete masonryunits. rne trghteruntts tend to providemore fire resistance and C sG-Concrete Brick
have an improved noise r€duction coefficient. and lhev
Concretg.rusonryunits are specitiedas width by height by often are more economi€l to place in tt" ffejuili C THalcium SilicateFaceBrick (sand-limebrick)
rengrn.Ine nomrnatdimensionsare usually in. larger unrts tend to provide increasedcompressivestrength,
".in- bet_
% ter resastanceto sound penetration,higher water
than the actual uoit dimensions.The most common nomi- f,enetra- C gH-oad BearingConcreteMasonry Units
nal widths of @rcret€ masonryunits are 4 in-, 6 in., g in., ton resrstance,and greatorthermalstoragecapabilities.
'10
in.,and l2 in.The nominalheightsare mostlyg in.and 4 C 12g-Non-load BearingConcreteMasonry Units
rn., except concrete bricks are typicaily 2
% in. high. The
nomrnarrengthsare usually16 or tg in. Concretebrick C l3Honcrete Masonry Unrts tor the Constructionol
tengthrs usually8 in. but is often 12 In. Lengthsmay be I g Latcn Bastnsand Manholes
ot 24 in. in some regions.Theselonger leng-thsare usually
more economtel tor Dlacement C.144--Prcfaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry
Units
ce3'-solidconcretelnterlockinsPavinsun
(h
we@CAW_J
6h
STRETCHER
@ao
/a>
COREO
z>,
FROGGED
-.s,
FROG OPEN
IN REAR
_..\
@ @ffiffi @ffiffiffiffi
CORN ER CORNER
RETU RN
CONTROL
JOINT
JAM B JOIST UNIT CLEANOUT UNtT
4
ffi &
L4r"
AOND BEAMS
A.BLOCK H-BLOCK U-BLOCK - A-BLOCK
BOND BEAM BOND BEAM OPEN-ENtr UNITS
ffiffi@ffi@@@@tu
A X A SCOREO FACE SPLTT FACE
RIGID
RIBBED OR SCORED SPLTT RIBBED FLUTED COLUMN PILASTER
IN SERT
INSUUTION
A*
<///>) | il tl
\lv !ry
CHIMNEY UNITS
SCREEN
MASONRYUNITS
MosonryFoundotionWqlls 22r
Thermal protection may be provided with interior turring tratron and thereby resistant to soil gases such as radon.
GENERAL
and batts or rigid board rnsulation, an exterior rigid board Typical waterproofing consists of a minimum 3/ain coat of
Masonry walls have long served as foundations tor struc insulation and protection system, or with rntegral rnsulation cement stucco pargrng and an approprate lrquid applred
tures. Today, most masonry foundation walls consist ot san- strategies. The latter include foamed-in-place insulation. membrane, but some lrquid-applied membranes alone or
gle wythe, hollow or solid masonry unit construction. granular lill insulations, and premolded polystyrene inserts. combined with built-up membranes are acceptable. Sur-
depending on the required bearing capacity. The wall sys- Use of interior and exlerior insulation rather than premolded face-bonding mortar mixes are also effective for resisting
tems may be used as perimeter walls for slab{n-grade inserts allows reinforcing steel to be installed more easily water and soil-gas penetrat,on. A good perimete. drainage
construction or to form crawl spaces or basements. The system in contact with open air or connected to a sump pit
walls are reinforced as necessary to resist laleral loads. Optimal insect protection can be achieved using anterior or should be used for effective drainage.
Generally, such reinforcement should be held as close to integral insulation and a termite shield. Metalllashing mate-
the interior lace shell as possible. to provide lhe maximum rials often perform well as termite shields. For extenor insu- lf radon is a major concern, the top course of the masonry
tensile strength most economically- lation strategies in locations where termites are a concern, and the course of masonry at or below the slab should be
the termite shield musl extend over the exterior insulation. constructed of 100% solid unrts or hollow unifs fully filled
Foundation systems, especially basement walls, need to do with grout. French drains (drainage channels at the Inter-
more than simply support the structure. They must protect Waterprooting and dampproofing are specified by building taces of foundation walls and floor slabs), which often are
against heat, insect infestation (particularly termites), fire, codes, as discussed in chapter 7. Generally, waterproofing used to collect and drain condensation moisture in base-
and penelralron of warar soil gas. makes the foundation or basement wall resistant to air infil ments, should be avoided in areas where soil-gas entry rs a
"nd
concern.
THICKNESS OF FOUNDATION WALLS Architectural masonry units may be used to improve the
NOMINAL MAXIMUM DEPTH OF appearance of foundation walls, often in the above{rade
FOUNDATION WALL CONSTRUCTION THICKNESS (IN.) UNBALANCED FILL (FT) portion of the walls. Masonry units with architectural fin-
hollow unrts, ungrouted ishes facing the interior can be used for economacal con
structron of finished basement spac€.
N OTE
Drainagemust be providedon surfaceand below gradeto removegroundwater from foundationwall. The backfillmust be granu-
lar and soil conditionsnonexpansive.
,d
CONCRETE
UNIT LINTEL
MASONRY
WINDOW WELL
BASEMENT WINOOW
FREE DRAINING
AACKFIU
TYPE S MORTAR
OAMPPROOFING
AND PARGING
^I
-2
p shz
o.1
Wherei
LIMITATIONS ON CORBELING
TYPICAL FOUNDATION WALL
MASONRYUNITS
222 MosonryFoundolionWqlls
NOTE FLOOR DIAPHRAGM FOUNDATION WALL
INCLUOING JOIST ANO
S = spacing of vertical reinforcing bars SUAFLOOR TO PROVIOE REINFORCEMENT
LATERAL SUPPORT TO
B = bar size VERTICAL REINFORCEM ENT
TOP OF WALL
H = height of backfill BAR SIZE AND MAXIMUM BAR SPACING
H EIGHT OF BACKFILL. H
VERTICAL BAR
POSITIONER IN
MORTAR BED
ONE COURSE
BELOW BOND
BEAM
NOTES
1. The empiri€l design method of the Building Code
CONCRflE Requirementsfor MasonryStructures,ACI 530/ASCES,
FOOTING chapter9. allorc up to 5 ft of backfillon an 8 in. nonrein-
forced concretemasonrywall.
2. As an alternate,9 gauge joint reinforcementplaced in
ioints numbers3, 4, 5, 7, 8, andl 1 may be used.
CONCRETE
SOLID CMU
8"X8'Xt6
8- CMU (TYP.)
CONTROL 8- CMU (TYP.)
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
AT I 6- ffYP. )
CONTROL
WALL FOUNDATION FOR INTERIOR \/VALL FOUNDATION FOR NON.BEARING REINFORCED FOUNDATION
BEARING WALLS OR BEARING INTERIOR V\/ALLS WALL DETAIL
MASONRYUNITS
o! GRAVEL STOP
)--.--
AND FASCIA
.Xoo9; noorrnc \. STEEL
/-
AEAM
BAN
INSUUTION '/4' x a LoNG
BENT PLATE AS
R E Q U I R E DA T
4 -O O.C.(TYP.\
INSUUTiON 2 DtA
WASHER
STEEL JOIST
CONTINUOUS
STEEL BAR
1/z otA
ANCHOR
ANCHOR BOLT EMBEDDED
VENT /
t5 AT6 0C I
GROUTED
\ ANGLE
BOND AEAM
CORES 5X3XY1 X6
REINFORCING FILLED LONG AT
BARS 4' - O" O.C
GROUT { T Y P .) .
THROUGH
METAL
FUSHING LATH
CMU LINTEL
wtNoow PREcAST t
lt{ Bgl
HEAD --__\
LTNTEL
wtNDow _ _lg1 [ . tffil
.:El
FrNrsH lf ..i El
VERTICAL
vaRrES----ll:.' .". .ffi|
JUy'/l HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD
REINFORCEMENT
BEARING WALLS - STEEL FRAME
IN GROUTED t;4%4
sEAuNr --l I ll I I
RIGID
_L\,/|LI
INSUUTION
INSERTS
:T.' _ METAL DECK WITH
OR WITHOUT CONCRFTE
I O GAUGE PUTE
8,' LONG (TYP.)
SEAUNT
JAMB
-_rffiru|
iH?J=
PRECAST
STONE SILL
ffi
t tl|
WITH ORIP EDGE -L---4. 1[
JAMB -
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNIT
FURRING PRECAST
STRIPS SILL
ANGLE
ruo-wtRE 5x3xr/4x6
TRUSSOR LONG AT
UDDER TYPE 4 -O" O.C
HORIZONTAL
JOI NT
REINFORCEMENT
FUSHING
GRAOE
\
WALLBOARD
GRAVEL
BASE HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD
BEARING \^/ALLS _ METAL DECK
% PREMoLDED
JOINT(TYP,)
INSUUTION
(IF REOUIRED)
;LE WYTHE MASONRY WALL \^/ITH SINGLE WYTHE MASONRY WALL WITH
=L FRAME WOOD FRAME
MASONRYUNITS
224 SingleWytheWolls
GENERAL
Design oi multistory bearing wall buildings rs based or
combaned structural action of the {loor and root svstem
JOINT with the masonry walls. Floors carry the venrcal loads and
REINFORCEMENT actrng as diaphragms, also distribute tateral loads to rhe
AT 16" O 3/B"ANcHoR walis. In masonry bearing wall buildings, lateral {orces fronl
FINISH ROD I 2" LONG winds or earthquakes are usually resisted by shear wal|:,
VARIES parallel to the direction of the lateral force. Bv thejr shearjno
and flexural resistance, these walls transfer lateral forces t6
CONCRffE ON GROUTED CMU the ioundation.
MffAL DECK ON BOND B€AM
REINFORCE AS
REOUIRED The action of roof and floor diaphragms affects the distribu.
tion of lateral forces to the shear walls. Diaphragms are
classified into three groups: rigid, semirigjd (or semiflexi
ble), and flexible. In design, the rigid diaphragm is assumec
to distribute horizontal forces to vertical shear walls in pro
ponion to their relative rigiditi€s (longer or thicker walls
being more rigid than shorter or thinner walls). More com.
plex design approaches may consider the diaphragms to be
semirigid or flexible. The distribution of toads in th!se more
complex designs is similar to @ntinuous beam desion and
design based on tributary areas, respectively
r/." x 3/16 TW|STED For the diaphragms to be effective, there must be adeouare
STEEL PUTE AT 4" MtN. connections between the rool and floor systems and the
6 - O" O.C. FOR BEARING masonry walls. In many instances, adequate connection is
achieved with the walls supported on masonry bond
beams. Horizontal members (roofs and floors) are often
connected to the walls with reinforcing steel. Adequate
connections may be reinforcing steel into bond beams or
may be coordinated with the masonrv wall reinlorcement
Connections will vary with the requirement to resist loads.
CMU WALL TO WOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU WALL TO STEEL JOIST ANCHORAGE
PRECAST COPING
PROVIDE METAL
CRAMP AT JOINTS
CONTINUOUS
FUSHING
REINFORCEMENT
WATERPROOFING
VERTICAL
AS REOUIREO TREATMENT
REINFORCEMENT
(FILL CEL6 AT
REINFORCEMENT
BASE AND
FINISH I COUNTERFUSHING
vARlEs=-_l
PRE.FAB CANT
PREcAsr Horrow I
I
BUILT-UP ROOFING
ON INSUUTION ON
PRECAST HOLLOW
CORE SLAB
3 MtN. REINFORCEMENT
AEARING
#4 REINFORCING
ROD IN JOINT
LEOGER 3,' X 8" MtN BOND BEAM
X 2, . O,, LONG (TYP.)
MIN. CONTINUOUS GROUT SOLID
WITH AOLTS TYP.
(USE WITH SAME GROUTED CMU BOND
DEPTH AS JOISTS) BEAM REINFORCE
AS REOUIREO
INTERIOR WALL TO JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU WALL TO CONCRETE JOIST ANCHORAGE CMU PARAPET TO CONC:RETE
ROOF ANCHORAGE
3/ro" FLEXtBLE
ANCHOR
,/,.
WALL TO COLUMN ANCHORAGE DETAILS
(-1r
/\
MASONRYUNITS
REINFORCEMENT STANDARD MATERIALS SELECTION FOR REINFORCED MASONRY
In many applicarions,single wythe wails are reinforced. The MASONRY UNITS MORTAR ANO GROUT REI N FORCEM ENT
E(m paniatty reinforced is erroneous. Reinforcement beaflng
schedules are designed for a particular appli€tion, ant all MasonryUnits MasonryConstructionASTM A 615 Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
the required reinforcement is necessary A S T MC 2 1 6 FacingBrick(solid ASTM C 476 Groutfor Masonry Bars
masonryunits madelrom ASTM A 616 RaifSteel Deformed and Plain
Walls are often partially grouted, that is. only the cells or clayor shales) Bars
cavities of the wall containing reinforcement are grouted. ASTMC 652 HollowBrick (hollow ASTM A 706 Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars
When walls are partially grouted, special units or construc- masonryunits made from uBc 24-15 Joint Reinforcement tor
tion fabric are used for vertical containment of the grout. clayor shale) Masonry
Horizontal containment is usually provided by mortaring the
webs of the masonry units. When steel placement is lre-
quent, it may become economical or nece$ary to fully
grout the walls-
METHODS OF REINFORCING
MASONRYUNITS
MULTIWYTHE MASONRY ted to use the method that is most etlective based on the this type of wall, the grout is contained horizontallv wth
talent available,the wall configuration, and the construction building fabric and vertically wrlh dams. The ddms are tvol
Multiwythe masonryconstructionis common for many sequence. Often a single wythe of the wall might be rein, cally masonry units placed withan the cavitv. In oartiailv
applications,both load bearing and non- load bearing and forced. See the section on single wythe walls for a discus- grouted hollow wall construction, {lashrng may be neces
tor interiorand exteriorwalls. Thesesystemsare frequently sion of reinforced masonry. In multiwythe construction the sary at horizontal interruptions in the cavity.
used as exteriorwalls or other applicationswhen exposed collar ioint may contain reinlorcement lf this is so, the col-
architecturalmasonrv units are required on one or both lar joant width must be increased to provide adequate cov- Insulation tor exterior walls may be integral in a wythe ol
sides ol the masonrv.Such walls are constructedwith full erage for the reinlorcement. The diameter of the masonry or may be on the exterior of the wall, but it is usu
collar joints between wythes of masonry.The most cofr reinlorcement should not exceed half the collar ioint thick, ally on the interior. The insulation may be adhered or
mon multiwythewall is the compositewall, which consists ness. When fine grout is used there must be at ieast,/. in mechanically tastened directly to the masonry, or the insu,
ol a clay brick wythe and a concretemasonrywythe with a between the reinforcemenl and the masonry. When coarse lataon system may be pan ol a conventional furring or stud
3/ain. collar,oint, and brick headersor anchors.The collar
grout is used. the space must be at least '/, in. ding system. The benefits of thermal mass are generally
ioint is often difficult to fill and may be {illed by pargingthe optimized with integral and exterior insulation strategies.
backupor by grouting.Generallythe method of lilling the Multiwythe walls may be constructed as pa.tially grouted
joint sh@ld not be specified.The mason shouldbe permit- walls, using cavity wall or multiwythe wall construction. For
GRAVEL STOP
METAL COPING
wlTH I/2" DtA.
ANCHOR (TYP.)
BUILT,UP ROOFING
BRICK CAP
INSUUTION
WALLAOARO coRRosroN
RESISTANT
SEEL WIRE TIE
fUO WALL
FILLEO COLUR
3/.' coLLAR JOINT
JOINT (flP.)
coRRostoN
TWO WIRE RESISTANT
LAOOER- WIRE TIE
WPE JOINT
REINFORCEMENT FUSHING WITH
AT r6- O.C. (TYP.) WEEP HOLES AT
24" O.C. (TYP.) RECTANGULAR
CONCRflE
suB
FULLY GROUTED
WIREMESH OR
HARDWARE
CLOTH
FUSHING WITH
WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP
r/r- PREMoLDED
JOINT (TYP.)
RIGIO collar joint is intended as an
INSUUTION barrier, flashing is not
necessafy
MULTIWYTH E MASONRY \,VALL ALTERNATE MULTIM/YTHE WALL STEEL AND CONCRETE COLUMN
SECTION ANCHORAGE
A
'rJ
MASONRYUNITS
Multi-WytheWolls 227
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
OR METAL
WALL TIES
FIRECUT
EXPANSION
JOINT
WOOD FLOOR
ON WOOD JOISTS
DOVETAIL
ANCHOR
COLL}R JOINT
BACKUP ROD
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE BEAM AND COLUMN ANC
OR METAL TIES
AT t 6" O.C. (TYP.)
\l \l
I a2/
PRECAST
CORE SUB
HOLLOW
w Mz'.<
NOTE
Placement of positaoners
or other means ol secur-
ing anchorage is required
to prevent displacement
by construction loads or
by placement ot grout or
mortar.
G R O U T D A M _ V E R T I C A LC O U R S E
OF UNBONDEO MASONRYUNITS;
USUALLY BROKEN BRICK OR BLOCK
NOT E
COLUR JOINT
Cleanouts are required at bottom o{ wall (tirst
JOINT course of masonry) if grout pours exceed 5 ft
REINFORCEMENT Cleanouts should be adiacent to vertical rebars
OR METAL TIES and soaced no more than 32 in. on center.
AT 16" O.C. (TYP.)
MASONRYUNITS
GENERAL
Cavity walls consist of two wythes ol masonry separated
by at least a 2 in arrspace The airspace may be increased
lo 4rl2 in. wrth only minor increases rn tie size and or spac-
METAL COPING
ing. lf the cavity is to be more than 4rl2 in., the wall system
ASSEMBLY
should bc approprrdtely engineered. Either or both w!.thes
ot the wall system may be load beari.g.
M ETAL 2 X lO BLOCKING
FUSHING PUTE
WALL TIE
METAL
SEALANT
24 0.C.
t/2- BoLT
COMPRESSIBLE
4 -O"O.C MATERIAL BRICK SILL
3X6Xr/4-
STEEL PUTE wlNDow
WELDED CEILING
TO BOLT wooo TRrM
RIG'D
INSUUTION
t: FUSHING
cypsuu
DRYWALL
CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
ALTERNATE ROOF DETAIL
AIR SPACE
WALLBOARD
WEEP HOLE
ADJUSTABLE
ELASTIC MASONRY TIE
SEAUNT
WITH BACKER
ROD FUSHING
EXPOSED SLAB DETAIL BRICK AND CMU CAVTTY WALL ALTERNATE BRICK AND CMU CAVITY
WALL SECTION
A
-1r
MASONRYUNITS
Covity Wolls 229
OOVETAIL SLOT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COMPRESSIBLE
GROUTED CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
CONCRETE
CONCRETE DOVETAIL
MASONRY UNIT GYPSUM DRYWAI COLUMN
SLOTS
CONCRETE
FUSHING
suB
BRICK RIGID INSUUTION
BRICK
FUsHING REGLET
AT COLUMN
HORIZONTAL
R€INFORCEMENT - CONCRtrE
SHELF
METAL ANCHOR ANGLE lz
SET IN DOVETAIL
SLOT
BOX TIE WHEN ANGLE
GYPSUM ORYWALL t PER4 BOLTS ARE GREATER
THAN 9'' FROM CORNER,
FURRING MASONRY WELD '/S" THICK PLATE TO
CONCRETE BOTOM OF RELIEVING
RIGID CONCRETE M A S O N R YU N I T ANGLE (BOTH PIECES)
INSUUTION MA5ONRY UNIT
MASONRYUNITS
230 Covity Wolls
NOTES NOTES
'1.
Eoth wythesof solidmasonryunits (75% solidor 1 . Horizontal ioint reinforcement as tles at g, I 6, or 2.1
m.ore). in. on center vertically (typical) as required.
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or less. Wythes should 2. Both wythes constructed simultaneously.
h erectedsimultaneouslyfor this tie strategy.
MtN. I t/2" .
EMBEOMENT
TWO LONGITUOINAL
WIRE UDOER-TYPE
HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
RECTANGULAR TAB TIES FOR 4 IN. WYTHES OR LESS RECTANGULAR TAB TIES FOR MORE THAN 4 IN. \/VYTHES
NOTES NOTES
souo 4"
NOMINAL 1. Maximummi$lignment ol couGes is I r/! in. 1. Maximum mi$lignment of coursesis j '/4in.
SOLID HOLLOW
2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or loss. MASONRY
-
MASONRY 2. Both wythes not constructedsimultaneously
/
3. Both wyth€s not constructedsimultanoously NOMINAL 4" I MORETHAN
3. Pintelshold rigid boardinsulationin prace.
OR LESS Ir NOMINAL 4"
4. Pint€lshold rigid board insulationin prace.
MtN. I '/2"
EMBEDMENT
FOR SOLID
UNITS
EYE AND
PINTEL TIES
HOLLOW 4"
NOMINAL
OR LESS
l/2" MtN
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT
a" oR | 6' o.c. a" oR r 6" o.c.
VERTICALLY VERTICALLY
(TYP.) AS (TYP.) AS
REOUIRED
ADJUSTABLE TIES FOR 4 IN. \^/YTHES OR LESS ADJUSTABLE TIES FOR MORE THAN 4 TN. WYTHES
GraceS. _Lee;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia
BrianE. Trimble:Brick Institute oI America;Reston,Virginia
A
-1r MASONRYUNITS
BrickVeneer 231
- 2' MtN
AVEL STOP ATRSPACE
D FASCIA /
1-t
BUILDING
PAPER
ROOF JOIST
-
I MtN.
FLASHING
AIRSPACE
INSUUTION ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
BRICK VENEER
STEEL BEAM WEEP HOLE
METAL TIE BUILDING
AT STUDS EUSTIC
JOINT
SHEATHING ADJUSTABLE SEAUNT
Tl€
WALLBOARD
FUSHING
MATERIAL
FUSHING
EXTERIOR BELOW
STEEL LINTEL SHELF ANGLE
SHEATHING
WEEP HOLE
TRACK
wrNDow WOOD TRIM
HEAD WINDOW ADJUSTABLE
END DAM HEAO WIRETIE
SEAUNT
AOJUSTABLE SILL FLASHING
TIE AT STUDS DAM
STEEL LINTEL
ENO
FUSHING
THIN BRICK
CORROSION
RESiSTANT
METAL SCREW
MASTIC
AOJUSTABLE WEEP SLOTS ADHESIVE
TIE AT STUD
\y^\\ys WITH
MORTAR
FUSHING
WEEP HOLES
AT 21" O.C.
.
Hl%,F,.'
CEMENT BOARD
WOOD STUD
VENEERS at the plate and 38 ft at the gables. For veneers wlth a nom-
ADHERED VENEERS
ANCHORED
inal thickness of 3 in., the heiqht is limited to two stories, Thin brick veneer, also referred to as adhered veneer, is an
Masonry veneers provide an aesthelrc, durable noncom- 20 It at the plate and 28 ft at the gable. For building heights aoolication of thin brick veneer units-between
'/, to |
%
bustrble, weather resislant tinish for structural masonry or greater than two stories, the brick veneer must be sup- in. thick<n a backing system. Adhered veneer relres on
lioht tramrno construction. The inherent mass of the veneer the bonding agent between the thin brick units and the
sound penetra- oorted by a shelf angle at every floor.
piovrdes inireased thermal perlormance
backuo subltrate. This construction may be classified as
iion resistance. and lire resistance. Anchored veneers typr Veneers are drainage-type walls. Although a nominal 1 in either thin bed set or thick bed set. The thin brick can be
callv consist of nominal 3 or 4 in. wythes of masonry taed to airsoace is acceptable for drainage In most low-rlse, resF adhered to a stud backing, attached to a concrete masonry
a backing system. Veneers are not intended to support any deniial aoolications. a minimum 2 in- airspace between the backing. cast into € concrete panel, or laid into a preformed
loads other than their own weight All lateral loads are back of the masonry and the exterior surface of the backing modul;r oanel. Thin brack oanels can be prefabricated or laid
intended to be transferred to the backing system. Empirical or exterior sheathing is recommended for masonry veneers in place, depending on the size or intricacies of the project.
design permits the construction of masonry veneers with a in mrGrise and high{rse conslruction.
nominal thickness of 4 in. to heights of three stories, 30 ft
MASONRYUNITS
232 BrickVeneer
FRICTION FIT
METAL COPING
OPTIONAL FUSHING
DEPENDING ON
CONCRETE
TOLERANCES OF
MASONRY
STRUCTURAL FRAME
UNIT
SEAUNT
HORIZONTAL
ROOFING EXPANSION
JOINT
REGLET FOR
FUSHING WEEP HOLES
AT 24- O.C (TYP
LIP BRICK
COMPRESSIBLE
ANGLE
MATERIAL
EUSrC
SEAUNT
AND BACKER
ROO
DOVSAIL
SLOT
REINFORCEO
LINTEL
INSULATION
A'RSPACE
(TYP.)
S.rt.",o*
wtNDow
SHEATHING
SEALANT
WOOD TRIM
WALLBOARD
.BRICK
VENEER
BRICK
VENEER
THR€E WIRE
LADDER.TYPE
JOINT
REINFORCEMENT BUILDING
PAPER
THROUGH
ANCHOR ROD
FUSHING WELOEO TO
ADJUSTABLE
CONCRETE ANCHOR WELOED COLUMN
suB \ TO STRUCTURAL
STEEL FRAME
AOJUSTAALE
ANCHOR
STEEL ANGLE KICKER
WEEP HOLES
VERTICAL STEEL AT 24' O C. (TYP
ANGLE SUPPORTING
SHELF ANGLE
STRIP WINOOW
WEEP SLOTS
AT 24' O_C. (TYP STEEL SHELF ANGLE
wtNoow
FUSHING MULLION
MASONRYUNITS
ond Beoms
Columns,Pilqsters, 233
FULL HEIGHT OF
REINFORCING UTERAL
D li'r'i r, I
[:jilt---l
ti::ij t -') t CAGE NOT SHOWN
EMBED EXTRA
TIES OR PART
OF REQUIREO
TIES
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
LATERAL TIED TO OOWELS
UTERAL REINFORCE EMBEDDED IN
T I E S E M B ED D E D O N
TIES IN MORTER FOOTING
MORTAR JI )INT5
JOINTS
CONTROL
JOINT
UTERAL
TIES IN
MORTAR
JOINTS
4 BRTCK HORIZONTAL Cut block in first course before laying to form cleanout
STEEL openings at base of cells to be lilled. Remove all mortar
PUCED IN ALTERNATE JOINT droppings, set and inspect venical reinforcement, and form
COURSE TO AVOID SEAUNT over opening before filling with grout or concrete. When
CROSSOVER OF STEEL BONO BREAK cleanouts are not provided maximum pour should not
IN SAME JOINT exceed 4 ft.
t-fr."d
['i;' ..,-trl
CONTINUOUS
REINFORCING
RODS TOP
INTEL TYPE
'PAN
MAX. )
} BRICK
ao LB./SQ
:T)
a cMU
(5O LB/
AND BOTOM
l.:.o....'iY:{ 'l'/2" MtN. letnlorceo concrere 4',- Q' 4-*3 4-#3
CONCRETE {7 5/s" square section) 4-#4 4-*3
COVERAGE 8',-0' 4-*5 4-*4
Concretemasonryunlt 4-O- 2-#4
FFir-6.--Il
r::: .1.I GROUT {7 %" squaresection) 2-#5 2-#4
lx SETTING AED n o m i n a8lx 8 x 1 6 u n i l 8'- 0" 2-#6 2-#5
t-.f:......t11
Ie-.+3__+
' d * -
BEARINGZONE (W X H)
MUST BE CONCRETE,
NOTES
DOUBLE
3ut" COR E
SOLID MASONRY OR 1. For precast concrete and reinforced concrete masonry
GROUTEO MASONRY unitlintelswith no suoerimoosed loads.
CONCRETE cMu
2. fc' = 3000 psi concreteand grout; ly = 60,000psi
PRECAST CONCRETE AND CMU BEAMS OR LINTELS
a- , 12'
ffi +F I
ffi IF CAVITY WALL. USE
METAL SCREEN OR
m
m m
l/,///)
mm
mm
mmm
nmm
DAM TO CONTAIN
POUR
m mma
METAL TIE
mm
m
v2
tu
ai}u
varn
Ai.iVt
OR GROUTED
AND
mmm
2',..::a.t..{4
m vvz vzm REINFORCED
mmm
REINFORCED BRICK BEAMS OR LINTELS
MASONRYUNITS
234 MosonryArches
SKEWBACK-r/2 pER FEET oF spAN
FOR EACH 4 " OF ARCH DEPTH
KEYSTONE
CAMBEF t/a-
PER FEET
OF
\ -''
\l-'-
---l--t't
. ,l . t l \
---
;J";iJ-l---
G L|NE
I
York
MASONRYUNITS
Fireploces:Generol Informotion 235
based on empirical data proven with years ot safe perfor opening and height of the chimney. The figure on the tol-
GENERAL mance. The charts on the following pages show the appre lowing page should be used to size the tlue accurately
The frreplaceand chimney are usually large elements In tes- priate sizes o{ fireplace and chimney elements. One of the based on these factors.
idences. but their scale can be adapted to any archltectural mosl important design decisions is the l@ation of the lire
style. The purpose of the residential fireplace has changed olace. To orevent heat loss to the exterior, it is best to Several distinct types of fireplaces are currently used in res-
over the years from heating to decoration. However. locate a fireplace at the center oJ the house. Again to idential applications Single-face tireplace styles are the
increasing public interest in renewable forms of energy has improve perlormance, a fireplace should not be located most popular and include the conventional tireplace, the
instigated a new demand for tireplaces tor heating homes. opposite an outside door or near an open stairway leading Rumlord fireplace, the Rosin fireplace, and air circulating
Fireptace design and construclion are governed by building to an upper tloor, a forced air furnace, or a return air regis- fireplaces. Multiface fireplaces are also popular and include
and mechanical codes. The internal diagram of a working ter. Combustion can be improved by providing a measured the see-through fireplace, the corner fireplace, and the free-
fireplace shom the several required pans and their vertical supply of outside air, independent of room air, to the fire- standing fireplace. The masonry heater. or masonry stove,
organization. Each part is illuslrated on succeeding pages. place. This is done by installing an air duct trom the exterior is a specialized type of fireplace and is the most efficient of
of the house to the fireplace. The chimney must be proP all these types.
The main function of the fireplace and chimney is to sustain edy sized to carry the combustion products away. Two fac-
combustion and carry smoke away safely. Their design is tors primarily affect the chimney draft: size of the tireplace
COUNTERFUSHING
BASE FUSHING
CRICKET
ROOF FELT
ATTIC
SHINGLES
WOOO SHEATHING
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRE CUY
FLUE LINER MANTEL
STRUCTURAL SMOKE
SUPPORT FOR CHAMBER
FIRE CUY
FLUE LINER
SMOKE
DAMPER
INCLINED
BACK WALL INCLINED BACK WALL
FIRST FLOOR
ZOUTSTDE
/ AIR INTAKE
HEARTH SUPPORT
(INNER ANO OUTER)
AIR INTAKE
BASEMENT HEARTH
ASHPIT
CLEANOUT
DOOR -
CLEANOUT DOOR
BASE FOUNDATION
FOOTING
REINFORCEO
CONCRSE FOOTING
SECTION ISOMETRIC
MASONRYUNITS
236 Typicol FireploceDimensions
CONVENTIONAL FIREPLACES
The design of single-face fireplaces has been well doc
mented, resulting in the development of a reasonably acc!
rate set ol design dimensions for fireplace openiogs
damoers. and {lue liners.
CONVENTIONAL SI NGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DTMENSTONS*(tN.)
FINISHED FIREPLACE ROUGH
CONCRETE OPENING BRICK\^r'ORK
SUB
B E F H
1 14
26 '18
14 34 l'l 21
SID€ SECTION 28 24 to 5 14 21
14 J6 3
2t to 19 14 23 40 A 24
FIRE CLAY ] 36 tq 14 ta 6 2l
FLUE LINER4
to 't4
IJ 4U 6
42 32 29 24 50 7 32
48 18 16 56 r0
to ou 45
60 22 to 72 45
40 22 42 t8 30 72 45
'
,1, /
| CHAMBER
, -/\
\\
84
96
4t)
40
&t
76
td
l8
't8
30
30
4
96
108
36
42
56
ot
75
NOTE
'Determineflue linerdimensions, G. Dimensions are
DAMpER a
::+
- \ \ \l\ equalto ths outsidedim€nsions
of thefluelinerplusal
STEEL ANGLE \ leastI in.(25mm).
RUMFORD SINGLE-FACE
FIREPLACE DIMENSIONS* (IN.)
FINISHED FIREPLACE ROUGH
OPENING BRICK\^/ORK
B D F H J
to to z6 44 t4
40 32 to 16 2a 48 to 29
40 37 to 33 48
40 40 20 20 20 32 48 29
FRONY ELEVATION
to ro
FRONT ELEVATION 48 & 2Q 32 56 r8 36
48 48 20 20 40 56 l8
2V zv JZ 6
4A 20 20 40 66 45
u 20 46 66 42
4A 2t) 20 20 40 12 24 45
NOTE
* Determine flue liner dim€nsions, G. Dimensions
are
equal to the outside dimensionsof the llue liner plus at
least 'l in. (25 mm) for airspacesurroundingflue liner.
(TYP,)
NONCOMBUSTIBLE
FIRESTOPPING TO I "
BELOW BONOM OF JOIST
MASONRYUNITS
MosonryHeoters 237
CEILING 2 (50 mm) MlN. TO
GENERAL STRUCTURE COMBUSTIBLE FRAMING
Masonrv heaters male Jse ol two baSlc princlples lo oblarn HEATER
hiqh combustion and heatrng elictencies{onttolled arr
a" )-. CAPPING
iniake to the combustion chambe/firebox and d heat (2m mm) SUB
exchanqe svstem of baffled chambers through which hol utt \:
combuJtron gases are crrculaled Such heaters are elficlenl, MASONRY
clean burning devices. HEATER
Two safety
but are not
concerns that apply to brick masonry heaters
listed in the maior model building codes are the FIREBOX OPENING' )
\x
,,><\
integrity of the enclosing walls of the healer and the tem- HEARTH EXTENSION
perature of the exterior surfaces of the walls: (1@ mm,
48 iI2OOmm)TO J
MIN
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAS
To maximize the integrity of masonry heater walls, theY NOTE
should be constructed of two wythes of brick (ASTM C 216
or C 62 for facing brick) with a nominal 1-in. airspace
For clearancestrom specifictypes of tirebox openingsand
between lhem- Fill the airspace with a compressible, non- other requirements,consultASTM E 1602 and localcodes.
combustible material such as insulation, and tie both
Most clearancesmay be reducedit an engineeredprotec'
wythes together with corrosion-resistant metal ties. Add tionsvstemis orovided.
horizonlal joint reinforcement every sixth course (only at CLEARANCE TO COMBUSTIBLES FOR
exterior wythe). MASONRY HEATERS
To safeguard against the effects ot the high surface tefr FLUE LINER
peratures of the heater (between 100" and 1 9ffF), a mini-
mum 12-in. clearance should be observed between the
heater and any combustibles and there should b€ a 2Gin.
extended hearth in {ront. SHUTOFF DAMPER
BYPASS DAMPER
SHUTOFF
DOWNDRAff
CLEANOUT
FIREBOX
ASHBOX
COMBUSTION AIR
FIREBOX DOOR
N OTE
ln Finnish or contraflow heaters, heated air is forced from
the top of the smoke chamber doM through the baffles on N OTE
the sides of the heater, Mile room air rises by convectlon
along the exterior surfaces of the masonry. This construc- Russian heaters are typically deep with a small opening to
tion allows for even heating of the masonry and efficient the firebox. above which is a svstem of either vertically or
radiant heating of the room. The baffles converge below horizontally aligned batfles in place of lhe smoke chamber.
the firebox and open out to the flue at the base of the chim- Alter circulating through the baffle system. exhaust gases
nev. oass directlv into the flue.
MASONRYUNITS
238 Cleoronces,Connections,ond Crowns
FIREPUCE OPENING -
EQUAL TO OR GREATER WHERE TRIM PROJECTS I EXTERIOR
THAN 6 SO FT MoRE THAN I r/2" FRoM FActNG
FIREPUCE
FACING
HEARTH
EXTENSION
REQUIREMENTS
FIREPLACE CLEARANCES
CHIMNEY CLEARANCES
BACKER ROD
MtN. t 2 TO AND SEAUNT
COMBUSTIBLES
( l2-oFBRtcK ANCHOR CONCRETE
NoNsoLUBLE
rACl.Onv_ REFRACTORY CROWN
\
E r R CEMENT)
sHEffMffAL ""'"tev
coNNEcToR
\
SUPPORTS \2-lrnspaCg SUPPORTS
CHIMNEY CONNECTOR SYSTEMS AND CLEARANCES FROM COMEUSTIgLE \MILLS CHIMNEY POT
MASONRYUNITS
FlueSizes,Shopes,ond Fireploce Froming 239
HEIGHT OF ADJACENT FLUES *m
SHOULD VARY APPROX 4' lffi
-t ti
tr '--*f
- H
IHH
IHH
l|-,#
'k,.@,
'#
RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (STANDARD)
NOTE
Eachlareplaceor stove requires
its own separateflue.
INSULATION OF WOOO FRAMING
MEMBERS AT A CHIMNEY
RECTANGULAR
FLUE LINING (MODULAR)
INCOMBUSTIBLE FILL
FLUE
ANGLE
NOT LESS
THAN 60' INCOMBUSTIBLE
CUT FLUE
TO ENSURE
TIGHT AIRSPAC
JOINTS.
MAINTAIN
N
ROUND FLUE LINING
DAMPER
FIREPUCE
NOTES
1. Availability ol specific clay flue liners varies according to 3. Areas shown are net minimum inside areas.
location. Generally, round fiue liners used in construction 4. All flue liners are generally available in 2 {t lengths.
with reintorcing bars are available in the western states,
5. Fireplace flue sizes can be approximated using the tol-
while rectangular flue liners are commonly found
lowing rules of thumb: One-tenth the area of fireplace
throughout the eastern states- Check with lmal manufac-
opening recommended: one-eighth the area of opening
turers for available tyDes and sizes-
recommended if chimney is higher than 20 tt and rectan-
2. Nominal flue size for round flues is interior diameter; gular flues are used: one-twelfth the area is minimum
nominal flue sizes for standard rectangular tlues are the required; verify with local codes.
exterior dimensions and, lor modular flue lif,ings, the out-
side dimensions plusr/, jn.
MASONRYUNITS
240 FireplqceOpenings:Dompers,Ash Dumps,ond Cleqnouts
FRAMED
METAL
PRE.FAB
FLUE
COMBUSTIBLE
HIGH FORMED DAMPER (IN.) FORMED DAMPER (IN.) SQUARE FORMED DAMPER (IN.)
SOUAREFORMEDDAMPERS havehighslopingsidesthat
HIGH FORM€D DAMPERSprovide corect ratio of throat- promote even draw on alfsides ot multiple opening fire-
tefireplace opening with an optional pretormed smoke places. They are prop€rly proportiored for a strong draft
shelf, which can reduce material and labor reouirements. and smokefreeoperation.
They are useful for both single and multiple opening fire-
oraces. FORMEOSTEEL DAMPERSare designed to provide the
correct ratio of throat-t}tireplace opening,producingmaxi-
mum draft. Thsse dampers ar€ equippedwith poker type
controland ar€ easilvinstalled.
''1.-\ NOTES
1. Locateboltom of damperminimum 6 to 8 in. from top of
fareplaceopening.
--.. 2. Mineral wool blanket allorc for exoansion of metal
| a\ damperwalls.
\/- 3. Dampersare availabl€in heavygauge steel or cast iron.
l\
I\ASHPIT.1 Checkwith l@l suppliersfor specificforms and sizes.
4. A cord of w@d consistsof 128 cu ft or a stack 4 tt high
and 8 ft wide, with logs 4 ft long.
5. A face cord ot w@d consistsof 64 cu ft or a stack 4 lt
high and I ft wide, with logs 2 ft long.
6. Logs are cut to lengths of 'l tI 4 in., 2 ft 0 in., 2 ft 6 in..
and 4 ft. Allow 3 in. minimum clearanc€b€tween loas
and each side of fireDla@.
CLEANOUT
DOOR
BlTlelr0
NOTE
Ash dumps and cleanout doors are available in heavy gauge
steel or €st iron. See local manufacturers for available
typ€s and sizes.
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
Designof Speciol Fireploces 241
GENERAL
Multifaced fireplaces have more than one face ol the fire-
box open to the r@m. There are three types of multifaced
fireplaces: projected corner, with two adjacent sides open;
double faced, with two opposite sides open; and three
taced, with only one side built of masonry construction.
Multifaced fireplaces usually are not as energy€fficient as
conventional, single-faced fireplaces because there is less
mass surrounding the lire to hold and radiate heat to the
room. However, multitaced tireplaces usually are located
on the interior of a space, not on an exterior wall. and their
energyefficiency can be augmented by the features dis-
cussed below.
NOTE
The narrowness and length of narroslront fireplaces
NOTE require that they be fitted with two square€nd dampers.
The sides of the lireplace are partiallyenclosedby recess- To allow for expansion, the dampers should be neither sol-
ing the brick into the wall behind the fireplace.This design idly emb€dded in mortar nor mechanically fastened to steel
helpseliminatesmoke from cross{rafts. angles.
DAMPER ARRANGEMENT
BONOM OF DAMPER .
N OTE
The significant difference between a projectedtorner fire-
N OTE place and a conventional singlejaced fireplace is the shape
The fireplace must be l@ated and designed to allow proper of the damper. A proiected{orner fireplace uses a square
updraft through both openings. Exterior doors should not end damper instead ol a tapered€nd damper. The open
NOTE side should have a shon wall to help stop the escape of
be located opposite the tireplace on either side because
they may cause cross{ratts through the fireplace. This design is similar to the projecled{orner fireplace combustive gases when crossiralts occur-
Architects,P.C.;Washington,
Rippeteau D.C
MASONRYUNITS
242 StructurqlFocingTile:Wqllsecfionsond Properties
GENERAL WALL SECTIONS AND PROPERTIES
Structural clay facing tile rs chosen as an attractive and WALL TYPE NUMBER
durable wall system in many speciatrzedapplicatrons,espe.
loao
cially when maintenance and.esistance to vandalism are (lb/linear ft)
consadered. Applications include walls and-partitions in cor-
rectional lacilities. schools, public buildings. and food pro-
Marenar quanilty
cessing facilities. Structural clay tile can be glazed or (per 100 sq tt)
unglazed, load bearing or non load bearing, and behaves
similarly to brick. Structural clay rile is manutactured in
many sizes and shapes. Numbers and letters shown on the
units in the ligures indicate the standard shape classifica-
tions of structural clav tile used bv manufacturers.
(BTU/sqft hr "F)
Lateralsupportspacing
required{tt)
resrslance
NOTE S
'1.
% in. plasteron backof theseunitswill producet hourlire rating
2. lf collarjointis tilled,add 2.6 cu ft per 100sq ft of wall.
ffi
ll
GUZED ARICK
FACING TILE
FACING TILE
2- STRETCHER
4,' STRETCHER
HORIZONTALLY
TYPE 4 TYPE 5
6 IN. WALL I O TN. CAVITY WALL
FACES BOTH SIDES BRICK ONE FACE
METAL TIE BONO TILE ONE FACE
SECTION
4 IN. WALL
FRAME
CLOSURE
6Trc2NL
6T54NR
EXTERIOR BUCK
6T54ANL
4 IN. SINGLE-FACED WALL WITH BULLNOSE 6 IN. DOUBLE.FACEO WING WALL BONDED
SILL AND JAMB; SQUARE LINTEL TO MAIN WALL WITH TYPICAL BUTT JOINTS
RUNNING BOND
MASONRYUNITS
Teno-Cottoond Cerqmic Veneer 243
TERRA-COTTA N OTES MOLD-PRESSED CERAMIC
Te.ra{otta is a high grade ot weathered or aged clay, Ceramic veneer can be anchored or adhered to masonrV. VENEER
which, when mixed with sand or with pulverized f ired clay, The minimum thickness ol the exposed faces of mold-
can be molded to a hardness and compactness no6obtain- The ceramic veneer manufacturer should provide scale pressed ceramic veneer is 1 in. Eacks of special shapes
able wilh other materials. Used extensively until the 1930s, shop drawings as detailed from the architect's drawings. To should be open and ribbed.
terrarotta has been largely replaced with ceramic veneer. be used for setting, the shop drawings should indicate all
dimensions and sizes of joints, and all anchors. hangers, For placement, turn all units bottom side up and fill solidly
Terra{otta was usually hollow cast in blocks, open to the expansion, and control or pressure-relievingjoints. with grout liller fo. mold-pressed ceramic veneer. When
back lo reveal internal webbing. the fill has set sufficiently to permit handling. set the units.
Nonferrous metal anchors should be embedded in the
Ceramic veneer is not hollow cast but is a veneer of glazed masonry and encased for Drotection from corrosion. When applied to soffits, each piece of ceramic veneer. in
ceramic tile that is ribbed on the back. lt is frequently addition lo the usual centers and wooden wedges, shall be
attached to metal ties that are anchored to the building. The minimum thickness ol anchored-type ceramic veneer, supponed by bent and vertical wooden shores. A constant
exclusive of ribs. should be 1 in. upward pressure is needed unlil the mortar coat has set.
Other tvpes of terra{otta are:
Ceramic veneer should be set true to line in setting mortar. Adhesion can be tested with a 1 x 1 x 4 in. vitrified test bar.
l.Brownstone terratotta. A dark red or brown block, Spaces between anchored ceramic veneer and backing First dissolve vinyl acetate in methyl iso-butyl keytone.
which is hollow cast. Used extensively in the mid- to late- walls should be lilled with grout: spaces % in. or more in Applv to the ceramic veneer surface and test bar. The adhe-
1gth century. width with pea gravel and spaces 3/. in. with monar.
sive is heated by means ol an infrared lamp until bubbling
2. Fireproof @nstruction terra{otta. Inexpensive and light ceases. Press the two surfaces together until cool. Then
The minimum thickness of adhesion-WDe ceramic veneer, knock or pry off test bar.
weight, these rough-finished hollow burlding blocks span including ribs, should be lL in. with ribbed or scored backs.
b€ams. The blocks are available but not used widely
today. An evenly spread coat of neat portlano @ment and water TERRA-COTTA VENEER PRECAST
3. Glazed architectural terra{otta. Hollow unats were hand should be aoolied to the wall and the entire back of the PANEL
cast in rulds or carved in clay and heavily glazed. Some- ceramic veneer panel about to be set. Then one hall ol the Terra{otta precast panels have a keyback design, which
times called architectural ceramics, this terrarotla type setting mortar coat should be immediately applied on the allows each piece to easily become an integral part of the
was used until the 1930s. chosen wall area and the other on the ceramic veneer precast unit through a mechanical bond. No fasteners are
piece's entire back. Tap the piece into place on the wall to
neeoeo.
completelv fill all voids, with the tolal thickness of the mor-
tar averaging % in. Th6re should be some excess mortar W I N D O WU N I T
forced out at the joints and edge of the c€ramic veneer.
SEAUNT
C E R A M I CV E N E E R
3/a" MoRTAR BED
r/s" ANcHoRs
METAL SUPPORT
MASONRY SYSTEM ANGLE
BACKUP CLIP WELDED TO
METAL PUTE
LOOP OOWEL ANO STUD CAST
ANCHOR AT I S- O.C IN CONCRffE (TYP.)
r/4" Roo
1/." PtNs AT JotNTS
. EXTRUOED TERRA.
.DOVETAIL SLOT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
DOVflAIL ANCHOR
3/4" MoRTAR BED
l/s" ANcHoR
-
I CERAMIC
CERAMIC VENEER VENEER
MEMBRANE
MORTAR WATERPROOFING
DOVETAILED WIREMESH
VENEER BACK l/4" scRATcH
t/s'ANcHoR
COAT
3/a" MoRTAR BED
CERAMIC VENEER
TYPICAL AASE -
I CERAMIC
NOTE VENEER
ADHESION TERRA-COTTA (ANCHORED) CERAMIC VENEER ON WOOD STUDS
Design of Eest Products Corporation
Architects,PC;Washington,D.C
EricK. Beach;Rippeteau
MASONRYUNITS
244 GlossBlock: DesignDolo
GENERAL PANERNS
OCCUR ON
Glass bloct rs a drverse buildrng malerial whose many apph- THE INTERIOR EXPANSION
catrons exhrbrt ils multilaceted: characteris{ics. I he varying SURFACE PRIOR STRIP
forms of glass block - 1ype, thrckness,.jlize, shape, and TO FUSING
patterns - along wrth the methods of insblfatron can com-
bine to create unique design solutions. Applications range
from entire facades. windows, interior dividers. and parti-
tions to skylights, floors, walkways. and staiMays. In all
applications. glass block units permit the control ot light,
both natural and artificial, for function or drama. Glass block
The basic glass blck unit is made of two halves fused
also allows for control of thermal transmission, noise, dust,
together with a panial wcuum inside. Facesmay be clear,
and dratts. With the use of thick-faced glass block or solid 3
figu.ed, or with integralrelief forms.
in. bullet-resistant block, security can also be achieved.
Glassblock is availablein thicknessesrangingfrom a mini-
mum of 3 in. for solidunitsto a maximumof 4 in. (nominal)
tor hollow units. Metric thicknessesranqe from 76 to 98
MORTAR mm
An optimummonarmixfor installingglassblockunitsis 'l
cement,I /2partlime,and4 partssand.
panportland
The table below gives the number of glass block that can
be installed with a mortar batch consisting oI:
1.0 cu ft (1 bag/94 lb) portland cement
0.5 cu ft (20 lb) lime
4.0 cu ft (320 lb) sand
SQUARE End block units have a rounded,finished surfa€ on one
GLASS BLOCK/MORTAR BATCH 41ltin.x 4'lzin. edge. They may be used to end interior partitionsor walls
6 in. x 6 in. (5% in. x 53/!in. actual) as well as spacedividerswhen installedhorizontally.
1lrin.x71l.in.
8 in. x 8 in. (73t in. x 73L in. actuall END BLOCK
91/,in. x 91/,in.
12in. x 12in. (11%in. x l1% in. actual)
1 1 5m m x 1 1 5m m
'190
190 mm x mm
240 mm x 240 mm
300 mm x 300 mm
NOTES
1. Includesl 57owaste Metric sizes are available from foreign manutacturers
through distributorsin the UnitedStates. PANEL
2- Basedon a r/. in. exposedjoint REINFORCING
*'tA'
# Jf*'t;
m
SOUND TRANSMISSION'
ASS EM B LY
sTc, stze PATTERN CONSTRUCTION
d
8
X5 XJ
x8" x4
AII panerns
All patterns
sy
REGUUR THICKSET
<>o9 p
All patterns Some manufacturersprovide thick blocks for criticalappli- t_trtL\,'
with LX cationswhere a thick-faed. heavierglassblock is needed.
fibrousfilter These bl@ks haw a superior sound transmissionrating 45" BLOCK
J"
THICK BLOCK
50ltd block
solidunits
NOTES
1- Testedin accordance with ASTM E90-90"... Measure-
rent ot AirborneSoundTransmission Loss..."
2.STC rating value in accordancewith ASTM E413-87
PANEL
"Classificationfor RalingSoundInsulation."
REINFORCING
3. Test method and STC rating value in accordancewith Solid glass block units (glass bricks) are impacl resistant CORNER
and allow throughvision. BLOCK
ASTM E9G81and ASTM E413-73accordingly.
n{tt4-
sheet glass
ffi -suRFAcEDESrcN
NOT€ S
1. Valuesequalr 5%.
2. Winter night values.
3.To calculateinstantaneousheat gain through glass block panels, see ASHRAE Handbookof Fundamentals,1985, section Surfacedecorationmay be achievedwith fused{n ceramic,
22.41.8. etching, or sandblasting.Glass block units ruy be split or
4. Basedon I in. squareunits: ratio of heat gain throughglassblockpanelsvs. that througha single light ol doublestrengthsheet shippedin halvesin order to apply some decorationto the
glassunderspecificconditions. inside.Blocksthen must be resealed.Resealedblocks will
not perform the same under various stresses as factory
sealedunits. Placementin walls or panelsshouldbe limited
to areasreceivingminimum loading-
GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau
Architects,PC;Washington,
D.C.
GLASSUNITMASONRY
GlossBlockDeioils 245
ELEVATION
NOTES
1. Area of exterior unbraced panel should not exceed 144
sq ft.
2. Area of interior unbraced panel should not exceed 250 sq
ir.
3 Panels are designed to be mortared at sill, with head and
jambs providlng for movement and settling. Deflection of
(65' MIN. RAD
lintel at head should be anticioated.
A" SOUARE BLOCK)
4. Consult manufacturers {or specific design limitations of
glass blek panels. Thickness of block used also deter-
mines maximum panel srze.
INTERMEDIATE EXPANSION
JOINTS ANO SUPPORTS
NUMBER OF BLOCKS
CURVED
FOR lOO SQ FT PANEL
PERMANENTLY €LASTIC
SEALING COMPOUND
D.C
Architects,PC;Washington,
GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau
GLASSUNITMASONRY
246 GlqssBlockDetoils
TYPICAL SUPPORT DESTGN METAL FSSHING (STRIPPED IN) HORIZONTAL PANEL
CRITERIA . REINFORCING
STEEL STUD FRAMING
SEAUNT AND
When specifying supports and shelf angles. the installed
BACKER (TYP.)
werght and deflection limitation of the glass block should INSUUTION
STEEL CHANNEL
be taken into account. Local building coCes should be
STEEL TUBE
checked for any limits on panel sizes or installation details. WEEP
STEEL LINTEL
INSTALLED WEIGHT DEFLECTION CHANNEL . WELO
OF GLASS BLOCK SPACE TO TUBE
EXTERTOR BLOCK
I
FrNrsH ---_\ | STEEL UNIT
DEFLECTION LIMITATIONS STUO EXPANSION
PRECAST - ASPHALT
CONCRETE lcuss
CONCRtrE -- I\ MASONRY BLOCK UNIT
SILL EMUsroN UNIT
i| HORIZONTAL PANEL
I /|NTER|OR FtN|SH
REINFORCING
ll" STEEL ANGLE
I ztt2x2xttal'fyp.)
tNTERtoR FrNrsH --l
SILL AT CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WALL JAMB AT CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WALL
PANEL
ANCHOR (TYP.)
SHELF ANGLES IN MULTIPLE HOLLOW MffAL
EXPANSION
VERTICAL PANELS (TYP,) OOOR HEAO
STRIP JAMB ANCHOR , SECURE
SEAUNT (TYP.) TO STEEL BAR
STEEL BAR CONTINUOUS
LINTEL
STEEL BAR , SECURE
PANEL ANCHORS TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
ANACHED TO
STEEL PUTE
HOLLOW METAL
DOOR AND JAMB
SUPPORT IN MULTIPLE
HORIZONTAL PANELS PUTE
EXPANSION STRIP
N OTE
Panels with an expansion joint stiffener incorporating a con_
cealed vertical plate should be limited to 10 ft maximum
height.
HEAD AT DOORFRAME PUN (JOINT ABOVE JAMB)
SECTTONS AT SUPPORTS DOORFRAME DETAILS
GLASSUNITMASONRY
StoneUsesqnd properties 241
GENERAL The threeJock classes are rgneous, sedrmentary. and
mela_
N a t u r a l s t o n e r s u s e d , n b u , l d i . g a s a f a c t n g .v e n e e r , morpnrC. UOmmon COnSlructiOnSlOneSare marketed
Under
FABR ICATION,AND INSTALLATION
and the names grven in the table below, although specialtv
oecoratron. lhe malor lactors affecbng the suilability and With the rntroductron ot new syslems of tabr1s61,91
stoneS sUch aS soapstone and serpentrne a'so are avarlable a.a
use ot stone fall under two broad. bul overlappinq qj19q9_ rnstailatron.and recenl developments rn the destgn
tach stone has various commerctal graoes. Ltmestone and
nes: physrcal and structural propertres and aesthetic quilr- oelailrng ol slone cu[rng, suppoat, and anchoraqe. costs
grades are A, statuary; B, selectj C, sranOarO;D. rust,c;
lres. lhe three lacrors of burldrngStone that most influence E, are b€tter controlled. Correct design of ioinls, seieclion ol
varegated and F, old Gothic. Marbte rs gradeo A, B, C, or monars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durabiljtv
therr selection by archttects for aesthetic reasons are oaF D
on the basis of working qualities, uniformity, and ftawi and of installation.Adequate design and Aetiitinq'of the anchei'
tern, texture, and color. Consideration also should be oiven
rmpertectlons. age of each piece of stone are required. The size and thick_
to costs, availability, weathering characteristics, phtsical
propenies, and size and thickness limitations. ness ol the stone should be established based on physjcal
propedies of the stone, its method of anchorage,
and the
Stone patterns are highly vailed, and they provrde special PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF loads it musl resist. Appropriate safety faclorishould be
teatures that make burldrng stone a unique material. Tex_ STONE developed based on the variabtlity ol the stone properlres
rufe rs vafled, rangrng trom coarse fragments to fine grains The physical characteflstics ot a panicular stone as well as other considerations such as imperfect work_
and crystalline structures. Texture also varies with ththard- must be manship, method of support and anchorage, and degree of
surraore lor tts tntended use. lt rs imporlant to determine
ness of minerals composing the stone. To accuratelv com- the physical p.operties of the actual stone being used exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for
pare stone colors lhe rock color chart publshed by the rather lhan using values from a geneilc table, *n,cn'can stone support and anchorage may be necessarV to Oreclude
Geological Society of America (Boulder, CO) is recom_ Oe unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be
very mrsreadlng. uonsrderations of the physrcal propentes
mended. Samples also may be used to eslablish acceptable prolected from slaining and breakage during shipment,
of the stone being selected include modulus ot,rpture,
color ranges for a panicular installation. delivery, and installation.
shear.strength. coefticient of expansion, pe,maneni iirt_
versrore growlh and change in shape, creep deflectron,
Pattsn, texture, and @lor all are affected by how the stone compresstve strength, modulus of etastrcrty. moisture Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type o{
is fabricated and finished. Granites tend to hold their color resistanc€, and weatherability. Epoxy adhesrves, otten stone and installation, the designer should consult itone
and pattern, while limestone color and pattern changes used wrth slone, are affected by cleanlness ot surfaces to supptrers,stone.-se_tting specialty contractors, industry stan
wrlh exposure Texiures may range from rough and flamed be bonded and ambient temperature. Cunng time rncreases dards (such as ASl Ml, and other publicatrons to hetp selecl
lrnrshes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder lhe wrth cotd temperatures and decreases with warmer tem. ano rmptement a stone cladding system. Resource rnforma
stone, the better it takes and holds a polish. peratures. tron is available in publications such as the Indiana Lime_
stone lnstitute's lndiana Limestffie Handb@k and the
Marble lnstitute of America's Dimensioned Stone. lvol. g.
strength {psr)
Imate stress {psi)
stress(psi)
ensron - allowable Ing stress
water (percentage by
expansron
N OTE
P€nicular stones may vary greatlV from average properlres well as its allowable working values, always should be
shown In table. A panicular stone s physical propenres. as developed for each panicular application.
STONE
248 StoneMosonry;;;tt ono veneer
- -tl
I tl
tl
It
l{
tf
ililtl
llll
]|----''----.--l| =I
=-l IFL
lF-rr
ilil il lL
TYPE A OR B TYPE C OR D
€€gr
ANCHOR ANCHOR
ANCHORS
NOTES
'L
A course is a horizontalrow oI stone. Bond pattern is
describedby the horizontalarrangementof verticalioints
(Se also Brickwork.)Structuralbond refers to the physi'
cal tying together of load bearingand veneer portaoisol
a comoosite wall. Structuralbond can be accomplished
ROUND/QUADRANT COLUMNS with metal ties or with stone units set as headersinto
SQUARE COLUMNS
the backup.
2. Ashlar masonry is composed of squared{ff building
INSTALLATION DETAILS stone units of varioussizes.Cut ashlaris dressedto spe
cilic designdimensionsat the mill. Ashlaris oflen used in
randomlengths and heights.with jointing worked out on
the job.
MORTAR SPOTS 3. All ties and anchorsmusl be made of noncorrosivemate
AT ANCHOR rial. Chromiufrnickel stainlesssteel types 302 and 304
LOCATIONS and eraydoalloyzincare the most resistantto corrosion
and staining.Use stainlesssteel type 316 in highlycorro-
BACKUP sive environments{potlutedor near the sea).Copper,
BACKUP WALL b.ass,and bronzewill stain under some conditions.Local
buildingcodes often governthe tYpesof metal that may
AIRSPACE be used for some stone anchors.
4. Nonstaining cement mortarshouldbe used on porous
and light colored stones.At all cornersuse extta tles ano
NONCORROSIVE SCRATCH when possible,larger stones. Joints for rough work are
CORRUGATED COAT usually1/, lo I 1/, in. and 3/sto 3L in. Jor ashlar.Prevent
electr@hemicalreactionbetween different metals com-
bined in the same assemblyby properlyisolatingor coat
Ingtnem_
STONE
StoneCornicer, por d euoins 24g
HOLD GRour Fnov I 1lr" Dta HoLEs 3t4- Dta cALv
---__1 gXoJJu!?roDSrN /.
sieic oo;rLs /./ -3ta otA. GALV. srEEL
/- ;A"EADEDRoDs
- \
METAL FUSHING
FOR GUNER
BALUSTER
l-
II
BALUSTRADE
5' HOLE FOR
RAIN LEADER
SECTION AT
CORNICE JOINT
SECTION
STONE BALUSTRADE
MtrAL FUSHING
OVER STONE
JOTNTS -=\
CAULK
METAL FUSHING IN
REGLET\
v
SECTION
WEDGE
.lo" oln. eorr-{ STONE STEPS AND CUR
MffAL
FUSHING BOLT FLASHING
OVER JOINTS DETAIL
N OTE
Dow^el between stone pieces allows flat interrupted flash:
ng. Dowel set vertically is typicdt for stepped ftashing (mrn.
z oowels oer stone)
GOTHIC-TYPE STONE COPINGS, INSTDEWASH
l t/2" MlN
2 VERTICAL
CENTER DOWEL DOWELS PER STONE
DRIPS EACH SIDE STEPPEO FUSHING
PARAPET AS CORNICE ALTERNATING PLAIN COPING
STAGGERED PATTERN PATTERN
STONE PARAPET DETATLS STONE QUOIN IN BRICK WALL STONE COPINGS
STONE
250 StoneDoorond WindowSurrounds
1t r"' x 31e" wRouGHT lRoN -sroNEWALL - - /-MFaal
ANCHOR GALVANIZED AND /ll/'ANcHoR
(3PERJAMb
SET INTO HORIZONTAL 1 I l/
sTONE JOINT
\tl
sToNE WALL
/
METAL ANCHOR
GROUT
CONTINUOUS
CAULK
HINGE DETAIL SHOWING STONE ANCHOR METAL DOOR
FASTENER
METAL
I l/e" x 3/e" GALVANIZED FRAME
WROUGHT IRON ANCHOR
SET INTO HORIZONTAL
'i,sTONE
\'
TRIM
wooD
SCRff
STEEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
AOLT
wooo
SIDELIGHI
HEAD (ANO JAMB) HEAD (AND JAMB) HEAD AND JAMB DETAILS AT CAVITY WALL
AT SIDELIGHT STRIKE DETAIL SHOWING STONE ANCHOR
AT DOOR
DOOR DETAILS ALTERNATE METAL FRAME DETAILS
\,VOOD FRAME DETAILS CONCEALED ANCHOR
STONE ARCH
LIMESTONE
TRACING
GUSS
3/e'DtA.
GALVANIZED
BARS. 12- TO I LEADEO ART
o.c. To
REINFORCE
GUSS STONE LUG SILL ANO LINTEL DETAIL
STONE
Z- SLIP SILL
LINE OF
sToNE St[ \ --
STONE
StonePonelson SteelFromingond SfoneCornices 251
N OTES
STONE CAP WITH STEEL
Use of the steel stud supporl system as shown requires an DOWEL ANCHORS
archilect o. engrneer to develop adequate and real.strcper
FUSHING
lormance criteria. including thorough consideration o{ the
long-term durability and corrosion resistance of light gauge HARD STONE PANEL CANT STRIP
members. mechanical fasteners, and other svstem comoc
ROOFING MEMBRANE
nents: provisions for adequale thermal movementj devel
opment of adequate system strength and stillness; FIRESAFING CONTAINED TREATED WOOD
recognition of the structural interaction between the stone IN STEEL CLOSURE NAILER
The
'| stone thickness depicted is a minimum oI 111, in.
hrcker stone malerials can use the same type of support
system; however, engineering analyses ot the system will
be necessary to ensure proper performance and compli-
ance with recommended design practices. INSULATION
STANOARD ROOF
STRUCTURE AUNKET
STRAP INSUUTION
ANCHOR
STEEL ANGLE WELD TO
ANCHOR EMBEDDEO STEEL ANGLE
LIMESTONE BOLTS ANO FLOOR
ARCHITRAVE PUTES FIRESAFING CONTAINED
SHOULD BE IN STEEL CLOSURE
LIMESTONE INSTALLEO CONCRETE FILLED
AT VERTICAL STEEL DECK
FACING EMBEODED STEEL
WITH POST ANCHOR
SPANOREL FUSHING
WALL SECTION
PUSTIC SHIMS
Shown here is the most common method of anchorino a
AS REQUIRED
co.nice, which has a projectron large enough to be balanc;d
in the wall. SEAUNT WITH BACKER
ROO WITH WEEPS PROVIOE SLEEVE
The bed ioint immediately below the heaw cornice is open
WITHIN STUD SYSTEM
far enough back to remove anv compresstve stress that STEEL SHELF ANGLE FOR VERTICAL
would have a tendency to break off stone below. WITH OOWEL WELD OR EXPANSION
BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE
STEEL SPLIT-TAIL
N OTE
ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT Required steel fireproofing
(SHIM AS REOUIRED) has
been omitted for clarity.
t1--1--:
N OTE
Shown are live possible cornice
desagns. Indiana limestone can
be fabricated easily and economi- SPACER SLEEVE FOR
cally to almost any profile. See BOLTS THROUGH
examples. GYPSUM BOARD
STEEL SHELF ANGLE STEEL SHELF ANGLE
ON A STRESSLESS DISC STONE PANEL ON A STRESSLESS DISC
OVER A BED OF EPOXY, OVER A BED OF EPOXY,
DEAO BOLT TO REAR SEAUNT WITH DEAD BOLT TO REAR
FACE OF STONE FACE OF STONE
STONE
252 StonePonelson SteelFroming
CONTINUOUS 2 STAINLESS STEEL STRAP CONTINUOUS STAINLESS STEEL
COPING STONE ANCHORS WITH OOWEL AT JOINT COPING STONE STRAP ANCHOR WITH
DOWEL AT JOINT
SEALANT WITH FLASHING HEAVYGAUGE SLIDING
AOLT SEAUNT OVER FUSHING
BACKER ROD r/4 RouNo DR|P
OOWELED CONNECTION ORIP
STAINLESS STEEL
STEEL STUD CONTINUOUS KERF IN STONE TEEL STUD
SPLIT.TAIL ANCHOR
BUILT.UP HEAOER TO BE FILLED WITH SEAUNT AUILT.UP HEADER
IN VERTICAL JOINT
(SHIM AS REOUIREO) ROOFING MEMBRANE AflER ANCHOR IS PUCED ROOFINGMEMBRANE
3/a'' EXTERioR PLYwooD
I 5I FELT OVER GYPSUM 3/4" EXTERTORPLYWOOD STAINLESS STEEL CLIP
BOARO SHEATHING ANGLE WITH DOWEL ON STEEL STUDS
ON STEEL STUOS
TREATEO WOOD
FIRESAFING CONTAINED TREATED WOOO CHANNEL GRIO SYSTEM
NAILER
IN STAINLESS NAILER t 5I BUILDING FELT OVER
STEEL CLOSURE GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING RIGIO
STONE PANEL RIGID INSUUTION
INSUUTION FIRESAFING CONTAINED
INSUUTION IN STEEL CLOSURE
STONE PANEL
BRACING AS REOUIREO PROVIOE SLEEVE INSULATION
WITHIN STUD
STAINLESS STEEL HIN STUO
SYSTEM FOR STAINLESS STEEL
SH€LF ANGLE ON A FOR
VERTICAL SHELF ANGLE ON A
VERTICAL EXPANSION
EXPANSION STRESSLESS OISC OVER
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD A BED OF EPOXY. OEAO GYPSUM BOARD
BOLT TO STONE PANEL BOLT TO STONE PANEL
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF PUSTIC SHIMS N OTE
ANGLE BOLTED TO STEEL N OTE
STUD THROUGH GYPSUM has STEEL CHANNEL BOLTED Required steel firepr@fing has
Required steel fireproofing TO STEEL STUDS THROUGH
BOARO SHEATHING WITH been omitted for clarity.
been omitted for clarity. GYPSUM BOARD WITH SPACER
N OTE
WINMW H€AD FLASHING
has SEAUNT WITH AACKER WINDOW HEAD MULLION
Required steel fireproofing
WINMW HAD MULLION ROD ANO WEEP HOLE
been omitted for clarity.
STONE SPANDREL AT \^/INDOW HEAD AND SILL STONE SPANOREL AT \MINOOV\/ HEAD ANO SILL
STONE
3 in. StoneVeneer 253
NOTES
l.Throughout this section, flashing, sealants, and other
ancillary materials necessary for sound weatherproof
CRAMP ANCHOR
constructron sometimes have been omitted for clarity.
DOWELS See flashing and sealant details elsewhere.
2.Allow lor tolerances by including correct shimming to
BACKUP WALL prevent installation problems or performance failure
DRIP EDGE ,
,^:::'^.'"".-sr
3. All stone anchors embedded in or in contact with stone
COPING
shall be slainless steel lype 300 sefies.
FASCIA PANFL
4 Stone support or anchor systems should be designed by
an a.chitect or engineer experienced in stone claddina
CO PI NG desrgn and construction.
BACKUP WALL
VERTICAL FIN
SELF.SUPPORTING
CLIP ANGLE WITH
STONE LINTEL
WELDED BAR
SUN SCREEN
CRAMP
ANCHOR
ADJUSTABLE
WI NDOWS ILL INSERT
ANGLE WITH
WELDED BAR
CRAMP
ANCHOR
CONCRETE
WEDGE INSERT
PLATE WITH
WELDED
ROD CRAMP -
TIE.BACK f\f
STRAP ANCHOR
ROD
l,i .1r' "o*tt
METAL TURNED INTO | ;/1
I.f 1
STONE BOTH
r\-
ANCHOR
WAYSi WELO
TO COLUMN
t\
j t sxtv
COLUMN ANCHOR COLUMN ANCHOR
George M. Whiteside. lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square, pennsyrvanra
Building Stone Institute: New York, New york
Alexander Keyes; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
SIONE
254 I r/oin. lo 2t/ain. SfoneVeneer
ANCHORAGE DIMENSIONS
STAINLESS STEEL
'/., ir
Standard flat stck anchors are made of strap 1 md I
hhm
DOWEL WITH
HOOK ANCHOR wjde by'/s, 3/,6,andr/4 in. thick. Lengths vary up to6, 8, 10. an(l
12 in. Dovetail anchoG are usually 4 r/a in. overall with 3 '/, in
SEAUNT ANO prciection for fa@ o{ mncrete. Bends are %, 1, ard 1 r/. in.
ffiffiffi
FOAM ROD
USE DOWEL TO
CONNECT SEVERAL
PIECES
STRAP AND
DOWEL
METAL INSERT
RIGID
INSULATION
STRIP UNER
WITH OOWEL STONE VENEER
SILL SI LL
RIGID
SLOT ANCHOR
INSUUTION
RELIEFANGLE WITH LINER ANGLE SUPPORT WITH SHEAR RESISTANCE EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL
N OTE
It is recommend€d that water repel-
lent treatment be provided at the
FLASHING sidewalk.
MORTAR
GRADE
CONCRETE
STONE
I r/oin. to 2tlt in. StoneVeneerGrid StrutSystem 255
DOWEL
FUSHING
CONCRETE
MORTAR JOINT
INSERT
STRIP LINING
METAL CLIP
MflAL STRUT
STRUT STRUTS
AND CLIP
STRIP LiNER
METAL
STONE VENEER CLIP
STONE
COPI NG
VENEER
METAL STRUT
FASCIA AND WINDOW HEAO
SOFFIT
ANCHOREO TO
EXISTING
BUILDING
FACING
EXISTING
STRUT ANCHORED
TO FLOOR
CONNECTION TO EXISTING FACING
EXPANSION SPACE
BETWEEN STRUTS
STRUTS
RETENTION
ANGLES
ANCHOR SLOT
FILLED WITH
SEAUNT
SEALANT AND
SHEAR WALL SIOE RETENTION (PLAN)
BACKER ROD
BASE OR STARTER SUPPORT GRID STRUT SYSTEM . METAL FRAME COLUMN RETURN
NOT ES
CLIP ANCHORING SYSTEM
1- "X" = dimension between strut and outside face of stone
2. "X" = 1 5/"" lor 1/"" marble.
GRID STRUT SYSTEM . CONCRETE 3. "X" = 1 3/a" for I '/a" marble.
FRAME
George M. Whiteside, lll, AlA. and James D. Llovd; Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Euilding Stone Institute; New York, New York
Alexander Keyesj Rippeteau Archirects, PC: Washington. D.C.
STONE
256 PreossembledStonePonels
PREASSEMBLED PANELS
Preassembledstone panel technologyotfers savingsin on-
site laborand accuratecomponontstone unit ioining.
+
i METAL
Shippingand erection stresses on the stone panels and
stone anchoragesyst€m to the preassembledunits should
SUPPORT
SYSTEM:
be evaluated.
ANGLE CLIP
; WELDED TO
METAL PLATE
Design of sealant joints between preassembled units
should include at least the following: thermal movement,
ANO STUO fabrication and erection tolerances, irreversible material
CAST IN groMh or shrinkage,and sealantmovementpotential.
CONCRETE
+ .+ STONE ON STEEL FRAME WITH EPOXY
J O IN T S
Stone units are mounted in a steel frame plus expansion
anchors and dowel pins (as recommendedby manufac
turer). Joints in stone are epoxied and held to approxi
ll j i + mately 1/sin. when finished for delivery.All stones in the
assembly are anchored as a unit to the structure. Preas
t t + sembledunit installationreducesindividual plumb-
leveling,
ing, and aligning,and on-site joint sealing is not as
UNIT ELEVATION extensiveas with individualstone oanels.
UNIT A
MAXIMUMPANEL STAINLESS
lo'-o"x20'-o' STEEL
THREADED
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE ELEVATION _ UNIT A SECTION _ UNIT A CONNECTION OETAILS ANCHOR
STONE
StoneDetoils-Residentiol 257
ryre w-;l
F *.. t'p,ffi I 7
w-, illp'fliflilflilt,
llllrlllllllrllllrrll ry
E -l
: -...-:l
1--..
E "....ilrF€| //zlt t.:,7
, "ryr l'=-...1
I fiil/ll/lll/llll/ii/ll
P-
E, s"" E
E" ' 72 "'/,2l;:r4
E 1 iliiiillillillillliiili
E--,-,.,-..j
p:::r:=:=.:.: l
f'*#--€ W o.. I, l--=l
,:,,2. 1 lllillllllllllillllllll
tll/iittlltillll/llt/tE
i 1 : - - - .-:r-- ' - - : . 1
ROCK OR SAWED FINISH SHOT SAWEO MACHINE FINISH
"n
POINTED FINISH
PITCH FACE (R O U G H ) ( PLANER )
[]ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SLIP SILL
-l
HANO TOOLED
[I$,,ffi ffitrffiffiWffi
[.:'i:.i,:l$,',i,:,1
illl]llIlll1Tll1llllll
il|Jffiillillf,ilmilffifi|il
EE=EE=EEI
lllllllllllllllllllllll
tr*"
E===E===l
I ;J;: I
LUG SILL
Nffi ffiffiilffiffiilffifril
il]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]1|
EEEEEEEEJ
[11
STONE SILL TYPES
;t r+l SECTION
'-l
-f-
"--
MORTAR
lti
tl -r-
(
aaa
lll
t--
RUSTICATED JOINTS
I+ L_
s+ l, I I
+_
[- r--
GROOVE
f- I
::::??" ELEVATION SECTION
STONE
258 StoneDetoils-Residenliql
GENERAL
A traditional structural stone wall typically consists of two FACE STONE
independent laces {interior and exterior) of. closely fitted ON BOTH SIDES
stones with a code-drescribed p€rcentage of bonding unit
stones that extend the full thickness of the wall. Together, STEEL REBAR
these two stone faces create a massivelv thick wall, rarelv sET 3 -O O.C.
less than 24 in. thick. An interior finish backup stud or AND PUCED
furred wall with a vapor barrier and insulation typically com- 3'-O" MtN.|NTO
pletes the wall system. STONEWORK,
N OTES RIGID
INSULATION
1- A simple rule{f-thumb for masonry construction is to
rely on gravity, not the bond of mortar, as the predomi-
FUSHING
nant "bonding agent" lor stone.
2. Consult codes to determine the minimum percentage of BONOING UNIT TYPE 2 STUD WALL
bonding units per structural stone wall. Some codes
require that 15% of the face area be composed of bond-
Ing unrts. STONE OR
CONCRSE
FOUNDATION
lt
€ r-1- a TOP OF LEVEL <t
-l il I / STONE COURSE
L_-JL-'Jc----l I RIGID INSUUTION BACKING
I
I tr ,l I I
STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL
FUSHING
STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING
STUD WALL
STRUCTURAL
STONE WALL
FUSHING
TYP.- VENTEO
INSUUTEO FLASHING
AACKUP METAL TIE
16" o.c.,
TYP VERTICAL
STONE STONE
SOLID VENEER
STONE
LINTEL REINFORCED A' CMU
CONCRETE
FUSHING BACKING FUSHING
SEAUNT RIGID
INSUUTION
wtNDow
UNIT STONE OR
CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
STONE
260 Propertiesof MetqG
Tvpicalelements used to modity steel include the follow- Brassis copperwith zincas its principal alloyingelement.lr
PROPERTIES OF METALS is importantto know that some brassalloysmay be called
ing:
Basicmetalsandtheiralloysare ciassifiedin two broadcat- bronzeseven though they have little or no tin in theri
egories.Ierrous and nonferrous.Ferrousmetals are marnly 1.Aluminumlor surtacehardening. Some common nonbronze brass alloys are commercia
iron,andnonferrousmetalalloysnormallycmtain no iron. 2. Ch.omiumfor corrosionresistance. bronze (9070copper, 10yo zinc), navalbrass (60% copper,
29Vozinc.and.17otin). Muntz metal (60% copper,40%
3. Copperfor atmosphericcorrosionresistance. zinc),and manganesebronze(587ocopper,39%zinc,anc
FERROUS METALS 4. Manganesein smallamountslor additionalhardening, 1yotin and iron).When a metal is identifiedas bronze,the
In largeramountsfor betterwear resistance alloy cannot contain zinc or nickel; if it d@s, il is probabiy
lron. stel. and their alloys are usuallythe most cost-eftec- brass. Architectural brasses and bronzes are actuallv al
tive metal choiceslor structuralapplications. 5. Molybdenum, combined with other metals such as
chromium and nickel, to increasecorrosionresistance brasses;they are used for doors, windows, d@r and win
and raiset€nsilestrengthwithout reducingductility. dow frames, railings,trim and grilles. and finish hardware
lron that contains no trace of carbon is soft, ductile, and Muntz metal,also calledmalleablebrass,is a bronzealloy
easilywqked. but it rusts in a relativelyshort time and is 6. Nickel to increase tensile strength without reducang resemblingextrudedarchitecturalbronzein cold. lt is avail
susceptibleto corrosionby most acids. ductility;in high concentrations,nickel improvescorrc able in sheet and strip and is used in flat surfa@sin archi
sronresrstance. tectural comoositions in connection with extruded
The characteristicsof the many types of cast iron vary 7. Siliconto strengthenlow alloysteelsand improveoxF architecturalbronze.
widely arcng six basic groups: gray, malleable,ductile, dation resistance;larger amounts produce hard, brittle
wiite, mpacted graphite, and high alloy iron. All cast castingsthat are resistantto corrosivechemicals. Copperbased alloys characteristicallyform adherentfilms
irons haw high compressive strengths, but tensile and that are relativelyimpervious to corrosionand protect the
yield strengthsvary widely dependingon basic type. Cast 8. Sulferfor free machining,esp€cially.
9. Titaniumto prevent intergranularcorrosaonof stainless base metal from further attack. Cenain alloy systems
iron is relativelv corrosion-resistantbut cannot be ham- darkenrather rapidlyfrom brown to blackoutd&rs. Under
meredor beateninto shaoes. steels.
most outdoor weather conditions. however, @pper sur
10. Tungsten,vanadium,and cobaltfor hardnessand corro faces, such as roofs or statuary, develop a blue€reen
Gray irons are rather brittle becausethey have a high car- sronresrstance- patina. Lacquercoatings €n help retain the qiginal alloy
bon and silicon content. Castings of gray iron possess '1.5%
Stainlesssteels are at least 1 chromium.Nickelis color.
excellent tor damping {absorbingvibrations)and are prc addedto boost atmosphericcorrosionresistance;molybde-
duced io eight ASTM classes or grades with tensile- num is added when maximum corrosion resistance is LEAD
strength ratings lrom 20,000 to 60,000 psi. Applications needed,such as lvhsn iron will come into contact with sea
includedecorativeshapes, such as fences and posts, grat- water. Stainlesssteel is used in constructionfor flashing, An extremelv dense metal, lead is corrosion{esistantand
ings, and stair components,as well as utility uses such as coping,fasciae.wall panels.flmr plales,gratings.handrails. easilyworked. Alloys are added to it to improveproperties
mnhole @vers and fireplugs. hardware.lasteners,and anchors. Decorativeshapes and such as hardnessand strength.Typicalapplicationsof lead
statuarycan be cast in stainlessstee.. include waterproofing, sound and vibration isolation,and
Malleableiron.which is more expensiv€than gray iron, has radiationshielding.lt can be combinedwith tin alloyto plate
been usgd for decad€s in applicationsthat r€quire greal iron or steel, which is commonly called "terneplate." Care
toughress and high ductility. This lowcrbon white iron is NONFERROUS METALS should be taken how and where lead is used becauselead
€st. reheated,and slowly cooled,or annealed,to improve vaporsand leaddust are toxic if ingested.
its wtrkabilitv. Nonferrousmetals and their alloyscan be categorizedinto
seven major groups for architecturalapplications:those ztNc
Ductile irm is rude by adding magnesiumto molten iron based on aluminum, mpper (pure copper. brasses, and
shortlybetore the metal is poured-intomolds. The magne bronzes).lead, zinc, tin, nick€|, and magnesium. Another Although it is corrosion-resistantin water and air, zinc is
sium alte6 the surface-tensionmechanismof the molten approachis to divide nonterrous alloys into tlvo groups: brittle and low in strength. lts major use is in galvanizing
(dippinghot iron or steel in molten zinc), althoughzinc is
iron and brsipitates the carbon out as small spheres heaw metals {copper-,zinc-. lead-,and nickelSased and
insteadof flakes,which make the iron castingmore ductile. light metals(aluminum-and rugnesium- bas€d). also used to create sandtast or die{ast components.
Ductileirm is less brittle. stitter, stronger,and more shock- Major building industry uses are roofing, flashing, nails,
plumbing hardware, structural parts, and decorative
resistant than gray iron. Ouctile iron castings are more ALUMINUM
exp€nsiw than gray iron but usually less than mall€able shaoes.
The nonterrousmetal workhorse {or architecturalapplica-
iron. Ductile iron is the fastest growing segment ot the
m€tal €sting industry. tions is aluminum.lt has g@d forming and €sting charac- TIN
teristics and offe6 good--conosion rgsistance. When
exposed to air, aluminum dcs not oxidize progressively Key propeniesof tin are its low melting point (45O'F), rela'
Ductileirons are produced in strength ratings from 55,000 tive softness, good formability. and readiness to form
to 130,0@psi. Ductilecastingsusing a specialaustemper- becausea hard,thin oxide ceting lorms on the surfaceand
sealsthe metal from its environment. alloys.Principaluses for tin are as a constituentof solder,a
ing heat-treating process offer much higher lensile @ating for st€el (tinplate. terneplate),and an alloy with
strengths.rangingfrom 125,000to 230,000psi. CalledADI other metalsthat can be cast. rolled,extruded.or atomized.
€stings, tEy rivalor surpasscenain alloyst€€l castingsin Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds,are
widely availablein common commrcial forms. Aluminum Tin is most popularas an alloy for copper,antimony,lead,
t€nsileand yiold strengths. bismuth. silver, and zinc. PeMer alloys contain 1 to 8%
alloy sheets can be formed, draM, stamped, or spun.
Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded, antimonyand 0.5 to 3% copper.Alloy metal in tin solders
\A/hiteiron castings,which are extremely hard and brittle, rangesfrom 40% lead to no lead and 3.57osilver,
brazed,or soldered,and aluminumsurfacesreadilyac@pta
are used primarilyin industrialmachineryparts that experi-
wide varietyof finishes.both mechanicaland chemical.
ene high wear and requireabrasionresistance. NICKEL
The characteristics of compactedgraphiteiron fall between Althoughit is light in weight, commerciallypure aluminum Whitishin color,nickelis usedfor platingothermetalsor as
hasa tensileslrengihof about13,000psi. Most aluminum a basefor chromiumplating.Nickelpolisheswell and does
those of gray and ductile iron- The propertiesot this metal
are so difficult to control during productionthat very few alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures.At subzero not tarnish. lt is also widely appliedas an additivein iron
retal Gsters manulactureit. temperatures,on the other hand, aluminum is stronger and steel alloys as well as other metal alloys. Nickeljron
than at room temperaturebut no less ductile.Cold-working castingsare more ductile and more resistantto corrosion
Highalloyironsare gray,ductile.or white irons with an alloy the metal may nearlydouble its tensilestrength.Aluminum than conventional cast iron. Adding nickel makes steel
mntent of 3 to more than 30yo. Their propedes are signiti- can be further strengthenedby alloying it with elements more resrstantto rmoact.
6ntly differenl from those ol unalloyedirons. such as manganese,silicon, copper. magnesium.zinc, or
lithium.Th€ manganes+basedaluminumalloy3003 is usd CHROMIUM
for roofing,sheet metal, siding,and electricalconduit.
Wrought irm or steel is relatively soft. corrosion- and A hard, steel€ray metal, chromium is commonly used to
fatigussistant, and machinable.lt is easily worked, mak- plate other metals, includingiron, steel, brass,and bronze.
ing it id€altQr Eilings. grilles, fenes, $reens, and €rious BRASS, COPPER, AND BRONZE
Platedcast shapescan be brightly polishedand do not tar-
types of marental work. lt is commerciallyavailablein G@d thermal and elst.i€l @nductivity,corrosion resis- nish. Severalsteel alloys,such as stainlessplate,containas
bars.rods,tubing, sheets,and plates. tance,and easy tormingand joiningall make copperand its much as 189ochromium.Chromiumd@s not rust,which
alloysusefulin construction.However.copperand rony ot makeschromiumalloysexcellentfor exterioruses.
Carbonst€l is iron lhat contains low to medium amounls its alloys have relativelylow strength-teweight ratios,and
of €6on. A higher carbon content increases metal their strengthis even further reducedat elevatedtempera MAGNESIUM
strength and hardress but reduces its ductility and weld- tures. These metals are ofter€d in rod, plate, strip, sheet.
ability. The @rosion resistance of carbon steels is and tube shapes:Iorgings;€stings; and electricalWr6. Lightest of all metals used in construction.pure magne-
improv€d by galEnizing, vvhich is a hot zinc dipping prG sium is not strong enough lor generalstructuralfunctions.
@ss, q applying an organic coating. Some architectural These metals can be groupedaccordingto compositionin (For comparison,if a block of steel weighs 1,000lb, equal
uses includestructuralshapes such as welded fabri€tions severalgeneralcategories:copper,high{opper alloys,and volumesof aluminumand magnesiumweigh 230 lb and
'186lb
or €stings, retal studs and joists, lasteners. wall grilles, many types oI brass and bronze.Monel metal is a copper- Combiningothermetalssuchas alumi
respectively.)
and ceilingsuspensiongrids. nickel allov that offers excellentcorrosionresistance;it is num with magnesiumresultsin lightweightalloymateraals
often used for corrosion-resistantfasteners. used in ladders,lurniture,hospitalequipment,and wheels
Highstrength,low alloy{HSLA)steels havebetter corrosion lor automobiles.
resistancothan €rbon steels, and th€y are chosen when Bronzeoriginallywas a copper-tinalloy,but today there are
weight is a considerationand higher strength is specified. aluminum bronzes,silicon bronzes.and leaded phosphor
Low allov stels are seldom used in exterior architectural bronzes,among others. Phosphorbronze is a copp€r-tan-
appli€tions that involve water runoff because adjacent phosphorus alloy; and leaded phosphor bronze is com-
materialscould become stainedwith rust. posed of copper,lead.tin, and phosphorus.
Eobert C. Rodgers,P.E.;RichmondHeights,Ohio
r=
rh\
tl/ METAL
MATERIALS
Propertiesof Metols 261
METAL CORROSION Casting rs a process in which molten metal is poured into Piercing punches holes through metal without removino
molds or torced into dtes and allowed to solidifv in the any of the metal
Corrosion. which is caused by galvanic action, occurs shape of the mold or die. The castjng process is used with
between dissimilar metals or between metals and other vlrlually all metals; however, surface qualrry and physlcal Fusron welding is used to ioin metat pieces by melting filler
material when sufficient moisture is present to carry an characteflstrcs are greatly atfected by the metal alloy aod metal (welding rod) and the adjacent edges brjellv with a
electrical. current. The galvanic series shown in the table casting process selected. Almost all metals can be cast in torch and then allowing the molten metal to solidify. Two
below is'a useful andicator of corrosion su$eptibility sand molds. Only aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are ord! common types of fusion welding are electric-arc and gas.
caused by galvanic action. The metals listed are arranged in narily cast In metal dies in what is called either a dierasnng Electric-arc or metallic-arc welding normally uses metal
order from the ieast noble (most reactive to corrosionl to or permanent'mold process. Round, hollow building prod- welding rods as electrodes in the welding tool
the most noble (least reactive to corrosion). The farther ucts such as cast-iron pipe {or plumbing and sewer applica,
apart two metals on the list are, the greater the deteriora- tions are made by centrilugal casting machines. Gas welding is also known as oxyacetylene welding
tion of lhe less noble one will be it thev come in contact because it uses a mrxture of oxygen and acetylene to fuel
under adverse conditions. ln the drawing process, either hot or cold metal is pulled the flames produced by the bloMorch. Oxvacetylene blow
through dies that alter or reduce its cross-sectional shape to torches are widely used in construction work to cut through
Metal deterioration also occurs when metals come in con- p.oduce archatectural product configurations. Common metal structural beams and metal plates.
tact wath chemically active mate.ials, panicularly when drawn products are sheets, tubes, pipes, rods, bars, and
moisture is present. For example, aluminum corrodes wires. Drawing can be used with all metals except iron. Soldering is a metal joining process that uses either hard or
when in direct contact with concrete or mortar, and steel soft solder. The metal pieces being joined together do not
corrodes when in contact with certain treated woods. Forging is hammering hot metal or pressing cold metal to a melt as they do in the welding process because solders
desired shape in dies of a harder metal. The process usually melt at much lower temperatures. Sott soiders consist of
Pitting and concentralion cell corrosion are other types ot rmproves the strength and surface characteristics of the lin with a high percentage ot lead and melt at temperatures
metal deterioration. Pitting takes place when particles or metal. Alum'num, copper, and steel can be forged of 360'ro 370'F. Hard solders are comoosed o{ tin and a
bubbles of gas are deposited on a metal surface. Oxygen low content ol antimony or silver and melt at temperatures
deficiency under these deposits sets up anodic areas, Machining is used to finish areas of castings or forgings ranging from 430 to 460'F.
which cause pitting. Concentration cell corrosion is sim;lar requiring highly precise fits or contours. Shapes can also be
to galvanic corrosion; the difference is in the electrolytes. machined from heavy plate or solid blocks of metal Erazing, which is sometimes called hard soldering, also
Concentration cell corrosion can be Droduced bv differ-
ioins two pieces of metal togeth€r by torch melting a filler
ences in ion concentration, oxygen concentration, or tor- Eending produces curved shapes in tubing, pipe. and extru- rod material between them. The filler has a high content of
eign matter adhering to the surface. sions. coooer and melts between 800 and 900"F.
Copper(Cu) 600
Zinc (Znl 400
Lead(Pb)
Light yelJow
workabrlrtY
METALMATERIALS
262 Finisheson Metols
DIRECTIONAL TEXTURED FINISHES areproducedby mak- Organiccoatingsusuallyfallunderthe generalcategories of
GENERAL paints,varnishes, enamels,lacquers,plastisols, organisols.
ing tiny parallelscratcheson the metal surfaceusinga belt
The finishescommonlvused on architectural metals tall or wheel and fine abrasive,or by hand rubbingwith steel and powders. Literallyhundredsof differentorganiccoalrn!
into three categories, wool. Metal treatedthis way has a smooth.satinysheen. formulationsofler an almost unllmited range of prop€rties
. Many organiccoatingsare appliedwith brushesand rollers.
MECHANICAL FINISHES are rhe resultof physically chang- PEENEDFINISHES are achievedby firinga streamot small but dipping and sprayingof paints account for most indus
ing the surfaceof the metal throughmechanicalmeans:the steel shot at a metal surfaceat high velocity.The primary trialand commercialbuildingprolects.Dippingis usefulfor
lorming process itself or a subsequent pr@edure per- aim of shot peeningis increasingthe fatiguestrengthot the coatingcomplex metal parts,but sprayingis used for most
lormed either before or after the melal is fabri€ted into an component; the deorative finish is a byfroduct. Oth€r architecturalapplications.Sprayingis fast and inexpensive.
end{se product. nondirectionaltextured finishes are produced by blasting and new computertontrolled guns can lollow even com'
metal, under controlledconditions,with silica sand, glass plex curyatures.Conventionalspraying,however, has two
CHEMICALFINISHES are achievedby meansof chemicals, beads,andaluminumoxide. disadvantages.For one thing, there is no easy, inexpensive
which may or may not have a physicaleffect on the surface way to collect and re-use the coating material.And when
ol the metal. CHEMICAL FINISHES solvent-basedpaints are used, there is the addedproblem
of meeting environmentalrestrictions.
COATINGSare appliedas finishes.either to the metal stock CHEMICALCLEANINGcleans the metal surface without
or the fabricatedproduct.Thesecoatingseither changethe affecting it in any other way. This finish is achievedwith ELECTRODEPOSITION. an increasingly popularalternative
metal itself, througha prmess of chemicl or electrochemi- chlorinatedand hydr@arbonsolventsand inhibitedchemi- to spraying,is similar to electroplating,except that organic
cal conversion,or they ar6 simply appliedto the metal sur- cal cleanersor solvents(for aluminumand copper)and pick- resins are d€positedinstead oJ metal. Electrodepositionis
lace. ling, chlorinated,and alkalinesolutions{Ior iron and stoell. basedon the principlesof electrophoresis-the movement
of charged particles in a liquid under the influenceof an
Applicationenvironments,seMce requirements,and aes- ETCHEDFINISHESproducea matte, frosted surfacewith appliedvoltage.
thetics together determine lvhich metal finish or coatingis varyingdegreesol roughnessby treatingthe metal with an
best to specify. Finishes are usually selected tor both acid (sulfuricand nitric acid)or alkalisolution. Electrodepositionoffers several advantages:The coating
appearanceand function: Chromiumplatingon metal bath- buildsup to a uniformthicknesswithoutruns or sags;very
room water faucets and handlesor baked enamelon sheet The BRIGHT FINISH process. not used widely, involves little paint is wasted; low levels of volatile organic com-
metal lighting fixtures, for 6xample, m6t be attractiveas chemicalor electrolyticbrighteningof a metal surface,typi- pounds (VOCS)are emitted; and coatingscan be deposited
well as functionallyprotective. callvaluminum. even into deeply recessedareasof a complex shape.Elec-
trodepositionalso has disadvantages.Coatingthicknessis
For structuraland exterior metal buildingprodrcts. such as CONVERSION COATINGis typicallycategorizedas a chem- limited,and becauseonly one coat can be appliedthis way,
steel lraming products. metal siding, and outd@r lighling ical finish, but since a layer or coating is produced by a subsequentcoats must be sprayed.
fixtures, function and operating environments are more chemicalreaction,it muld be considereda coatingas well.
imponant dteria. From a designstandpoint.it is important Conversionmatings typicallypreparethe surfaceof a retal POWDERCOATING is perhaps the best known environ-
to recognizehow variousfinishesand cctings r€sist rear, for painting or for rmeiving another type of finish but aro mentally acceptable painting process. Powder coatings
corrosion.and erosion. To chms€ the right @ting or fin- also used to producea patina or statuaryfinish. A mmpc otfer several advantages.Beeuse the paints are solvent-
ish, architectsmust know which materialor prcess is best nent is treated with a dilute solutionof phosphoricacid or less, they are safer and "greener." In addition,the paints
suited for a specificappli€tion. sulfuricacidand other chemicalsthat convertthe surfac€of cost less and last a long time.
th€ m6tal to an integral.mildly protectiv€layerof insoluble
MECHANICAL FINISHES crystallinephosphateor sulphateor the lik6. Such mtings Powderedpaints are formulatedin much the same way as
can b€ applied by either spray or immersion and provide solvent-basedpaints, with the same pigments, tillers,and
AS-FABRICATEDFINISHESare the texture and surface temporary resistance to a mildly corrosive environment.
appearane given to a metal by the fabri@tionprocess. extenders,but are dry at r@m temperatures.Heat{eactive
Th€y can be specifiedfor gray, ductile, and.malleabloiron or "heatiatent" hardeners.catalysts, or cross]inkers are
castingsas well as steel castings,forgings,or weldments, useo as cunng agenrs.
BUFFEDFINISHESare produ€d by successivepolishing such as railingsand outd@r furniture.
and buffing operationsusing fire abrasives,lubricants,and
soft fabric wheels. Polishingand bufiing improveedge and Powdercoatingsare either thermoplasticor thermosetting.
COATINGS As the term impli€s,thermoplasticcoatings,which include
surfacefinishesand render many types of est pans more
durable,efticient.and safe. ORGANICCOATINGSon metal €n provideprotectiononly vinyl, poly€thylene,and certain polyesters,are melted by
or seru€ both Drotectivoand decorativs functions. Th6 heat during appli€tion. Before such coatings are applied,
PATTERNEDFINISHESare availablein varioustexturesand former categoryincludesprimersor underffits, pigm€nted tho surfacemust be primedto ensuregood adhesion,Ther-
designs. They are produced by passing an as-fabricated topcoats in hidden areas,and clear finishes.OrganiccGt- mosetting paints undergo a chemicalchange; they cannot
sheet betweon two rotchsd{esign rollers,embossingpat- ings seruingdoubleduty includepigrented coatingsin visi- be remelted by heat. The thermosets do nol require a
tems on both sides of the sh€et. or b€tween a sm@th roll ble areas,clear finishes used for gloss, and transparentor primer. Coating powders include epoxies, polyurethanes,
and a design roll, embossingor coining on one side of the translucentcloarfinisheswith dves add6d. acrylics.and polyesters.
sheet onlv.
NOTE
For more information,see the "Metal FinishesManualfor
Architecturaland Metal Products,"publishedby the Archi-
l€ctural Metal ProductsDivisionof the NationalAss@iation
of ArchitecturalMetal Manutacturers
r=
o METAL
MATERIALS
Finishes
on Metols 263
GENERAL Since alJanodrc processes produce porous alumrnum{xtde
nent trom rust or co(osion for a short ltme chromrum
The two most common methods of applying powdered fin- coalngs, seatrng rs usuallv destrdble Ihe coat,no olar
-'
rs ing, on the other hand, protects longer and tqet
rmmersect In hot water, the oxide ls hydrated, | 6p11.-r-
rsnes to metat are spraying?nd dipping, the same as those and the p;res
used ror-solvent-based paint. Electrostatic sprayrng is used swell shut. Several manufacturers claim that their
sealino Materials widely used to plate complex metal components
tq apply powder litms from 't to 5 mjt thick. A mixt:re of air agents do the same lhrng through catalylrc action
at lowei Inctuoe Oronze, brass, chromium, cadmtum.
Iemperatures. Chroric and SUlfuric-anodtzed coatings cbromates
and powder moves from a hopper lo a spray gun. ihe mix- copper, lead, lead-tjn, nickel, phosphates, silver, tin nickel
rure rs cnarged. etectrostatically as rt passes tl.rough lhe nearry atways are sealed, but hardcoats are not.
and tin-zinc. Not all of these matenals can O" o.oos,tea
spray,gun. ca.usingit to stick to any grounded metal;bject. on
all metal substrates. For example, ,inc erect,opriJlJn"
Powder lhat talls to the floor is recvcreo. VITREOUS COATINGS are composed ol Inoroanic qlossv 6f
used on steel but not on cast iron. Therefore. coat,nc/sutl
mateflats {glass). porcelain enamels are the most
com'_ strate compatibiltty is a crucial constderation,r maichno
For cortings thjcker than 5 mit. ftuidized_bed dipping is monly used vitreous coating for architectural applications.
coatrng performance to application requrrements. IVOicaj
Arrnougn one ol the hardest and most durable finishes,
used. The powder is placed in a special tank into wircli air applcatons ror ptatrng include food servrcrng areas, plumb
rs blown, turning the powder into a fluidlike mass. parts they are brittle. Deformation of metal surfaces
are cir.e Ing txlures, extenor metal, and architecturat products.
cracktng and spltlting. porcelain enamel coattngs ""n
dipped in the "fluid" and baked to cure the finish. come in a
woe range ol cotors and finrshes and are typically
applied LAMINATED COATINGS
to steel and alumrnum {bathtubs, srnKs, corumn covers].
ANODIC COATINGS
Emoossed palterns and textures may be apphed bv alterrno Lamination involves bonding preformed plastic lilms
to
Anodic oxides are widely used to protect aluminum and the metal backing surtace or the coaiing itselt. metats wath adhesives. Laminated coatings provide finrshei
many of its alloys from corrosion. When the metal is anod_ for products such as interior paneling, pJrtliions,
and exte_
rzed in one of a vafletv of acids, a protectrve oxide rs formed HOT DIPPING of ferrous metal objects consisls of immers_ rior metalwork..Three-types ot ptastli tit- _iO"fv u!"i,
on the,surtace. Dependtng on lhe acid, the oxide may range Ing crean parts Into a molten bath of the desired potwjnyl chloride lpVC). polyvinyl fluoride (pVf),
"ru anU acrviic.
coatino
irom thin and nonporous to thick and porous. three metal- In general, molten aluminum, lead, zinc, and
typ6s som6
of anodizing are used for aluminum: ctrromic, sutturic,'inO ailoys can b_e app|ed as hotdrp coatrngs to rrons. PVC films provide excellent stain and abrasion resrstance.
Lach
nardcoat. orrers specrflc advantages. Hot_dip coatings are particularlv Available in five or six colors, these ta.,n"r"s -uv
Jo,i.""
surtabte tor rntflcately shaped cast ter.ous ilems such wilh.grarning o, embossrng to simulat" *ooa gr",n, i""if,ei
as
CHROMIC ANODIZING results in a retativety soft coaring merar rooirng components and natls and other fasteners. orraoilc I ttm thrcknesses range from 0.004 i.. lo 0
04t In,
and is the least used of the three types, but it does offei but most common and most economical are those from
several advantages. lt has excellent corrosion resistance, METALLIC PLAI ING rs done by either electrodeposition 0.008 and 0.014 in.
or
so rinsing is_not as important. lt is suitable for complex casi erectrootatrno
pans and offers a coating of the most consrstently PVF iilms are usually laminated in a thickness of
uniform 0 OO2 in
thickns55 366 tha rost endulng tatigue strength. In electrodeposition, an electrical current is carried and have a sm@th, medium gloss surface. Despite
across their
an eleclrolyte and an organic resrn substance depostled thlnness.,.they are very strong, tough, and weather resis_
on
SULFURIC ANODIZING. the most widely used method, an erectrode {rhe metal oblect berng painted}. In electroolat_ tant, making them panicularly suited to exterior apolications
produces a harder coating than chromic inoaizing, -substance"
but ii Ing, the rs a melal, such as chromium, in an such as.siding materials. Their color range as li;ited,
-well. bui
can.be scratched. lt offers a pleasing appearance ind can erect.otyte Water usually seryes as the solvent in the they resist staining and chemiel damage
elec_
oe dyed In several colors. Corrosion reststance is good. trotyte. Although chromium is commonly used for
olatino_
many metals can be deposited on the substrate. Acrylic films are low cost products that sland up
well to
HARDCOAT ANODIZING produces a relatively thick, weather and are widely used for exterror melalwor*. Thev
extremely hard coating that can be dyed in a range ol sel- Similarly. a wide range of plating qualty is available. restst UV radiation and yellowing and,etarn their fleribtltv
For
ors,.Corrosion resistance is g@d. Hardcoats poroui, exampte, a thtn coating of zrnc wll protect a metal compo wrrn agrng I hey are usually applied in a thickness
ot 0.00i
makrng them suitable as a base for paints and adhesives.
"rj In. and are reasonably priced.
polyethylene
formaldehyde
chloride
s
0norganrcl
modified
polymers
(aliphatic{ured)
METALMATERIALS
264 StructurqlWelds
JOINT PREQUALIFICATION
STRUCTURAL \^/ELDING
Welded ioints that contorm to all American Welding Society
Structural welds can be made with hundredsot-different code ani specrficatron provistons tor design matellal and
welding processes.
'metat The most common are lorms ol workmanshio are prequalified joints There are a variety of
arc and oxyfuel gas welding These pro specific fillet and groove welded joints that meet most
"tieiaei
*.!"i designed tor the speci{ic welding conditions: siructural work requirements and are recommended lor
metal, siructural requirements weld position' and
Wpe of "t" oeneral use in buildings and bridges. Joints that are not
l6inrsoeciticaiions. Normally,however,the designerdoes ;requalrtied under the AWS code are required to be
quali
hJ-s-i."itv the process whrch rs lo be used to make a iied bv tests as orescribed by the code
Ga,Io i"iirt. ihii designer specifies the tYpe.andsiz-eof
reld neededfor the specificioint and leavesthe detausor For ouick reference and more advanced considetation, the
how the joint is to be made up to the fabricator. coNvEx CONCAVE preqr]alilied joints are shown in AWS "Structural Welding
FILLET WELD NOMENCI-ATURE cod+Steel. "
The two most important types of structuralwelds are fillet The model cross section of a fillet weld is a right triangle
welds and groovewelds. They are the most useful in struc- with eoual leqs. The leg size designatesthe effective stze FLARE .V. GROOVE
tural aoplicitions.Back welds are used in conjunctionwith oi inii.r"ro. ihe length-ofa fillet weld is the distancefrom EFFECTIVE
iinot"'itooue welds to complete the weld penetration en+t@nd of the fulisize tillet, measuredparallelto its root
THROAT = R/2
FG, rr6t, ino tr"re *elds are ot secondaryimponanceand iin". Foi fillet welds the effective length is equal to FLARE .BEVEL-
are limited in application. length,measuredalonga line bisectingthe throat
ihe thrcat"uruea GROOVE
EFFECTIVE
THROAT -(5R)/16
INCLUDEO
ANGLE
FLAREWELD NOMENCUTURL
Flarewelds are sp€cialcasesof groove welds in which the
qr;ove surlaceoione or both partsot a,oint is convex This
ionvexity may be the result of edge preparation.but more
offen one or both components conslsts of a round rod ol
rcunaed Co.plete penetrationin a flare weld is usu-
tb acnieveand the qualityof the weld is difficult
"ttap".
attvaitticutt
iJ'"ont.t: therefore, design vaiuesshould be appliedcon-
seruativelvand special considerationsneed to be taken In
The cross section of a fillet weld nBy diff€r irom the -right certaininstances.
trianqle model in severalways The includedangle ot the
*eid".av u"rv tto.60'to 135', ot unequalleg welds may FLARE \/vELDS
be emoloved.When unequalleg welds are used' the use ot
the no;ru| throat sizeas the effectiw size in weld str€ngth
FILLET u,ELO JOINTS calculationswill, in most cases,be conseryativeHowever'
-hln tn" included angle of weld deposit is substantially
vvith a triangular cross section, fillet w€lds ioin two
oreater than 90 ", the etfectivethroat size shouldbe oeter-
surfaes appr6ximatelyat right anglesto each other in lap, ;ined lrom the actualdimensionsof the weld acmrding to
ts. and corner ioints. They are also used with gr@ve
@lds as reinlorcementsin cornerjoints- AmericanWeldingSocietysp€cifi€tims.
FILLET WELDS
Gr@w welds are welds made in a groove betwe€n adl& PLUG AND SLOT I\,ELDS
cent €nds, 6dges, or surfaces of two parts to be lorneo In a GROOVE ANGLE
butt. teo. or corner lolnl. Pluo and slot welds are used in lap joints to transmitshear
loais. oreventbuckling of lappedparts' or join component
The edqe d ends of pans to be gr@ve welded are usually mrts of built{p mehbers. Round holes or slots are
oremrdd bv flare cutting, arc air gouging' or edg€
planing
WED THROAT-
Lun"trea or oth!ruise forred in one component of th€
io orwide square. vee, bevel, U-' or J-shaped
gr@ves lhat
WELO SlZE LiniO"io*
'deposited With pans in position.weld metal is
ird straight dnd true to dimension. The preparation is.done the openings,which may be pa-rtially
in"""".01v. or com.
to ensure that the base metal is welded evenly comp€tely oletelv tilled, depending on the thicknessot the puncneo
rhrouoh the ioint. With thicker metal it is also done to open lrateriat.aWS "structuiatWeldingCode-Steel'shouldbe
up thiioint drea for welding. RelatrvelY thin rolerial may be
ROOT OPENING consultedfor atlowableproportionand spacingof holesand
gr@ve welded with square cut edges slots and the depth of welds.
FULL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD
SINGLE VEE CORNER JOINT
'
NOMENCLATURE It is necessaryto distinguishbetween plug or slot welds
WITH REINFORCING FILLtr
Except where backrng bars are employed, speci{ications
and fillet welds placed aroundthe inside of a hole or slot
DOUBLE VEE gUfr Filletwelds in a slot are easierto make and inspectand are
reouire that lhe weld roots generally must be chipped.or
JOINT WITH SPACER
lo sound metal before mking lhe second weld
uiuatty preterea ouer fillet welds in round holesor plug and
oouoed
-ourooses
SINGLE SOUARE For of stress computation. the throat dlmenston
slot wdds.
BUfr JOINT WITH full
BACKING oia iutt'p"n"ttarion groove weld is @nsidered to b€ the PLUG AND SLOT \,vELOS
BAR tnl"tneis of the lhinner part joined, exclusive of weld rein-
forcement, such as backing bars. ROOT GROOVE SIZE
SOUARE BUT
EFFECTIVE
. THROAT
ROOT
GROOVE VI/ELDS
METALFASTENINGS
BASIC \n/ELDING SYMBOLS
BASIC WELD DEVICE SYMBOLS
The three basic parts needed to form a welding symbol are:
OR BUTT JOI NTS
an arrow pointlng to the joint, a (elerence line upon which PLUG GROOVE
the dimensional data are placed, and a weld device symbol BACK FI LLET OR FLARE FLARE
indicatjng the weld type required. The tail of the welding \^/E LD \/1/E LD SQ UAR E BEVEL U BEVEL
symbol is only necessary to indicate addttional data, such as
specification, process, or detail references.
REFERENCE LINE
lf the length of a fillet weld is omitted, it is understood to
mean that the weld is to extend the full distance between BASIC WELD DEVICE
SYMBOL OR DETAIL ARROW CONNECTS REFERENCE LINE TO
abrupt changes in the part of the joint outline specified by ARROWSIOE OF JOINT. USE BROKEN LINES
the weld symbolarrow. lf the same size fillet is required lor SHOWN TO SIGNIFY THAT ARROW IS POINTiNG
the full length of all sides of a particular joint. regardless of THESE PARTS OF WELD SYMBOL ALWAYS TO THE GROOVED MEMBER IN BEVEL OR
READ THE SAME DIRECTION REGARDLESS ,/ J.GROOVED JOINTS
abrupt changes in its direction, the weld-all-around symbol
OF WHiCH OIRECTION THE ARROW IS POINTTNG-/
can be used to simplify the drawing.
N OTES
1. Size, weld symbol. length of weld, and spacing must read in that order from left to right along the reference line. Neither orien
tation of reference line nor location of the arrow alters this rule.
2. The perpendicular leg ot \, / P lf weld symbols must be at left.
3. Arrow and other side welds are of the same size unless otheMise shown. Dimensions of fillet welds must be shown on bolh
the arrow side and the other side symbol.
4. The point ot the lield weld symbol must point toward the tail
5. Symbols apply between abrupt changes in direction of welding unless governed by the "all-around" symbol or otherwise
'/o\ zoo dimensioned.
' t 4 v 2 @6 6 These symbols do not explicitly provide for the case that frequently @curs in structural work, where duplicate material {such as
/
stiffeners) occurs on the far side of a web or gusset plate. The fabricating industry has adopted the following conventroni when
--7-l the billing ot the detail material discloses the existence of a member on the far side as well as on the near side. the wetdino
# shown for the near side shall be duplicated on the tar side.
STAGGERED
INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDS
STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING SYMBOL
Pitch is used with intermittent fillet welds to give the center
to center dimensions between welded sections. When
using pitch, length is the dimension ol the individual weld taces ot the device and above the root opening The angle can vary from the weld size due to welding process, weld-
sections. is understood to be the total. or included. angle of the ing position, or the groove angle used. Depending on these
groove_ factors, the depth of weld deposit, or the ef{ective throat,
COMPLETE PENETRATION GROOVE V\/ELDS can be less than the depth of the groove, or weld size.
When detailing complete penetration groove welds the There is no provision for dimensioning radii of U and J
gr@ve welds in the AWS welding symbol. This is usually Panial penetration groove welds can be used as intermif
dimensions usually include the weld size. root opening, the
groove angle for vee, bevel, J, and U welds. and the groove covered by the fab{icator's standard weld proportions, with tent welds. Consideration must be given to the transition at
radii for J and U welds. The length ot groove welds is not reference to AWS prequalified ioints. lf not, it must be the beginning and end of the weld. Therefore, contract
given, because the welds are amepted to go from end to shown by note or sketch in the drawing. design drawings should only specify the etJective weld
end of pieces welded. Any deviation from lhis requires length and the required effective throat. The shop drawings
additional detailino. PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS should then show the groove depth and geometry that will
grovide for the reouired effective throat.
Partial penetralion groove welds require all of the same
dimensions as complete penetration groove welds, plus
two additional dimensions: effective throat and weld size. PLUG ANO SLOT \^/ELDS
With partial penetration groove welds, the weld preparation The saze for plug welds specifies the diameter of the
usually is less than the thickness of the material being punched hole. For slot welds the size includes the width
welded. Because of this the weld size must always be and length of the slot. Plug and slot welds will be com,
given. The effective throat must also be given because it pletely filled unless the depth of the filling is shown inside
the weld symbol. Slot welds are noted by detail references
in the tail that refer to dimensioned sketches of the slot for
clarity. The arrow and other side indicates which side of the
joint is to be punched. The flush weld symbol is used if the
UNSYMMETRICAL GROOVE WELD CALLOUT top of the weld is to be leveled off.
Normally the weld size ol a complete joint penetration
groove weld is understood to be the full thickness of the CONTOUR SYMBOLS
thinner metal connected, and its dimension need not be The flush and convex symbols are used to modity the
shown on the welding symbol. However. it the preparation shape of the weld face. The contour symbols are placed
of a double groove weld is not symmetrical, the size of over the weld device. Almost all of the basic weld symbols
each side of the weld must be shown. can be combined with each other and with the spacer,
backing bar, back weld, and contour symbols to create
The root opening is shown near the root of the gr@ve many di{ferent welds.
PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD
device The g.oove angle is to be shown within the groove CALLOUT
METALFASTENINGS
266 SteelBeqmsond Columns:LoodToble
SAFE TOTAL UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (KIPS) FOR BEAMS
LATERALLY s;UPPORTED-ASTM A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL, ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN'
2 Depth = steel designation(in.);weight = lb/lt; kip = 1000 2. Multiply lffids by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitiesto(
, loadand resistancefactor designmethod.
tb.
+l
/ COLUMN
./ PAmtAL
-I\\EN
BOLED PLATE
CONNECTION
1' REruRN
\aCH END
SH@ WELDED TAA FIELD SHOP ffiLDED T€ FIELD SHOP reDED TAB TO COLUMN WEB.FIELD H.S- BOLED
HGH STRENGTH EOLTED HIGH STRENGTH BOLED reB ND fuTES FIELD H.S. BOLED FUNGE_PARTIAL PENETRATION
CONNECTIONSAND SPLICES
5AFE TOTAL CONCENTRIC LOAD (KIPS) FOR COLUMNS_ASTM A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL
(w SHAPES) AND ASTM A sOO STEEL (TS-SHAPES AND PIPE, 46 KSt), ALLOWABLE STRESS DESTGN *
DESIGNATION
' For addirionalcolumns and actual dimensions ** Weight per ft for W columns. Wall thickness for tubing.
N OTE
see AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 2d ed. (load and kip = 1999 lb: K = effective length factor (verify with
resistancefactor design) and gth ed. {allowablestress structural engineering consultant).
Multiply loads by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitieslor
design). load and resistancefactor design method-
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
W qnd M Steelshopes 267
W SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILTNG
T H rcK-
NE
NATI O N ilN.) NATIO N
WEB
THICK.
NESS
NATION tN.)
M SHAPES_
DIMENSTONS FOR DETAILING
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
268 S, HP,C, MC, qnd L SteelShopes
- MISCELLANEOUS CHANNELS- S SHAPES-
ANGLES FOR DETAILING
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING DIMENSIONS
DIMENSTONS FOR DETAILING
*+q-b d=deprh
n l tl
ttl . lrl b, = width
ill oxltx
t, = llangethrckness
'-tll-ill'1-----------.) -/tr-
L * -o:
tr = flange thickness . lll
SIZE AND
TH ICKNESS
(r N . )
D E5IG.
NATION
AMERICAN
STANDARD CHANNELS-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING
d = depth
9.4
br = width
tr = flange thickness
t* = web thickness
HP SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING HICK
DESIG- ESS
NATION
D ESIG.
NATION
METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
StructurolTees
Cutlrom W ond S Shopes 269
STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM W SHAPES-
DIMENSIONS FOR DETATLING THICK
NATION
IN.) NATION
d = depth
STEM
DESIG-
tcK-
NE
NATION ilN .)
STRUCTURAL TEES
CUT FROM S SHAPES_
DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING
STRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
270 SteelFromeSYstems
FRAME RIGID FRAME
MOMENT-RESISTING
{rame'slateralslabrlityand resrstance Rioid frame construction combines columns and a beam or
A moment-resislinq Such a
-venicalto make a rigid connection
oirier welded toaether
to wnd and seismri lorces dependon a fixed connecttonot loads and resist horizontal forces'
ls ir"-e c"n carry
beams and columns. A moment-resistingconnecllon *inO o, d"i"-ic. Rigid frame buildings are usuallv sin-
*tt"n the lop and bottom flanges ot each beam qle story and are available with provisions lor cranes, balce
"irtr"i
ire welded to the llanges of the connectingcolumns wrth
"inieu"J
mez?anrnes. The r@fs are generally sloped'
tulldeothwelds. By ditectlyweldingthe beamweb to the
ii"".
permits the use of combined r@{ decks and water-
which ",io
column flange, the beam's holizontalreactronto wlno piooini systems: the slope varies but is usually at least
1 STIFFENER
torces is transferred to the column. (A connection uslng i^ 12.
*"0 inslu" and high-strengthbolts is also permined ) The
ouitdinb;sttoors ae designed to act as draphragmsthal
Because thev span fairly long distances relatively cheaply
aff of the columni and beams, enablingthe build
"."."it t*idths ,"nq" between 30 and 130 ft), rigid frame struc-
ing to reactas a unit. lrgnt
tures are us;d for recreational buildings: warehousesi
Industrial burldingsj and commercial buildings, such as
Momentiesisting frames are uneconomi€l in tall steel ga'age-s-
suoermarkets, auiomobile dealer showrooms, and
L'uitiinqsO"""ut-" ttte largerlaleral lorces in such buildings 30
eii ;i."; ai" lsuaty 20 to 24 ft but mav be exiended to
cin Oe'tranateOmore efficiently by compressionand ten-
ft. the roof protile is most often configured as a symmerts
iion aiagonalmemuers. as found in braced{rames To save necessrty
cal oable. but such a profile is not a structural
co"ts, oiien the upper stories of a braced lrame building n.oii i'0. *"rt" aie usually covered with 26-gauge col-
i."'.omtnt-resi"ilng beafrcolumn connectionsto resist "^o siding; insulation options vary. Some manufactutr
ANCHOR
orld steel BOLT (DEPTH AS
wind loads. tsre-
ers offer precast concrete and masonrY sldlng NECESSARY, 2 PER
roor
STEEL WIOE- -...-,.-----STEELWIDE- engineered buildings most often use rigid frames lor COLUMN) Sff INTO
FUNGE BEAM and wall suPports. CONCRffE FOUNDATION
FUNGE
COLUMN -.-..-._MOMENT' TYPICAL SEISMIC FOUNOATION CONNECTION
' RESISTING PURLINS
CONNEC'
TION (TYP.)
EMBOSSMENTS IN
RIGID
STEEL DECK PROVIDE
FRAME
KEYING EFFECT TO
RAFTER
EAVE
STRUT
STEEL OECK
WELDEO TO
STEEL BEAM
(SPAN 6.TO
GIRT
ROD BRACING .
ENO
PURUN TIES
(2 PER BAY AT THIRD
POINTS FOR SRHI 60'
MOMENT.RESISTING STEEL FRAME THROUGH I 20' WIDE)
STIFFENERS WELD-
ED TO COLUMN AT
POINTS OPPOSITE
BEAM FLANGES
COLUMN
WELD
WEB CUT AWAY AT
JOINT WITH COL-
UMN TO ALLOW
CONTINUOUS WED NOTES
AT UNDERSIOE OF
TOP FUNGE 1. For nonlire-ratedceilingsituations
BEAM 2. Typicellyused for heavy loads; noncompositefloor sys
tem for light loads
C O M P O S I T EF L O O R A N D B E A M S Y S T E M
WELD CONCRETE FILL
STEEL DECK WELDEO
WELD TO BAR JOIST
COLUMN
Maryland
DonaldJ- N€ubauer.P-E.;Neubauer- Sohn.ConsultingEngineers;Potomc'
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Cromsville, Maryland
METALFRAMING
STRUCTURAL
SteelFrqmeSystems 271
FRAMED TUBE lhe Sears Tower In Chtcago are the most conspicuous
lr the framed tlbe system. slruclural examples. Syslems lte rhat;l rne Sea,s fo*er, a
FLOOR BEAM steel members {orm fJm6i"#
rne roaO Deanng extenor perimeter wall, thrs wall rs tron of njne framed tubcs jn a 3 by 3 array a,. ,o-"t,il"-,
OesrgneoSo the ertrre building becomes, in effect, a struc- caileo 0undted tubes
turat steel tube. The tubular strength is achieved in
two
ways the,exteflOr Columns are spaced closely rogelher BRACED CORE
oernaps b ll on center, and connected to Spandrel beams;
ln the braced core system, walls around elevator shafts
GUSSET PUTE the slructure is stittened by the fl@rs to foim a tors,onalij and
starrweils are designed to act as vertical trusses that canti_
WELDED TO lgro tuDe. the spandrel beams are generally very deep. in
BONOM FLANGE lever up from the foundation. The chords of each truss
units of teet as opposed to inches. ihe columns and sfan_ are
building columns; the tloor beams act as ties. Diagonals
drel beams are welded together to c.eate a moment{esist. placed In a-K pattern (occasronallyin an X pattern) coriplete
Ing connection. Often thrs system is referred to as a
the truss A system employrng knee braces rs used in sers-
prerced tube, the pierced areas being lhe window
DIAGONAL BRACE oDen_ mrc. areas beca^Lseof its greater abtlrty to dtssrpate earth.
AOLTED TO ings.
quaKe energy. brdced core systems can be used effrcrently
GUSSET PUTE In srngte-storybuildings as well as in buildings over b0 sto-
The framejl tube system is most economical for very tall
ries.
buildings. The World Trade Center Towers in New yori and
LOAO BEARING
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION AT FLOOR EXTERNAL WALL BRACED CORE
BEAM-INTERMEDTATE (MIDSPAN) CORE BOX
KNEE BRACE AT
LONGITUOINAL
SIDE
-COLUMN
A,BRACE AT
SHORT SIDE
OIAGONAL BRACE
BOLTED TO
T-STUA GUSSET
T.STUB GUSSET
BOLTEO TO
COLUMN
TYPICAL
SHEAR
SPANDREL
BRACED CORE CONNECTION
COLUMN
N OTE
Bracing design to be determined by struCtural englneer
based on specific loading configurations
FLOOR BEAM (TOP COLUMN
FUNGE CUT OUT
FOR T.STUB) WELD TOP (AND
BOTTOM) FUNGE
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION TO COLUMN IF
AT FLOOR BEAM_END MOMENT
RESISTANCE
ALSO NEEDED
STEEL GUSSET
PUTE BOLTED STEEL ANGLE
TO CROSS
ARACES WELD (IN
SHOP)
OIAGONAL
CROSS BRACE.
STEFL PUTE
CROSS BRACING CONNECTION- SPANOREL FUNGE BOLTED TO
INTERMEDIATE CUT OUT TO OIAGONAL
RECEIVE COLUMN STRUT
SPANDREL WEB
BEYOND
SPANDREL BEAM
CONTINUOUS
WELD BMEEN
FUNGE AND
BACK OF
SPANDREL WEB
-SHEAR PUTE
WELDED TO
DIAGONAL
SPANOREL;
STRUT
BOLTED IN
FIELD TO
ADJACENT
SPANOREL
AEAM
TIFFENER
WELDED TO
COLUMN-TO.
DIAGONAL SPANDREL,
COLUMN WELD
CROSS BRACE {OPTIONAL) SHEAR
BOLTED TO CONNECTOR
GUSSET PUTES
CROSS
TYPICAL DIAGONAL BRACE
BRACING CONNECTION_ENO
SPANDREL AND COLUMN OETAILS CONNECTION OETAIL
SIRUCTURAL
METALFRAMING
272 Spoce Flomes
GENERAL
RATIO FOR ROOFS
A soace frame is a three-dimensionaltruss with lnear ---.-- DLPTH-TO SPAN
1 1A IF COLUMN-SUPPORfED
-.-fiGis ttt"t tot. a series ol triangulatedpolyhedrons lt ryPIGL MODULES:
4 ' , 5 , e ' , .1 2 ' , 1 :2O lF WALL-SUPrcRTED
can be seen as a plane of constant depth that can sustaln
iiirly long spansand variedconfigurationsof-shape
N OTES
1''. The Drime attributesof spaco frame structural systems
arJ thelr light weight; inherentrigidity:their wide variety CANTTLEWR 15% TO
4sft
svstem or a rated ceiling may be requir€d.Consultapplts
cablebuildingand fire codes.
4. The finishes commonly availableare paint, thermoset
polyester,gaivanizing,stainlesssteel, or metal plating' =T
UTOLITI
NOTE
TETRAHEDFTON HEXAGONAL
Squaretubes or angles within their span range are often
the most economical.
MEMBER SHAPES GRID SHAPES
,r{
K
*V
BENT PTJATE FIJAT PLATE
a-\
MULTIFACETED
-\
SUPPORT TYPES
A
ElOX
SEOON
offi
GORD Y
FOLDED PTJATE
1'-
DOME
MvM OFFSET
RATEO WOOD
MTTAL COANG. ftP
SAFEil GUSS
res4 KXXD0(
reCIoe'eK
\izl\ro
STEEL
STMP,
JOIST
WP
SAl.AT
UPPER
MEMBER
W ruRLIN GLAZNG
DIRECT OFFSET
SKE\^/ED SKE\n/EO
GLAZING AT
M
ffi
ffi
\W
ffi ffiffiQ# LOWER MEMBER
AJS#A#A
WAI\A/ ffi METAL
AOSURE, WP.
SHAPE -
OFFSET STRUCruRE
iA MODULE CHANGE BEARING PUTE
r=
LA\
el/ STRUCTURAL FRAMING
METAL
Open-WebSteelJoists 273
PRELIMINARY JOIST SELECTION NOTES NOTE
'l.Total
The accompanying tables are not to be used for final iojst safe load = live load + dead toad. Dead toad The followinginformationappliesto both open-weband
design bul are Intended as an ard In selectrng steel lorsl; lor Includes the weight of the joists. For dead loads and rec long-spansteeljoists.
preliminary design and planning. Determining the final ommended hve loads, see pages on weights of materi_
design must be a separate and thorough process. involvino als. Local codes will govern JOISTDESIGNATION:
a complete Investrgatron of penrne.t condrltons; thrs pag; 2. Span should not exceed a depth 24 times that of a nomi,
is not intended to support that etfort Consult a structuial nal joist. 25 K 10
engrreer. i t l
3. For more information, refer to the standard specifications L- Chord
I
and load tables adopted by the Steel Joist Institute. I
An example of how to use the informatjon presented here ] K-series
follos: Assume a particular clear span. By assuming a lorst Nominat depth (in.l
spacing and estimating the total load, a joast can immedi-
ately be selected trom the table. Then proceed with prelim- FOr greater economy, the K-series joist replaced lhe H-
inary design studies. series Joist in 1986.
t[lil Til
ported on the adjoining two joists. Larger openings
necessitating interruption ot ioists are framed with steel
angle o. channel headers spanning the two adlornrngjoists.
I he Interrupted lo'sts bear on the headers.
f lil
sloped or obtained with top chords that slope in one or both
directions. Overflow scuppe.s should be provided in para
pet walls. lf roof slope is less than r/4 in. per ft, the roof svs,
tem should be jnvestigated to ensure stability under
ponding conditions.
t[
JOIST PROFILES
METALJOISTS
274 Long-SponSteelJoists
/ PROVIDE DIAGONAI BRACING AT trNDS
6' MrN BEARING / WfiH BONOM CHORD BIARINC
/--
5'(a1h'
DLH 1A
ND 19)
- WELD
OR BOLT
N OTE
Welded horizontalbridging is used for typical ioist spans
Checkioist bridgingrequirementswhen joist spans require
NOTE midspan bolted diagonalbridging.For spans of more than
Number preceding letter is ioist depth (32LH10 is 32 in. deep) 60 ft, all bridgingshouldbe bolted diagonalbridging.
r=
r.R\
el/ METALJOISTS
Metql Floorqnd Roof Decking 275
METAL DECKING Floor deck loadrngs are vrftuallv unlmited In scope, rangrng 3 A vanety of depths and rib patterns is availabte.
lrom lrgnt resrdentral and insl[ulronal loads to heaw-dutv
Some of the many types of metal decktng avarlableare 4 Acoustical treatment is possible
industrial floors utilizing composite deck with slabs up to 24
1 . Roof deck in. thick. Designers can setect the deck type.. depth, and 5 Metal roof decks can serve as the base for insulation and
2. Floor deck (noncomposite) gauge most suitable for the application. rcofing.
3. Composite floor deck interacting with concrete 6. Fire ratings can be obtained with standard assemblies.
Roof-mounted mechanical equipment should not be placed 7. Metal roof decks can provide a lateral dlaphragm
4. Permanent forms for self-supporting concrete slabs directly on a metal roof deck Equipment on built-up or pre
5. Cellular deck (composite or noncomposite) tabricated curbs should be supported directly on marn and 8. Metal roof decks can be erected quickly and economi
supplementary structural members and the deck must be carly
6. Acoustical rmf deck
supported along all free edges. Heavy items such as cool- 9. Metal roof decks make it easy to create roof slopes for
7. Acouslical cellular deck (composite or noncomposite) tng towers that must be elevated should be supported by drarnage.
8. Electric raceway ellular deck posts extending through pitch pockets directly onto struc-
9. Prevented rof deck (used with lightweight insulating tural members below the deck. Openings through the deck
concrete fill) may be handled as discussed above.
Decks used as lateral diaphragms must be welded to steel Consult the manufacturer's literature and technical repre-
suppons around their entire perimeter to ensure develop- sentatives for additional information. Consult the Steei
ment ot diaphragm action. More stringent requirements Deck lnstitute Design Manual for Floot Decks and Roof
may govern the size and/or spacing of attachments to sup- Decks and the Tentative Recommendations for the Design
ports and side lap fasteners or welds. of Steel Deck Diaphragms by the Steel Deck Institute,
FILLER PLATE RIDGE/VALLEY PUTE
Roof deck selection must consider construction and main- AOVANTAGES OF METAL Rc}OF DECKS
tenance loads, as well as the capacity to suppon unilormly ROOF DECK ACCESSORIES
1. A high strength-to-weight ratio reduces r@f dead load.
disrributed live l@ds. Consult Steel Deck lnstitute recom,
mendations and Factory Mutual requjrements. 2. Metal roof decks can be erected in most weather condi-
tions. REINFORCING
TYPE REMARKS
, 1 1) t
'"fi&
Narrow
(l in. wide) 6t
*_-* .t+ insulation; max.
N OTES
surface area on
, , , " t . r t - t r [ - - -l fJ: u top for adhering 1. Small openings (up to 6 x 6 in. or 6 in. in diameter) usu-
"'FU insulation ally may be cut in a root or lloor deck without reinforcino
the deck.
6 13to' 44" 2. Openings up to l0 x 1O in. or 10 in. in diameter reoui.e
,*+n- to
11{"
rernlorcing of the deck eithe. by weldrng a reintorcrng
plate to the deck all around the openings or providino
,r,"f-L-!ntr channel-shaped headers and/or supplementarv reinforc-,
ing parallel to the deck span. Fleinforcing plates should
be 14{auge sheets with a minimum oroiection of 6 in.
beyond all sides of the opening, and they shoutd be
(2 r/, in. wide) 6" z1tz"
welded to each cell of the deck.
l+-+
,r,"]-t/-r I r-i
d 3. Larger openings should be framed with supplementary
't,--l- t--/ LJ \--- steel members so that all tree edges of the deck are suF
ooneo.
OPENINGS IN DECK
3, I lrJ "-},r
i_&_;uL_+
+3 + to
30 {"
NOTE
Preformed recessed sump pans are available from deck
manufacturers for use at roof drains.
METALDECKING
276 Melol FloorDecking
DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL PRESET
COMPOSITE FLOOR INSERTS
MAX.
;PAN \^r'IDTH LENGTH
PROFI LE REMARKS FT.IN.) (lN.) (FT-lN.)
oecK 7',4"
TRENCH DUCT
embossmenls to or CELLULAR
t4'4" 36" METAL DECK
F
o NOTE
Electric raceways may be built into floor slabs by using cel
lular deck or special units that are blended with plain deck
Twcway distribution is achieved by using trench ducts that
sit astride the c€llular units at right angles.
NONCOMPOSITE FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL
Using trench ducts with composite lloor deck may reduce
MAX. or eliminate entirely the effectiveness ol composile action
SPAN \^/IDTH LENGTH
TYPE PROFILE R EMA,R KS FT-tN.) fl N.) (FT-rN.) at the trench duct- This is also true for composite action
b€twen steel floor beams and concrete fill. Trench duct
Narrow nb locations must be taken into account in deciding whether
to 35" commsite action is possible.
5'€' 36"
ELECTRICALTRENCH DUCT
POUR STOP
3"
f7 f A-"/i
Narrow nb
to
r0'-o"
6Z
JJ
ffi
$u/
t='-r^]...A,Jf f; Narrow tb 3l 424' U
Intermedrate
to
deck
li'^l""lxil;"'
?'
Narrow nb 4{-
deck to 36"
11'-O"
14',4" N OTE
A convenient, economical means of supporting lightweighi
acoustical ceilings is attaching a suspension system to
hanger tabs at side laps. piercing tabs driven through the
deck, or pre{unched tabs in the roof deck. Do not use this
ta$and-metal deck arrangement to support plasler ceilings,
piping. ductwork, electrical equipment, or other heavy
COMPOSITE AND NONCOMPOSITE loads. Such elements must b€ susoended directlv from
CELLULAR FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE FILL structural members or supplementary sublraming.
METALDECKING
Cold-FormedSteelFromingMqteriols 277
ALLOWABLE SPANS FOR SINGLE-SPAN FLOOR JOISTS
I O PSF DEAD LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LoAD 1O PSF DEAD LOAD + 40 PSF LIVE LOAD
NOMINAL
)
./4
JOTST StZE SPACtNG O.C. (|N. SPACTNG O.C. (
"iL4"
(WtTH MIL
TH ICKNESS) l2 t6
x6x
2tt8rn.
10 tt 7 rn
ll it6rn.
9tt I In
l0ft0in
ult/rn
l1 ft6in
9tt/rn
lull5rn
In.
7l
3ft 2 tl4 tn. urtYrn, 12 ft 4 In. 1 1f t 2 i n tn
nbrn. Stlzrn 1l tt6rn 3lt2rn 12tt0rn It ti rn
6tt1 in. l4 ll 7 in. l2 tt I rn. 4n110 3lt3rn l ln
-Zo.zt
+
.'.,.1 |
"l
f4
"12<
atl-4' 'f I
+Y-
+ ({
B B
2x6x43
2x10x43
2 x 10 x 54
2 x 1 2x 6 8
NOTES
l. The tables above provide maximum joist spans, in feet 4. Joists supporting a roof and single wall only may cantile-
and inches. For multiple spans, span is either to the right ver up to a maximum of 24 in. measured from the center-
or lett of the interior suooort. line of the bearing point, provided that bearing stiffeners
2. lnterior b€aring supports for multiple span joists should are installed at the end of the cantilever and the bearing RUNNER
consist of structural {bearing)walls or beams. point and no punchouts are allowed in the cantilevered CHANNEL
section. Hole reinforcements may be used to cover up
3. Bearing stiffeners should be installed at all suppo.t points
notes.
and concentrated loads. End bearing stiffene.s are not
required for floor joists 54 mil or thicker, spanning 14 ft o. 5. Deflection criteriar U4B0 for live loads: U24O for total
less, {or one-story houses (walls and roof only} in areas roaos
with maximum ground snow load of 30 psf or less-
MO EOUAL SPANS
NOTE
Members available an dimensions of 33 through 97 mil
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
278 Cold-FormedSteelFromingMoteilols
COLD-FORMED STEEL-MINIMUM MATERIAL THICKNESS
cElLtNG JOTSTS ALLO\^/ABLE SPANS-SINGLE SPANS, WITH ATTIG STORAGE (2O PSF)
MID.SPAN BRACING
SPACING (IN.)
NOMINAL
JOTST StZE
* Bearing
stiffeners shall be installed at all suppon points
and concentrated loads.
NOTES
'1.
The tables above provide the maximum ceiling joist span
in teet and inches.
2. Detlection criteria: L./240 for total loads.
3. Ceiling dead load = 5 psf (0.24 kPa)
4. I in. = 25.4 mm, 1 ft = 304.8 mm, 1 psf = 48 Pa.
r=
e/ COLD_FORMED
METALFRAMING
Cold-FormedSteelFroming-Open
TOP TRACK
,Z-
DOORJAME -. TRACK
HEADER TRACK -. MNAL
BEAM
STUD
- METAL
STUD FASTENERS CRIPPLE
AS REOUIRED STUD
CRlPPLE AT EACH
STUD JAMB STUD AOSURE
TRACK
CLOSURE TRACK EXTENDED
EXTENDED AAOVE ABOVE OPENING
AND BELOW AS REOUIRED
OPENING. AS STIFFENER AS FOR STRENGTH
REOUIRED FOR REOUIRID
STRENGTH
MULTIPLE
STUDS.
MULTIPLE STUDS, BACK-TO'BACK,
BACK-TO-BACK. AS REOUIRED
- SHEATHING
:r
BOfrOM
TRACK
SILL TRACK
CRIPPLE
STUD
AS REOUIRED
BONOM THROUGH
TRACK BOTOM
TRACK AT
EACH JAMB
STUD
\
MULNPLE
MEMBERS rtW
SUPPORT
MEMBER
AS REOUIRED
AT JAME - SECTION
"'4 ll
COE FUNGES
MENSION
TO ALLOW
OF THE WEB FOR
OF STUD
TRACK J
J "-
MULTIPLE
MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED \
FASTENERS
AS REOUIRED
ffEND
CLOSURE
SECTION
TRACK AS
REOUIRED
FOR HEAD
CONNECTION
AND JAMB
STRENGTH
CLIP ANGLE
NO LESS
THAN 'zz'
LESS THAN
NO T E
Detailmay be applicableto largeropeningsin interiorparti-
tions.Fornonaxialloads.
HEAOER BEAMS FOR WIOE OPENINGS HEAD AT OPENING LESS THAN 4 FEET SILL CONNECTIONS AT JAMB
(LOAD-BEARING WALL)
FASENERS
TOP RACK TOP TRACK AS REOUIRED
SCREWS OR DISNIBUTION
MULTIPLE
AS REOUIRED MEMAER
SECNON MEMBERS
OF MACK AS REOUIRED
AT JAMB --
SECTION
SECTION OF STUD
OF STUD
ENEND
CRIPfuE EIEND CLOSURE SECTION
STUD CLOSURE TRACK AS OF SruD
RACK AS REOUIRED
REOUIRED FOR SILL
CONNECTION FASTENERS
FOR HEAD
AND JAMB AS REOUIRED
CONNECTTON
ANO JAMB STRENGTH
STRENGTH
ESEND
MULTIPLE CLOSURE
METAL
MEMBERS AS TRACK AS
STUD REOUIRED
REOUIRED AT
JAMB FOR HEAD
HAD AND JAME
TRACK - STRENGTH
MULTIruE
MEMBERS AS
REOUIRED AT
HEAD REQUIRED AT
EACH SIDE OF JAMB
N OTE N OTE
For axial loads. For nonaxial loads.
OPENING GREATER THAN OR EQUAL JAMB ANO SILL AT OPENING LESS OPENINGS GREATER THAN OR EQUAL
TO 4 FEET(LOAD-BEARING WALL) THAN 4 FEET TO 4 FEET(LOAD.BEARING WALL)
METALFRAMING
COLD-FORMED
280 Cold-FormedSleelFromingqnd BrqcingDetqils
GENERAL .- STEEL STUDS - rWELD AT LIMITING HEIGHT TABLES FOR
CLIP ANGLE
(OPTIONAL) INTERIOR PARTITIONS AND
Lightweight steel traming is coldJormed, which means the CHASE WALL PARTITIONS
components are manufactured by brake-forming and
2' X 2' X 16 PARTI-
punching galvanized coil and sheet stock. Steel framing GAUGE CLIP TION
members consist ol two basic types of components that ANGLE %'
TWO
are C-shaped in section: one type has '/cin. flanges foided LESS THAN
WIDTH LAYERS
STUD WIDTH
inward and the other has no flanges. Studs, ioists, and
rafters are made with flanges to stitfen them so they will
more readily stand vertically, Components without fiaoges,
called tracks. have unpunched solid webs. For added
strenglh, tracks are sized slightly larger than the flanged
members so the tracks wili fit snugly inside them as sill or 4 FRAMING
SCR&S
top plates or as pan of posts or head€rs. REOUIRED
\NELD AS SHOM LIMITING HEIGHT
Steel framing is strong and versatile. The strength (and ATTACHMENT IA MIL STEEL STUD ASSEMBLIES
load{arrying capacity) of a membet can be increased sim- (FOR 3ela'OR SCREW
SMALLER STTJDS: ATTACHMENT
ply by increasing the thickness, or gauge, ol the metal; the (FOR
16-GAIJGE OR 3q6' TO
dimensions of the member, or the spacing. do not neces- HEAVIER) A'STUDS)
sarily have to be increased. There is little limitation on the
length ot steel framing members; joists or studs may be N OTE
fabricated in lengths up to 40 ft. lf handled with care, steel Channels to be spaced as required by design.
framing is straight and consistent; also, it is not affected by
morsture content. LATERAL BRACING ATTACHMENT
SGEW AS
Disadvantages of steel lraming include lack of insulating REOUIRED
qualities, difficulty in cutting compared to wood, and dan- AT ACH
STUD
gerously sharp edges. Consult the American lron and Steel
lnstitute (AlSl) for further information.
BRACING
Buildings must be properiy braced to resist racking under
wind and seismic loads. Diagonal strap bracing is sloped to
resist racking lorces in tension and tastened by screws or
welds to studs and plates. Prop€dy spaced lateral steel
bracing resists stud rotation and minor ais bending under FUT SRAPS.
wind, seismic. and axial loads; it is especially critical during NOTGED
CHANNEL.
construction. before sheathing or finishes are installed. X.E}RIDGING, OR 33 MIL STEEL STUO ASSEMBLIES
ROMIflARY
BRIreING
(EACH SIDE):
SCREWS UP SPLICE
AS REOUIRED STRAPS 4'
(EACH SIDE) J MtN- (102 MM)
NOTE
Number of rows of bridging as required by design.
FUT
STRAPS WALL BRIDGING
UERAL STABIUry
STRAP OR NOTCHED
ANGLE AS REQUIRED
STEEL BY DESIGN (EACH SIDE)
ANCHOR
CHANNEL
MULTIPLE MEMBERS
AS REOUIRED
CONCRETE AT ENDS
SUB
LIMITING HEIGHT
ANCHOR I A MIL CHASE WALL PARTITIONS
N OTE
The top detail is for one-to-two story buildings and the bot-
BOfrOM RACK,
tom d€tail tor buildings greater than two stories. Steel chan- GAUGE AS
nel, plate, and anchor size d€pend on applied uplift and REOUIRED TO
horizonta! shear torces. TPANSFER
LO€S
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING
ANCHORAGE DETAILS SGEWS AS REOUIRED
NOTE
SOLID BL(:gIre NCrcR BRIreING Strap forces may requireadditionalstilfeningof the bottom
mx-BRrretre: TO SOUD BLOCXING track or structuralangle.
FIT BEMEN 5'O'Mg
FIRST VO (FOR 1%' DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING
AND UST MO
JOISTS OR
MEMBERS) ANCHORAGE
RAffiR SPAGS
MU
(REPEAT AS SCREW TO UTERAL STAAILfr
REOUIRED) \ ' EACH STUD SMAP OR NOTCHED
ANGLE AS REOIRED
BY OESIGN (AG SIDE)
BOfrOM TRACK MULNfuE
AS REOUIRED MEMBERS AS
TO TRANSER REOUIRED
ANAG FUT t 33 mil chase wall partitions.
SMAP. AT ENDS
NOTCHED
CHANNEL. SHATHtre\
X-BRIDGING, N OTE
OR
PRORIETARY Limiting height lo( 112o( sls in- thick panels and 5 psf uni
BRIreING TO ADDINONAL form load perpendicular to partition or furrjng. Use onelayer
\\ ACH €IST STIFFENER
ADJACENT
heights for unbalanced assemblies. Consult local code
authority for limiting criteria (d--deflection, f-bending
TRANSFER \ FASENERS stress).
BRIDGING \
FORCES |NTO AS REOUIRED
I
UTERAL I
STABILry ./
SYSTEM -/ X.BRIOGING STRUfrURAL
ANGLE BELOW
N OTE N OTE
lf sheathing is not installed on members, bridging is Strap forces may require additionalstiffening of top and
requiredon both flanges. bottom track or structuralangle.
JOIST OR RAFTER BRIDGING DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING AT
INTERMEDIATE FLOOR
r=
L'i\
\l/ COLD-FORMED
METAL
FRAMING
, , Cold_FormedSl.elFr@ 2gl
JOIST OR
CLIP ANGLE
HEADER
- CLIP ANGLE,
r/.' LESS THAN
JOIST DEPTB OR
JOIST HANGER
\ Jotsr aND
TRACK HEADER
wPrcaL ./ AS REQUIRED STEEL BEAM -
6tsT oR _-/ .- BY DESIGN (OR BUILT.UP FASTENER
RAflER J JO|ST AS REOUIRED
COLD.FORMED
MEMAER OR STUD
\.
STEEL BEAM \
(OR BUILT-UP \ -
COLD-FORMED FASTENER
\ AS REOUIRED
MEMBER. OR
STUD BEARING WALL) -i
NOTES
l.Continuous bridgingis required between each joist
DOUE}LE TFIACK above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may
DETAIL be usedin lieuof bridging.
2. When a bearingwall is above,the studs must alignwith
the joistsbelow.
RIM JOIST DETAILS 3. Web stiffeners are not requiredwhen continuous solid
JOIST AND TRACK HEADER
blockingis used. AS REOUIRED BY DESIGN
JOISTS OVER BEAM OR BEARING
WALL (CONTTNUOUS SPAN) J()IST HEADER TO BUILT.UP JOISTS
SruD--\ STUD
\ MO SCREWS
MO SREWS AT EACH STUD
AT EACH STUD -\ ./'-*ot*
JOISTS
JOIST SCREW
CONCREE TRACK --\ AT EACH
FASTENERS FUNGE
AS REOUIRED SHEATHTNG
aii<;ue as ii SHEATH'NG
REAUIRED
CLIP ANGLE. NO LESS THAN JOIST ] /,
Df4H MINUS '/"' (ANACN CI IP L^ r crrur lr
aND TRACK To coNcRETE wrrH / SHEATHING 1i
E'PANSION OR ANCHOR BOLTS)
FLOOR JOISTS AT CONTINUOUS V\/ALL FLOOR JOISTS PARALLEL TO FLOOR JOISTS PARALLEL TO
EXTERIOR WALL FOUNDATION
WEB STIFFENER
AS REOUIRED
C|HIS SIDE OR
FIT BEruEEN
JOIST FLANGE)
SCREW TRACK
TO TRACK
ADJACENT STUD
TO SUPPORTS
JOIST (ALIGN WITH \ rotsr ]
WALL STUD BELOU4
SHEATHING =rao-*,aa /
JOISTS SUPPORTED BY BEAM OR FLOOR FRAMING AT EXTERIOR WALL FLOOR JOISTS BEARING ON
BEARING WALL FOUNDATION
Americanlronand SteelInstitute;Washington,
D.C
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
282 Cold-FormedSleelFromingDetoils
-.-- W@D BL@K WMD BASE
,/ SLCUREO TO S]UD REINFORCEMENT PUTE NAILED
TO I ILL sluo
DIMENSONAL
LUMBER AS
volD
,,|iPl REOUIRED FOR
PENTTRATIONS
IECS[=.,L
TO RUNNER
TO WOOD
RUNNEF-
.
REQUIRED
SECURED TO
llql ..D
tw
STUDS WITH SECURED WITH
'\oceNtNe AOHTSIW
SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
CEMERED
IN WEB
GYPSUM
BOARD -
NAIL TO
W@D BL@K PENETRATION
AS REOUIRED WOOD RUNNER
NO REINFORCEMENT NOTE
HEAVY FIXTURE ATTACHMENT REOUIRED FOR
PENETRATIONS < This detail is optional depending on contractor preference
PUNCHOU DEffi,
ryCEff AS NOTED
NAII-ABLE BASE PLATE
JOISTS OR RAFTERS
N OTES TOP
TRACK
1 . Do not notch or cut flanges.
2. Capacity verification by design is required for any open-
ings located at concentrated loads and bearing €nds.
3. For unpunched members, consult the manufacturer.
STUD RUNNER
2)r
WIH 2 SCREWS AT
EACH SruD SOLID
BLOCKING
<'v :- u3[.o"]?^""
MECHANTCAL FUNGE
20 GA. frrCK SruD FASTENERS
COPE fuNGES AS
SHOM AND SECURE
WITH 2 SCREWS AT
ACH SruD
NOTES
WELDS. AS
'1.
Where blocking material thickness allows, notch and REOUIRED
N OTE bend track 90 degreesfor connection.
Dimensional lumber may also be used for backing, 2- Where provisionsare made for transfer of flange forces N OTE
to solid blockjng,blockingneed not be in the lull depth of
BACKING FOR CABINETS the member. Load-bearing studs must be s€ated tight to track web.
€IST
(ALIGN 2 SHEAfrING
SruD
(AUGN
wmD
rcIST, P.T.
SruD
E}tLOw) COMNUOUS JOrST)
JOISTS MULTIPLE
PARALLEL .,OIST
1- (OR PROVDE
HEADER)
SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
JOIST
HANGER
OR CLIP
ANGLES
NOTES
1. Provide continuous bridging between each joist at the N OTES
lower wall. NOTES 'l
. Balconiesr€quir€specialdetailingand protectionagainst
2. Solid blocking in every other space may be used in lieu of 1. Balconiesrequirespecialdetailingand protectionagainsl moistureand thermal bridging.
bridging. moistureand thermalbridging. 2. Where axialloadS€aringmembers do not alignvertically,
3. Where axial load-bearing members do not align venically, 2. Where axialload-bearingmembersdo not alignvertically, provide top track distribution members at top of wall
provide top track distribution members at wall below. providetop track distributionrembers at wall below. oelow-
FLOOR CANTILEVER BALCONY \,VITH STEP DOWN \MOOD DECK BALCONY
r=
ti\
e1/ METALFRAMING
COLD-FORMED
Cold-FormedSteelFromingDetqils 283
JOIST AND TRACK SHEATHING
AS RIDGEBOARD
----[--;-- T6FE5.'"8
--- SCREWS AS
REOUIRED
RAffER
. RA-ERS
OR TOP
CHORD
-- 2 TRACKS WITH
ONE STUD
., SCREWS
AS REOUIRED
WALL INTERSECTION FRAMING RIDGEBOARD
RA-ER (PROVIOE
CONTTNUOUS BRIDGING
.- SCREWS AS OVER WALL OR SOLID
BLOCKING AT EVERY
STUD, WP. - /,/
RE.
REOUTRED
OTHER SPACE)
DISMIBUTION MEMBER
WHERE JOISTS DO NOT
ALIGN WTH SruDS BELOW
BONOM CHORD
WALL TRACK
CLIP ANGLE
WALL STUD
RIBWON MEMBER
WHERE JOISTS rc NOT
4IGN WITH STUDS BELOW
FURRING CHANNELS ROOF TRUSS EAVE DETAIL TOP OF NON-LOAD BEARING WALL
PARALLEL TO JOISTS
CONTINUOUS
ANGLES, FASTEN ALTERNATE
MH SCREWS AT DETAIL FOR
EACH MEMBER FILLER STUD
SOFFIT FRAMING
AS REOUIRED
DISTR!BUTION (oflroNAL) TR'EUTION MEMBER
MEMBER WHERE AS REOUIRED 8Y DESIGN
JOISTS DO NOT i\-warr sruo WHERE JOISTS AND/OR
ALIGN WTH STUOS DO NOT ALIGN
STUDS BELOW SHEATHING WTH STUDS BELOW
COLD-FORMED
METALFRAMING
284 MetolAngles,Tees,Zees,qnd Chonnels
Miscellqneous
-l|n
NOTE should be checked for availabilitvol sizesother than
those in the* tables. Where nsessrv, and where 6TEEL ANGLEE
extra cost is warranted, other sectionsmav be pro- EQUAL LEGS
duced by welding,cutting, or other methods. STEEL ANGLES IL_
STEEL AN6LE6 _EQUAL LEGS_BAR SIZE flN.)
UNEQUAL LEOA
StzE x t slzEx t stzE x t
STEEL ANGLES t/a x 1t/a x./rc 2x2x3lrc
STEEL CHANNELS_BAR S|ZE (IN.) _UNEQUAL LEGS_BAR SIZE (IN.) xs/e x le
2 x2 x./t
2xelrc x3/rc 2t/2 x 1t/2 x3,$ 1/z x 11/zx3/ra 2x2x3le
3la x3/a x1/e 2x1'ax3ro
lllz xrlz x1/a lx1xr/s t2 x 11/2 x3/6 z'12x z'12x rl 16
2x1xl/e 2xlrrxra.3ro 1xlx3/ro 3/ax13/exlle 21/z x21lz x1/a
2x1"2xl/e 2'h x 2 x3ta 3/a x 13/a x3/rc
11/z x3/t x1/a txlx'/4 21/z x21lz x5/ta
11/2x1t/ax3h6 2 x 1ltz x3trc
11/z x'|.1/z x3/rc 11/ax11/e xl/e 21/z x21/z x3/a
l1rxlrlaxl/s 2x1'/2xl/a
13/t x1/z x3/rc 11/t xl1la x1/a 2x2x1/a 21/z xZt/z x1/z
g/ro l3,rxllrx3'rs 21tzx2x3e
1 r/e x x 3/ro NOTE:
NU l-or structural anglesizes(3 x 3 x 3/ro in-
I t: For in. and
ar
NOTE: For structural anqlesizes{3 x 2 x 3/'o'in. and larger)seeDimensionsof Angle Shapesin this chapter
NOTE: For siructural channel sizes ( d = 3 i n . ano
larger)seeDimensionsof AngleShapesin this chapter.
larger) see Dimensions of Channer Shapes in t h i s Tnn t--'lt
chapter. aLUMTN'M .HANNEL -l ll
TIES
H
_+_'
---)
souaRE coRNERs -+-a
6TEEL
olI -JF'
/-
ALUMTNUMCHANNELS +I.
-.1.- u _SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
STEEL TEES_BAR SIZE (tN.) dxbxt dxbxt dxbxt
3lg x3ls xllaa llc x3/t xr/e x3/lxl
dxaxbxt
'lt x 11/< xlla llzx1r/zxl/a
1/z xllz xtlzz rlz xllz x1/a rlz x2tlz xr/e
2r/t x21/t xl/a 1 3 l t x 1 1/ a T z f t x 3 f r 5
1lz x5/a x t/a x1/z x1/e
2rlz x21h xrlt STRUCTURAL
11/<x11/t x1/e 21lz x21/z xs/ ra 3x2rr/ro x21rlrcxt/a 41/a x33/rc x 33/ro x 3/e
5/e xsle x 1/e 3x 1 x r/a
5/ex1x1/e tlz xlxrla x2 x 1la
lt/a x 11/ax3/rs 21/z x21/z x3/e 3x2r1/rc x2rt/ra x3/d 5x31la x31/e x5/ta
rlz x1llz x1/a 3x3xt/e
11lex11/ax1/a 3x2111* x21r/rs x1/z 5x31/a x31/a x1/z
STRUCTURAL 4 x 3 1 / r c x 3 1 1 r cx l l t Srlre x 35/ro x35/rc x3/a
4x1rlz xlle
1 x l x1/e.rlre,
2 x 2 xlra,'ta
2x2x1/a
J'l2xJ't2x,t4
31/z x31/z x3le
1/2x1/2xt/B t/z 12x /A
2t/2 x 2ti2 x3h6
3x3x',b
ALUMINUM TEE6
+
-+-----.1r-
'l | r -JI-
5/ex5,'sxl/s
SQUARE CORNERB
lxlx3/ro 2x2x5/ro 31lz x3'/z x 1/z 3/a
x3/a x
I
a6.
t,s '/2 x 2 JXJX"r5,-b, 2 I tl
lxlxr/r 2x2x3/a 4x4xtlt txtx,3 3/e
x3;a, 3rr:x31rzxr.r ALUMINUM TEES_
lth x11/a xlle 21/z x21lz xl/e 4x4x5/rc I x I x-16 2x2xtte 3r,rx31.!x3,h
SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
lllt x 11/ax3ls 21/z x21/z x3l s 4x4x3la |X |X . 2x2x3.'rs 3t /2 x 31,2x t/2 bxdxt
11ltx1lltx1/a 21/z x2r/z xlla 4x 4x rlz lr,ex1lex3ro 2x2xtie,t rc,xia 4x4xlta.3ta,1'z
7t/z x 11/z xt/a Ztlz x21lz x5/ra 4 x 4x3/t 11i. x 11/4x1/s 2ttzx2ltzxtb 6x6x3/s,12
ltlz x lrlz x3lto 2r/z x21/z x3la 5X5x'/B UNEQUAL LEGS.(IN.} I x3la x1/e
3/a x3te x3b2 2x3ta xlia lxlxr/e
11lz x11/z x1/a 3x3x3/ro 5x5xr/z
13lt x 13h x1/e 3x3xr/r 6x6x3/E 2x1x'e
13/t x 13/t x 3/ rc 3x3x5/re 6x6xr/z 3r,2x3x'ze ALUMINUM TEES
2\1t/2x1,6 SQUARE CORNERS
lt/tx13/txt/t 3x3x3/s 8x8xr/z
2x2x1/e 3x3xr/z
STRUCTURAL (IN.)
UNEQUAL LEGS (IN.)
l1/z x'lt/q xt/t 2 1 l zx 2 x 5 / r s
5X I X t Strax2jtaxtie 2x2x1la l3x3x3/e I
11/zx11/a x3/te
l3rx1r'zxre
lllz x11/a x1/a 3 x2 x3/te STAINLTSS STEEL
ANGLES
l3/t x11/a x1/e
5 x3t/z x3/a
ALUMINUM ZEES
-+-t+
I
-----1i STAINLESS STEEL ANGLES (tN.)
3 x21/z x 1/t 5x31/z xt/z seuaRE coRNERs
3x21lz x3/t :L_L.
ALUMTNUMZEES- 2t/z x21/z x 1/<
2x11/z x3/rc 31/z x2tlz x t/a
lo I
6x31lz x1/z 3x3x1/r
J',t2XZt2X.ta 6x4x3/e dxaxbxt dxaxbxt 3x3x5/ro
2tlz x11/z xlla 6x4xr/z t/z x1/z x1/z x3/zz I x'11/gx 11/ex l/e
21lz x2 x3/ ta 3/a x3/a xz/t x1/e I x5/e x1/e x1/e
8xOx3,'r 7/a x3/a x3la x1/s
HMC Group;Ontario,California
METALFABRICATIONS
MetolTubingond Pipes 285
RECTANGULAR TUBING - STEEL RECTANGULAR ALUMINUM ROUND PIPE . STEEL
T = WALL THICKNESS TUBING (IN.) INSIDE DIAMETER
(B\^/ GAUGE OR IN.) (BW GAUGE)
srzE (lN.)
NOMINAL
INSIDE
D IA.
NOTES
Round tubing, usually manufactured for mechanical pur
","=_.,...oo@
poses, is used for architectural metalwork to supplemenl
round pipe. Round tubing is measured by the outside diam-
eter and the wall thickness by gauge, fractions, or decimals
"""oooo
of an inch. Round tubing is used where a high grade finish
is required and exact diameters are necessary.
METALFABRICATIONS
286 PrefobricqtedFireproofedSteelColumns
GENERAL CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBING
Lallv columns are orefabricated structural units that consist U.L. RATED/ FIRE-
ALLOWABLE SAFE LOADS IN KIPS PROOFED COLUMN
of a load-bearing steel column, filled with concrete. This
creates a column with increased loadbearing capacity in a EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH SQUARE SHELL
space no larger than a standard column. Firepbof lally col-
OUTER RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION stzEs ilN.)
otM ENStOt THICK-
.umns have a thin steelFirell and a layer oI insilating mate- OF TUBING N ESS a 10 | 12 l4 l6 t8 20 2 HR. 3 HR. 4 HR
rial between the shell. and the structural steel..Fire ratings
oz 53 40 oxo
range trom two to lour hours depending on thqthickness ot
the insulating material. The protective steel shell allows 6E 42 bxb
fireproof lally columns to be left exposed in either interior or x ov 4Q bxb
exterio. applications. 2a 119 102 85
N OTE
Load table based on Fy = 46 ksi
21 93 76
86 '122 52 8x8 9x9 6 'le 8 sle 8%
.674 36 r55 139 102
.zaa JO oo $
.375 39 1 3 9 1 3 0 120 1 1 0 98 84 8x8 9x9 10x10 8Y" 8 5/a 10 3lo
.750 52 230 215 1 9 8 174 1 5 6 132
,z6u tzJ I t4 ol 68
6% .432 56 1 9 7 'r88 1 7 8 t @ r 4 0 125 'r09 9xg 10x10 11x11 8% 10 3l^ 1 03 1 "
.864 327 293 272 249 225 r 9 8 1 6 9
zac ztv IYU
.500 91 314 295 283 270 257 242 226 209 1 9 1 171 11x1l 12x12 13x13 1031e 12 3l^ t2 3l^
.875 111 475 460 444 425 404 359 334 307 274 244
1 4x 1 4 lbxl 14
.500 423 415 406 394 383 370 356 342 326 309 291
t5x t5 to x to o
507 496 444 470 457 442 '426 409
178 534
NOTE
Load table based on F, = 46 ksi
STANOARD
STEEL STEEL BASE
FIREPROOF COLUMNS TYPICAL COLUMN BASE ANO CAP ATTACHMENTS TO STEEL SHELL BEAM CONNECTIONS
Eric Gastier;Alexandria,Virginia
METALFABRICATIONS
SteelStoirs 287
GUIDELINES d. Bails should be arranged to discourage climbing
e. Concentrated load nonconcur,ently applied at the top
1. Width of stair: rail shall be 200 lb per ft in vertical downward and hori-
a. Dwelling stairs: minimum 36 in. treads. zontal direction. The test loads are applicable for rail-
jngs with supports not more than 8 tt apart.
b. Public exit stairs: minimum 44 in. treads.
c. Rescue assistance a.ea (ADA):48 in- between hand- 6. Handrails:
rarls. a. Dwellings: on one side only, required.
2. Treads: b. Other (ADA): required on both sides.
a. Dwellings:9 in. minimum (nosing to nosing). c. Height:34 to 38 in.
b. Olher (ADAI: l1 in minimum (nosing to nosing). d. Grip surface: 1'/ato 11lri^.
c. Uniform width wirhin one Ilight. e. Clearance at wall: 1rl, in.
3. Risers: f. Projecting or recessed.
1ST
a. Dwellings: 81/zin. maximum. g. Extension at top of run: 12 in.
b. Other (ADA): minimum 4 in., maximum 7 in h. Extension at bottom of run: 1 2 in. plus width of tread.
c. Uniform height within one flight. i. When a guardrail more than 38 in. high is used, a sep-
arate handrail should be installed (ASTM). STAIR SECTION
4. Nosing: maximum 1rl2 in. with 60" under nosing: maxi-
mum r/, in. radius al edge. j. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of
5. Stair rails: nanos.
a. Height in dwellings:36 In. 7. Regulators and standards; building codes, ADA, ASTM,
ANSI. NFPA. and OSHA.
b Herghr In evit stairs: 42 in
c. Rails should be arranged so that a sphere 4 in. in diam-
eter cannot be passed through.
12'
ENENSION -. 4" SPHERE
ANY POINT
MUST NOT
,".4qi'i:'"^"
5.
;
PT-AN DIMENSIONS REQUIRED
5' ASSISTANCE (ADA)
FOR RESCUE
;
TO 1'/1' ;
5'
FIELD 5'
MLD
CONCRETE
FILLED PAN
PIAN SHO\^/ING
HANORAIL E)<TENSIONS
ME
T_
NOSING OF
r-ru
CHECKER PLATE
HANGER
RS33E=-wffi
WELDED To
OOO -___^
r.rrr- F=fl
CLOSELY SPACED NOSING, BAR STRTNGER_=l--i{
BARS. ANGLE ENOS END PUTES
tr:lN il tH
NTffi f-.m_n f-xF=-H
L/ltl ff
NOSING
AND
AND
OF ANGLE
ABRASIW
BAR ENOS
STRIP
FLOOR
NOSING,
END
PDTE
BAR
PLAiES
:$,,j-aw-
TUBE STEEL
suPPoRr
FffTT| |f"- --l :i:.=*
STRINGER \
Hffi
BACK BEARING BARS SMINGER
AND BAR END fuTES PUTE WPE
TREADS
STRINGER
CffiRIER
PI ATE ---
-=.-.-
\
\ \
BEARING
--w - \
='ffi
t**'*o,
/ CHANNEL PLATE -J'
\--,v"'(steeu)
2ra'(aLU-
t
.t
- '^ FURR,NG
t- ltflFs
.H
\ 'n"' o,o. to..=
MINUM) ..-l:
1'7.' x 1v^" x ik"
STEEL
SUPrcRTS
ANGLE Fll ll
I lu-,llr+E
IN STRINGER o*.,. =[]-Elfl
NOTE Fr33*'o*r1--!El---s
This stair is not suitable for persons with disabilities.
METALFABRICATIONS
288 FixedMetol lqdders
GENERAL NOTES HANDRAIL ENENSION
(IF WALL AT TOP,
1. Materials {or ladders and supports include galvanized
steel and aluminum. Galvanized steel ladders are fas-
tened to the wall with galvanized steel lasleners; alumi 1%' DIAMETER
num ladders are Iastened with stainless steel fasteners. HANDRAIL \
lll'1'*
lJll
--></ s'-,"
STEEL ANGLE
SUPPORT
METAL CHANNEL BRACKETS
SMINGER AT SIDES
FL@R FLOOR
CAGE H@PS, MOUNNNG GRATING
3" X %' BARS
NOTE N OTE
50'-o'
2' X %' MtN. The maximum rise between treads dependson exact lad- Cagesand rest platforms are requiredfor climbing heights
BAR FG CAGE
VERTICALS
der heightandangle. of more than 50 ft.
SHIP'S LADDER REST PLATFORM
X %' METAL
MOUMNG
BRACKT,
FASENED TO
7 -' MtN. STFINGER
a'o'MA
1' X 21h'
STRINGER
MET{ UOOER FASTEN€RS (FOR
ALUMINUM. USE
RIWTS; FOR
STEEL. WELDS)
N OTE
Cagesshouldbe used on laddersat hazardousleations or
on short laddersat high loctions.
FIXED VERTICAL LADDER
(5O FEET OR LESS)
*"HrEg:Jb","
""ffi'p
:,:I::""""" EruRL AS
RUNG
(N//(N{
€Lts"+!l*-;;"
ROUND
SERRATED CHANNEL TREAD
RUNG
SIDE SUPrcRT ANGLE
60'o.c.,
STEEL ANGLE
SHIP'S LADDER TREAD
Mff&
MOUMING TREADS AND RUNGS SIDE RAIL MOUNTING BRACKET
BUCKfl DETAILS
.-n
RUNG
1' '/"--------rRl
METAL
CHANNEL
i| llflN.N.l
<{P [_=
il r ll I
1 +-- IAI'
Ft.AED
CAGE AT
BONOM
r=
L\
e/ METALFABRICATIONS
FireEscopesond EscopeLodders 289
18 MrN
i\
DOOR
ACCESS _
MOUNTING
BRACKETS
HANDLE FOR
UDDER
ROOF UDDER RETRACTION
LOCATED TO AT EACH
MEET CONDITIONS ACCESS POINT
OF BUILDING
. CHECK
\ LocaL
\ CIDES
ANGLE OF STAIR
NOT MORE THAN 60.
|ru
3 -O MAX
TYP- FLOOR
l.
LEVEL
)\,tr-\<
or other public ways without any obstruction
It minimum at alleysor thor-
oughfares less than 30 ft
wide).
egress in existing buildings. New fire escapes for exist-
ing buildings are permitted only where exterior statrs
cannot be ulilized due to lot lines that limit stair size or
due to sidewalks, alleys, or str€ets at grade level. Access
FIRE ESCAPE by windows is generally not permitted.
2. For other soecilic requirements, refer to applicable
2" xz" x3tra" national and local building codes.
O.C 3. For standards for firo escapes as well as for stairs and
aT4',O 'l
means of egress, consult ANSI 17.1, OSHA, and NFPA
1010 (Life Safety Code).
4. Since fire escapes are mounted outside of the building
envelope, consideration must be given to exterior light-
ing provided on the building itself or general street light-
ing that would illuminate it.
5. Standard fire escapes are typically designed to support a
FLOOR live load of 100 lb/sq ft: stair treads shall be desagned to
GRATING
suoport a concenlrated live load of 250 lb at any point.
ST€EL
ESCAPE LADDER NOTES
FUT BAR PLAN - FIRE ESCAPE 1. Located adiacent to windows or balconies, the retract-
abie aluminum escaoe ladder is used solely for
'/, cHEcKERED
STEEL emergency exit, rescue, or supplemental escape route.
CHANNEL
Also provides access to mechanical equipment or other
STEEL secured spaces. Not to be used as any component tn the
BOLT (MIN. I means ot egress.
PER BRACKET) 2. Consult manufacturer for mounting details. Refe. to
national and local building codes lor specific require-
PLATE ments concerning access opening types, sill heights,
clearances, and maximum installation heights allowed. In
some instances, a balcony maY be used at anv level to
ANGLE access the ladder
STEEL CHANNEL STAIR BRICK
STRINGERS (FASTENED WITH
r/2" BoLTS oR coNTrNuous wELD)
METALFABRICATIONS
290 Grotings
0f0f000000
0000000f00
STANOARD DOUBLE-SLOT GRATING
ltlllll||t
NOTE
Constructedof flat bearingbarso{ steel or aluminuml-bars, welding. They have open ends or ends banded with flat
with spacebars at right angles.Spacebars may be square, bars about the sam€ size as welded bearinq bars. Standard
rectangular,or of anothershap€.Spacerbars are connected bar spacings ar€ 1546and 13/16in.
to bearingbars by pressingthem into preparedslots or by
RECTANGULAR BAR GRATING (WELDED OR PRESSURE LOCKED)
STANDARD SINGLE-SLOT GRATING
-
-
-
-
-
WITH SPACER BARS RIVETED APPROX. T'O.C. w r T H S P A C E R B A R S R T V E T E O3 ' / : - O R 4 " TRIPLE-SLOT GRATING
USEO FOR AVERAGE INSiTALUTION USEDFORHAVY TRAFFICAND WHEREWHEELED SLOTS PARALLEL TO FRAME
EOUIPMENT IS USED
NOTE
Flat bearing bars are made of steel or aluminum, and con- 25l,6in. Many bar gratingscannot be used in areasof public
tinuous bent spacer or reticulate bars are riveted to the pedestriantraffic (op€ningsare too big for crutches,canqs,
bearing bars. Usually they have open ends or ends that are pogo sticks,women's shoes, etc.). Close mesh grating('/a
banded with flat bars of the same size as bearing bars, in.) is availablein steel and aluminumlor use in pedestrian
welded across the ends. Normal spacing of bars: %, 1tls, or traffic areas.
I mr-----_l \\S\\S
----lmmr----------.---mmrt--
-
__J
rilr ilrr
LL.l Lll r
-
llll lllll
I Lll uJ tJ
N
WH EELC HAI R/BICYCLE GR.A,TING
PUN SECTION
ilil[ililil[ililil
NOTE
Grating is extruded from aluminum alloy in one piece with ized. Top ot surface may be solid or punched. Standard
integral l-beam ribs and can have a natural tinish or be anod- oanelwidth is 6 in.
ilil[ililil[[il[il
ALUMINUM PLANK GRATING
PEDESTRIAN GRATING
N OTE
FLANGE BLOCK Grates made ol gray cast iron. ductile €st iron, or 6st alu-
(ALUMINUM I-BAR) minum
USUALLY AfrACHED BY WELDING, WHERE SUPPORT AND GRAT€ ARE CONSTRUCTED AS A UNIT
FIXED OR LOOSE GRATINGS-TYPICAL DETAILS
,,
SIZES OF ANGLES SUPPORTING GRATING DEPEND ON OEPTH OF GRATING BARS
METALFABRICATIONS
OrnomentollronworkDeloils 291
GENERAL produce custom work today; a smaller proportion of their
ROUNDS
(DIAMETER IN.) METAL GRILL\/VORK INSTALLATION_
DETAILS FOR MASONRY OPENINGS
$::::$
Wrb
mm00$$Dn
BAR ENDS
Ytr$
$=*n***='*'qg-HH=.ft*-W
INTERSECTING
rcX'W
MEMBERS
-WELD
65*"Y,-*F-{*"6> K=M*'4
CORNER CONDITIONS
m*."#*
. WELD - WELD RIVETS
(OR BOLTS)
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
METAL
ORNAMENTAL
292 PerforotedMetqls
GENERAL 6. Nonstandard end patterns may require special dies. C H E C K L I S T O F P E R F O R A T I N GC O S T
Unoerforated borders mav cause distonions of the fin- INFLUENCES
Pe.forated metals were initiallv created to fulfill industrial ished sheet. Roller leveling may be used to correct some l.Material type: The least expensave materialmay nol
needs such as minimizing the weight of a particularcompo- of these distortions but may not always work. To calcu- save mon€y; a higher strength alloy may allow thick-
nent or controlling the passage ot fluids or gasses. As an late the (round) holes per square inch: ness to be reduced.
architectural component, perforated metals can be used as
control devices or simply as decoration. They can serve as Y.-9p9!-{9q 2. Materialthickness:Thinnermaterialscan b€ p€rforated
sound suppression acoustical devices in ceilings, walls, and 78.54xDxD easierandfaster.
grilles; when incorporated into light lixtures. grilles, or ceil- 3. Hole shaoe and oattern:Roundholes are the most eco
ing and wall components, they can filter light and obscure nomical;the 60x" staggoredround hole pattern is the
views. Since perlorated metals retain a great deai of their strongest,most versatile,and most common.
METAL SHEET (SECIry
strength and al$ ventilate well, they are otten employed in G
G THICKNESS.
METAL THICKNESS,
METAL. 4. flole size:Do not go belowa l-to-l ratioof holeto size
furniture and other designs. Because they can bend and LENGTH,
LENGTH, AND WIDfr)
AND WIDfr) to sheet thickness;stay with a 2-to-1 ratio or larger if
interrupt wavelengths of many types, perforated metals are possible.
I LENGTH OF SHEET
used to contain microwave radiation and the EMI/RFl radia-
5. Bar size:Do not use barswith less than a l-tel ratio
tion emitted by electrical devices.
with sheetthickness.
NOTES 6. Center distance:This controls the teed rate and thus
SIDE the conductionrate. It possible,choose a patternwith
l. Metal is typically perlorated with hole-punching MffiGIN longercenter distance-
machines, which work best on sheets .008 in. to rL in.
rhick. Specialized equipment is available for thicker
7. Open areas: Extreme open area proportions tend to
metal. F '.aLdtoooooooo. 1
increasedistonion;if possible,stay under 70 percent.
u oooooooooooooa B. Margans:Keepside marginsto a minimumto reduce
2. The intended use of the perforated metal sheet deter-
mines the size, shape, and pattern of the holes punched. TT aooooooooooooo ' distortion.Use standardunfinishedend marginsif pos
ooooooooood\o. sible.
The strength and stiffness required vary according to o,, .oooooooooopool
use. Since oerforated materials can be used in different ;b ooooooooq".s4 9. Blankareas:Considerthe die patternwhen determining
applications involving a wide range of geometries, mate- l blankareas;consultthe metalsupplier.
rials. and loading conditions. design data are given in very .H \t / l /1- I l0.Standardization: Specifystandardhole patterns,mate-
general form. WIDTH OF
-ORANON
PERFORANONS sl \r:==:- l rial dimensions,and toleranceswhen possible.Before
3. The enormous number of perforating patterns possible DrREcrroN / specityinga "special," ask the perforatorwhat can be
with round holes, squares, slots, and other special perfc TfON (SEClry donewith existingtooling.
ERFORATI
ERFORI -,t
rations make it impractical to list every pattern combina- SE AND SSHAPE - 11.Accept normal commercial burrs unless otheMise
tion. The numbered perforations listed by the lndustrial ARRANGEMEMANGEMET [ (sEctry STaGGERED. sp€cified.
Perforators Association (lPA) are considered standard. s.lrocffi,dcffi. OF
ofi (OftER PANERNS) -
4. For design and tol€rances of perforated metals, consult
the lPA. DARK HOLES REMESEM
TOOL ruNCH ARRANG€MEM
FOR ERFORATING
MAC
MACHINE
THE SHEET
ffi-
5. Round holes trom.020 in. to more than 6 in. in diameter
make up the majority of all perforated metal sheets pro-
N OTE
"-*-*{ '
duced. This is because round holes can be produced
with greater efficiency and less expense and are gener- Spacing€n be specifiedas a center-trenter dimension.a *l
2-l
ally stronger than other hole shapes. p€rc€ntag6ol op€n ar€a,or holesper squareinch.
TYPICAL TERMS FOR SPECIFYING NorE I
PERFORATED METAL This standardIPA option is stronger than straight row pat-
ROUND HOLES tems but not as strong as a 60x'staggered arrangement.lt
S*/S, STRENGTH is also not as versatile in providingcompact hole spacing
and high open areasas the 60xo arGngement.
LENGTH
IPA NUMBERS OI R ECTIO N 45" STAGGERED RoUND HoLE
PATTERN
D' X S.69
(d6'46'6)
'\ooaof @EN
)a-P-sf AREA
l-_-x.
STAGGERED ,c,
IndustrialPerforatorsAssociation;Milwaukee,Wisconsin
McKey PerforatingCompany;New Berlin,Wisconsin
ORNAMENTAL
METAL
Perforqted ond Sheet Metqls 293
cFNrr ps *
au^ra*= rz-Y::$)
//
-'' a
til
-'-':z\
I il F:----l 'l
tLil
\ nUAU-UAU 2
II -I r H 'I HE)<AGONAL
.-lf_-lr-1T.lr riir |
F_1nf_1nJ---1j
| HOLES
p@@l Tlilil'-_
p.-ro/)o/)or-\q
P Jovovo vq
)r7tVu=ilY
SQUARE SQUARE _\Lzlrarrz\r/-\
P o o o o -o o o o o o o q
PERFORATIONS
STAGGERED
PERFORATIONS
STRAIGHT LINES
p-o
P'- o , / o
o^o^q
, / o l r q
TztYlrYrxvzxT
\rLz\\i/\!/ r///.
@
SQUARES OCTAGONAL
CANE GRECIAN
NO rO5. O45 NO 200
otA..37% 1t5^
- 64v. NOTE
OPEN AREA OPEN AREA
A broadassonmentof nonstandard hole shaoesand oat-
consultmetal perforator.AIso available
terns is available;
are indentedholes,collaredholes.and louveredholes.
MISCELLANEOUS NONSTANDARD
PERFORATION PATTERNS
NOTE
Thesethree types of slots are IPA standardtypes. Non
standardsquare€ndslotsare alsoavailable. Consultmanu
facturersfor other open areacalculationsfor slots.
: SLoT / SLOT / SLOT
SQUARE HOLE OPEN AREAS /.
wtDrH
/
WDrfr
,/
WIDTH
S'X 1M - % OPEN
c' AREA SLOTS SLOTS SLOTS
SIDE END STRAIGHT
STAGGER STAGGER LINES
N OTE SLOTS
Square holes, principallyused for grilles and machine
guards,offer optimal visibilityand throughput.Typically
punchedin a straightline, in either straightor staggered
patterns,squareholesmake{or weakerperforatedsheets No. r 20, ,a" No. 2og, r/s" x I
thanroundholepatternsandare generallymoreexpensive. orA..58% OPENING,43%
Sharpcornersmake squarehole toolingwear out faster OPEN AREA OPEN AREA
thanroundholet@ling.
SQUARE HOLES M ISCELLAN EOUS PERFORATION
PATTERNS SLOTS
*Gauges and weights have been computed subject to standard commercial tolerances.
METAL
ORNAMENTAL
294 Coils,qnd Plotes
SteelSheets,
GUIDE FOR SELECTING CARBON STEEL FOR PERFORATING APPLICATIONS
APPROXIMATE
R ELATIVE COST
( r o-GA. H.R.
RECOMMENDED SIZE TYPICAL M ECHANICAL PROPERTIES STEEL = IOO)
cotLs %
ELONG
CAR BO N YIELD, HARD.
PE DESCRIPTION TH TH CONTENT >sl PSI ) rr.r. N ESS ;HEETS cotLs
HOT-ROLLEO STEELS
A IOwrOSlSneetsleet wrtn mooerale /to uP to up to llo up ro u.l u max- 45,UUU JU,UUU 28 to 38 55 to /0
'16ga. to pickled 99
{SAEor ASI 1008;drawingand lorming qualitiesfor use 60 in. 1 M i n . 1 6 g a . 60 in. IO
ASTM A 569) when finish is unimportant.Forbest perfo 60.000 40.000 and oiled-
ratingresultsspecifypickledand oiled for 104
removalof oxides
I hts oualrtvrs tntendedlor use when torm- /ro up ro up ro 7to up to O . 1 0m a x za to 3u 5b to /u
(SAEorAlSl1008: ing requirementsare too severefor com- 1 6g a . 60 in. 144 in. 1 6 g a . 60 in. to to
ASTMA 621) mercialquality.Picklingand oilingto 60,000 40.000
removeoxides is recommended.In-stock
availabilityis not as greatas commercial
oua!rw-
Good formabilitv because of low carbon 7to up ro up Io ll to up to o.l2 max zz mtn 80 to 90 32
'14
3lloy(USSCotrTen content in combination with relatively high 1 6g a . 60 in. 144 in ga. 60 in. mtn min'
)r equivalenl; Yield and Tensile properties permit these
ASTMA 375} steels to be used in lighter gauges to
reducc weight in applications in which
strength in important. Readily available.
'il8
Hrgh manganese content In combrnatron tto up Io up ro N.A. N.A. 35 tO .5U b5,UW l0to20 21Oto 225
(C.3$.50;Mn 1.5G with intermediate carbon greatly enhances '16
ga. 60 in. 14/in 0 lo {Bhn.)
2.00; P .050 max.; S resistance to abrasion; can imorove oart IO 70.000
.055max.;Si .1t life 2 to 10 times. Moderate formabilitv. 120,OO
.35) 0
COLO.ROLLED STEELS
Coldrolled steels have rmprovedsurface 7to up to up to 1',Ito up ro 0 . 1 0m a x 30 to 40 45 to 6U
(SAEor AlSl 1008: finishesand tighter sizetolerancesthan 28 ga. 60 in 18ft 28 ga. 60 in. to IO ( 1 6g a . )
ASTMA366} hor rolledsteels. They are awilable in two 50.000 35.000
classes:Class 1 is intendedfor exoosed
applications;Class2 is tor unexposeduse.
Threefinishescan be specified:Matte is
the standardfinish. lt is uniformlydull and
suitablefor painting.Commercialbright
tinish is a r€lativelybright.intermediate
finish. Lusterfinish is sm@th and brighi
and most suitablefor plating.Becauseper-
foratingalterssurfaceappearance, surface
preparationafter perforatingmay b€
requiredbefore applicationof the final fin-
ish.
Hecommendedtor us€ when lormrng 110 up to up to Il to up to u . ] um a x 3E to 40 40 to 50 tzc
(ASTM A requirementsare t@ severetor @mmer- 28 ga 60 in. 1 8 f t 29ga 60 in. to to (16 ga.)
cial quality.Can be supplied(Class1) free 50,000 30,000
of fluting or stretcherstrainingwhen
intendedfor use in a reasonablvshon
time. Availableanmill ouantities.
l-or use when the materaalmust be free ot 'll
7lo up to up to to up to U.IUMAX zu,wv 38 to 40 40 to 50 tz/
sp€cialmilled surfacedisturbanceswithout roller level- 28 ga 60 in. 1 8 f t 28 ga 60 in. to to ( 1 6g a . )
(ASTMA 620) ing immediatelybeforeuse andessentially 50.000 30.000
freefrom significant changesin mechani-
cal propertiesover an extendedperiodof
time.AvailableIn millorderouantities.
CORROSION-R ESISTANT STEELS
steel Coated on up up ro lo up ro
{ASTM 463) minum combinesthe propeniesof both 26 ga 60 in. 1 8f t 26 ga. 60 in. to IO (20 qa.)
metals.Type 1 is providedin two weights. 60,000 45,000
regularand light, and is availablein com-
mercialanddrawingqualrties. lf the heavi-
est Type 2 alumjnizedcoatingis desired,
consultwith a suoglieror the steel manu-
facturer.
rh\
\J/ ORNAMENTAL
METAL
Hondroilsond Rqils 29s
NOTES METAL TOP RAIL
1. Follow all local code requirements for ramp design, raii STANOARD
STEEL
diameter, and rail clearances; also see ASTM, ANSI. P1?E
ADA. and OSHA reouirements. METAL SUBRAIL RATLING
2. Verify allowable design stresses of rails, posts, and pan- METAL
els. BALUSTER STEEL POST
METAL
POST
METAL
COVER EXPANSION
PLATE BOLTS
LIGHTED RAIL
SURFACE MOUNTED
GUSS PANEL
STEEL ANGLES
'WOOD RAIL GUSS
ffs;
FLOOR FINISH
FLEXIALE FASTENER FINISH
INSERT
wooD
BLOCKING
STEEL / BRONZE coNNECTtNG STEEL
WOOD NAILING 'lz"
MtN "*ar,a
BLOCK
STEEL
MOUNTING PLATE
BRACKET GYPSUM BOARD CAST IN
CAST IN PSCg
PUCE STEEL
ANCHOR SIOE MOUNTED
METAL COVER
MOUNTING
ARACKET
CAST IN PUCE
r/2 ' MtN. srEEL
PUTE -
EXPANSION
BOLTS
NYLON WITH STEEL COR E ALUMINUM STAINLESS STEEL
=
:
METAL COVER
g
GYP. BOARD
HANDRAIL
42'AT
MOUNTING
GUARDRAILS
BRACKtr 34" TO 36" AT
HANDRAILS FOR
CAST IN P4CE STAIRS ANO CANNOT
STEEL ANCHOR RAMPS PASS
THROUGH GUARDRAIL AT
FINISH FLOOR LEVEL LEVEL SURFACE
RECESSED HANORAIL WALL-MOUNTED HANORAIL RAILING AT STAIR OR RAM P
ORNAMENTAL
METAL
296 ExponsionJoint Covers:Interior
N OTES SPRING LOADED
1. A large selection of prefabricated assemblies to covef CLIP ASSEMBLY
EXTRUDEO
METAL COVER
FACE OF WALL
EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY EXTRUDED METAL
COVER ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
VINYL
FINISH FLOOR
ANCHOR BOLT
ANCHOR BOLT
VINYL GUNER
SEISMIC FLOOR JOINT COVER AT FLOOR AT F L O O R A N O W A L L
FOR JOINTS UP TO 24 IN.
EXPANSION
CONTROL
CHAPTER SIX
AND PLASTICS
Lighl woo+fram€ constructionis made up of nominal2 in- HEAVY TIMBER VERNCAL GRAIN
(38 mm) framing members spaced closely together and
normallyconcealedby interiorfinish materialssuch as plas- PUIN-SAWN
ter. qwsum board, or w@d paneling.Light w@d-frame BOARO
construction,with its small members and close member
spacings,adapts readilyto even the most intricatespaces
and architecturalforms. However, becausesuch construc-
tion is less resistantto fire than heaw-timbersnstruction,
buildingcodes severelylimit the heighls and areasof light
woo+fram buildings.The maximum height generallyper
mitted in residentiallight wood-framebuildingsis three sto-
ries, althoughfour stories8re possibleif an approvedsprin- LIGHT \,vOOD.FRAME CONSTRUCTION
kler system is installed.Most light wood-Irameengineering
can be dore lollowing values from tablesin the CABO One may be finished with transparentor opaque coatings or
and Two Family Dwelling Code. which has been widely serye as a base for appliedplasticlaminates.
adoptedby states and municipalities.
SELECTION OF INTERIOR FINISH WOOO TYPICAL SAWING OF A LARGE LOG
M A T E R IA L S
WOOD AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL Followingare the major factorsthat influ€ncelumberselec- NOMINAL (ROUGH)
tion for finish wood applicationsas specifiedby the Atchi-
On the basis ol performancep€r unit weight. typical con-
tecturalW@dmrk lnstitute:
struction lumbg is at least as strong and stiff as structural
st@|. B@use of its microstructureo{ longitudinalcells, Different sp€cies exhibit
AESTHETICCHARACTERISTICS:
wood has dafferentstructuralpropertiesin its lwo principal
a variety of colors.grains (openor close grain).and ligures
directions. Parallelto the grain, wood is strong and stiff;
perpendicularto the grain, it is weak and deformable.Fas- {grainpattems)that are further distinguishedby the swing
teners that act in a dir€ctionF€rall€lto the graincan trans- method (plainsawn, quarter sawn, rift sam) and finishing
mit mnsiderabty more lorce than those that act characteristics(receptivityto finish processes,such as fill-
perpendicularto ths grain. Th€ strength of wood varies ers. starns,etc-).
with the durationof the load: For short-termloadssuch as
AVAILABILITY:The availabilityof padcular species varies
those trom snow. wind, and impact, atlowablestress val-
ues are 15 to 1ooy. higher than those allowed for normal- by seasonand popularity.
term loads. Under very long term loading,however. wood
has a tendencyto creep, and reducedstress values must SIZE LIMITATIONS:Some species produce longer and/or
wider rembers.
be used.
STRENGTH, HARDNESS. AND DENSITY: The abilityof se-
lected lumber to sustain stress; resist indentation,abuse,
WOOD AS A FINISH MATERIAL and wear; and carry its anticipatedload contributesto its
Wood is used as a finish materialin buildingsof every kind. suitabilityfor partjcularuses.
Limited quantitiesof wood finish may be used even in the
most fire{esistant types of construction.With proper pre DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:Swellingand shrinkingdue to
tection from water and sunlight,wood can serye as a dura- relative humidity and moisture content changes varies
ble exteriormalerialfor cladding.trim. and even roling. For accordingto the speciesand producttype.
interior finishes, despite recenl concerns regarding the
depletion of rare or old€roMh species, w@ds ot many ADAPTABILITY FOR EXTERIOR USE:Cenainspeciesare
types remain commonly availablein solid or veneer form, more durable when used in exterior applications.Heart-
exhibitinggreat varietyin hardness,grainfigure,color, suit- wood of all speciesis more resistantto damag€by the ele-
ability for different finishes, and cost. Finish woods are ments than sapwood. The lollowing species are rot
readily availablein many preformed shapes and are also resistant and acceotable tor exterior use: Eastern and
easilyshapedand cut in the field. Wood and w@d products Western red cedar;redwood: mahogany,and teak. LUMBER THICKNESS
INTRODUCTION
Designingwith Wood 299
LUMBER GRADING dimension. ln addition, pieces of tumber distort noticeabty
In accordance with their original posjtions in the tree trunk
Wood is a natural product and thus varies greatly in appear, For pieces of lumber that must stay flat, such as flooring,
ance and structural properties. Consequently, elaborate outdoor decking, baseboards, casings, and paneling, verti,
systems ot grading have been established to indicate the cal{rain Iumber. which is sawed so the annual growth rings
quality of each piece of lumber. Within each species of
are more or less perpendicular to the troad face of the
wood there are two grading systems, one based on struc- board, is often specified One particular sawing pattern that
tural strength and stiffness, the other on aopearance. produces vertical-grainlumber is called ouarter,sawina. For 2
Appearance is graded visually. Structural grading is based
ordinary tramrng, seasoning disto.ltons are of lrttle c;nse- q
either on visual inspection, the sizes and positions of knots quence, so praln-sawn boards are used. o
and other defects, or structural properties as measured by
z
machines that flex each piece of lumber. A number of accepted wood detailing practices have been
:
o
developed in response to the great moisture movement
Strength and stiffness values for wood are tabulated else, z
that occurs in wood and the distortions that result from the UU
where in this chapter of AGS. They vary considerably lrom
one spectes and grade to another. When engineering a
differing rates of shrinkage along the three axes ol the
grain. In applying wood siding, it is recessary to use nailing
9H
YO
wood structu(e, it is necessary to know what species and patterns that do not restrain the cross-Orain seasonal 1t
grade wall be specified. lt in doubt, base structural calcula- co
shrinking and swelting of the wood Horizonial bevel srdrna
tions on the weakest species and grade locally available. is nailed so that each board is fastened by one row of naiti ile
only, creating a sliding joint at each overlapping edge to
allow for movement. Tongue-andgroove siding boardl are
JOINING WOOD naaled at the tongue edge only, the other edge being
Nailing is the most common method o, ioining light struc- restrained by the tongue of the adjacent board sliding freely
tural irembers. Nails are inexpensive to buy and install and in its groove. Venical board and-batten sidjng is nailed onlv
may be driven by hand or with a pneumatic gun. When at the centers of the boards and battens, allowino lor free
applied in proper size, number, and spacing, they form a expansron and contractton of the wood.
MOISTURE SHRINKAGE OF A TYPICAL
strong, resilient joint. Sheet metal straps, anchors, and soFTwooD
brackets can be nailed to connections where greater resis- Because wood shrinkage is so much greater in the tangen,
tance to tension or shear is necessary_ Detailed nailinq tial direction than in the radial, plain-sawn boards tend to
requirements for light wood-frame construclron ar; cup noticeably in a direction opposite to the curyature of
included in bualding codes. HeaW-timber construction typts tho annual rings. Plain sawn decking and flooring should be
'bark
cally relies on bolts and lag screws, together with fabri- laid with the side' of each board facinq down to
cated metal connecting devices. reduce the raising of edges. On outdoor decks, tirs practrce
willalso minimize puddling of water on the boards. Venical-
ln finish wood construction. nearlv headless finish nails are grain flooring and deck boards sre preferable to plain-sawn
used for improved appearance. Screws, concealed or boards, not only because they minimize cupping but
embedded fasteners, splines, and fitted and glued joints because their tighter grain pattern wears better underfoot.
provrde greater mechanical stiffness and optimal appear-
'Broad interior finish pieces
ance. The Architectural Woodwork Institute has established are frequently given a relieved
standards for tinish ioinery based on appearance and cost. back, a hidden groove or grooves that reduce the effective 25% RELATIVE
thickness of the piece and thus the tendency ot the oiece HUMIDITY
to cup. Many stock millwork patterns include relieved
MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN \^/OOD backs. Boards may be relieved on site by cutting multiple
gr@ves with a tabl€ saw. Cupping €n also be minimized
Theshrinkage of woodas it driesis not uniform.Wood by back priming, painting the back surface of each piece a
shrinksverylittlealongthelengthol thegrain,somewhat
in day or more belore installation. After the oiece has been
the radial direction of a cylindrical log, and more in the tan- installed and the exposed side has been painted or var-
gential direction of the log, as shown in the accompanying nished, the back priming causes the back side to absorb
EXPANSION DUE TO MOISTURE IN THE
graph. One consequence ol the difference between the AIR
and giv€ off moisture at about the same rate as the
radial and tangential shrinkage is that radial splits called exposed side, mrntm,zing drstortrons. WIDTH
checks form during seasoning, especially in lumber ol large
fr
MOLDTNG BACK
SLIDING
JAMB
+ - RELIEVED BACK
JOINT N OTE
8y reducing the ef{ective thickness of the woodwork
BOARO AND BATTEN SIOING
relieved backs reduce the tendency of the w@d to cup.
SLIDING JOINTS IN \^r'OOD SIDING RELIEVED BACKS IN \^/OODWORK SHRINKAGE DTSTORTIONS BY
POSITION IN LOG
INTRODUCTION
- FloorJoists:30 qnd 40 lb LiveLoqd
300
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: Live toad of 30 psl plus dead load ol 10
psl determins the required liber stressvilue,
DEFLECTION: For 30 psl live load. Lirnited to span
in inchesdivided by 360.
8.5 8 - 11 9-4 9-10 10-2 ro-7 1 0 - 11 -3 11 - 6 1-10 12-'l 12.4 2.10 r 3-1
; 640 720 800 880 950 1020 1080 RN 1210 270 1330 1390 450 510 1560
tJ.o 14.4 15 - 1 15-9 I D-C 17.O l7-6 18-0 18-6 19-0 r9-5 19,10 20,3 20-a 21-O
510 570 640 700 75Q 810 860 910 960 101
0 1060 1100 I t5u 1200 1240
l2-3 13 . 0 13.8 14-4 1 4 - 11 15-5 15.11 16-5 t6-10 17-3 17-8 18-0 18-5 18-9 19,1
2x 10
I 560
10-8
630
11 . 4
700
11-ll
170
12-6
830
13-0
890
13-6
950
1 3 . 1I
1000
14-4
t060
t4.8
1110
15-l
11 6 0
15-5
1220
15-9
1270
16-l
1320
16-5
1360
to-o
24 640 720 8m 880 950 1020 1080 11 5 0 |210 1270 1330 1390 1450 tStu 1560
r6.5 I l-a 18 - 4 19.2 1 9 - 11 20-8 21-4 21-11 22-6 23-1 23.7 24.8 za- | 25-7
l? 5r0 570 640 700 750 810 860 910 960 1010 1060 11 0 0 11 5 0 1200 1240
14-11 15 - 1 0 16-8 17-5 18-1 18-9 19.4 9-11 20.6 21-O 21-6 21.11 22-5 22.10 23-3
2x12 16 560 OJU 700 770 830 890 950 ocl0 r060 1t10 11 6 0 1220 1270 1320 1360
'l3.0 1 3 . 1 0 14-7 15-2 15-10 165 1 6 . 1I 7-5 t7-11 18-4 18-9 l9-2 19-7 1 9 - 11 20.3
; 640 720 800 880 o6n 't020
1080 150 t210 1270 1330 t390 1450 1510 1560
ex$eme stress rn p! is shown below each soan.
DESIGNCRITERIA
S T R E N G T H :L i v e l o a d o f 4 0 p s f p l u s d e a d l m d o f 1 0
psf determins the required fiber stressvalue.
DEFLECTION; For 40 psf live l@d. Limited to span
in inchesdivided by 360.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
FloorJoists:50 lb live Lood 301
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION or suppons plus one hall lhe required lenqth
of bearinq l r o n , a v a t l a b l el r o m t h e A m e r j c a n F o r e s t & p a D e r A s s o
For floor construction where live loading is heavier aI each end, tt is the practice in designing joists
spaceJ Cratron.
than customarily found in residentialoccupancies, lot
over.24 in. apart to consider the- spjn'as the
cleai
tabulardata are orovided. orslance oetween supDorts.
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
The tabulated spans are basd on bending strength ELASTICITY
usingthe live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus NET SIZES OF LUMBER The modulus of elasticiry values listed in the span
a dead load of l0 psl. In calculatingthe required Joists.
are customarily
sptrified in termsof nominal tables for joists are those required for the tabulated
modulus of elasticity for the tabulatedspan, the live srzes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan spans if deflection under the live load is limited to
lcd only was used, since this is in acordance wirh and requiredmodulusof elasticity are ba*d on rciual t/360. Where other deflrction limits are eceptable,
establishedpracticefor dsign of fl@r joisrs. srzes. the tabul"r E valuesmay be adjusted by multiplying
SPAN them by the following factors:
DESIGN STRESSES
While the effstive span length for an isolatedbeam For limit ol Q/300:0.833
Unit.designvaluesfor desiSnof wood joistsare givenin
is customarilylaken as the distancefrom face to face the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Co-nsrruc- For limit of Q/240:0.667
FLOOR For limitof e/i80: 0.50O
JOISTS_50 LB LIVE LOAD
J O r S T{ t N . l
EXTREME FISER STRESSIN BENOI
SIZE. SPACING 900 1000 r100 l 200 '1300
1400 r500 1600 1800
8,8 9-2
't.246 9-7 10,0 10-5 r0 - 1 0
1.063 1.437
I t.J | 1.7 12.3 12.1
1.637 1.846 2.063 2.289 2.521 3.007
2xG t-o 7-11 8-4 8.8 91
16
o.924 9,5 9-9 10-0 l0-7
r.083 1.249 1.423 1.605 1.794 1.989 2.191 2.614
o-l oD 6-9
24 7-4 7-7 7-11 8.2 8-7
o.744 0.871 1.005 1.144 1. 2 9 1 1.443
9,1
r.600 1.762
r 't-5
a. tvJ
t2 12.1 12.7 3.3 13-9 143 14,9
1.063 1.437 .63r 1.846 2.063
to-z 7-1
2.249 z.3z I 3.007
ZxB 16 9-11 r0-5 11 . 0 l't,6 11,11 12.10
0.924 1.083 1.249
I z-a 13.3 14.O 4.1
1.423 I .OUf, 1.794 r.989 2 . 19 1 2.614
24 8.1 8.6 8 - 11 9-4 9-8 10.1
o.744 0.871
l0-5 10.9 I l-5 12-O
1.005 1.144 1.291 1.443 1.600 1.762 2 . 10 3
to-z 16.10
1.063 'r.637 t-b 1A-2 r8,10 19.5 20-7 l-o
: 1.246
'|
1.437 .846 2.063 2.289 3.007
2x l0 l6 12.7 3-4 14.0 14.7 5-3 1 5 -1 0
0.924 t6-4 I 6-10 17.11 18-l
1.083 1.249 1.423 .605 1.794 r.989 2.191 2.614
l0-3 10,10 ' rl - 1 0
24 2-4 r2.10 13.3 l3-9 14.7
o.744 0.871 1.005 t . 14 4 291 1.443
5-4
r.600 1.762 2.'t03
12 t7-9 18.9 r9-7 20.6 1-4 22-2
1.063 1.246
22.11 23-A za- | 26-6
|.437 1.637 .846 2.063 z.z6Y z.az I
15,5 to-J |7-r0
z x tz
I o.924 r.083 1.249 1.423
18-6
1.605
|
|
19.2
1.794
1 9 -0
1.989
1 20.6
2.191
21-9 23.O
24 12.6 13.2 13-10 l4-5 r5 - 0 '18-10
o.744 0.871 'r.005 ta-r to-2 r 6,7 17.8
1.144 1.291 1.443 |.600 2.103
12 20-11 | 22-1 zJ.z 24,2 25-2 26.1
1.063 1.246 21.0 27,11 29-7 1.2
| 1.437 1.637 r.846 2.063 2.249 2.521 3.007
18.2 19-2 20-1 20-11 21.9
2x14 16
o.924 r.083 't.249 227 I 23.s 24-2 25-7 27-O
1.423 1.605 1.794 | 1.989 2.191 2.614
; 14,9
o.744
r 9-o
0 . 8 7r
6-3
.005
17.O 17,8 18,4 19.0 l9-7 20.10
1.144 1.291 1.443 r.600 |.762
11-2 1t - 1 0 2-5 '|
2..11 1 40 14.11
1.373 1.608 2.113
r5-t0 r 6.9
2.383 2.663 2.9s3 3_254 3.882
a-o r0-3
3x6 r0-9 r1.3 lr8 12.2 12.7
3 I 10? 1.397 1.612 13,9 l4-6
r.836 2.O71 2.314 3.374
1.11 8,4 8-9 9-2
24 0.960 1.124
9-6 9-t0 10.2 r0-6 11-2 l-9
1.297 1.478 r.666 1.862 2.065 2.714
14-9 15-7 r6.4 11.1
r.373 17,9 r8-5 | 9,9 20-1l 2.1
r.608 2.113 2.383 z.ooJ 2.953 3.254
3x8 16
12.10 r3-6 14.2 14 , 1 0 |5 5 16.0
r.193 16.7 17.1 r8 . 1 19.1
r.397 1.612 r.836 2.O71 2.314 2.567 2.827 ? at1
l0-5 11 . 0 l t.6 12-0
0.960
I z-b I3-0 13-5 13.r0 14,8
1.124 t.zgj 1.418 r.ooo r.862 c-o
2.65 2.275 2 . 7t 4
18-10 19-10 20.10 ?1-9
1.373 23.6 24.4 za.l
r.608 t.o55 2.113 2.383 z,ooJ 2.953
28-'l
3.254 3.882
3x l0 l6
16 . 4 r7.3 18.1 r8.r0 19.7 20-5 21-1
1.193 1.397 1.612 t.836 2.O71 2.314
zJ-l 24.5
2.567 2.827 3.374
1?-? I 4.0
24 t 4-8 15-4 r6 , 0 16,7 17-2
0.960 1.124 17,8 r 8-9 19.1
1.297 1.418 L666 1.862 2.065 z.zt5 2.714
24.2 25-4 26-5 27.6 28-7
r.373 r.608 29-7 30-7 32-5 34.2
r.855 2.113 2.383 2.663 2.953 3.254 3.482 4.547
J X tZ l6
1 9 . 11 20-11 21.11 22-11 23.11 24-10 25-8
1.193 1.397 26.6 28 1 29-7
t.ot2 r.836 2.O71 2_314 2.561 2.821 3.314
16.2 17,0 r7-10 18-8 19-5
24
0.960
20-2 20,10 216 22-10 24.1
1.124 1.291 1.478 |,ooo 1.862 2.065 2.275 2 . 7t 4
tz 21.O 28-5 29-10 32-5 33-8 34,10 36.0 38-2 40
t.3tJ 1.608 r.855 2.113 2.383 Z.YCJ 3.882
tJ-5 24-A 25-11 2
3xl4 16
1 .t 9 3 1.397 ' 17. -813 6 28.2 30-3 31,3 33-r 34-t1
t.6t2 2.O71 2.314 2.561 2.821 3.374 3.9s2
24 20.0 21.O 22.O 2 2 . '1t 23-9
0.960 1.124 25-5 2 6 . 11 28-4
1.291 1.478 | .ooo 1.862 2.065 2.714 3.r79
NOTE: The reouired e l a s t i c i t yE, ,
o{ elar ,0o0,000psiisshownbe|oweachspan,ifdef|ection,nffi
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington.
D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
302 FloorJoisls:60 lb LiveLood
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION ol supportsplus one-halfrhe requiredlenglhof bearing tidn, availablelrom the AmericanForest& PaperAsso-
at each end, it is the practicein designingjoistsspaced cralon.
For tlmr construction where live loading is heavier not over 24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
than customarilv found in residentialoccupancies, distance betreen supports. ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
tabula, data are provided. : ELASTICITY
The tabulated spans are based on bending strength NET SIZES OF LUMBER The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span
using the live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus tables lor joists are those required for the tabulated
Joists are customarily spcified in terms ot nominal
a dead lcd of 10 psf. In calculatingthe required eans if deflrction under the live load is limited to
sizes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span. the live [/360. Where other d€flstion limits are acceptable,
and required modulus of elasticity are ba$d on 4lual
load only was used, since this is in rccordance with the tabular E valuesmay be adiustedby multiplyinq
sizes.
establishedpractice for daign of floor ioists. them by the following factors:
SPAN OESIGN STRESSES For limit of !/300: 0.833
while the effetive span length for an isolated beam Unit dsign valu6 for dcign of wood ioistsare givenin For f imit of e/24O:0.667
is customarily taken as the distarce from tace to face the National Design Spcification for Wood Construc- For limit of e/180: 0.500
SIZE. SPACING
12
12 3.353
10,5
lxo to 2.915
8-5
2.345
15-10
12 3.353
2x8 16 2.9t5
2.345
12
| /-o
2i 10 to 2.9r5
't4.3
24 2.345
24-6
3.353
21-3
2x12 2.915
17-5
24 2.345
2A-11
12 3.353
25-1
2x14 2.915
20.4
24 2.345
15 , 6
12 4.329
tJ-9
3x6 3.762
24
20-5
4.329
11 - 1 0 17-8
3x8 1.136 3.762
14-4
24 3.026
26.1
12 4-329
22-7
3x10 to J. IOZ
l8-4
J.UZO
31-7
12 4.329
3x12 to
3.762
24 3.036
37-4
12 4.329
2 8 - 1r 32-4
3x 14 2.691 3.762
3.026
NOTE; The requiredmodulusof elasticity.E, in shown beloweachspan.if deflction under the live lcd is limited to Q/360.
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
DESIGNLOADTABLES
FloorJoists:70 lb LiveLoqd 303
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION of supports.plusone-halfthe requiredlengthol bearing tion, avajlablefrom the AmericanForest& paperAsso_
For floor construction where live loading is heavier at each end, it is the practicein designin!joistsspacej cratton.
than. customarily found in rsidential occupancies, not over.24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear
tabulardata are Drovided. distancebetweensupports.
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF
The tabulated spans are ba€d on bending strength ELASTICITY
usingthe live lGd indicatedin eachtable heiding pius NET SIZES OF LUMBER
The modulus ot elasticity values listed in the span
a dead load of 10 psf. In calculating the required Joists are customarily spcified in terms of nominal
tables for joists are thos required for the tabulated
modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span,the live sizes.but calculationsto determinethe allowablesoan
and requiredmodulus of elasticityare basd on actual spans if deflstion under the live load is limited to
load only was usd. since this is in trcordance with l/360. Where other deflmtion limits are rcceptabte,
establishedpractice for d6ign of floor ioists. stzes.
the tabular E values may be adjustedby muttiplying
them by the followinq factors:
SPAN
DESIGN STRESSES For limit of !/300: 0.833
While the effctive span length for an isolatedbeam Unit.designvaluesfo. designof w@d ioistsare givenin
ascustomarily taken as the distance from face to face For limit of Q/240:0.667
the Narional DesignSpeitication for Wood Cdnstruc.
For timit of Q/180:0.500
FL9OR JOISTS 70 LB LIVE LOAD
J O r S T{ t N . l EXTREME FTBER STRESS IN BENDING, Fb (PSt
SIZE. SPACING 900 1m0 1100 l2m 1300 1400 | 500
't3-4 1600 | 800 2000
12.8 I 4-0 14.7 15.2 r 5-9 '17-11
12 16-4 16-10 18.10
0.963 1.133 I.JW r.488 1.674 1.875 2.081 2.292
'| 3.201
2x10 1.1 11-1 t2-l 12.7 13.2 r 3.8
to 4-7 15 - 6 l6-4
0.840 0.984 1.r35 1.294 1.459 1.631 1.808 .992 2.376 z,t6J
8,11 9.r0 't
; 0.676 0.792 0.914
10-3
1.040
10-8 1.1 I t-b l,t1 r3-3
1.174 1.312 1.454 ,ouz 1.912
?x12
v r3.4
16-3
1.133
14.1
17-0
1.306
14.9
|7.9
r.488
15.5
td.o
1.678
16 - 0
19-2
r.875
16-7
19.10
2.081
7-3
20-6
2.733
22.11
3.201
7.10
I 0.840
10-10
0.984
11 - 5
t. lJ5
12.0
1.294 r.459 t.oJ I .808 .992
18.10
z,Jto
1 9 , 11
2.783
24 12-6 r3.0 tJ.o 4-0 4-5 15.4
0.676 o.792 0.914 1.040 1.174 1.312 .454 .602 1.912
18.2 19-1 20.0 20.11 21-9 22-?
12 0.963 't.678 zJ.5 24-2 25-1 27.O
1 .r 3 3 1.306 1.488 1.875 2.M1 2.292 3.201
15-9 | /-5 18,2 8 - 11 r9-7
2x14 tb
0.840
20-3 20.11 22-3 23-5
0.984 r.135 1.294 .459 1.631 1.808 1.992 z.Jto z,t6J
12.9 I J.D 14-2 4-9 5-4
' r 5 -1t
24 16-6 17-0 18-1 19-1
u.o/o o.792 0.914 .040 .174 1.312 r.454 1.602 1.512
12.10 J-O 14.2 14-9 1 5 -4 ' 1 5 .r1
12 r 6-6 17-1 t8-1 r9 . 1
1.248 .462 t.o6b 1.921 2 . 16 6 2.421 2.684 2.958
3x8 to
t1,1 t-8 12-3 12.10 13,4 13-10 14.4 14,10 15,8
1.084 270 1.465 16.7
1.669 1.883 2.r03 2.333 2.570 3.067 J.f,Vl
2.467 2.900
16.4 I t.J l8-1 l8-10 I 9.7 20.4
12
1.244
21.1 21-9 z3- | 24-4
1.462 t.odo t.921 2 . 16 6 2.421 2.684 2.958 3.529 4 . 13 3
3x 10 16
14-2 t4-l I 15-8 16-4 7.O 17-a 1C_? 'r8,11
1.084 1.270 1.465
20-1
1.669 .883 2.103 2.470 3.067
Z.JJJ 3.592
; I t-o 12-2 12-9 3-3 r3 , 1 0 l4-4 14.10 15.4
0.873 1.O22 r.r79 I o-J 11-2
.344 |.514 r.693 1.877 2.068 2.461 2.900
tz
t 9 - 11 20-11 21-11 23,10 24.9 25.8 26-6 28-1
1.248 1.462 29-1
1.686 921 z. too 2.421 2.684 2.958 3.529 4 . 13 3
3x 12 tb
I T.J r8.2 r9.t 9-l1 20-9 22-3 23.0 24.4 25.8
r.084 1.270 r.465 .669 1.883 2 .1 0 3 2.333 2.570 3.592
14-0 14-9 | 5.O o-z 16.r0 17.6 18-1
24 0.873
18-7 19,9 20-10
1.022 1.179 .344 1. 5 1 4 1.877 2.068 2.461 2.900
12 23.4 24-7 25.10 27-O 28-1 29-2 30-2 31-2 33-1 'l
1.244 't.462 34,1
r.@o 1.921 z. tbb 2.421 2.684 2.958 ? q?a
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington,D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
- 304 FloorJoisfs:80 lb Liveloqd
3x8
10.6 1-0 11.7 12.1 12-7 13 - 1 13-6 1 3 - 11 14-9 15-7
: 1.038 ,zta 1.402 1.597 1.802 2.013 2.233 2.459 2.935 J.4Jd
3x 12 to
b.J 7-11 8-9 9-6 20,3 20-11 22-11 24.2
.038 .z ta .402 .597 .802 2.013 2.233 2.459 3.438
; 13-2 13.1 4-7 5-10 r6-5 17 - 0 18-1 19-7
0.835 0.978 .128 .449 r.620 1.797 1.979 2.361
4x8
vto
4.4
-426
2-5
t3-l
1.670
3-1
5-10
.928
3-9
6.6
14.4
17-2
2.475
1 4 . 11
17,10
2.766
15 . 6
18.5
3.068
16-1
J.J/Y
ZU.J
4.O34
17.7
4.725
r8.6
.451 .681 1.915 2 . 15 9 2.413 2.677 2.948 3.516 4 . 11 9
24
10-2 0-8 |r-8 12.2 12.6 13-l 13-6 14-4
r.009 .r 8 0 .lbJ 1.554 1.957 2.170 2.391 2.795 3.340
12 8-3 9,3 20-2 21.1 21.11 22.9 23-7 24-4 25-'lO 27.3
.426 .670 1.928 2 . 19 6 2.415 2.766 3.068 3.379 4.O34 4.725
5 -1 0 6.8 7,6 r8.4 19-1 19-1
0 20-6 ?1-2 22-5
4x10 16 L 9 15
.243 .457 681 z. ta9 2.413 2.948 4 . 11 9
3-7 15 , 6 16,1 16.8 17-2 14.2 19-3
.009 .180 1.554 |,taz 1.957 2.170 2.795 3.340
12 zz-J 23-5 24.6 25.7 26-8 27-A 26.6 29-7 3r . 5 J3-t
1.426 r.670 1.928 2.196 2.475 2.766 3.068 3.379 4.034 4.725
20-4 22-3 tJ-z 24.11 25-9 27-3 2A-9
4x12
I 1.243
| 5-9
1.457 1. 6 8 1
17.4
r . 91 5
18-1
r .1 5 9
18 - 1 0
2.413
19.7
2.677
20-3
2.944
?0-11
4 . 1l 9
23.5
24 r.009 1.r80 r.363 1.554 1.752 1.957 2.170 2.391 2.795 3.340
requ I reo elasl 1,000,000psi
ity, E, in 1.000.0O0osi is shown below each def lrction under the live load is limited to Q/360.
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Wood Columns 305
U N t T A X T A L S T R E S S E S : S t M p L E S O L T O C O L U M N S _ e / d F R o M1 1 r o 3 0
e/d
E F. l1+ 12 I J 14 t5 16 17 td 10 20 21 23 24 25 26 zd 30
1500 475 1464 451 1434 1 4 1 3 1388 357 320 1277 t226 1 1 6 7 1098 r020 938 864 799 741 689 612 600
1.800.000 1400 380 1 3 71 360 I 346 1329 r309 284 254 1218 1 1 7 7 1129 1073 1 0 1 09 3 7 864 799 741 689 642 600
1300 244 1271 zo6 1257 1243 1227 207 183 11 5 5 112'l 1083 r 039 988 930 864 799 741 689 642 600
1200 187 11 8 2 175 r 166 I t30 1142 127 108 1086 r060 1029 994 954 909 857 799 741 689 642 600
I 50U 1472 1460 445 14:/6 1403 374 298 1249 fi92 1126 1050 vbc d65 816 754 700 6! bub 567
1,700,000 1400 1377 1368 J55 1340 1321 294 269 zJo 11 9 6 |150 1096 1034 963 885 816 754 700 6! 606 567
1300 1282 1274 264 1252 1237 214 169 11 3 7 | 100 1057 1007 950 885 816 754 700 65 606 ab/
1200 | 186 | 180 172 1162 11 5 0 l?t I t6 097 1072 t043 1009 925 873 oto 754 700 65 606 567
| 500 1468 1 4 5 5 1438 1417 1390 1358 1 31 9 1 2 7 2 1217 11 5 3 1078 992 907 833 168 710 658 6 571
t400 1374
't279 IJOJ 1350 1332 1311 1284 I z5J 1215 11 7 0 1 1 1 8 1057 987 907 R?? 768 710 658 6 571 533
t300 1271 1260 1246 1228 1207 '1074 905
1182 t t52 1116 tuza 969 tod 710 658 o 5 7 1 533
1,600,000 r200 1184 1 1 7 7 1168 11 5 7 1l4/. 1127 11 0 7 1083 1 0 5 5 1022 984 940 889 831 /06 710 658 o 5 7 1 5J5
| 100 1087 1082 1076 1067 1057 lo44 1029 10 1 0 988 963 934 900 861 816 /oo 710 658 o 533
t000 991 oa7 982 975 vo/ Y3d 946 933 916 897 6 t a 849 820 787 749 o36 6 571 533
900 893 890 887 662 876 869 dol 839 6Za 809 790 /oY 744 717 odo 651 6 Jt I Eal
1400 13 7 1 I JCO 1343 1323 I zJ6 1 2 6 8 1232 11 8 9 r138 IU/Y I UI U 9JU u5l 781 ooo olt 574 53s 500
1300 1276 1267 1254 1238 1219 11 9 5 1166 11 3 1 I 0 9 1 1043 987 9ZJ o3l 781 720 ooo 617 574 535 500
1200 11 8 1 1 1 7 4 1164 11 5 1 11 3 6 1 1 1 7 1094 1067 r 035 998 954 904 846 781 720 obb ot/ 574 500
'1,500.000 1100 1086 1080 1072 1063 1051 t w o 1019 998 JIJ 944 911 872 828 777 720 ooo 617 574 (?R
500
r000 989 oar 979 972 952 939 on6 883 858 829 757 714
YOJ 923 795 oob 617 574 500
900 892 889 885 880 873 855 844 830 815 796 775 751 723 692 656 574 5J5 500
800 795 789 /oo 781 775 761 751 740 727 7'12 695 676 654 o2Y 601 500
700 696 b95 693 690 687 684 679 ob/ 660 651 641 630 ot/ 602 585 546 az3 497
600 598 597 595 594 aJz 590 561 583 579 575 569 JOJ 556 548 E2a 528 5 1 6 Fnl 488 47?
lzw I t/Y tltv 1 14 4 1127 1r 0 5 1 U/ 9 I u46 1 0 11 vbd v td ubu M 729 otz 621 576 536 499 461
1100 1084 t o 7 7 1068 1057 1043 l o 2 7 1007 oa? 9t4 921 883 838 787 729 672 621 3/O 5Jb 499 467
1,400,0@ 1000
900
988
.891
983 976 968 957 945 930 912 891 doo 837 803 765 721 672 621 576 499 467
887 883 876 869 860 849 836 820 802 781 757 729 697 ool 620 3/O 536 499 467
800 794 791 748 783 778 172 764 755 744 731 716 699 680 657 632 604 571 cJo 499 467
?m 696 694 692 689 685 681 676 670 662 654 u4 633 619 6(X 587 568 47 523 496 467
1100 t081 t073 1063 r050 1034 1 0 1 5 992 964 o?r 893 848 796 737 677 624 577 q ? E 497 4U 433
1000 986 980 972 OA? 951 936 919 898 873 844 811 727 677 624 577 497 4U 433
1,300,000 900 890 885 880 873 864 853 841 825 807 .786 to2 734 10'l 604 623 517 497 464 433
800 793 790 786 781 775 758 748 735 720 703 683 660 635 605 572 535 497 464 433
700 695 693 690 687 683 678 665 656 647 635 622 607 589 569 g 7 522 495 4U 433
lrm 1078 1068 057 to42 r023 1000 o7? 140 902 857 804 744 6 8 1 625 576 533 494 45( 428 400
1ofi) 983 976 967 956 942 925 905 380 851 817 778 732 680 625 674 494 45( 428 400
900 888 883 876 868 8s8 845 830 I tJ 791 767 738 /u5 667 624 576 533 494 45{ 428 400
r,200,000 8m 791 788 783 778 770 762 751 739 724 706 686 45(
663 636 606 E?I 494 428 400
700 694 692 689 685 680 674 667 )by 649 637 624 608 590 570 547 521 492 45( 428 400
600 596 595 EOa 591 Eqe 584 579 t74 568 s60 552 542 531 5 1 8 504 487 469 44t 425 400
500 498 497 496 495 493 491 488 185 €1 477 472 467 460 453 444 435 424 399 384
€0 399 398 ?oq 397 396 395 394 tJz 390 388 386 383 380 376 371 367 361 3€ 341
900 885 879 872 862 850 atE 817 771 741 707 668 622 573 528 488 453 421 392 ?q7
800 790 /do 780 773 765 754 742 727 709 689 oo5 637 605 6Aq 528 488 453 421 392 ?47
1,100,0@ 700 693 690 682 o/o 669 ool 651 OZf, 609 591 569 545 518 487 453 421 JJ2 397
600 596 594 592 589 585 581 575 569 553 54J 531 5 1 8 AA? €5 466 444 419 392 397
500 498 496 495 493 491 489 486 442 478 473 467 460 444 434 422 410 ?oq 380 362
400 399 398 398 397 396 394 ?o? 391 389 386 380 3 7 6 371 366 360 354 346 338 329
700 692 688 684 678 671 ooJ 653 641 o tu 479 12 357
600 595 593 qon 586 582 577 570 563 554 543 q?1
517 501 482 461 438
'll
1,000,000 500 497 496 494 492 490 487 483 478 473 467 460 452 442 432 420 406 31 354
400 398 398 JVb 395 393 391 389 386 JOJ 380 371 365 Ja2 t4 325
300 299 299 299 298 298 297 296 294 293 291 290 288 265 243 280
COLUMNS_Vd FROM 30 TO 50
NOTES
1. Obtain daign valuc for E and Fc from the National DesignSprcification {or Wood Construction.
2. Modify Fc for different load duration, if applicable.
3. CalculateQ/dwhere [ = unsupported length of column (in.) and d = applieble leastactual dimension of column crosssction.
4. Determinevalueof Fg' from table.
5. Total designload on column = cross-srctionalarea (sq in.) x Fc' value.
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation:Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
306 Floorond RoofBeoms:20lb LiveLoqd
2-3x6 r070 9?5000 1250 1138000 r430 130m00 2-2x 0 1825 1676000 Z I J U 1956000 2435
1 - 3x 8 I zJ1 850000 1440 992000 t 645 1133000 1-4x 0 1565 l'r437000 1 8 2 5 16770002085 1915000
2 - 2x B 1030 712000 1200 831000 1370 949000 3-2x 0 1215 117000 1420 1303000 t o z a r 489000
10' 1 - 4x 8 880 606000 1030 707000 11 7 5 808000 z.J x 0 1095 r 005000 1280 1173000 1460 1340000
3'2x8 685 475000 800 554000 915 633000 1 - 6x 0 945 844000 11 0 0 985000 1260 I 125000
2 - 3x B o t9 425000 720 496000 820 566000 l7' 4 - 2x 0 910 837000 1065 977000 t z t a 1 1 1 6 0 0 0
2 - 2x 1 0 630 3410m 735 398000 840 455000 1 - 8x 690 619000 805 722000 9 1 0 825000
1 - 3x a 1480 1303000 19 7 5 14890@
1 1 1 7 0 0 0 1725 '1086000
z-5xo 1295 r 296000 | 5 1 0 15',I20001730 17270@ 2-2 x 2 1235 931000 1440 1 i l s 1241000
'l-4
t-J x 6 r 490 1 1 3 1 0 0 01 14 0 1320000 1 9 9 0 15080m x2 r060 799000 1230 932000 1 4 1 0 1065000
2 - 2x 8 1245 942000 1 4 5 0 1099000 I oou 1256000 3-2 x 2 820 621000 960 725000 1095 828000
t1' l-4x8 I 065 809000 1245 944000 1420 1078000 2 140 5590@ 6 0 t 652000 990 745000
3-2x8 830 629000 970 734000 1r 0 5 838000 l'4 x 0 17 5 5 1705000 zv45 19900002340
2 - 3x B 745 566000 870 660000 995 754000 3-Z X 0 1365 1326000 1590 1 5 4 7 m 0 1 8 15 1767000
2 - 2x l Q 765 4540m 890 530000 1 0 2 0 605000 z-3 x 0 1270 1194000 1480 13930001695 1592000
t-o x 0 1060 1001000 I z J J 1168000 1 4 1 5 r 334000
2-3x6 I 545 1682000 1800 1963000 2060 22420W q-z x 0 1020 995000 11 9 5 1 1 6 r 0 0 01365 1326000
t-5 x 6 1715 1469000 2070 1 7 1 4 0 0 0 2370 1958000 t-6x 0 780 735000 9 1 0 858000 1040 98m00
2 - 2x 8 1480 r 225000 1725 1429000 1 9 7 0 1633000 18' t-J x a 1660 1327000 1 0 ? 6 1549000 2210 1769000
l - 4x I t050000 1480 1225W0 1 6 9 0 1400000 ?-2 x 1380 1106000 t o t 5 I 291000 1 8 4 5 1474000
3-2x8 985 816000 1 1 5 0 952000 1 3 1 5 1088000 1 - 4x I t63 947000 I J U I 1105000 1580 1262000
2-3x8 890 735000 1035 858000 11 8 5 980000 3-2 x 920 737000 1 0 7 5 860000 1230 982000
1 - 6x 8 755 604000 880 705m0 1005 805000 2-3 x 2 830 664000 970 775000 11 0 5 885000
2 - 2x 1 0 910 590000 1060 688m0 1210 786000 1 - 6x 720 565000 840 659000 960 753000
3-2 x 1520 1560000 1775 18200002025 2079000
1 - 3x 8 2085 r 867000 2430 2179000 2780 2489000 z-J x 1365 1404000 1595 1638000 1825 1 8 7 1 0 0 0
2-2xB 1 14 0 1556000 2025 1816000 2 J t 5 2074000 'l-6
x 0 11 7 0 1179000 1 3 6 5 13760001560 1572000
1 . 4x 8 1490 r 334000 | / J f 1557000 1 9 8 5 1778000 4-2 x 0 11 4 0 1 1 7 m 0 0 1330 13650001520 15600m
J-lx6 11 6 0 1037000 1350 1210000 1545 1382000 1002000 11 4 0 1169000 1
13', 2-3x8 1045 934000 1215 1090000 r ?on 1245000
2-4 x 0 975 't300 1336000
19' 1 - 8x 0 860 864000 i005 1008000 145 1152000
1 - 6x 8 885 767000 1040 895m0 11 8 5 1022000
'1000000 t.J x 1850 1561000 2 1 5 5 18220002465 2081000
?-2x 1O 1070 750000 1245 875000 1420 2-2 x 2 1540 130r000 1800 15180002055 1734000
1 - 3x 1 0 1280 899000 1 4 9 5 1049000 17 1 0 11980m 1 - 4x z 1320 1| 15000 1540 1301000r'|760 r486000
1 - 4x 1 0 915 642000 1 0 7 0 749000 1220 856000 J-2 X r025 867000 1200 1012000 370 1156000
925 780000 1080 910000 1230 1040000
1 5 1 2 m 0 '1790
2-5 X
3-2x8 1340 1296000 1570 172700o t-b x 805 664000 9rto 775@0 1 0 7 0 885000
2-3x8 1210 | 166000 1410 13610001 6 1 0 1554000
l-6xB r025 957000 120f) 1 1 1 7 0 0 01370 1276000 3-2 x 0 1685 1820000 t965 2124@O 2245 2426000
1 - 3x 1 0 1485 r 124000 1730 1 3 1 2 m 0 1980 1498000 2.5 X 0 tctc 16370@ t770 1 9 1 0 m 0 2020 2182000
? - 2x 1 0 1235 936000 1445 1092m0 1650 1248000 1'6x 0 i 300 r 374000 | 6 1 E 1603000 1 7 3 5 1831000
14' 1 - 4x 1 0 1060 802000 1240 936m0 1 4 1 5 1069000 4-2 x 0 1260 13650ff) 1475 1593000 t 6 5 18t 9000
3 - 2x 1 0 825 624000 YOJ 728000 11 0 0 832000 2-4 x 0
'1-8
r 080 1170000 t z o S r365000 1445 1560000
2 - 3x 1 0 740 561000 865 655000 oon 748000 20' x 0 1007000 I r 2 0 1175000 1 280 1342000
1 - 6x 1 0 640 471000 745 550000 850 628000 2-2 x 2 r'1465
705 1517000 t990 1770000 2 2 7 5 2022000
4-2x 1O 620 468000 720 546000 825 624000 1 - 4x 2 1300000 t 7 1 0 1517000 1950 1733000
z-zx tz 520000 975 607000 11 1 5 693000 3-2 x 2 11 4 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 r 3 3 0 1180000 1520 1348000
l.J x 2 1025 9 10000 | 1 9 5 1062000 I J O 5 1213000
1 - 6x t 970 775000 | 1 3 0 9M000 I z J a 10030@
3 - 2x B 1540 1594000 1800 1860@0 zu55 2125000 4-2 x 2 855 759000 995 886000 I t J 5 1012000
2-SX6 1390 1435000 1620 1675000 1850 1913000
1 - 6x 8 1t80 1179000 1376m0 r 570 1572000 2 - 3x 10 r 670 1895000 1950 2211m0 2225 2526000
1 - 3x 10 1705 1 3 8 1 0 0 01990 1612000 2210 1841000 1 - 6x 10 r 430 1591000 1 6 7 0 1857000 1 9 0 5 212100o
2-2x 10 1420 11 5 1 0 0 0 1660 1343m0 1 8 9 5 1534000 4-2 x 10 1390 1580000 1 6 2 5 1844000 1 8 5 5 2106000
l-4 x l0 1220 986000 1420 115r000 I oz5 r 314000 2 . 4x 10 11 9 5 r 354000 1390 1580000 I 590 1805000
to
3-2x 10 950 767000 11 0 5 895000 I l o J 1022000 1 - 8x 10 1050 1166000 1225 1361000 1400 15540@
2 - 3x 10 850 69r000 995 806m0 1 1 3 5 921000 21' 2 - 2x 12 1880 1756000 2 1 9 5 2049000 2510 2341000
1 - 6x 10 735 580000 855 677000 980 773000 1 - 4x 12 1 6 r5 r 505000 1880 1756000z tav 2006000
4-2x 10 7r0 576000 830 672000 945 768000 I zJa r 1 7 1 0 0 0 1465 1366000 1 6 7 0 '|561000
2-2x 12 960 640000 1120 7470oO 12AO 853000 z-3x tz 11 3 0 1054000 1 3 2 0 1230000 '1295 1505 1405000
'| t-oxtz 970 896000 1 1 3 0 1046000 11940@
1 - 4x 12 825 99000 960 641000 100 732000
4-2 x 12 940 878000 1100 1025000 1255 1170000
z-3x8 1580 r 7 4 1 0 0 0 1840 2032m0 2105 2321000 2 - 4x 1 2 805 752000 9lm 877000' 1 0 7 5 r002000
2 - 2x 1 0 tolt 1397000 r890 1630000 2r55 1862000 4-2 x 0 1525 I 816000 1780 2119000 2035 242100o
1 - 4x 1 0 1385 r 197000 t o t S 1397000 1845 15960@ 2-4 x 0 1310 1556000 1530 1816000 1745 2074000
3 - 2x 1 0 1075 9 3 1 0 m 1260
'1 1086000 1435 124r000 1 - 8x 0 r 160 1341000 1355 1565@0 1545 r7870@
2 - 3x 1 0 970 839000 130 979000 1290 1118000 1 ' 4x 1770 1730@0 2065 2019@0 2360 2306000
t - ox tu 704000 975 821000 11 3 0 938000 1346000 1605 15 7 1 0 0 0 I a ? r 1794000
835 2 '1t327450
to J.Z X
4 - 2x 10 810 699000 945 8r6m0 1080 932000 22' 2-3 x 2 1 2r ' r 0 0 0 1445 1 4 1 3 @ 0 1655 1614000
5160@ / t 5 602000 815 688000 't-6
1 - 8x 10 o tc x 2 1080 1031000 1260 12030001440 1374000
1 - 3x 12 t3l0 932000 r 530 1087000 1750 1242000 4-2 x 2 1030 1010000 1205 1179000 13 7 5 1346000
1090 776000 1275 905000 1455 1034000 2-4 x 885 865000 1 0 3 5 1009000 1 1 8 0 1153000
1 - 4x 1 2 935 666000 1090 777m0 1250 888000 5-2 x 825 807000 942000 1 1 0 5 1076000
J-ZX tZ 730 518000 850 604000 970 690000 J.J X 2 825 799000 965 932000 1 1 0 5 1065000
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Floorond RoofBeqms:30 lb LiveLood 307
AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN T A B L E s3 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E Q U I R E oV A L U E S F o R F I B E R s r R E s s l N B E N D T N G( f ) A N o M o D U L U S o F E L A s r r c r r y ( E ) F o R T H E s r z E s s H o w N T o s u p p o R r s A F E L y A L t v E L o A D o F
3 0 P O U N D SP E R S O U A R EF O O T W I T H A D E F L E C T I O NL T M T T A T I O N O F I / : O O1 = S P A N I N I N C H E S .
urruruuia "1" & "E" tN pst FoR M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N p s t F o R
BEAMS SPACED: BEAMS SPACED:
-0 .o"
SPAN OF NOMINAL SPAN OF NOMI NA L
6',-0" 8',-0
BEAM SIZE OF BEAM I E BE AM SIZE OF BEAM t
2-3x6 1 4 3 0 1462000 1670 1706000 1905 1948000 3 - 2x 1 0 1620 676000 1890 1956000 z lou 2234000
1 - 3x 8 1645 1275000 r 9 2 0 1488000 2 1 9 5 1699000 2 - 3x 1 0 '1460
507000 I 705 r 759000 1945 2009000
1-4x8 ltta 909000 r 370 1061000 | 505 1212000 1 - 6x 1 0 1255 265000 1465 1476000 I 675 1686000
10' 3-2x8 915 712000 1 0 7 0 831000 122Q 949000 2 - 4x 1 O 1040 077000 r 2 1 5 1257000 t 385 r 435000
2 - 3x 8 420 637000 955 743000 1095 849000 4-2x 10 tzla 256000 1420 1466m0 1620 1674000
2 - 4x 8 590 455000 690 531000 785 606000 1 - 8x 1 0 920 927000 't075 't082000 1225 1236000
2-2 x 1O 840 51r000 980 596000 1 120 681000 17',
2 - 2x 1 2 r 645 396000 1920 1629000 2 1 9 5 1 8 6 1 0 0 0
1 - 4x 1 2 1 4 ' t 0 r97000 1 6 4 5 1397@0 1880 1596000
3-2x 12 1095 93r000 r 280 1086000 1460 1241000
't420 1696000
1 - 3x 8 I Oqn 2320 r979000 2655 2261000
1-4x8 1212000 r660 1 4 1 4 @ 0 r 895 1615000 2-3x 1? 985 839000 11 5 0 979000 t J t 5 1',il8000
J-ZX6 11 0 5 942000 1 2 9 0 1099000 1475 1255000 4-2x 12 820 699000 8r6000 1095 932000
l1' 2-3xB 995 849000 I 1 6 0 991000 I J Z J r I 32000 2 - 4x 1 2 705 599000 820 699000 940 799000
24 x8 7 1 0 606000 830 707000 945 808000 2-3 x 10 I 790000 1980 2089000 2260 2386000
1020 680000 ' 1 1 9 0 793000 1360 906000
toY5
2 - 2x 1 0 1 - 6x 1 0 1 4 1 5 1501000 1650 1 7 5 2 m 0 1885 2000000
t - Jx t u 1220 817000 1425 953000 1625 1089000 24x10 11 7 0 1279@0 1365 1492000 1560 r 705000
4-2x 1O 1360 1492000 1590 1 7 4 1 0 0 0 ' t 8 r5 1989000
1'4x8 1690 1575000 1970 1838000 1 - 8x 1 0 1040 1102000 t 2 1 5 'r286000 1 3 8 5 1469000
2255 2099000 2 - 2x 1 2 1 8 4 0 1659000 2150 1936000 2455 2211000
3 - 2x B 1 3 1 5 1224WO r 5 3 5 1428000 t r33 1631000 r8'
2-3x8 I 1 8 5 1102000 1385 1286m0 1580 1469000'
1 - 4x 1 2 1580 1 4 2 r 0 0 0 1 8 4 5 1658000 2105 1894000
2 - 4x 8 845 787000 985 9 1 8 m 0 11 2 5 1049000
3-2 x 12 1230 1106000 I 435 l29tooo 1640 1474000
1z', 'l-6 2 - 3x 1 2 11 0 5 995000 | 290 l 1 6 t @ 0 1475 1326000
x8 1005 905000 ttta r056000 1340 r 206000
2 - 2x 1 0 1210 885000 1 4 1 0 r0$m0 1 6 1 5 | 180000
4-2x 12 920 829000 1 0 7 5 967000 1225 r 105000
3-2x 10 810 590000 688000
2-4 x 12 790 711000 920 830000 1 0 5 5 948000
945 r 080 786000 5-2 x 12 664000 860 775000 980
2-3x 10 125 530000 845 618000 965 706000 885000
l-6 x 10 I 570 1767000 1830 20620n0 2095 2355000
2-4 x 1O I 300 1504000 t c t S 1755m0 I 735 2005000
l-4x8 1985 2@@00 2315 2334000 2645 26660@ 4-2 x 10 | 5ZU 1755000 1775 2048000 2025 2339000
3-2x8 1545 1556000 r805 1 8 1 6 m 0 2060 2074000
'|1760
1 4 5 1295000 I J J 5
1 . 8x 1 0 1 5 11 0 0 0 1525 r 726000
,2'3x8 1390 1400000 1620 r634m0 1855 1866000 .14x12 1672000 2055 1951000 Z J l J 2229000
24xB qm 1001000 1 1 5 5 1168000
't375 1320 1334000 to' 3-2 x 12 1 3 7 0 r 301000 r600 1 5 1 8 0 0 0 1825 r 734000
r3' 1-6xB 1 180 11 5 1 0 0 0 1343000 tara l 534000 2-3 x 12 I 230 1170000 1 4 3 5 1365000 1640 1560000
2-2x 1O 1425 1125000 1 6 6 5 1 3 1 3 m 0 1900 r 500000 4-2x 12 1 0 2 5 975000 11 9 5 113t,000 I J b 5 1300000
3 - 2x l 0 950 750000 l 1 t 0 875000 I zol 100@00 24x12 880 836000 r 0 2 5 976000 1 1 1 5 1114000
2 - 3x 1 0 855 675000 1000 788000 11 4 0 900000 5-2 x 12 820 780000 Y 5 5 910000 1095 1040000
1 - 4x 1 0 1220 1 | 54000 1425 1347m0 1625 1538000 1 - 6x 1 2 1070 995000 1250 1 1 6 1 0 0 01425 1326000
3 - 3x 1 2 820 771000 955 900@0 1095 1028000
3-2x8 '1790
r 944000 2090 2268@0 2385 2591000 l'8 x 10 r 280 r 5 11 0 0 0 1495 r763000 1705 20'r4000
2-3x8 1610 1750000 1880 2042mO 2145 2333000 3-2 x 12 l 520 1516000 1775 1769000 2025 2021000
24 xB r 150 1250000 1340 1459000 1535 1666000 2-3 x 12 I JO5 1365000 1 5 9 5 1593000 r 820 r 819000
1.6x8 1370 1436000 r6m 1676000 t 6 2 5 1914000 4.2 x 12 1 0 2 5 1137000 I 195 1327000 '|365 r 516000
14' 2-2x 1O 1650 1404000 1925 1638000 2200 1871000 24x12 9 7 5 975000 1 1 4 0 '1138@0 1300 1300000
3-2x 10 1 100 935000 1285 1091000 1465 12460@ 5-2 x 12 9 1 0 910000 1060 1062000 1215 1213000
2 - 3x 1 0 990 841000 11 5 5 981000 1 3 2 0 11 2 1 0 0 0
20'
'1415 1 - 6x 1 2 I zva 1162000 1 5 1 0 1356000 1725 1549000
1 - 4x 1 0 1204000 1650 r405000 1885 1605000 3.3x 12 910 900000 1060 1050000 1 2 1 5 1200000
1 - 6x 1 0 915 I 179000 1070 1376000 1220 1572000 1 - 8x 1 2 870 852000 r 0 1 5 994m0 I t o u 1136000
2-4x 10 705 601000 825 701000 940 80r000 1 - 1 0x 1 2 690 672000 805 784000 920 896000
4-3 x 12 680 682000 t35 796000 905 909000
24 x8 1320 1537000 1540 1794000 1760 2049000 2-3 x 14 985 836000 1 1 5 0 976000 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 4 0 0 0
1 - 6x 8 1570 1767000 1830 2062000 2095 2355000
2-2x 10 1895 i 726000 2210 2014000 't680
zaza 2301000
3-2 x 12 1 6 7 0 1756000 1950 2049000 2225 234r000
3-2x 10 1260 11 5 1 0 m 1470 1343000 1534000
2-3 x 12 1505 1580000 17 5 5 1844000 2005 2 106000
2-3x 10 11 3 5 1036000 4-2x 12 1317000 | 9 0 J 1537000 16 7 5 r 755000
1 1?6 1209000 t 5 t 5 1381000
14x10 r620 1479000 1890 1726@0 2 1 6 0 1971000
2 - 4x 1 2 1075 1 129000 I z a a 1 3 1 7 0 0 0 1435 r 505000
t5
1 - 6 x1 0 980 870000 11 4 5 1015000 1305 1160000 5-2 x 12 1005 '1054000 1 1 1 5 1230000 1340 r405000
24x10 810 740000 945 863000 1080 986000 21 l-6 x 12 1295 1344000 1 5 1 0 1568000 t l z a 1791000
4-Zx 10 945 86,4000 t 105 1008m0 1260 1152000 3 - 3x 1 2 r005 r0410oo I 1 7 5 1215000 1340 1388000
l-8 x l0 720 637000 1-8x12 960 986000 1120 1 1 5 1 @ 0 1280 1314000
840 743m0 G N 849000 'l-10
2-2x-12 r280 960000 1495 fi20m0 1705 1280000 x 12 760 779000 885 9@@0 1 0 15 1038000
14x12 1095 8220@ 1280 959000 1460 1096000 4-3 x 12 750 790000 875 922000 1000 1053000
2-3 x 14 1085 967000 r 2 6 5 | 128000 1445 r 2890@
l-6 x 14 950 832000 u 1 0 971000 1265 | 109000
2-2x 10 2155 2096000 2 5 1 5 2446000 2875 2794000 4-2 x'12 1515000 1605 1768000 1835 2019000
3-2x 10 r435 1396000 r 6 7 5 1629000 1 9 1 5 1861000 24x12 1 1 8 0 1297000 1380 1513000 1575 1729000
2-3 x 10 r 290 1257000 1505 1467000 1720 1675000 5-2 x 12 1 1 0 0 r 2 11 0 0 0 r 285 1 4 1 3 m 0 1465 16r4000
l{x10 t845 1796000 2 15 5 2096000 2460 2394000 1 - 6x 1 2 1440 15460@ 1680 1804000 1 9 2 0 2061000
t-6 x 10 ll15 1055000 r300
't080 1231
000 12185 14060@ 3 - 3x 1 2
't
100 1197000 1285 1397m0
24x10 925 899000 r049000 1235 1r 98000 1596000
16', 22' 1 - 8x 1 2 1 0 5 5 1134000 1 2 3 0 1323000 1 4 0 5 1 5 1 1 0 0 0
4-2x 10 1075 r047000 I zaa 1222m,0 1 4 3 5 1395000 l - 1 0x 1 2 830 895000 970 1044000 1 1 0 5 r r93000
1 - 8x 1 0 815 774000 950 903000 '1085
1032000 4-3 x 12 az5 909000 965 106r000 1 1 0 0 r 212000
2-2 x'12 1455 r 164000 1700 1358m0 1 9 4 0 1552000 2-3 x 14 11 9 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 01390 1298000 r 585 1482000
1 - 4x 1 2 999000 1460
3-2 x 12
1250 1166000 I oo5 1332000 1 - 6x 1 4 1045 956000 1220 1',t't6000 13 9 5 't274000
970 776000 I 130 905000 1295 r 034000 3-3x 14 795 736000 930 859000 '|060
875 699000 r020 816000 981000
I to5 932000 2-4 x 14 820 751000 Y3t I 114000 '1095 l00r000
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
308 Floor ond Roof Beoms: 40 lb Live loqd
FLOOR A N D R O O F B E A M S - o E s r c N T A B L E S4 0 p o u N D s p s F
R E a U t R E D v A L U E s F o R F T B E RS T R E S St N B E N D T N G{ f ) A N D M o D U L U s O F E L A s T I c t T Y { E ) F o R T H E S I z E Ss H O w N T O S U P P o R TS A F E L Y A L l v E L O A D O F
4 0 P O U N D SP E RS Q U A R EF O O T W I T H I N A D S F L E C T I O NL I M T T A T I O NO F I / 3 O O
1 = S P A NI N I N C H E S .
M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N P s t F o R MINtMUM "1" & "E" tN Pst FoR
BEAMS SPACEO: BEAMS SPACED:
810" 610" 7'-O" 8'-0"
SPAN OF NOMINAL SPAN OF NOMINAL
BEAM SIZE OF BEAM t E E BE AM SIZS OF BEAM E f t
I.J X 6 zu55 1700000 24W '1984000 '.740 2266000 IJX n 1825 2010000 2 3 r 0 2345000 2430 2679000
2 -2x8
'1-4 17 1 0 1417000 1995 1654000 '.280 18890@ 2-4 x 1300 1436000 1520 1676000 | / J 5 199 11 4 0 m
xI 1470 12 11 0 0 0 1715 1 4 r 3 0 0 0 960 1614000 3-3x 1215 13 4 1 0 0 0 1420 1565000 1620 1787000
10' t-b x 6 8 7 5 697000 1 0 2 0 813000 t o 3 929000 l - 8x 1150 1236000 1340 1442000 1535 1647000
2 - 2x 1 0 1050 681000 1225 795000 400 908000 3-2 x 2 1370 1241000 1 ' l600 1448000 t 6 z a 1654000
1 - 3x l 0 1260 819000 1470 956000 680 r 092000 4-2 x 2 r 025 931000 1 9 5 1086000 I J O C 1 2 4 ' 1 0 0 0
1 - 4x 1 0 900 585000 1050 683000 200 780000 5-2 x 820 745000 9 5 5 869000 I U Y 5 993000
z.J x 1230 1 1 1 9 0 0 01 4 3 5 1306000 1640 1492000
l 886000 2415 3-3 x 820 737000 955 860000 1095 982000
z-zx6 2070 22010f0 2760 2514000 2-4 x 880 799000 1025 932000 11 7 5 10650m
1 . 4x 8 1 6 1 6 0 0 0 2070 1886000 z J o c 2154000 't,6
2
x 1070 951000 1250 1110000 1425 1268000
1 - 6 . xI 1 0 5 5 929000 1230 1084000 1405 1238000 2
1 - 8x 185 697000 9 1 5 8 13000 1 0 4 5 929000
11', 906000 1490 1057000 1700 1208000 '1705
1 ' 3x 1 0 taza 1090000 1780 1272000 2030 1453000 0 1460 1705000 1990000 1945 2273000
1 - 4x l 0 r090 779000 1270 909000 14 5 5 1038000 3-3x 0 13 6 5 1 5 9 1 0 0 0 1595 r857000 r 820 2121000
't 1470000 1 5 1 5 1 7 1 5 0 0 0 17 3 0 1959000
3 - 2x 1 0 d5u 605000 990 706000 806000 8x 1300
3-2 x 1540 1475000 1800 1721000 2050 1966000
1-6xB 1255 1206000 465 1407000 1670 r 607000 4-2 x |1 50 1105000 1340 r 289000 1530 1473000
1903000 2 1 9 0 5-2 x 920 885000 1 0 7 5 1033000 I z z c 1180000
3-2x8 1645 1631000 920 2174000 18'
1380 1326000 1 6 r 0 1547000 1840 r 767000
2 - 2x l Q 1510 1180000 760 1377000 2010 1573000 2-3 x 2
1 - 3x 1 0 1820 1415000 't25
1651000 2425 18860m 3-3x 920 875000 1 0 7 5 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1225 1166000
2-4 x 2 990 949000 I t f , a r 107000 1320 1265000
12' 1 . 4x 1 0 1300 1010000 5 1 5 r 179000 | / J 5 13460m
3 - 2x 1 0 1010 786000 180 9 17000 1345 1048000 1 - 6x r200 1129000 1400 r317000 1600 1505000
ZUX IU 905 706000 055 824000 1205 941000 1 - 8x 880 829000 1025 967000 | | / 5 1r05000
1 - 6x 1 0 785 594000 915 693000 1045 792000 3-4 x 660 632000 7 7 0 737000 880 8420m
24x10 650 505000 760 589000 d o 3 6730m 3-3 x 0 t azu 1872000 1 7 7 5 2l 84000 zuza 249s0@
1710 1735000 1 9 9 5 2025000 22AO 2313000
1 - 6x I 1475 't720 1791000 1965 2046000 4-2 x 1280 1300000 1 4 9 5 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 1705 1733000
1535000
2 - 3x B 1735 18660@ 2025 2178000 2 3 15 24870@ 5-2 x 1025 1040000 1 1 9 5 1 2 1 4 0 0 0 1365 1386000
2 - 4x B 1235 1335000 1440 1558000 1645 1779000 z-5x 2 1540 1560000 1795 1820000 2050 2079000
3 - 2x 1 0 11 8 5 100@00 1380 1167000 1580 1333000 t9' 3-3x 1025 1029000 1 1 9 5 1201000 r 365 13720@
t3' 2 - 2x 1 0 1780 1500000 2075 1750000 23tO 2000000 2-4 x 1100 1 1 1 5 0 0 01280 1301000 1 4 6 5 1486000
1 . 3x 1 0 2130 1799000 2485 2099000 28/.O 23980C[) 1 - 6x 1335 1326000 1560 r't547000 1780 1767000
2 - 3x 1 0 '1070 900000 1250 1050000 1425 1200000 l-8 x 980 973000 1 1 4 5 135@0 1305 1297000
1 - 4x 1 0 taza 1537000 1780 1794000 Z U J J 2049000 3-4x 744000 860 868000 980 9920m
2-4 x 1Q 760 642000 Rqo 749000 1 0 1 5 8s60@ 4-3 x 2 770 780000 900 910000 t u 2 a 10400m
2-d x 670 1329000 780 1551000 895 17 7 1 0 m
't675 3-2x 1900 2021000 2220 2358000 t530 2694000
2 - 4x 8 I 435 1666000 r944000 t 9 t5 22210oO
3-2 x 10 12aE 1246000 t o u a 1454000 | 830 1661000 4-2x 1280 1516000 1 4 9 5 1 7 6 9 m 0 705 2021000
2 - 3x 1 0 11 2 1 0 0 0 1440 I 308000 | 645 1494000 a-2 x 1r35 1214000 1325 1 4 1 7 0 0 0 5 1 5 1618000
't770 3-3 x 11 3 5 1200000 1325 1400m0 5 1 5 1600000
1 - 4x 1 0 160s000 2065 r873000 I J O U 2139000
2-4 x'lO 880 801000 1 0 2 5 935000 | | / D 1068000 2-4 x 1220 1300000 1425 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 625 1733000
14', 1 - 6x 2 r620 1550000 1890 18G000 r160 2066000
3 - 3x l 0 825 749000 960 874000 | 1 0 0 9980@ 20'
1 - 6x 1 0 11 4 5 1 5 7 1 0 0 0 I J J 5 1833000 t525 2094000 t-6 x a 1085 1136000 I z d a 1326000 445 1514000
1 ' 8x l 0 780 691000 9 r 0 806000 t 0 4 0 921000 3-4 x 2 810 866000 9 4 5 1 0 11 0 0 0 080 1154000
4-2x 10 1030 936000 1200 1092000 | 375 1248000 4-3 x 2 850 9'10000 990 1062000 t J t 1213000
2 - 2x 1 2 1395 1040000 1630 1214000 1860 1386000 2-6 x 740 775000 8 6 5 904000 1033000
l - 1 0x 2 860 896000 1005 1046000 145 1194000
'r791000 2 1 0 0 zJx r 230 1 1 1 4 0 0 01435 1300000 640 1485000
3 - 2x 1 0 1575 1535000 1840 2046000
2 - 3x l 0 1420 1381000 tb55 1612000 | 890 1841000 4-2 x 2 1570 1756000 1 8 3 0 2049000 Ino( 2341000
24x10 '1010 986000 tttJ 1 r 5 1 0 0 0 | 345 1314000 5-2 x 2 1405000 1 4 6 5 1640000 6 7 5 1873000
J.J X IU 945 921000 11 0 0 1075000 | 260 1228000 3-3x 1389000 t q o 5 1621000 675 18s1000
t.bx tu 1225 1160000 1430 1354000 I OJf, 1546000 2-4 x 2 1345 15050@ 1570 1756000 795 2006000
1-8x 10 900 850000 1050 992000 t200 1133000 l-8 x 2 1200 1315000 1400 1535000 600 1753000
1s', 4-2 x 10 11 8 0 1151000 lJl5 1343000 I 575 r 534000 3-4 x 895 1004000 1 0 4 5 1172000 1 9 5 13380@
21 r 054000 1090 1230000 245 1405000
1600 1280000 I d03 1494000 t 1 3 0 1706000 4-3 x 2 vJ5
'I
J-Z X tZ 1065 8s4000 1240 997000 1420 11380@ 2-6 x 820 896000 955 1046000 095 194000
1-3x 12 1920 1536000 2240 1792000 1560 2047000 1 - 1 0x 9s0 1039000 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 m 0 265 1385000
4-Z x 12 800 640000 747000 t u o 5 853000 2-3 x 4 1355 1290000 1580 1505000 805 1719000
2-3x 12 960 767000 1120 895000 I 280 1022000 1 - 6x 4 11 9 0 1109000 1390 1294000 585 1478000
2-4 x 4 930 871000 1 0 8 5 1016000 240 11610@
s-z x tu 1795 1 8 6 1 0 0 02095 21720oO r395 2481000 4-2 x 1720 2020000 2005 2357000 t2952693000
2 - 3x 10 16 1 0 1676000 1880 1956000 l t 4 5 2234000 5-2 x 13 7 5 1 6 1 5 0 0 0 1605 1885000 830 2r 53000
2 - 4x 10 1199000 r 350 1399000 | 540 1598000 3-3 x tJ/5 1596000 1605 r862000 830 212700o
3.3 x l0 r075 1 117000
'1406000 1303000 | 435 1489000 34x 1154000 t t N 1347000 3151538000
t - ox tu 16 2 5 1 6 4 1 0 0 0 | 860 1874000 4-3x 2 1 0 3 0 r 2 r 1 0 0 0 1200 1413000 3751614000
16' 1 - 8x 10 1 0 2 0 1031000 11 9 0 r 203000 | 360 r 374000 22', 2-6 x 2 900 r 031000 1 0 5 0 1203000 2001374000
4 - 2x 10 1345 r 396000 1570 1629000 | 790 r 8 6 1 0 0 0 r-'r0x 1 0 3 5 1194000 1205 1393000 JdU 1592000
2 - 2x 12 1820 1551000 2120 1 8 1 0 0 0 0 t425 2067000 2-3
'l'6
x4 I 485 1484000 1730 1732000 980 1978000
3 - 2x 12 1210 1035000 14 1 0 1208000 t 6 l 0 r 380000 x I 305 r 275000 1525 1488000 740 1
'|700000
4 - 2x 12 9 1 0 776oOOr060 905000 t215 1034000 24x 4 r 025 t 001000 11 9 5 r 168000 334000
a - zx tz 7 3 0 621000 850 725000 975 828000 3-3 x 4 995 9 8 1 0 0 0 11 6 0 1145000 325 1308000
)-3 x 12 1 ) A O I nFAmn | 460 12 4 l O m 3.4 x Aen AATnnn 778mO qnq
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
CeilingJoistond RotterSizes 309
CEILING JOISTS- | o L a l s e F T L t v EL o A o ( G y p s u M w A L L a o A R o c E t L t N G )
No attic storageand roof slopenot steeperthan 3 lN .12. CEILING JOISTS-ao r e l s e F r L r v EL o A o ( c y p s u M w A L L B o A R o c E T L T N G )
Limited attic storagewheredwelopment of future rooms is not possible.
MAXIMUM ALLOWAALE TE'O'"
MAXIMUM ALLOWAALE LENGTHS L BETWEEN SUPPORTS
JOIST JOIST
stzE SPAN L LTMITED BY OEFLECTION AND Fb IS JOIST JOIST
SPACING SPAN L LIMITED BY DEFLECTION
EXTREME.FIBER STRESS slzE SPACING AND F^ IS
{NOMINAL) (NOMINALJ €XTREME FIBER STRESS
( I N .J INOMINALI (NOMTNAL)
{tN.) r.000.0@ 1,200,000 r.400.0m 1,6m,@0 't,600.@o
' tl - r 0 {il.|.1 {tN.) r,000,000 1,200.m0 1,400,000
10,7 I t- J 12-5
F 830 930 't030 L 8-5 8 - rr 9 -1 0
r 130 F r040
'16 11 1 0 | 300 1420
2x4 L l0-3 r 0-9
F 9r0 2x4 L 7-8 8-1 8-7 8-l I
r030 r 140 1240 F 11 4 0 I 290 r430 I 570
24 u-5 8-t 1 9 - 10
r040 24 6-8 7-6 7-10
Ir70 r 300 1420 r3 1 0 1480 1640 I 790
12 L r6-8 17-8 r8-8 I 9,6
830 L 14 - 1 l4-9 15-6
930 | 030 | 130 F 1040 11 7 0 t300 1420
l6 t5-2 to- | l6-l I 16 12-O 12,9 t4-1
910 1030 1r 4 0 1240 11 4 0 r 290
't4-9 1430 I 570
24 L IJ-J 14-1 24
1040 I t70 1300 ' t 30160
1 12 ll-9
1420 480 1640 | 790
L 21-11 23-4 24-7 t2
830 8,6
930 r 030 | 130 F 1040 170 1300 1420
2xB 16 L 1 9 - tI 21-2 22-4 23-4 to L r 5',t40
-10 l 6 -1 0 r 7-9
9r0 1C30 I 140 1240 1
'19-6
r 290 r430 I 570
1 7- 5 r E-ti 24 L
't3-
l0
F t040 I 170 r300 i 4-8 r5-6 16-2
1420 1310 r 480 1640 I 790
t2 28-0 29-9 31-4 t2
830
22-3 23-8 24-tO 26-0
to 25-5
930 1030 I 130 i" r040 I 170 r300 1420
2x l0 27-1 28-6 29-9 l6 20-2
F 9t0 I 030 I
',t40
1240
2x1O L
| 140
2l-6
r 290
22-7
t430 | 570
24 23-a 24-10 26-0 24 'r9-9
L t 7- 8 r8-9
I 040 1t 7 0 13@ 1420 F" 1310 r480
NOTE: L in let and inch6; E and Fb in poundspe;rq,* 1640 l 790
l."L;rlhrrr," &-ill rrv I c: L In rer ano Incnes; t and Fb In pounds per square inch as shown above.
D E S I G NC R I T E R T A
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
1. Maximum alfowabte defltrtion = 1124OoI span
l. Maximum allmable dellrction = l /24e ol soan
length.
length.
2. Live load of l0 tblsq ft ptus dead load of 5 lb/so tt
2. Live lcd of 20 lblsq ft plus dead load of 10 tb/sq fr
determinerequiredfiber stres value.
ddtermine required fiber stres value.
SPAN OF
RAFTER . NOTE
COLLAR BEAM
For raJterc,dsign valus in Fo may be greaterthan lhe d6ign valuesfor normal
l
Y
WITHIN
UPPER I/
THE
uon or roaotby the tollowinq amounts:
dura
(iAMBREL
GABLE ROOF GABLE ROOF
(6LOPE OVER 5 IN 12' LEAN-TO OR
IALOPE UNOER ! IN 12I EHEO ROOF
SECTION
MOOULUS
L U M B ER
stzEs
(NOMTNAL) { rN . ' )
2x3 L56
2x4
2xG
NOTE
2x l0
(Applicableto this pageand the followingpageson joisl 3t.64
and raftersizes.)
JXb r2.60 SECTION
SPANSLIMITEDBY DEFLECTTON: MOOULUS
The weight ot ptas_ 21.90
ter itself was igno.edin the assumedloadslor the de_ s'?
flection computations, because the initial deflection E = m o d u l u so t e l a s t i c i t y
from the deadloadoccursbeforeplastersets.The influ_ F = extremeliber stressin bending J X tl {tN.'}
az. tJ
ence of live loads, rather than dead loads, when the = span lengthbetweensupports
3x 14
ratio ol live to dead loads is relativelyhigh, is the prin-
cipal factor to be considered.Also withloisted floors, LIV€ LOAD ASSUMPTTONS: Uniformtv distribured. 4x4 /.t5
l-r-r
r-
tlooringand bridgingserveto distributemovingor con, tll
PARTITTONS: Spans shown are comouted for the t/.o5
centratedloadsto adjoiningmembers.The omlssionof
the plasterweight in loadassumptionappliesto deflec_
gavenlive load plus the dead load and do not provide 9X6 30.66
"lll I
tor additional loadssuch as partitions.Whereconcen, J-I
tion computationsonly; the full dead and live load is trated loads are imposed the spansshould be rrcom- t" 1o b ANo d ARE
consideredwhen computinglor strength. puted to providefor them. ACTUAL
73.83 DIM EN SIONS
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washangton.
D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
310 Rottersond RoofJoists
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
determinesrequiredfiber stres. projrction, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalproitrtion.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
in inchesdividedby 240.
RAFTER
5IZE. SPACING
{rN.) 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 I 800 1900
12 8-6 9-4 10-0 10-9 11 - 5 12-O 13-2 13-8 14-2 4-8 5-2 15-8 to- |
0.26 0.35 o.44 0.54 0.64 u ./ 5 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.24 .37 .51 1.66 1.81 1.96
2xG 16 7-4 8-1 8-8 9-4 Y -r u I u-c 1 0 - 11 I t-5 11 - 1 0 2-9 3-2 13-7 1 3 - 11 14-4
0.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 u.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 1.07 .19 .31 1.44 1.56 1.70
b-u 6-1 7-7 8-1 d-b 8-11 9-4 9-8 10-0 10 - 5 n-q 11-1 I l-5 11 . 8
0.53 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 t?o
0.19 0.25 0.31 0.38 0.45 0.61
12 1 1- 2 I z-J 13-3 14-2 r 5-0 1 5 -l 0 to-/ 17-4 18-0
'l.lI
r8-9 9-5 20-o 20-8 21-3
't.81 2 1 -1 0
0.26 0.35 0.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 t.24 .37 1.51 1.66 1.96
2x8
=to 9-8 10-7 11 - 6 | 2-J 13-0 13-8 14-4 |5-U 15-1 I o-J 6-9 7-4 t7-10 r 8-5 t 8 - 11
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 u.o5 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.07 .J I t.44 1.56 r.70
; 8-8 9-4 10-0 10-7 11 - 9 I l-3 12-9 13-3 13-8 l4-7 I 5-0 1s-5
0.19 o.25 0.31 0.38 0.45 0.53 0.61 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 1.39
12 14-3 15-8 1 6 - 11 t6- | 19-2 20-2 23-0 tJ-tl 24-9 25-6 26-4 27-1 27.10
o.26 0.35 o.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.24 1.37 l.5l 1.66 r.81 1.96
2x10 G 12-4 13-6 I 4-8 15-8 r6-7 17-6 t8-4 19-2 1 9 - 11 20-8 21-5 22-10 23-5 24.1
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 u ./ 5 0.85 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.31 1.44 | _f,o 1.70
u 10-1 1t-1 i ?_q rJ-o r 4-3 15-0 15-8 to-J 16-l 1 17-6 8-1 t6-t 19-2 r9-8
0.r9 0.25 0.3r 0.38 0.45 0.53 0.6r 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.97 .07 1.17 1.28 t.39
1 7- 4 19-0 20-6 21-1 1 23-3 24-7 25-9 zo-t I 28-0 29-1
't.24
30-r t-l 32-O J2-t I 33-r0
o.26 u.J5 o.44 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.98 1.11 1.37 5l 1.66 1.81 1.96
-76
2xQ 15-O 16-6 17 - 9 19-0 20-2 21-3 22-4 zJ-5 24-3 25-2 26-O 16-11 27-9
't.44 28.6 29-4
o.23 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.56 r.70
_; 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.85 -Jl
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 pst dead load plus 30 pst live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
dete.mines required fiber st.es. projtrtion, and loads are considered as applied on the
horizontal proiection.
OEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
in inch6 dividedby 240.
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.35 t.48 t.6l t.l a
J-q o-J 6-8 7-1 7-6 7-10 v2 6-O 8-10 g-2 9-6 9-9 IU-U
0.r9 o.25 o.32 U.JY 0.46 0.54 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 L10 1.21 1.31 1.43
1l-8
't2-6 IJ-J l3-l I | 4-U 15-3 t3-t I l6-6 17-1 I 7-8 t6-z l9-3
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.01 t.14 1.28 r.41 1.56 1.71 1.86 2.O2
2X6 16 8-7 9-4 10-l 1 0 - 10 1r-6 12-1 12-A 13-3 13-9 14-4 1 4 -1 0 15-3 15-9 16-3 to-o
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 L35 1.48 1.61 1.75
; 7-O 1-8 8-10 9-4 9-10 10 - 4 1 0 -1 0 I t-J I t-o |2-10 I J.J 13-7
0.19 o.25 0.32 0.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.90 L00 1.10 t . J I 1.43
't4-'t1 r 6 - 11 17-10 19-6 20-4 21-1 2 1 -1 0 22-6 23-3 23-11 24-6
12 13-9 15-11 18-8
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.89 t.0l 1.14 1.28 1.41 | .50 1.71 1.86 2.O2
2x10 =to 10-r1 12-11
'13-9
r4-8 15 - 5 to-z 16-11 1 7- 1 | 6-J 18-1r l9-6 2Q-1 20-8
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.35 1.48 1.61 1.75
- 8 - 1r 9-9 r0-6 I t- J 11-11 13-9 14-4 1 4 - 11 I 5-5 l 5 - r1 16-5 1 6 - r1 1 1- 4
0.19 0.25 0.32 0.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 r .r 0 1.21 1.31 1.43
't2 15 - 4 16-9 18-1 1 9 -4 21-8 ZJ-J 24-A 26-6 2 1- 5 28-3 29-1 29-10
't.41
0.27 U-JO 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.01 1.14 |,26 1.56 1.71 1.86 2.O2
G I J-J 14-6 15,8 17-9 18-9 19-8 20-6 21-5 22-2 23-O zJ-9 24-5 za-z 25-10
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.17 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.48 1.61 t.tJ
- 10-10 13-8
1l - 1 0 12-10 15 - 4 16-1 't4-6 16-9 17-5 18-r 18-9 19-4 20-0 20-6 12-1
0.19 0.250.39 0.46 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.90 1.00 1.10 t.zl 1.31 1.43
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;
Washington,
D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Roftersqnd RoofJoists 3l I
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH; 10 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTEBS: Spansare measuredalonq the horizontal
determinc requiredfi&r stress. ). projrction, and loadsare consideredai appliedon the
hotizontalproirction'
DEFLECTION: For 20 psf live load. Limited to spSn
in inchesdividedbv 240.
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: l0 psf dead load ptus 30 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
determinB required fiber stress. proiection, and loads are considered ai applied on the
horizontalprojection
DEFLECTION: For 30 ost live load. Limited to soan
in inchm divided by 240.
SIZE, SPACING
(lN.) 500 600 700 800 900 I 000 | 100 | 200 1300 r 400 l 500 r 600 I 700 1800 r900
12 7 - 11 8-8 v-5 10-0 10€ 11 - 3 '12-4
11 - 9 J.J 3-9 4-2 14-8 15 - 1 I c-o
o.32 0.43 0.54 0.66 0.78 0.92 1.06 1.21 .36 .52 .86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
zxo l6 6-l l 7-6 6-Z 8-8 9-3 9-9 10-2 r0-8 1-1 1-6 t-t I 2-4 I z-d
'|3-l tJ-f,
o.28 0.37 o.47 u . at 0.68 0.80 o.92 1.05 .r8 .32 46 -ol 1.76 1.92 2.O8
24 5-7 6-2 6-8 7-1 7-11 8-4 8-8 9-l 9-5 9-9 10-0 10-4 10-8 10-11
0.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.s5 0.65 u ./ 5 0.85 0.96 l.o8 1 .t 9 1.3',| 1.44 1.57 1.70
12 10-6 1 l-6 I z-a I ?_? t4-0 1 4 - 10 15-6 6-10 18-2 18-9 1 9 -4 19-r0
o.32
o-J 20-5
0.43 0.54 0.66 0.78 0.92 1.06 .21 .JO t.Jz r.69 1.86 2.M 2.22 2.41
2x8 16 9-t 9 - 11 l0-9 11 - 6 12-10 4-0 4-7 15-2 15-8 | 6-3 6-9 l7-2 r 7-8
0.28 0.37 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80 .05 .18 1.32 t.co l . 6r .76 1.92 2.O8
il 7-5 8-1 8-9 9-4 9-1',|
't0-6
I ',t-0 I t-o 11-t1 t2-5 12-10 I J-J 3-8 14-0 14-5
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.08 1 r. 9 1.31 44 1.70
tz 13-4 't4-8 'r8-11
1 5 -1 0 1 6 - l1 17-11 r9-10 20-8 21-6 23-2 23-11 25-4 26-O
o.32 0.43 o.54 0.66 0.78 o.92 r.06 1.21 1.36 1.52 1.69 r.86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
2x 10 16 11-7 tz-o 13-8 14-8 15-6 16 - 4 17-'t1 r 8-8 9-4 20-0 20-8 21-4 21-11 zz-o
0.37 't.46
_; 0.28 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80
't3-4
0.92 r.05 1.18 .32 r.61 r.92 2.08
10 - 4 1 1-2 12-a 14-0 14-8 5 - 10 16-4 1 6 - 11 r 7-5 11-11 18 - 5
o.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.65 0.75 o.85 .08 1. 1 9 't.3r 1.44 1.57 |.70
12 16-3 17-9 20-6 21-9 24-1 25-2 26-2 27-2 28-2 29-1 2 9 - 11 30-10 3t - 8
0.32 0.43 0.54 u.oo 0.78 o.92 1.06 1.21 t.Jo t.az 1.69 1.86 2.O4 2.22 2.41
2x12 16 14-1 r 5-5 1 8 -1 0 19-11 20-10 22-8 23-6
Io-b ?1 _A
't.05 24-4 za-tl 26-8 27-5
0.28 0.37 o.47 0.57 0.68 0.80 0.92 1.18 1.32 1.46 1.76 1.92 2.08
a
t.ol
11 - 6 t4-6 I c-5 to-J 17-0 1 7- 9 18-6 19 - 3 l 9 - r1 20-6 21-9 22-5
0.23 n?o
0.46 o?a
0.65 0.75 0.85 0.96 r.08 |. 1 9 1.31 1.44 t.aI 1.70
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,@0,000 psi is shownbelow eachspan.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
312 Rottersond RoofJoisls
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
'15 RAFTERS: Spans are measuredalong the horizontal
S T R E N G T H : p s f d e a dl o a d p l u s2 0 p s f l i v el o a dd e '
terminesrequiredfiber stress. projection,and loadsare consideredas applied on the
horizontalproiection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s l l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n
in inchesdivided by 180.
M E O I U M O R H I G H S L O P E R A F T E R S - 2 o L B L r v EL o A D
H E A V YR o o F c o V E R I N G _ N o EV E R3 I N 1 2
c E I L t N GL O A D - S L o P o
EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENOING, Fb (PS!)
RAFTER
SIZE, SPACING
1300 1400 | 500 1600 1700
'r800 1900
(tN.l 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 0 0 1200
12 5-lI o-J b- tu t -J 1-a d-u 8-4 8-8 9-0 9-4 9-8 9-l 1 10-3
o.20 o.26 0.33 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 1. 1 4 1.24 1.36 1.47
2x4 16 4-8 3-l 5-6 5-t I 6-3 6-7 6-11 7-6 7 - 10 6-l 8-4 8-7 8-r0 o-1
0 . 17 0.23 0.28 0.35 0.4r 0.49 0.56 o.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.27
u 3-r0 4-6 4-',I0 5-'l 5-5 5-8 c-t I 6-2 6-5 6-7 6- 10 7-0 7,3 7-5
0.t4 0.18 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.59 0.66 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 8-6 9-4 r0-0 10-9 11 - 5 12-O tJ-z 13-8 r4-8 15-2
'1.14
| 5-8 to-l 16-7
0.20 U.IJ 0_40 0.48 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 t_24 1.36 1.41
zxo G 7-4 o- | 8-8 9-4 9-10 10-5 1 0 - 11 11 - 5 11 - 1 0 12-4 12-9 13-2 13-7 13-11 14- 4
0 . 17 0.28 n aR 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 o.12 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.1
7 1.27
- 6-0 1-1 7-7 8-1 8-6 8 - 11 9-4 9-8 10-0 r0-5 10-9 I l-1 1l-8
0.14 0.r8 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 0.66 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 11-12 I J.J 14-2 15-0 15-10 t0-t 17-4 18-0 18-9 t9-5 20-0 20-8 21-3 2 1 -1 0
0.20 n?6 0.33 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65 o.74 0.83 0.93 r.03 1.14 1.24 1.36 1.47
' t 7- 4
2xB 16 9-8 10-7 I t-o I z-5 13-0 13-8 14-4 15-0 15-7 16 - 3 16-9 t7-10 I 8-5 18-11
0.23 o.28 u.J5 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 r.08 1.17 1.27
A 7- 1 1 6-6 9-4 10-0 10-7 11 - 9 12-3 12-9 I J-J 13-8 14-2 14-7 15-0 15-5
0.14 0.18 o.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 0.66 o.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
12 14-3 15-8 1 6 - 11 18-1 19-2 20-2 22-1 23-0 23-11 24-9 25-6 26-4 27-10
o.20 0.26 n22 0.40 0.48 0.56 u-o5 o.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 l. t4 1.24 1.36 1.47
2x 10 -t o 12-4 tJ-o
'r4-8 15-8 I 6-7 I 7-6
'18-4
19-2 1 9 - 11 20-8 z t-a tJ-a 24-1
0 . 17 0.23 0.28 0.35 0.41 0.49 0.56 0.64 o.72 0.80 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.27
24 1 0 -1 I l-t 1 1 - 11 12-9 13-6 14-3 15-O 15-8 to-J 16-11 | /-o 18-l 18-7 19-2 r9-8
o.14 0.18 o.23 o.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 o.52 0.59 u.oo 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,@0psi is shown below eachspan
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 30 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare memured along the horizontal
determines required fiber stress. proitrtion, and loads are consideredas applied on the
horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
'180.
in inch6 divided by
1.51
2x4
24
2xG
10 - 4
1.07
19-3
1.51
't6-8
2x8
1.31
24 13-7
1.07
24-6
1.51
2x1O r6 21-3
t . J I
11-4
1.07
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Rqtlersqnd RoofJoists 313
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal
detetmines required fiber stress. .. projrction, and loads are considered as applied on the
horizontalprojection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a r i
in inchesdividedbv 180.
12 12-9 l3-1 1 t3- | 16 - 1 17-1 18-0 1 8 - ll r9-9 20-6 21-4 22-1 22-9 23-6 24-2 24-10
--::- 0.29
'11-0
0.38 0.49 0.59 o.71 0.83 0.96 r.09 1.23 t-JI 1.52 t.od 1.84 2.00 2.17
zx6 12-1 13-l l 3 - 11 14-10 7-9 't9-9
Ib 15-7 16-4 17-1 8-5 r9-l 20-4 20-11 21-6
0.25 0.33 o.42 0.51 0.61 0.72 0.83 0.94 .06 .19 t -Jz 1.45 1.59 1.73 1.88
24 9-0 9-10 10-8 I t-5 12-1 12-9 r3-4 r3-'t1 tqt 15 - 1 ta-r t6-1 l6-7 17-1 17-7
o.21 o.27 0.34 o.42 0.50 0.59 0.68 o.77 0.87 0.97 1.08 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.53
to-J 17-10 20-7 21-10 23-0 24-1 25-2 26-2 27-2 2A-2 29-1 30-0 30-10 31-8
o.29 0.38 0.49 0.59 0.7'l 0.83 0.96 1.09 1.23 1.37 1.52 1.68 1.84 2.00 2.17
2x10 16 14-1 15-5 to-d 17-10 1 8 - 11 1 9 - 11 20-10 21-10 22-8 23-7 24-5 25-2 zJ-t I 26.8 27-5
o.25 0.33 o.4? 0.51 0.61 o.72 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.19 1.32 1.45 1.59 1.73 1.88
a 12-7
I l-6
o.27
0.21
14-6
o.42
13-7
15-5
n?,
I o-J 17-1 17-10 18-6 19-3 1 9 - 11 20-7 21-2 2 l - 10 zz-a
0.50 0.59 0.68 o.77 o.87 0.97 1.08 1.19 1.30 1.41 1.53
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,0@,000psi is shownbelow eachspan.
O E S I G NC R I T E R I A
STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 30 psf live |oad de- RAFTERS: Spansare mecured along the horizontal
termins required fiber stre$. proirction, and loads are considered 6 applied on the
horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span
in inchesdividedby 180.
stzE, sPActNc
( tN . l 500 6@ 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 r300 I 400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
12 5-3 5-9 6-3 6-8 7-5 8-2 8-6 8-9 9-',| Y-5 9-8 t0-0 10-3
o.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 1.15 1.28 1.42 r.57 1.72 1.87 2.03
2x4 16 4-7 5-0 5-5 5-9 6-l 6-5 6-9 7-4 7-7 7-l t 8-2 8-5 8-8 8- 10
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.36 1.49 1.62 1.76
3-9 4-'l 4-5 4-8 5-0 E_? f,-o 5-9 6-0 6-3 6-5 b-d 6-10 7-3
0.19 0.25 o.32 0.39 0.47 0.55 0.63 o.72 0.81 0.9r 1.01 l.l I 1.21 1.32 r.43
12 8-3 9-l 9-9 10-5 11-1 11 - 8 I z-J 12-9 l3-4 3-r0 14-4 4-9 r 5-8 1 6 -I
0.27 U.Jb 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.02 1.15 .28 1.42 .72 1.87 2.03
zxo to 7-2 7 -10 q-E
9-1 9-7 10-7 t1-1 I t-o I z-a 2-9 3-2 13-7 l3-11
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 0.67 o.77 0.88 0.99 1.23 .JO .49 r.62
Ti 5-10 6-5 6 - 11 7-5 7 -1 0 8-3 8-8 9-l 9-5 9-9 1 0 -1
't.01 l0-5 IU-V I l-1 I 1-5
0.19 o.25 o.32 0.39 o.47 0.55 U.OJ o.72 0.81 0.91 1 . 1I 1.21 r.32 r.43
'12 1 0 - 11 12-10 13-9 14-7 I 5-5 r 6-2 t 6 - 10 t 7- 7 82 8-r0 r9-6 20-1 20-8 z t-5
o.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 t.t3 .28 .42 r.57 1.72 1.87 2.03
2x8 to 9-5 10-4 1 1-2 1t-t'l 12-8 13 - 4 14-0 14-7 t5-z 5-9 6-4 6-10 1 7- 4 r-11 18-4
o.24 0.31 0.39 0.48 0.57 o.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 .lI .23 .36 t.49 62 1.76
i 7-8 8-5 9-9 't0-4
l0-11 1l-5 11-11 I z-a 12,10 3-4 3-9 r 5-0
0.19 0.32 0.39 o.47 0.55 0.63 o.72 0.8r 0.91 .01 .11 t.2l 1.43
12 1 3 - 11 15-2 I o-J 17-1 18-7 19-8 20-7 21-6 24-1 24-10 25-7 26-4 2 7- 1
0.27 0.36 0.45 0.55 0.66 o.77 0.89 1.O2 1. 1 5 1.24 1.42 1.72 1.87 2.O3
2xIO - 124 I J-Z I 4-3 t5-z to-2 17-O 1 7 - '0t 18-7 Y-5 20-1 20-10 2't.49
t-6 22-2 zJ-a
0.26 0.34 0.43 n 6? 0.63 o.74 0.85 0.97 .09 |.22 1.35 | .oJ 1.78 1.93
24 9-10 l0-9 1t - 7 13-2 1 3 - 1I 14-7 tJ-2 15-10 I 6-5 r 7-0 18-1 r 8-7 19-2
n lo 0.25 o.32 0.47 't.11
0.55 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.9r 1.01 1.?1 r.32 1.43
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shownbetow eachspan.
AmericanForestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
314 Wood Preservqlives
RELATIVE TREATABILITY OF SELECTED DOMESTIC SPECTES WOOD TO BE
PROTECTED
H EA RT\^/OO D H EA RTWOOO H EARTWOOD HEARTWOOO
LEAST DI FFIC U LT MODERATELY DIFFICULT DIFFICULT VERY DIFFICULT
TO PENETRATE TO PEN ETRATE TO PENETRATE TO PENETRATE METAL
prne. prnyon TERMITE
arocYpress, SHIELD AT
prne, redwood Douglas fir (coast). Eastern mannspruce,grandlir, glastir (RockyMountain), 45'ANGLE
white pine, jack pine, loblolly lodgepolepine,nobletir, Northernwhite cedar,tama, FROM WALL
prne, longleaf pine, ponderosa sitkaspruce,Western rack.Western red cedar
pine, red pine, shortleaf pine, larch,white fir, White .FOUNDATION
/ WALLTO BE
sugar pine, Western hemlock spruce 1A' HIGH
ABOVE SOIL
TO UNTREATEf,
RELATIVE HEARTWOOD DECAY RESISTANCE OF NATURALLY RESISTANT LUMBER
ABOVT c)R USF
UNTREATED \/vOODS* ONLY TREATE -
WOOD WTH N
RESISTANT OR VERY RESISTAN MODERATELY RESISTANT SLIGHTLY OR NONRESISTANT 18" OF SOIL
cypress {old growlh), Cedar, whrte
oak, redwood fir,Westernlarch,Easternwhite pine Easternwhite, spruces,true firs CRIMPED CORNER
MASONRY
FOUNDATION
GENERAL
Wood may be destroyedby decaylungi; by insectslike car heartwoodof all speciesnaturallyresists decay).While the
penter ants and termitesj and by marineborersin saltwater penetrationof preseruativesis hard to determine without TERMITE PROTECTION DETAILS
exposures.Fourconditionsmust exist before these organ- damagangthe wood, retention of the preservativecan be
isms can destroy wood: (1) a lree oxygen supply; (2) a measur€ddirectlyby weighingthe wood, stated in terms of
moasturelevel in the wood above the fiber saturationooint pounds (of the chemical retained) per cubic toot (pcf). becausethe chromium reacts chemicallywith lhe wood
QOV.I:l3l a temperature in the rangeof 50 to gOoF;{41the Retenlion standardsare set by the American Wood Pre- permanentlybondingitseltand the copperand arsenictc
presenceof a f@d source,in this case,lhe wood. seryers' Assmiation and enforcedthrough chemicalanaly- the cell walls, preventingleachingduringits seruiceftfe
sis of treated wood by an independentthird-partyagency CcA-treat€dwood can last up to forty years.
In most indoor environments,where moisture levels are approved by the Am€rican Lumber StandardCommittee
geneclly low, w@d will last for a very long time. In certain {ALSC).A quality mark outlining peninent informationcan Anolher waterbornepreservativ€is borax,which has prom-
indoor environments,however, and in manv exterior envi- be found on complyingw@d st@k. ise due to its effectivenessagainstfungi and insectsand its
ronments,wood cannot be kept dry or out of the proximiv low-toxicityto psople and animals.However.it leachesout
of moisture. Most building codes recognizethis by requir- when the wood gets wet-
ing the use of pressure-treatedwood or naturallyresistant PRESERVATIVE TYPES
wood species where building componentscome into con-
tact wrth concrete,masonry,or exposedsoil. This require- Three classesof preseryativesare in use today: creosote, FINISHING OF PRESERVATIVE-
ment also covers floor joists and crawl space suppon oilborne (organic),and waterborne{inorganic). TREATED \/vOOD
remb€rs within 12 to 18 in. of exposedsoil.
CREOSOTEis a cGl-tar product that is dissolvedin a dis- Waterborne preseryativesare recommendedwhen clean,
tilled solutionor petroleumoil. lt is an €ffective preseruative odorless.and paintablewood productsare required.Wood
DECAY-RESISTANT WOOD in applicationswith extreme exposureto decay or insect treated with such preseryativesmay be used indoors rf
attack (marineborers in saltwater environments,such as sawdustand constructiondebrisare cleanedup. Painting
When specifyinga wood that will resistdecav.the choiceis marinepiles or bridgetimbers).W@d treated with the fulf wood treated with creosoteor oil-borneoentachloroohenol
betwe€n naturallydecay-resistantwood or wood treated cell processis more €ffective in these applications,but the is not recommended,as it is difficultto use, requiring
with preservatives.The first requiresuse ot the heanwood creosotemay bleed into the surroundings,causingcontam- extensive care and an aluminum-basedoaint. Paintable
of naturally decay-resistantwoods such as Western red ination.Most utility poles,freshwaterpiles,and fenceposts waterbornepentachlorophenol treatmentsareavailable.Fo
cedar,bald cypress,redwood,and othersthat containnatu- are treated with the empty{ell process, which yields a certain inlerior applicationsin commercial. industriai, or
ral poisons called extractives,which are not oalatableto clean,nonbleedingsurface.Creosot+treatedproductscan- farm buildings, creosote- or penta-treatedw@d may be
decay{ausingorganisms.However,lot all gradesor spe- not be painted, but epoxy shellac and coaltar pitch are used if exposed surfacesare sealedwith two coats of ure
cies ol these woods are suitabletor some structuralsitua- acceptablesealants.This type of preservativecan last from thaneor epoxypaintor shellac.Guidelines for precautions
tions. Treatingwood with preseruativesis a process that thiny to sixty years. Cleanair standardsprohibit the use of In these cases are outlined in an EPA-aoproved consumer
impregnates wood with chemicals thtough a pressure- creosotein many areas. informationsheet lor each preseruativetreatment-
treatment process.Use of nonpressuretreatmentssuch as
spraying,dipping,and brushingis mostly limitedto field ORGANICOIL-BORNEPRESERVATIVES are carried in
treatment of wood during constructionor remedial treat- organicsolvents such as liquefiedisbutane and are used FASTENERS
ment of existingwood in place. to treat most softwoods and hardwoods.These oreserva-
(penta),coppernaphthen CCA,ACA, and ACC are corrosiveto uncoatedmetals, For
tives includepentachlorophenol
abovegroundconstruction,hot-dippedor hot-tumbled gal.
ate. tributyltinoxide(TBTO).and copper8-quinolinotate. vanrzedsteel and stainlesssteel fastenersare recom
PRESSURE-TREATED \/vOOD
mended.Joist hangersandtraminganchorsshouldalsobe
There are two processes commonly used .for pressure Pentaextends the seryice life of wood by twenty to forty
years and is used to treat utility poles, fenceposts, and corrosionresistant.For below-gradeconstruction,such as
treatingwood. the full cell and modifiedfull ceilDr@esses. treatedwood loundationsystems,types 304 and 316 stain
In both, the wood is placed in a large,cylindricaltank and highwaytimbers. Tinted light to dark brown, penta-treated
less steel Type H silicon bronze, ETP copper, and monel
the preseryativeforced under pressureinto its cells. wood acceptsadhesivesand finishesreasonablvwell once
fasteners are required. Adhesives work well with CCA-
the oil mediumhas evaporated. Polyurethane, shellac,var- treated wood. Phenolresorcinol,resorcinol,and melemine-
In the moclifiedfull-cellprocess the preservativecoats the nish, and latex enamelare effective as sealants.Pentacan
formaldehyde structural adhesives are used in glulam
walls of the wood cells and is absorbedwhen the Drocess migrateto the surfaceof w@d. leach into the surroundinq
beams made lrom treated w@d members. On iob sites.
is finished the wood cell cavities are empty of preserva- soil, and contaminate groundwater. Only slowly does it
use adhesivesrecommendedfor use with treated'wood.
tives- Most over-the{ounter pressure-treatedwood is breakdoM into biodegradablecompounds..
treatedwith this process.In the fullrell pr@ess,a vacuum
is introduced at lhe begrnningto force the air out of the Plywoodand other wood treatedwith copper€{uinolinilale
PRECAUTIONS FOR USE AND
w@d cell cavities,which then remainfilled with Dreserva- can be used in applicationswhere food is harvested,trans-
ported, or stored. The chemicalis dissolvedin liquid Detro- HANDLING
tive after treatment. The full{ell process is used in most
creosote and pentachlorophenoltreatingtor wood used in leum gas or light hydrocarbonsolvents so the surface is The chemicalformulationsused for preseryativetreatment
severeenvironments, includingapplicationssuch as ulility clean and free of solvent odor. Consultwith the treatment of wood are registeredwith the EPA,which has approved
poles,.railroadties, saltwaterpiles, and timber bridges. companyregardingapplicableFDAand USDAacceptances. guidelinesfor the use of pressure,treatedwood to ensure
Regardlessof which pr@ess is used, the wood is geneially safe handlingand avoidenvtronmental or other healthha/
dried to a 2O7omoisture content prior to treatmentto pro- INORGANICWATERBORNEPRESERVATTVES are the ards.Someguidelines for use andhandlingfollow:
mote maxrmumpenetrationof the preseruative. most popularand commonly availabletypes used for treat-
ing wood. They include chromatedcopper arsenate(CCA), 1. Disposeot treatedwood by ordinarytrashcollectionor
ammoniacalcopper arsenale (ACA),and ammoniacalcop- burial.Treatedwood shouldnever be burned in open
PENETRATION pe. zioc arsenate(ACZA).These preseryativesare related firesor in stoves,fireplaces,
or residential
boilers.
AND RETENTION
chemically and havea lot in common.Chromiumholdsthe
OF PRESERVATIVES 2. Avoidfrequentinhalation of sawdustfrom treatedwood
other components in the wood and prevents leaching; Wheneverpossible,sawing and machiningof treated
Penetrationand retentionare the two measuresthat define ammon,ahelps carry copper, zinc, and arsenicdeeper into
wood should be done outdoors.
the effectiveness of preservation methods. penetration the wood: arsenic guards against attack by termites and
dependson the speciesol wood and the sizeof the lumber {ungi. Southernyellow pine is usually treated with CCA, 3. Avoidfrequentor prolongedskin contactwith penta-or
member being treated. Some speciesthat resist preserva- and Douglasfir and other western w@ds with ACA and creosote-treatedwood.
trve penetratron,such as Douglasfir, are incisedwith small ACZA.The variousformulations of CCAvarv in the amount 4. After handling treated wood products, wash exposed
slatsto make treatment more effective. Others, such as of chromium,copper,and arsenicthey contain.The oride areasthoroughlybeforeeatingor drinking.
Southernyellow pine, are easily treated without incisions. form of CCA,type C, is widely preferredfor most construc,
While the sapwood of some specjes is readilypenetrated, tion. During the treatment prcess, CCA is water soluble.
the heartwood of most resists penetration(althoughthe but aardrying for a few days renders it insoluble.This is
WOOD TREATMENT
Wood Preservotives 3t5
TIMBERS,
AND
PLYWOOD
construcuon:
guide,sign,
and sight
* NR = not re@mmended
Wood Preseryers'Associatim, P.O. Box 286, Wood- 3 Coppernaphthenateis also approvedby AWPA as
I Areri€n W@d Preseryers'Association an oil-
IAWPA) Stan- st@k, MD 2l 163{286. For other wood sgecies.contact borne preservativelor specilic wood speciesand applica
dards detail plant operating procedures for pressure the relevantorganization. tronsexcludingsaltwateruse_
treatrent of wood. These standardsinclude minimum , ACA, ACZA, and CCA are tho most commonlv available a Assay retentions are based on two assav
vacuum. pressure, and penetrataonrequirements and zones--{ to
wa,terborne preseryatives. Ammoniacal copper quat 0.5 in. and 0 to 2 0 in.
maxrmumsteamingparameters.AWPA alsodetailsmini- (ACO)is also approvedby AWPA as a waterborne pre- 5 Not recommendedwhere cleanlinessand freedom from
mum retenttonrequtrements,sampling zones for assay servativefor Southernpine,Westernhemlck, Hem-frr,
and maximum redryingtemperatureallowancesfor each and Douglastir as lumber, timbers. plyw@d, and fence- odor are necessary.
preseryative.commodity,and wood species.For a copy DOStS.
of the AWPA standardsbooklet, write to the American
n99A'..
^_'il993GRoUND APP LI CATIO N S
ARSENICALS
I n-r
- - lN\ilirzir.lT
r A!rh,
'KDAT-\ rnrenorcomponents
I %49 are tn groundcontactand subject to decy or insectattack
D_,-__*_-=*eoAre (alsosee #5 below)
"q0.--.
-=-1
H -
*AECTREAT1NGCO" E
the treatedwood
ANnOi[,t,
u-sA
ln wh€h O.eseryalives mav a compo-
nent of food or animalfeed, such as structuresor container
A: Trademarkof inspectionagencycertrtiedby the Amer- for storingsilageor food
ican Lumber StandardCommittee (ALSC):contactthe
trng boards or countertops prepann9
SouthernPine Council(SPC)or ALSCfor a list of cenj,
tied inspectionagencies. s, patros,
free from residues
B:Applicable American Wmd Preseryers' Associatjon
(AWPA)standard beehrves that may come into contacl
C: Yearof treatment tn whrch treated wood €n come into direct or
D: Presemtive used for treatment indirectcontactwith drinkingwater for publicor animalcon-
sumption
E: Retentionlevel
F: Dry or KDAT{kilndriedafrer treatment),if apolicable 1 Basedon EPA-approved consurer informationsheets
G:Properexposureconditions , Must be paintedwith two c@ts ot recommendedsealer
H:Treatingcompanyand l@ation 3 Okayfor incidentalcontactsuch as bridgesor docks
TYPICAL QUALITY MARK FOR TREATED
LUMBER
WOOD TREATMENT
316 TreotedWood
Fire-Retordont
UL CLASSIFICATION OR CONTROL NUMBER --
GENERAL
TREATER'S NAME (REOUIRED) -..
Building constructron materials are testod for four criteria
related to performance during a fire: frre resistance, flame PROPRIETARY
spread, {uel contributed, and smoke developed. Fire resis- BRAND NAME
(ALL FRT IS INDICATES FLAMF
tance is the material's ability to resist burning whrle retain-
ing its structural integrity- Flame spread measures the rate
PROPRIETARY) -- -- -.\ SPREAD TEST
ACCORDING TO
at which flames travel along the surface of a material. Fuel AMERICAN W@D ASTM E.&
contributed is a measure of how much combustible matter (STANDARD
ASS@ANON DURATION OF
a material furnishes to a fire. Smoke developed is a mea- STANDARD FG TEST rS 1O MrN.)
sure of the surface burning characteristics of a material. MOISTURE CONTENT (M C );
C'2O FOR LUMBER IS
19% M.c. C-27 FOR ,/
How lire spreads through w@d structures depends on the PLWMD IS 15% M.C. - REOUIRED TEST
size and arrangement of wood members and the details RESULTS IF NOT
that restrict or encourage air movement around them. NATIONAL EVALUATION
Larger cross sections take longer to burn. As wood burns, it REPORT CUSSIFICATION
NUMBER (NOT REOUIRED) _
develoos an outer laver of charcoal, which Insulates the ..-
INDICATES TBAT TEST
wood beneath and slows butning. This "char" Iayer pro- RESULTS ARE 25 OR LESS
ceeds through the burning wood at an average rate of 1rl,
in. per hour. Various design strategaes can be used to resist
fire damage to a wood structure and its spread to adjacent .KILN \ (SOME
DRIED AMER TREATMENT" DATE OF TREATMENT
areas. but the most imponant is to protect the wood mem- (SOMETIMES PRODUCT IS AIR DRIED) CODES REOUIRE THIS)
bersby means of coverings, coatings, or tre?tments- NOTE
WOOD TREATMENT
Wood Adhesives 317
.'B.S' SINGLE RIBBON
/ APPLIED ON TNTERMEDTATE
/ FRAMING MEMBERS
?J6" OIAMETER
RIBBON WIDTH,
RECOMMENDED.
ADHESIVE GUN
-ADHESIW
COVERAGE
DETERMINED
BY NOTCH SZE
NOTCHED TROWEL CTO SPREAD NOT E
ADHESIVE OVER I.ARGE AREAS)
Adhesive is applied to one surface only.
ADHESIVES SUMMARY
CLASS TYPICAL USES
lnteflor use and
with melamineor other resins underdamp conditions;moderateto low rosistanceto temperatures interiorparticleboard;tlush doors;furnitu.ecore
above120"F;white or tan color stock
nrgn suengln unoer Dotnwet and dry con( aonesrve
ture and damp conditions:dark red in color and llakeboard
resrn Hrgh Strength under both wet and dry co veryresrstantto mors. adhesive s 3no assem-
phenol-resorcinol
resins ture and damp conditions: dark red color bly joints to withstand severe seryice conditrons
acerate hrghstrengthIn dry conditions;low r€sistanceto moisture
emulsrons elevatedtemperatures;ioints tend to yield under continuedstressj white lamrnates.archatectural
woodworking
or Yellowcolor
to polwrnyl acetateresrnemul.
acetateresin emulsions tural woodworking
an elastomer base In organrc Sol- Initral ioint strength develops immediately upon pressing, increases slowly
over a period of weeks; dry strength generally lower than thos€ ot conven-
rativelaminatesto substrates.Usefulfor low-
tionalw@dworking glues;water resistahe and resistanceto severecon- strengthmetal and some plastic bonding.
ditionsvariable:color varies
(elastomeric (jap trllrng: develops strength slowly over several weeks: water rests'tance Lumberand plywood to joists and studs;gypsum
constructionadhesives) elastomerbase,usuallyin organicsolvents and resistance lor severe conditions vary: color varies boa.d;stvrene and urethanefoams
syft
thetic resins {hot melts} adhesrves: mrnimal o€netration; moislure resistant; white to tan color
polymers,usuallyIn two pans, Used In combrnatron wrth other resrns lor bondrng
manencein wood joints not adequatelyestablished; metals, plastics, and materials other than wood:
fabrication of cold-molded wood panels
lamrnalng
(casein and hide)
Many of these synthetic adhesives are used to manufac- Cu(ently, most adhesivesuse organicsolv€nts,but water- Adhesives used for building have been formulated to toler-
ture products such as ph/w@d, oriente+strand board basedadhesivesare gainingin popularitybecausethey do ate many of the often adverse conditions that exist at mosl
(OSB), and laminated timbers. They can also be used during not emit harmful vapors,are easy to clean up, and can be Job sites, such as extreme temperatures and temperature
construction to attach plywood subfloors to floor loists, discardedas regulartrash.Duringthe specificationprocess, tluctuations. They are excellent for filling gaps. and thus
adhere ceramac tiles to fl@rs or walls. attach drywall. and disposalof the containersfrom organicsolvents must be work on both smooth and rough surfaces. Because they
the like. In addition to their structural use, adhesives also considered. Many jurisdictionsare enactingcleanair stat- form bond lines up to'/. in. thick, they can bridge gaps
can be used to eliminate squeaks in floors and tor some utesin whichorganicsolventsaretargetedas airpollutants. between illfitting pieces. The degree of adhesion depends
mechanical fastening. ln addition,organic solvents can have adverse aflects on on the surtace conditions of the materials; ice, dirt, grease,
the workers who apply them as well 6 tuture building or other contaminants will all have a negative ellect.
Adhesives are composed of a base component, dispersion occuoants.One drawbackto most water$ased adhesives
medium, and various additives that impart specific propel is that they tend only to resist water, while the solvent- Many of the characteristics of modern adhesives are
ties. The elasloreric base of a construction-tvoe adhesive basedadhesivesare waterproof. described an the table. Note that most adhere to wood, but
accounts for 30 to 507o of its weight. Depending on its performance depends on careful consideration of physical
and chemical compalibility of glue and wood, processing
requirements. mechanical properties, and durability under
des,gn conditions.
ROOFING
NAM SHAPE MATERIAL FINISH
SIDING
& SHINGLE
or|- copper,or
aluminum Smooth.
bright, zjnc- or
c rF:.
(BARBED) Steel or cementroated
ROOFING
aluminum
ROOFING
NONLEAKING
o ltr* Steel
ROOFING
o$-
SHINGLN
E AIL Steel or cut iron
I ft-r- Plain or zincroated
CUTSLATING Copper.munu
(NONFERROUS)
o fl: metal, or zrnc
GUTTERSPIKE
(ROUND) o[ o Steel Bright or zanc{oated
GUTTERSPIKE /^\ ]l
(ANNULAR) Copper Bright
v/ \l
FINISH WORK
NAM E MATERIAL FINISH
WALLBOARD
F I N EN A I L
o Steel or
alumanum
blued, or cement
coated
O|l--. Bright
Steel
MISCELLANEOUS
NAM E SHAPE M A T E R IA L FINISH
CEMENT thnn
-
(f Smooth, bright, or
t \_-/ oil-quenched
CEMENT
(FLUTED
HELICAL) Hardened
OFFSET
(LATH)
I Steel
HOOKED
{LATH) 0 Bright,btued,or
zinc{oated
TAPLE
G
Charles F. D. Egbert, AIA; Architect; Washington, D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
StructurqlWood Fqsteners 319
WOOD STUD .
METAL HOLD-
DOWN STPAP
L-a'- 1A" - 24'
2X PRESSURE
TREATED WOOD
SILL PLATE -\,
(aPPROX.)
TOP
PUTES
WASHER SILL
(offroNAL) fuE
HRADED ROO
IN-LINE SruD THROUGH FLG
SRUflRE OR TOP FI,ANGE FACE-MOUNT
NOTE: Ties notched rafter to stud on same plane as rafter ANCHOR BOLT METAI
for tension load connection. INTO FOUNMTION HOLD.DO\m NOTE: Joist connector (in wide variety of sizes).
OR UFLIff
RAFTER-TO-STUD TIE JOIST HANGERS
NorE:rransfers tcds o"**"
tension o"illl?T,roo
poststo foundation.
METAL HOLD-DOWN/IJPLIFT ANCHOR
-WOOD STUD
ALTERNATE
INSTALUTION @NCREE
OF ANCHOR OR CMU
FOUNDATION
METI SII IuE
ANCHOR- -
Hr \-*-|,*-
,,
SILL PLATE ANCHORS/SIDE board in lieu of wood framing; can save wood material.
{
1/2'-21h.
| 11/4'
'#'-*r( '";_1',l1[[
METAL
REAED {-F*
f:ll'-.-*,.S
- ' i 6-: .|'
o"...,." SII PGTE
ALTERNATE
INSTAI.LANON
NCHOR
wooD
PUTE
sr[ Itrd
OF ANCHOR -
ff .l1 il .i
f.:tlb
n\Y
\\
*e
l . . li 1 ; l ' , . ', , . ' Z.CLIP METAL
ANGLE
ROOF
CLIP
TRTJSS
-_tJ I
^__
STRAP -1- ^lil1."..,..
^__.
L-STRAP \N
coNcRETE
OR CMU
FOUNDATION
:'
Z-CLIP Secures 2x blockrng between joists and/or trusses.
METAL ANGLE: Provides varied wood-tqw@d or wood-tq
STRAP: For tying varied tension load connections, e.9., concrete anchorage.
NOTE:Anchors sill Olateto concrete CMU foundation
joists at ridge, wall-tcfloor connections, etc. wail. ROOF TRUSS CLIP: Provid€s alignment control belween
T- AND L-STRAPS: For varied vertical to horizontal SILL PT-.ATE ANCHORS/CENTERLINE roof truss and nonbearing walls; slot permits loadinduced
INSTALT.ATION truss movemenr-
NOTES
1. For utmosl rigidity, strength, and service, each type of these forcas. ln some joints, the fastener or connector is and other fasteners may corrode when in contact with
lastener requires ioint designs adapted to wood strength the only resistor to the applied load. material treated with cenain preseruatives. Fasteners
along and across the grain and to dimensional changes made of hotdipped galvanized steel. copper, silicon
3. Most fasteners used lo ioin wood framing or to attach
that mav @cur with variations in moisture content. retal connectors to traming are made of steel, with a bronze, and 304 and 316 stainless steel have performed
hotdipped galvanized coating the most typical linish well in wood treated with ammonaacal cooper arsenate
2. For lorces such as wind uplift and lateral loads (wind and
(ACA) and chromated copp€r arsenate (CCA), the most
eanhquake), the toundation, flootrtqfloor, and roof con- used. Stainless steel, or finishes such as a corrosion-
resistant primer or a copolymer coating. can also be common preseryatives lor wood. Of course, provision
nections are the main areas of concern, although, in vary-
used. In the oresence of moisture, metals used for nails should always be made to avoid galvanic action between
ing degrees, all connections taken together will resist
dissimilar metals.
FASTENINGS
WOOD AND PLASTIC
320 Shieldsond Anchors
TO INSERT
---f i scREw-
f
tl AD
ltl
m-l-I
kh-r
g1
H-l_, I
NHI
dJ'l
N=l
ntt | | o.o
t4i,- 1/d
l-Nt I I DIA. OF BOLT
gr7 xl -l#
ffi
SELF-DRILLING
SION ANCHOR
EXPAN-
lr-rL- (SNAP.OFF TYPE)
rrr'- NOTE
SINGLE S IN G L E M U LTI PLE MULTIPLE l. Refer to manufactu.ers for size varia
EXPANDING EXPANDING
so ANCHOR
(cAULKtNGI
ANCHOR
(NoNcAULKING
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
EXPANDING
ANCHOR
DOUBLE
ACTING
tions within the limits shown, and tor
different types of bolts.
IPLAIN STYLE) (THREADEO STYLEI SHIELD
F
J 2. The anchor i5 made of caE hardened
a
steel and drawn carburazing steel_
E=T_T
tll
Bfl I
1 \/ z
11ES\
\EEI/
II
2t/a llEHl,l
/FHI
l"-/
I|
31/z
z
F1 I
4 1 /a
'Use of three o
units in th* diameiersis rmommended.
c
NOTE o
o
l. Extensronsrse lor dep sning. z
3. Many are threaded for use wtth the head of the rcrew
2. Expansion$ietds and anchorsstrown are repre- outsade, sme with the head inside and $me types re
stative of many typ6, eme ot which mav b€ quire setting tools to install.
usd in singleo. mulriple units. 4. In light construction plastic expansion shields are
used freauentlv.
tj-f
i'!-+ l-E FJl
"ltlI
)lE I
uMg ,tt +I
N
-
3 o
u
z
tr'
a
J
J il E|
o
!
N.
o
]
u
t
o
B
Z-\
tl
H
LEAD SHIELO
E
o
z
2
t E
F|
-w-.
U c FOR LAG
t o J
LAG BOLT EXPANSION u
(J o BOLT OR
N o
o SHIELO wooD scREw
o
o o
o
o
u
o
E
J r"?,5 ie
OR
STUO
ANCFIOR ikt"?"t"
J 3 o o MIN, MIN. MIN.
SHORT LONG
U HOLE HOLE HOLE
U
r38 3/a-11/z z q DEPTH DEPTH DEPTH HEAD
o L o L o L D STYLE
d 164 3/a -11
/z
l0 .190 Acorn
| - 1 1 /z 13/a 31/a 1 3/ e lx/a -31 /a 13/a t/z-11/s nut
t2 .z to |-l1lz
Hex
l4 ,z5u I 1t/z 1-11/z JZL 1r/a nut
16 ,zo6 lt/z 211a-5 21/.6 1 s/a 1 ) l s- 3
18 .294 3/e
11/z .50( 23/a -7 21le 23/a -51 /a 21!1 -4 1 1/ e
-t16
20 .320 1 1 /a 13/a 13/a
.624 31/z -8t /: 33/a-7 23/e 21/a-6
24 Jtz 5/a
1 3 /a 21/z 13/a lt /a -1O 3 1 /a 41/a -81/t 2t/e 2t/z-8 21/a -51 /z
.500 a .875 b-tu 33/a
.ozt z 3t /z I r.00 o 4 1 /z
750 3t/z 25 9- 5t/z
Sleve anchorsavailablein acorn nut, hex nut, flat head,round head, phillips
round head,and tie wire headstvles.
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
Screwsond Bolts 32r
M A C H I N EE S
SCCRREEW
W ANO 5 TOVE (lNS.l SCREW ANO BOLT LENGTHS {INS.I
3 CAP SCREWS BOLTS
U U.
6 :,;
o U =, BUTTON FLAT HEXAGON FILLISTER MACHINE CARRIAGE
6 '/6-
Z '/a-1 v, 1'/z-4'/z |-30 r -20 11/z-16
,/e
'/32 6 t/,a-3 3/'a-2 2-6 13/,-5 1Vz-30 2- to
-/16
10 '/r6-O
%o-3 2-5 1Yz-30
12 v,-3 y4-3 Lengthintervals= % in. increments up to 1 in., % in. L e n g t h i n t e r v a l s = % i n . LengthinteF
'/1
incrementstrom 1t/t io. to 4 in., \/, in. incrementslrom 4t/z in
Incremenls increments up to 6 in., % vals = % in.
6- O 416-J Ye-6 to 6 in. in. increments from 6% in Inctemenlsup
%-6 3/a-3 y4-6 to l2 in., I in. increments t o 8 i n . , 1 i n .
'l
'/2-) over 2 in. incrementsov
v, v7
Lengthintervals= %Gin. increments up to % in.. % in. increments
from % io. to 1% in., % in. incrementshon l'/z in. to 3 in.. % in.
incrementsfrom 3% in. to 6 in.
NOTE:N.C. = Cou.sethread ROUNO FLAT FILLISTER TRUSS HEX \^/ASHER
HEAO T
@rc))r
/\-\
\ \w \v/ l+- l+i:i
V YU \/ \-/
.lR.ln
l€19
r\
couNrERsu
SUNK
,:?:f".,
lr\ ln\
ffiA -t\<z\ l{()tt{()l
__Jt+]ir,tIKllI
/\
LOCK
( INTERNAL )
( EXTERNAL }
t-
#ts
+ E) -,t-
I
=>
=:
+--+
l-
+-+r:
| -=
,ln n ,I
closing the gap belween the
ing down the thread as the washe. and the bolt head.
bolt is tightened,to prevenl
l@sening lfom shock and
vibration.
V7 Measurement of the gap indi-
cates whether the bolt has
been tightened adequately. |t ll R []
WASHERS |t
|t
tl
t l llltl
ffil
l\\
+Y/ Ir_iJJ / l
a
Highiension.stainlesssteel
Fiberglass nuts and bolts
are noncorrosive and non-
conductive. Bolts ate
helicalinsertsare held in
place by spring-likepres-
EgiisB 33,!f' E8SB"
available in 3/sin.. '/2 in., s/s
sure, and they are used to
in., 3/. in., and 1 in. slan-
salvagedamagedth.eads.
They also eliminatethread +5
+----9Jq1-
+-+e_
F % , + _#: _ + %-
dard diameters.
failuredue to stresscondi- ltt-:ttt-
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC
FASTENINGS
322 Rivefs,Screws,ond MiscelloneousFosteners
r^)
'(/
/A
\u/
FIR
tu I
/A
\"/
tl V\/
H e aa TOGGLE ( IN INCHES)
5/t
1," t,
TURNEIUCKLES ( tN INeHES) DECIMAL EOUIV r38 164 r90 .250 13 .500
t/,
r.438 1.875 1.875 2.750 2.875 4.625
DI AMETER t/z ,/e
B .500 500 688 ,6/5 l.txx) 1.250
OECI. EQUIV .250 ttl 375 .500 625 .750 't.00
875 2-4 2 t/t
WING 2-6 2'/z - -6 J_D
4 4 '/z 6" 6" o
1 . 2 5 0 2.000 2.000 2.250 2.150 2.150
9" 9"
B .500 500 .688 415 .875
12" 12" 12" 12 E 2-4 2'/z
,/t 3-6
1,
t/, '/" ,2 1 1/tz 1 '/t 1 2t/tz 1 1/e
2.000 2.000 2.250 2.750 2.750
B 500 .625 .688
OIAreT€RS ffR f' ryALA4E, NOT 4WAYS
RIVITEO TUMBLE 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6 3-6
STOCKEO
1
f?, .41.{h rrn-, -dh:,t F1fi> 6fr1 6D
-+H fillt?
ilfi
-lFW tllFLillliUj qlil'ttdY
Ttr'EAC)EO
6 PULL MANOREL ORIVE FIN CHTMICALLY EXPANOTO
TS FoR UgE IN A JoINT
m
THAT Is ACCEGSIBLE FRoM oNLY oNE SIoE
/-1r\
H? @ IP tr \N\\\'N",
LJ TJ \7 [J r_, ffu*
| |
ov{HeAo
PAry
\l_-
ETANOARO RIVETS AVAILABLE wrrH soLTo,TUBULAR aNo GpLrr sHNKs oF 6TEEL, BRAss, copr'ER, sLorrEo
ALWINUM,MONEL METAL AND sTAINLESS STEELi IN OIAMETER€ OF I/e.. To 7/16'' ANo LENGTHS
OF 3/16" TO 4lN.
Etssss\rus-e vU
/^\
r-\smsw
"x
ffiT METALGIMLET POTNT
Self-drilling,astenefs: used to attach metal to metal,
Sheet metal gimlet point: hardened, self-tapping.
wood, and concrete.Consult manufaclurerfor sizesand
Used in 28 gauge to 6 g€uge sheet metal; alumi-
drillingcapabiiities.
num, plaslic, slate, etc. Usual head tvoes.
o
rTr
o rA\
\/
6HET METAL BLUNT POINT
Sheet metal bluot point: hardened, selttapping.
Used in 28 to 1 8 gauge sheet metal. Made in sizes
v tl
LJ
w F.1
4 ro 14 ln usual head tvoes. FREARSON
a =
= =
9.-
TimolhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C
HEAOER
VALLEY NAILER
OORMER RIOGE
HEAOER
DORMER RAFTER
FASCIA
wooo oR
STTEL STUO
BRACING
SHORT HEAOER
PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING
2)<4 JOIST
SOLE
PLATE
HEAOER
OOUBLE PLATE
JOIST TWO 2 X 4'S
LEDGER
CARRIAGE
FOUNDATION
CONC RETE OR MASONRY
YWOOD SHEATHING AT
CORNER BRACES FRAME,
OTHER SHEATHING MAY
AE NON-STRUCTURAL
PLATFORM FRAMING
NOTES
WESTERN OR PLATFORM FRAMING BRACING EXTERIOR WALLS
STUO WALL Eefore any of the superstructure is erected, the first lloor Because floor lraming and wall frames do not interlock.
SOLE PLATE subflooring is put down making a platform on which the adequale sheathing must acl as bracing and provide the
walls and panhions can be assembled and tilted into place. necessary late.al resistance. Where required lor additional
The process is r€peated lor each story of the building. This stiffness or bracing, 1 x 4's may be let into outer face of
HEAOER traming system is used trequently . studs at 45o angle secu.ed at top, bottom, and lo studs.
JOIST
FIRESTOPPING BRIOGING FOR FLOOR JOISTS
TOP PLATE
SOLE PLATE All concealed spaces in framing, with the exception of May be omitted when tlooring is oailed adequately to joisl;
areas around llues and chimneys, are to be lined with 2 however, where nominal depth-to-thickness tatio ol ioists
SUBFLOORING in, blocking arranged to prevenl drafts between spaces. exceeds 6, bridging would be installed at 8 lt.0 in. ioter
HEAOER vals. Building codes may allow omission of btidging under
EXTERIOR WALL FRAMING certain conditions,
FLOOR JOIST
One story buildings: 2 x 4's, 16 in. or 24 in. o.c.;
SILL PLATE
2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c. Steel bridging is available.Some typesdo not.equire nails.
r,!" o aNcHoR BoLT Two and three stories: 2 x 4's, l6 in. o.c.;
FOUNOATION WALL 2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
324 TreotedWood Foundotions
FBSHING SHEATHING PLWOOD FLOOR JOIST
SEAGNT
2X FIELD APPLIED TOP PLATE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED TOP PLATE
- PRESSURE-REATED
PLWOOD COVER PDE
POLYETHYLENE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED WAER DreRTER
STUD WALL
FINISH GRADE
,-.---- POLYffHYLENE SLOPE !4' PER
VArcR BARRIER F@T MIN. 6'
AAN INSUGNON
WITH VArcR BARRIER SOD AND
TOPSOIL AT GRADE
TOP PUTE
FASEN
For less than 48 in. backfill,use standardlraming methods
STUDS TO TOP 'lod BASEMENT
PUTE BEAM WTH JOIST and fasten staiMell headerto too olate with three toe- WALL WITH EXTERIOR
HANGER naals. KNEE WALI-
ROUGHCARPENTRY
TreotedWoodFoundolions 325
PRESSURE.TREATED RESSURE TREATED W6D , PRISSURE-TREATED FLMR SHEATHING PLWOOD
FOUNDATION WALL FOUNDATION SIDE WALL 11 /.' GAP BTMEEN PLW@D AND STUDS)
STUD -'.--- PRESSURE TREATED W@D
PRESSURE-TRATED SPACED FOUNDATION END WALL
PRESSURE.TREATED FLOOR JOISTS UNDER
FOUNDATION WALL BEARING PRESSURE.TREATED
SBEATHING
BEARING WALL CONTINUOUS HEADER
PRESSURE TREATED WITH JOISTS BUfrING
BONOM PLATE STUDS ALIGN WITH HEAOER AND END NAILED
FL@R rcISTS
PRESSURE BEARING
MEATED PRESSURE
FOOTING TRAED FOR BACKFILL
wooD HEIGHTS 5' O'
SLEEERS OR LESS, NAIL
JOISTS TO
WALL STUD STUDS: 5 €"
OR MORE.
SEALANT THE JOIST IS
CAULKED €INT DOUBLED AND
NAILED TO
=- SHEATHING STUDS
\'a'GAe BEruEEN
NOTES ENDS OF SLEEPERS
OR FOONNG PUTES
1. At an outsidecorner,soilpressures
tendto forcethe wall AND WALL PUTE
sectionstogether,makingreinforcementunnecessary. JOISTS BUfrED END TO END
WITH SOLID BL€KING TIGHTLY
2. Threestudsshouldbe usedat the cornerto supponinte- AND FLOOR JOISTS
FINED TO PREVEM JOIST TWISTING
rior finishes. GRANUUR
DRANAGE UYER d PRtrSSURL REATED FOOTING PG]E
OUTSIDE CORNER DETAILS
PRESSURE.TREATED FLOOR JOISTS
NOTES
l.Joists to be butted end to end over pressure-treated 2. Floor stiffness will be increased by blocking between
wmo sl€pers. every ioast above each sleeper.
PRESSURE-REATED
4WOOD FLMR SHAfrING
PRESSURE.RAED BL@KING
BL€K|M-
PRESSURE.MAED
BLMKING IN LINE
WTH STUDS
MESSURE.TREAED
FOUNDANON
WALL SruOS
SAUNT AT
2X STUD -
COMINUOUS
SFqNT AT
MIOPOIM OF
8' ANCHOR NAIL BONDS, frP
GALVANED PRIOR
DRIWN
MESSURE. TO ASTING BARRIER
FLOOR >
TREATED SLAB
BOfrOM
tuE-
CONCRE TE
SGB
SEAUNT AT
FOOTING PUTE BOARO JOINT,
BEFORE ASSEMBLY
DETAIL 3
ROUGHCARPENTRY
326 TreotedWood Foundotions
/ BEAM POCK€T GYPSUM BOARD WOOD STUDS. AS
(ON ONE SIDE. MIN.)
TREATED FIELD.APPLIED
CRIPPLE TOP PUTE \ a lo"wrr
STUDS
WOOD 2X HEADER
-. - TREATED
. TOP PI AAF
BUILT-UP F
wooD -
BAM > INTERIOR
SHEAR
SYSTEM
2X STUD
BEARING PLWOOD
SHEATHING,
BUILT-UP BOTH SIOES
wmD
COLUMN -/ BL@KING MIO-WALL
/ (omroNAL)
BL@KING A]
PLYWOOD
JOINT
wooD
@LUMN rcLY. 2X WC)OD
FOOTING ffiYLENE SruDS
VArcR
END WALL BARRIER STEEL
wooD ANCHOR
COLUMN BOLT. AS
NECESSARY
TREATED
WOOD FOOTING PUTE rcUBLE
2X BONOM
MAIN BEAMS AND COLUMNS BOTTOM CONCRETE
PGTES SLAB\\
TREAED
AP rcLY- SPACER
REATED MYLENE
PUTE FOOTING
TOP VArcR
PUTE BARRIER
FRAMING
CLIPS
BOTH
GRANUUR
DRAINAGE GRAWL
$;z'-ggt*==
\ cnaruuran
FOR2X6' UYER FILL -
LIMEL SIDES DRAINAGE UYER
USE SIX LIl.ftL NOTE
3' NALS BEARING WALL AT CONCRETE SLAB
MEMBTRS
ACH END: Interior shear wall malerial does not need to be treated
FOR2X8' TED with wood preservatives.
LINTEL RIMMER
USE EIGff
3' NALS INTERIOR SHEAR WALL DETATL
ACH END
TRAED
3' NAILS
SII PUTE W@D FLOOR
JOIST
aT 12. O.C. RilED
BONOM IuTE WOOD E]LMKNG
FULL. aT 24' O.C. Md.
METAL JOIST sPLtcE (MrN.
LENGTH HANGERS OR 1'X a'X 32',)
RATED FRNING
SruDS GIPRE CLIPS
THREE 3%'
STUDS NAILS. MIN. PER
BLOCK IMO
NOTES TOP |uTE
1. For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and it width of opening WOOD TOP
is 4 ft 0 in. ro 5 ft 6 in., use double siil Dlatesand double BEARING ruo PUTES
tull-lengthwall studs. SHEAR WALL
|uE
2- For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and if width ot opening GYPSUM
BARING WAI
is 6 ft 0 in. to I ft 0 in., use triple sill platesand triple fula TOP fuE BOARD FINISH
length wll studs- (omroNAL)
BEARING
3. For backfillheightsof 48 in- or less, nailingand fastening WALL SruDS PAR,ALLEL FLruOOD SHEAftING
can conformto the appropriatebuildingcode. JOIST OETAIL BOG SIDES
4. For backfill heights greater than 4 ft 6 in. or openings INTERIOR BEARING WALL_FLOOR 1 6d TOE NAILS
JOIST SUPPORT ryPICAL
wider than 9 ft 0 in., contactengineerfor design.
w@D
WINDOW FRAMING DETAIL BLOCKING
BEruEEN
BEARING WIL EACH FL@R
REATED SHAfrING PLWMD CAP PUTE JOIST
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP PUTE
2X TRATEO TOP PUTE STEEL
2X SruO FRAMING
CONSMUCNON ANCHOR. ONE
BONOM PUTE
SHEAR WALL
F@NNG PUTE
BONOM fuTE BARING W&L
' TOP |uTE
-LtNe oF GRAWL
-'a BACkFII PERPENDICULAR JOTST I)ETAIL
Y'
SUPPOffi FRAME MAOE SPLICE
f OF 2X MEMBERS \mH (2X4X24.MtN.) SHEAR WALL ANCHORAGE
J-, BOnOM PUTE BEARTNG
ON MNOEO FOONNG BARING SHEAR \/VALLS AS RACKING
, fuTE; FRAME SHAHED
rN PLW@D (^tOT SHOWN) (::s RESISTANCE
fuTE Foundation
wallsmaybe subjectto rackingloads,which
STEPPED FOOTING DETATL occur parallel to a wall and can cause shearing forces along
/BaRNG the plane of the wall. Racking loads are caused by soil pres:
TREAED SHUTHING PLW@D sure and other lateral forces such as earthquake and wind.
MID-HEIGHT ALOCKING fuTE Walls. connections. and tasteners must be desioned to
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP fuTE resist these torces. Generally, soil pressure comes i-ntoplay
2X TRAED TOP fuTE -2X4JOIST for backfill greater than 24 in. in height: check anticipated
2X STUD SUPrcRT wind and earthquake forces to determine how best to
@NSTRUCTION SECURELY
NAILED TO accommodate them.
2X CRIPPLE ACH SIDE OF
STUDS (2 MtN.) BEARING WALL
BONOM PUTE Check long shear walls or those with a length-tewidth ratjo
greater than 2:1 for diaphragm detlection, particularly if the
FOOTING PUTE
structure is built on a slope. The unequal heights of the
SPANNING
BEAM backfill on a slope apply unequal loads to the end walls or
, --8HF€[ .JOIST
END.NAILING
walls parallel to the tloor joist system. These walls. having
received these loads by the diaphragm action of the floor
- BACKF|LL
JOIST system, then act as shear walls. Internal shear walls,
TOENAILING accommodated within interior partitions, also may be
. BEARING PAD
, (G CONCRETE) n€eded.
ffiNOED FOOTING fuTE CAP PUE
I he strength of a draphragm or shear wall depends on care
SPANNING BEAM DETAIL INTERIOR BEARING WALL-FLOOR ful nailing ol the plywrcd to the structural members. ply
JOIST SUPPORT (ALTERNATIVES) wood ioints should be staggered to increase stiffness.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
FromingDetoilsfor Openings gZ7
TOP PLATE
LAMINATED
wooo JolsT
( NOTE,
0 OOUBLE TRII
0 ADEQUATE BI
LARGER THA
OOU BLE
H EADER
2-2"X4"ON
@ TOP PLATE
EDGE EXCEPT -o
FOR OPENINGS
ovER 3'- O";
usE 2- 2" X 6"
r L AM I NATED
o
L
-:
o
STEEL FLITCH
PLATE
DOOR OPENING \^/INDO\^/ OPENING
NOTES
1. Steel lintels a.e selected lrom steel beam design ta-
bles on lhe basis of floor, wall, and roof openings.
2. Wood lintels over openings in bearing walls may be
engtneered as beams_
3. Composate beams, such as glued laminated beams,
also are approprrate in some applications. plywood
box beams are used lor garage doors. Steei llrrch
plates can add strength without adding extra width
to a composrte beam.
4. Check wirh local codes and staodards lor fire resis,
tance reeuirements.
TRIMMER
rcUB€ HEADER
FLUSH WITH OOU BLE
SMALL OPENING INTERIOR FACE HEADER \
OF TOP PLATE
rcUBLE
(SECONO
HEAOER
HEAOER \
SHOWN CUT AWAY) \
DOUBLE TRIMMER \
l*'."FA1oH'H,". -/
oF TOP ecate, /?
JOIST HANGER
OOUBLE TRIMMER
JOIST ( SECOND
TRIMMER SHOWN DOUBLE HEAOER
CUT AWAY)
ROUGHCARPENTRY
328 FromingDetqilsfor Stoirs
SUBFLOORI N G
OOUELE TRTMMER
FINISHED TREAO
HEAOER
DOUBLE
HEADER
JOIST
BEAM ( DOUELE
TRIMMER }
CANTILEVEREO LANDING
OOUALE
HEAOER
CONTINUOUS
KICK-
PLATE
DOUBLE
HEAOER
DOUBLE
JOIST
HANGER
CONTINUOUS LEOGER
FLOOR JOIST
STAIR OETAILS
PLYWOOD
SUBFLOORING
CARRIAGE
LBasEvENr
WALL \
NOTES :
\ FLAT STEEL PLATE
FLUSH WTH JOIST
I, A CENTER CARRIAGE IS TECOMMENDEO ANO ANCHOREO TO
FoR RrcrDrry. rr rs Nor sHowN lru r-sE BLOCKING ELOW
ORAWING ABOVE FOR SAKE OF CLARTTY
2 THE FIRS|T FLOG STAIR SHC'WS A SHOP-
BqrLT gTatR. THE sEcoND aNo eadE--'
MENT sratRs KICK
aRE caRpENTEn-eurut.
PLATE
TimothyB McDonald;Washington.D.C.
rA
v/ ROUGHCARPENTRY
FromingDefqilsfor Roofs 329
HEAOER
OMMON RAFTER
RIDGE BOARD
COLLAR BEAM
OOUELE
RAFTER
TIE BEAMS
(SERVE AS
DOUBLE CEILING JOISTS )
PLATE
RAFTER
OOUBLE
VALLEY RAFTER
RIOGE BOARD
RAFTER
COMMON RAFTER
COLLAR
OOUALE
RAFTER
VALLEY
RAFTER SIOE STUD
HEADEF
Timothy B. McDonald:Washington,D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
330 FromingDetoilsfor Rqttersond posts
HIP RAFTER T\
FIRST RAFTER FOUR
OF PAIR NAILEO EACH RAFTER RAF TER
WITH TWO NAIS AFFOROS
JACK (IO d FOR T' RIDGE MORE JOIST
RAFTER 16d FoR 2"R|OGE) RESIS_
TANCE
ATTIC
THREE 16 d
FLOOF
TOENAiLEO
TWO t6d
OR COLLAR
NAILEO
8d AT
EACH
stoE
JACK RAFTERS ROOF PEAI<
NOTE: d: PENNY AEVELEO RAFTERS BACK-
NOTCHED OVER PLATE
NOTCHED
RAFTER \
-
FLOOR
PARTITION PLATE
oNE 16 d
TWO r6d TOENAILID ON TWO 16 d
TOENAILEO EACH TOENAILEO
SIDE
NOTCHEO EACH SIOE EACH SIDE
TAL STRAP PROVIDES AND ONE BRACINO OF ROOF RAFTERE
16d 4"oc aNo
ADDITIONAL SECURITY OVER EACH JOTST
AT FRONT ARE AT RTANGLES TO ..,OISTS
FOUR E d AGAINST UPLIFT- REFER
TO LOC)AL CODES
RAFTERA AND CEILINO !,OISTS NOTCHEO OR BEVELEO RAFTERE
REeTIN€ ON WALL PLATEE
RESTING ON PLATE
FILLER BLOCK
TWO-gd
I TWO 16 d
THREE 16 d
rc FILLER
ALOCK T\ ,!) NAIL-S rN EACH JOIST ffiE
IX4 MIN. SUFFICIENT IF FULL STORY €OVE
oR rr- wtoE Rrsfr
16 GAUGE STEEL
STRAP r6d 12" o.c.
BRACE TO SPACER JOISTE BEARING ON RIBBON
AT
45. OR STUD
PREFAB SKYLIGHT
PLYWOOD
UNIT FITS TO CURB
PANELS WILL FLASHING REQUIRED
ALSO
SUFFICE
t6d
STAGGEREO PLYW@D
12 0.c. S@FL@R
r6d 12" o.c.
STAGGERED
SOLE
ro d ToE-
NAILEO
IOd TOENAILED
ROUGHCARPENTRY
FromingDefoilsfor Joistsond Sills 331
THREAD 2-8d IN EACH
ROD JOIST
WELDED
TO BEAM
PREDRILLED
TWO
to d
3-20 d
NEAR
EACH
JOIST/
2 - 16d TOENA|I-S
ruO IOd EACH ENO EACH END
d dE SIOE. OTHERS
STAGGER 16"APART
IO d TGNAIL
TO rcST
EACH SIOE
T\^/O PIECE GIRDER THREE PIECE GIRDER STEeL ERIDGING t" x 3'CROSS AR|DG|NG SOLIO BRIOGINo
GIRDER JOINTS ONLY FOR FOUR PIECE GIRER . ADO SOME HAVE BUILT. IN LOWER ENOS NOT NAILEO 6EO UNDER PARTITIONS
AT SUPPORTS NAILS TEETH. NEEDS NO UNTIL SUBFLOORING FOR HEAVY LqOING
STAGGER JOINTS NArLs tS LAYEO
STAGGER rcARDS FOR
EASE OF NAILING
ANCrcR
3X6.4X6 S|LL
HALVEO AT CGNERS
5ffi4X6
NAILS
SILL
DOUBLE SILL
STAGGERED
24'' ON CENTER
ALONG
PLATFORM
TOENAIL
REOUIREO
SHEATHING
FRAMING
TO SILL NOT
IF OIAGONAL
USEO
TYPTS
ANCHOR
OF SILL
BOLTS
SHRI NKAGE
SELECT
APPROXIMATE
SILL D€TAIL
GROUT
t/a"
JOIST.GRDER
SAME
USED
- t/2"
OIROER
OETAIL
SHRINKAGE
T
),.
THAT
''A"
HAS
COATED
GRIP
STEEL
ROUGHCARPENTRY
332 FromingDetqilsfor Wollsond Ftoors
soue -..---i
PLATE -STUO
i
--- -J
i=T'
II -=f- --1
\--
BLOCKING
5-2 r 4't
t-,=,
,t'
Y*':>-,--:3iZ-,4
"'1
HEADER
20 d NAIL
TYPES OF CUTS
IN BLOCKING,
SEE NOTE
HEAOER
FOUNOATION
20 d NA|L
NOTE: lF SPACE
- ' ABOVE IS TO
' BE
HEATED. INSULATE
BETWEEN JOTSTS *aNY
aNo PRovrDE cuTs
ExTENstoN GREATER
i THAN 2'-O" MUST BE
! IN BLOCKING
, AS SHOWN ENGINEEREO
ROUGHCARPENTRY
FromingDeloils 333
NO2X4 2X TOP PUTES OWR4P AT
ruo2xeroP|,uTES--- L@KING WALLS
TOP PGTES CORNER
TOGETHER -
CRIPPLE
STUDS
CONTINUE
COMMON
WALL STUD
SPACING
2 X 6 CRIPPLE STUD -
2X W@D HEADERS
DOUBLE 2X
HEAOER WITH
'4. PLruOOD
SPACE FOR
INSULATION
BETre€N -
TRIMMER
2X3W@O . STUD
BLGKING
KING SruD
2X6 BEARING WALL-HEADER DETAIL 2X4 BEARING \ivALL_HEADER DETAIL TOP PLATE FRAMING DETAIL
2X HEADER T
Z HADER
|uTE FOR ,
IMERIOR
RrM/FrNrSH I
NAIUNG g RIMMER
2X BUILT-UP
MIMMER SruD
HEADEF
STUD KING SruD
2X HEADER
NOTE
TRIMMER SruD Interior plywood fac€ must be sm@th for finishing with
KING SruD gypsum b€rd.
2X BEARING WALL_HEADER DETAIL 2X4 BEARING WALL-OPEN BOX RAKE WALL DETAIL-BALLOON
PLYVVOOD_HEADER DETAIL FRAMING
ruO 2X TOP PSES
MO2X4TOPluTES
CRIPPLE STUDS
CONTINUE ruo 2 x 10
coMMoN ./ HADERS WN
12. tuW@D
STUD
SPACING
MO FUT 2X 2X4
HEADERS f SABBED
PROVIDE I TO BOfrOM
NAILTNG
SURFACE TRIMMER STUD
trOR FRAME
ANO TRIM KING SruD
Maryland
BichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
ROUGHCARPENTRY
334 FromingDetoils
UPPER
FLMR
WALL STUDS
ALIGNED
ERTIALLY
WITH FL@R
JOISTS AND
LOWER
FL@R
STUDS
AELOW
MID-HEIGHT
BL@KING FOR
STIFFNESS 1 X BAND
JOIST
METAL
BACK.UP
CLIPS FOR 2X SINGLE RIDGE
GYPSUM TOP PUTE BAM/BOARD
BOARD
\- \-*am.*
COMMON o"o
"too
SILL RIDGE UPLIFT STRAP
STUDS IN BLOCKING
FOR ROOF SHEATHING
WNDOWS
CONTINUOUS //-
SOLE PGTE I NAILING
'.41
AELOW 2X4's;AT
2'{' O.C. \ !eEEEi,"."
_
ll L- OR2X6'5AT
-.]-l-'-\
.,/l\
| IF WND LOADS )
,.' \,-V
ryCESSI€
-'.< ] ^-"^
| ;;'"
SECoNDARY \ ] CEILING
INTERSECTING \ I JOIST
WALL \ I
F- STUDS
INTERSECTING WALI-S \^/ITH METAL ND
GYPSUM E]OARO CT-|PS JOISTS
EIGNED
SINGLE
TOP
fuTE
COMMON OPEN-BOX
SruDS IN HUDER:
1/2' AC
ruw@D UP SfuICE TOP
CONTINUOUS GLUED AND IuTE TO RESIST
NAILED ON TENSION AND
AELOW INERIOR COMPRESSION '-
ROUGHCARPENTRY
Eoves,Overhongs,ond Foundotions 335
,z AAFFLE
SHINGLES AND ROOFING AT RAKE
LINE OF FASCIA
' WITHOUT OVERHANG
BUILDING PAPER\
FUSHING / VENTED \
./ AIRSPACE
SHEATHING
ROOFING
SHEATHING AND RAtrERS BAFFLE
BLOCKING
DRILLED OR
RAtrER FUSHING
NOTCHEO AND
COVERED WITH
FUSHING
RETARDER
wooD INSUUTION
TRIM -
BLOCKING VENTED
AIRSPACE END RAfrER
CONTINUOUS (SUPPORTED BY
VENTED BEAMS, OUTRIGGERS
AIRSPACE VENT OR BRACKilS)
SHEATHING
NAILER, SIOING
NOTCHED stDtNG,-\i\
INSUUTION
OR
DRTLLED
BUILDING SHEATHING
PAPER I N T E R I O RF I N S H
BLOCKING
BUILT'UP ROOFING
WITH GRAVEL TOPPING
WOOD SHAKES
FRONT VIEW
OF BLOCKING FINISH FLOOR
SHOWING NOTCHED
(OR DRILLED) VENT
SUBFLOOR
SILL
BUILDING
BLOCKING
PAPER
OR RIM JOIS
JOIST PRESSURE
TREATED SILL
VENTED
SILL SEAL
AIRSPACE
ANCHOR BOLT SET
ANCHOR BOLT IN CONCRETE
FILLEO VOID
RIGID INSULATION
CONCRETE
TO FOOTING
MASONRY UNIT
- CONCRETE FURRING
SKIM COAT
TREATED)
RffARDER DAMPPROOFING
DAMPPROOFING RIGID
INSUUTION
ROUGHCARPENTRY
336 HistoricEqvesond Overhongs
DRILLED VENT
HOLES IN EAVE
1:nh #|;-;a]ie"i.,,:'-";i?f$:
=*;?:
"::t fifl Its::ril#t,tl*t"fu
:#rilili::.i:Jfii::ii
protect the wall below from precipitation
Ov tf,io*lno
the water away from the wall (and I
METAL FUSHING
wooo FASCtA
wooo LooKouT
CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT
WOOD TRIM
METAL DOWNSPOUT
RAFTER RAtrER
FUSHING
CEILING JOIST SOLDERED
COPPER.LINED
M ETAL
FLASHING
OOWNSPOUT
wooD
GUNER BOX
WOOD TRIM
WOOD SIDING
WOOD SIDING
BUILDING PAPER
BUILOING PAPER ON SHEATHING
ON SHEATHING -
RANER
SHEATHING
WOOD STRUT
WOOO BLOCKING
AT 16'
FUSHING
-
a LoNG WOOO
BLOCKING AT
WOOD SIOING ON
CONTINUOUS
SCREEN VENT
ROUGHCARPENIRY
HolfTimber 337
BUILDING PAPER ON
SHELF ANGLE
BRICK
SEAUNT
GABLE EDGE DETAIL
CUSTOM WOOD
WINOOW FRAME
MflAL WINOOW
VERTICAL
TIMBER
wooD
BRACKET
wooo METAL
FASCIA CASEMENT
wNoow TIMBER DETAIL
GENERAL
ln the 16th and 17th centurieshalf timber structureswsre CUSTOM
wooo stLL
built with strong timbsr foundations,supports.and studs.
The spaes between the framework were filled in wilh
either stone. brick, plaster. or boarding laid horizontally. METAL MffAL
Today the primary struclure is wood stud or masonry FLASHING FUSHING
backup, and the half timber construction is attached as
veneer. Half timber is an inh€rentlyleakytype of wll @n- WEEP
struction in which the timbers are subject to premature wooD HOLE
oecav. TIMBER
BUILDING
NOTE PAPER ON
SHEATHING
Shown are some of many brick intill paneldesigntypes.
wooo
ELEVATION - BRICK AND TIMBER TIMBE
BUILOING PAPER
ON SHEATHING
ANGLE
BRICK
STUCCO wooo
ARACKfl
UTH
wooD
TIMBER
AUILDING
PAPER ON
SHEATHING
ROUGH.FACED
FALSE TIMBER
FALSE TIMBER DETAIL TIMBER SHELF DETAIL
SUTE ROOF BUILDING
PAPER ON SHEATHING
STUCCO wooo
BRACKET
BRACKET
FASTENEO
BRICK TO WOOD
STUD - -/ srucco
N OTE
BRICK
To preserye historical character of hall-timber construction VENEER --- _ OOUBLE.ENO
a ridge vent is recommended for attic venting.
ELEVATION - STUCCO AND TIMBER OVERHANG DETAIL BARGEBOARD DETAIL
ROUGHCARPENTRY
338 PollodionWindowond Doorwoy
FLASHING
WOOD TRIM
HALF CIRCLE FAN
BLOCKING
ENTABUTURE
HALF.CIRCLE FAN
OR WINDOW
BUILDING PAPER
ON SHEATHING \
FUSHING
I!
ENTABLATURE SECTION
TRANSOM
WINDOW
v\/INDOW PLAN
ROUGHCARPENTRY
SlructurolBuildingPonels 339
2X STUD RIGID FOAM FIELD'ORILLED
INSUUTION, 8'-O" MAX., RP HOLE IN
PUTE
-PLW@D OR -*:-- - STRUCTURAL
- ---- =-*ratuRAL BUTLDTNG
ORIEMED- EUILDING
PANEL
SMAND PANEL.
BOARD (OSB) swtTcH 4 0'xa-o"
WIRE
CHASE--- FACTORY
R@F RAFERS ffiOVIDED
(oR RmF ELECTRICAL
MUSSES) OU[ET CHASE
WIRE
CHASE.
BASEBOARO
WRE CHASE
2X SruDS APUIED OVER
WALL FINISH
NOTE
Consult local codes for all electrical installations
MA
ZBONOM fuE
2X
wooD
SPLINE
STRUflRA BUILDING
N OTE PANEL-TO. PANEL
SfuINE NAL
.FASENERS
Studs and splines are screwed (and usually glued) to panels 2X BONOM |uE
aT 6' O.C.
from both sides. Consult mnufacturer's specifi€tions.
Joints are typically sealed with expanding foam.
TYPICAL INTERMEDIATE PANEL TYPICAL CORNER DETAIL TYPICAL REINFORCED DOOR OPENING
SPLINE DETAILS DETAIL
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Structuralbuildingpanelsare factory€ssembledcomposite All structuralfoam core oanelsare insulatedwith a core of Using structuralbuildingpanels generallyenhancesthe
panelsreadyfor installationas a completestructuraland/or expandedpolystyrene(EPS),extruded polystyrene,or ure- speed of constructionbecausethe panelsreplacethree dif
insulatingwall section.The materialof each componentof thane f€m, Irom 31/,to 11]L in. thick. Urethanepanelsare ferent steps in standardconstruction:traming, sheathing.
the panel system is very importantwhen selectinga panel either glw]aminated like polystyreneor toamed in place and insulation.Panelsystems offer superiorenergy perfor-
manulacturer. Components include the skin, foam core, (either in the factory or in the field). Urethane has an R- mancecomparedto a stick-framehouse of similarcost and
adhesive,and optionalexterior or intoriortinish. The appli- valueof 6 or 7 per inch versus R-5for extrudedpolystyrene standardof construction.This is largelybe€use the rigid
cation for which the panelis intendeddeterminesthe mta and R4 for EPSfoam. Urethaneis about twice as strong in insulationhas higher R-values,there are {ewer seams to
rials used. Consultmanutacturerstor sosifi€tions. compressionas polystyren€and has a F€rm rating of less seal. and conductiv€heal is not lost through air infiltration
than one, which technicallyqualifies it as a vapor barrier. around the framing. Structural building pamls also offer
Sizesvary from 4 by I ft pan€lsweighingabout 100 lb to I EPS has a pem rating ol from 1 to 3 and may require a g@d resistanceto laterallGds.
by 28 ft panelsthat must be installedusinga crane. vaporbarier. EPS.howev6r,is inert, nontoxic(if ingested),
and resili€nt;it d@sn't teed micrmrganismsand is g€ner- Panelscan be susceptibleto infostationby insectssuch as
ally cheaperthan urethane.Consultmanufacturerson CFC carpenterants and temites, lvhich €at thrdugh wood and
PANEL TYPES and formaldehydemntent in the foam core and skin mate tunnel through the foam core material.reducinginsulation
rial as it variesamong manulacturers.Regardingflammabil- value and even compromisingstructural integrity. Use of
There are two main types of structural building paneF ity of both f@m core types, consult with the manufacturer termite shields,foam mres treated with insect repellent,
stresgskin panelsand loam core pan€ls: aboutthe individualproduct. and other strategiesshouldbe considered.
STRESS-SKIN PANELSare manufacturedby gluingand nail-
NOTES
ing plywood skins to both sides of a wood frare, resulting APPLICATIONS
in a unit that performslike an l5eam. Stress-skinpanelsare 1. Sincestructuralbuildingpanelsare a relativelynew build-
not necessarilyinsulated. In abovegrade applications,the most common materials ing system. code officialsshould be consultedearly and
Ior exteriorfacingsare plywood OSB or finish materialslike often to preventany misunderstandingsor delaysin the
STRUCTURALFOAM CORE PANELSfall into two groups: TJ11 plywood. tongue-and{roove pine, and other wood code approvalprocess.Also. check with manufacturers
sndwich panelsand unfacedpanels.Sandwichpanelsare siding material. For below{rade situations, pressure- to determinewhether their product has receivedcomplts
rigid-foam panels faced with two structural{rade skins, treated plywood skins and splines are used. Generally, anceaporoval with BOCA,lcBo, SBcCl,or HUD.
usually made of oriented-strandboard (OSB)or plyw@d. structuralbuildingpanelsshould not be used for plumbing 2. The seams are the part of a structuralbuildingpanel sys-
Dependingon the applicationand the manufacturer,these walls, as the spacesneeded{or plumbingruns would com- tem most orone to infiltrationand weakness and most
loam core panelsmay or may not includeframingmembers promisethe insulationand structuralintegrityof the panel. likely to show the results ot expansionand contraction.
within the core. Unfacedstructuralfoam core panels l@k Tight spline connectionswith sealant at all edges-top,
like panels oI stick-framingwith rigid toam between the For roof aoolicationsit is best to use a vented structural bottom, and sides{an greatly increase thermal effi-
members insteadof tiberglassbatt insulation.Interiorand foam panel, either integralor fiel+installed. Many asphalt- ciencv.
exteriortinishesare appliedto these parels in the tield. shingle manufacturerswill not warrant lheir product v\hen
it is installedon unventedpanelsbecauseof overheating,
The skins of structuralbuildingpanels(like l6eam fhnges) which acceleratesdeterioration.
resist tension and compression,while the w@d frame or
core (like an l$eam web) resists shearand preventsbuck-
lingof the skins.
PANELS
STRUCTURAL
340 StructurqlBuildingponels
SUBFLOOR,
ENENDED TO
OUTSIDE OF
WALL PANEL
UPPER
FLOOR Ad NAILS AT
JOIST 6'O.C. ACH
SIDE GROUGH
PANEL IMO
PUTE, WP,
JOIST HANGER
WIH NAIUBLE
TOP FUNGE
1fu NAILS AS
REQUIRED BY CODE
Ad NAILS
aT 6'OC.
EACH SIDE
THROUGH
PANEL
INTO
BOTOM
PLATE TREATED
2X SILL PLATE
2X PRESSURE-TREATED TERM[E
SILL fuTI WIH SHIELD
ANCHOR BOLTS AT CONCRETE
a €' o.c. MAX.
STRUCTURAL
PANELS
Plonkond BeqmConsfruclion 34r
S I M P L E F R A M T N G :T h i s i i l u s t r a r o ns h o w st h e
"positive" or downward bending that occurs
in
conventionallramingwith simplespans.
GROOVEO PLANK
MOLOEO SPLINE
H
n?a
ffi
z
Ft-
{l =
ffi
)#+
LIVE
U:
JJ THREE SPAN COMBINATION SINGLE
ffi
L
SPAN LOAO U t
(FT) (PSF ) E E
o IPSI) (PSI} {PSI) (PSI)
t
(PSI)
E
PS I) {PSII (PSI) (PSI) (PSI)
2/24o 360 576,000 JOU 239,000 288 30s,000 360 408,000 360
2/3oo 360 720,@O 360 299,000 M2,O@
t /360 360
288 381,000 360 509,000 360 5s3,000
864,0m 360 3s9.000 288 457,000 360 611,000 360 664.000
t/24o 480 864,000 480 359,000 384 457,000
6 t/300 480 1,080,000 480 611,000 480 664,0@
480 448,0m 384 571,000 480
t/36o rt80 1,296,000 480 764,000 480 829,0@
538.0@ 384 685,@0 480 917.0@ 480 995,000
l/z4o 6m 1,152,ffi 6m 478,0@ ,180 609.000 6m
40 f /3oo 6@ 1,440,m0 60Q 598,0m 480
815,000 6m 885,000
762,@0 600 1,019,0@ 600 r,106,000
.t / 360 6@ r,728,W 6m 717,O@ 480 914,m0 6m 1,223,On 6oo 1,327,000
//24o 490 915,000 490 380,O00 392 484.@O 490
t/too rt90 1,r43,000 490 475.0m 392 605,000
047.000 490 )oz,ooo
t/360 490 t,372,W 490 809,0@ 490 878,000
490 570.0m 392 726,m0 490 971.000 490 1,054,000
//24o 653 1,372,W 653 570,000 522 726,@0 653 971,000 653
30 l/ 3oo 653 1,71s.0@ 653 712,On 1,05i1,000
6s3 522 907,000 653 1,213,0@ 653 1,317,000
,f/ 360 2,058.0@ ON 854,000 1,088.000
a2z 653 1,456.000 653 1,581,0@
l/240 817 1,829,0@ 817 759,0m 't.405,000
4O | /3oo 417 1,187,0@
653 968,0o0 817 1,294,O@ 417
817 949,000 1,209,000
f/ 360 817 2,744,W
ocJ 817 1,618.0m 417 1,756,000
817 1,139.000 653 r,45r,000 817 1,941,000 817 2,107.0@
t/24O 640 1.365,000 640 567,000 clz 722,@0 640 966,0@
20 .l/3oo 640 1,707,O@ 640 708.0@ 640 1,049,000
512 903,000 640 t.208,000 6,40 r,311,000
l/36c' 040 2,048,m0 640 850,0@ 512 1.083,000 &0 1,rt49,000 640 r,573,0@
2/24o 853 2,O48,W 85:l 850,0@ 682 1,083,@0 853 1,449,0m
a 30 t/ 3oo 2,560,0m 853 1,063,000 8s3 1,573,0@
t/36o
062 1.345,000 o$ 1,811,000 qt?
1,966,000
853 3,O72,W 853 1,275,000 682 1.625.000 853 2,174,W 853 2,359,000
f/24o 1,m7 2,731,0@ '1,067 l, I 34,000 853 1,t44.000 1,67 1,932,0@ 1,067 2,097,W
4O ,/aoo 1,067 3,413,0@ t,m7 1,417,O@ t,805,000
t/360 1.m7 4,096.0@
69J I,067 ?,145,000 1.067 2,621,000
r,067 1,700,0@ 853 2,i66,000 1.067 2,898.0@ 1,067 3,146.m0
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
342 Plonkqnd Beqm Froming
SPACE
E'EAM AND C;OLUMN CONNECTION SPACEO BEAM AT FC)UNDATION SPACEO BEAM BEARING ON
INTERIOR COLUMN
WITH CONCEALEO
4Xe'PLYWOOO
SHEATHING
METAL STRAP
(OPTIONAL FOR
CONCEALEO 2X4 16"O.C
CONNECTION)
INSULA
so,-ro *ie
RAFTERS
NOTCHED INTO
RIOGE BE
ROOF
OECKING
BUILT. UP
INSULATEO
PANEL
2XB
RAFTER
RooF BEAM AT coLUMN aNontocE RAFTER ANO PLATE OETAIL SPACED ROOF BEAM AT EXTERIOR
COLUMN
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
TimberFromeConstruclion 343
COLLAR TIE
PURLIN
/-/---RooF
PLATE ---\
GIRT /
PRINCIPAL POST
PRINCIPAL A.ND COMMON
RAFTER \^/ITH PURLINS (ON PTATE)
OPEN MORTISE
AND TENON
JOINT
COLUR TIE
i.'...--COMMON
RAffER
BENT GIRT
COLLAR TIE
FLMR €IST
KNEE BRACE
rcSTS NEED
UNDER
ffiINCIPAL rcST
WALL ruRLIN
COMMON FTAFTER (ON PT-ATE)
SUMMER BEAM
RIreEPOLE
RINCIPAL RAffiR BENT
CONNECTS TO GIRT
PRINOPAL POST COMMON
PURLIN
TIME]ER SILL
...-2xesrLL
RATER
JOINS
PRINCIPAL POST DIRECTLY
-\
TIMBER FRAME DTaGoNAL srRUT TO TOP OF
FL@R ryPE
(PREFERRED FG 2 X 12 SjLL CfO SUPrcRT POST AS
UPPER FLOOR DESS) WALL SYSTEM)
BENT
615T POCKS
MASONRY FOUNDATTON WALL (MUST
BE DETAILED FOR HEAW POINT ilP. BENT
FOR FL(:m JOIST
LOADS FROM POSTS) LryP. WALL
BENT METAL STRAP TO SECURE KNEE
STANDARD 2X CONSMUCTION BRACE CONNECTING
FLOOR ryPE EREFER4}LE NME]ER SILL GIRT
FOR FIRST FLOOR DECK) --./ 1A- DAMEER ANCHOR PRINCIPAL rcST
BOLT AT 6'O'O.C. MA
CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL PRINCIPAL RAFTER AND PTJRLIN
TYPICAL TIMBER FRAME (SHOMr'ING TWO ROOF AND FLOOR TYPES) TIMBER FRAME ROOF TYPES
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
344 TimberFromeConstruction
SUPPORTING BEAM -
'\LUIRAL AXIS SHII I5 BLLOW WOOD POST
UPPEP Trf AEAM CENTERLINE BECAUSE
\ ,
\\ ,/ OF WOOD REMOVAL 1.
N CENTERLTNE oF BEAM .
'
HIGH
LOW
SPLINE
SPL]NE
..-
KNEE BRACE
CONNECTING OR
BENT GIRT TO
POST FOUR,WAY SPLINE JOINT
HARDWOOD
SPLINE FLUSts
TO BONOM
OF BEAM
WOOD BEAM
{ FULLY HOUSED / TAPERED
ro*t'a--o.o- TUSK ENON - PEGS. WP
TENON JOINT
FULLY HoUSED soFFtr rENoN _/
- KNEE BRACE
TUSK AND SOFFIT TENON JOINTS
k"".\"
a
DOVETAIL MORTISE
FURED OR JOWLED
rcST Tc> PROVIDE
GRATER BEARING
SURFACE FOR BAM
RAFTER JOINT NOT E
OPEN MORTISE.AND-TENON JOINTS A tying joint is a combinationof joints used to connectsev-
eral members.The intersectionof a principalpost, a plate,a
HOUSED DOVETAIL WEDGES NGHTEN JOINT tre beam,and a rafter is known as a tying joint.
TO REDUCE EFFECTS OF
SHRINKAGE, PREVENTTNG TYING JOINT
WITHORAWAL 1
N OTE
The basic mortise-and-tenon joint can be very effective in
resrsting both tension and compression forces. To increase
tensrle strength, increase the depth and thickness of the
tenon and use additional pegs il the width and length of the
tenon allow_
ELEVATION
NOTE
Scarfjoints are lapjoints used to splicetwo or more shorter
timbers into one long timber.Althoughthere are many vari-
ations,scarfjoints are used primarilyfor plates and sills that
demandlongcontinuoustimber.
LAP JOINTS SCARF JOINT
WOOD JOINERY
Most timber lraming joints are variations on the mortise Lap joints, such as simple overlaps or dovetails, constitute
and tenon. in which a tongue on one timber is received by a the other broad category of joints used in timber frames.
slot in the other and locked with rounded pegs driven Scarfs, used to splice timbers along their length, are va.ia
through holes drilled through both parts of the ioint. The tions of the lao ioint.
simplest verston of this jotnt is useo in compression situa-
NOTE
tions or for situations with minimal loadinq. Knee braces Joints are chosen on the basis of the tasks they are to ful-
A beveled shoulder or housed ioint is used to connect all and collar ties generally use an angled varrat-ion fill, including locking the frame together, bearing weight,
load-bearing beams, such as bent and connecting girts and and translerring forces and building loads from one timber
summer beams, to posts. Angled valations can be used Spline joints are similar to a mortrse and tenon, exceot that to another.
when principal rafters join to posts or for diagonal braces. a third member, called a spltne or "tree tenon" (usually
The depth of the shoulder depends on loaaing, torsion. hardwood), is introduced to connect b€tween monised tifr Compound joinery, such as where two timber valley rafters
other joinery In the area, and wood species bers and to serye as the tie. Spline joints are an effective meet at a purlin, is one ol the difficult aspects of timber
way to achieve minimum end and edge distances without framing. The complex geometry and the precision required
SHOULDERED MORTISE-AND.TENON being dependent on the size and capacity of the receiving
JOINTS demand master-level craft smanshio.
oost or beam.
HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
TimberFromeConstruction 345
- PLW@D SHEATHING BRACE OFFSET ON POST TIMBER
2X4W@DSLEEPERS BY AMOUNT EOUAL TO POST
AT 24" O.C. FASTENED THICKNESS OF TIMBER GIRT SPLINE
ROOF
BMN SPIKES
PURLINS
AT 4' INTERV&S
aT 4'O' 2X a
INTO IMBERS
o.c. SILL
2X4SruDS //pLwOOD
2X4W@D 24' O.C
NALER , SHaTHTNG 2X1
%wooD SILL-
SUBFLOOR _-}
@NNECTNG GIRT
INSUUTION
VAPOR E}ARRIER BOX BAM TIMBER
GYPSUM BOARD
GIRDER
2XASILL
CELING FINISH, TIMBER
APFLIED 2 X 12 SILL
HRST. €IST
AfrAGED L gouNoaroN waLL
TO NALERS
ANCHOR BOLT AT A'{" O.C. MA
vl/OOD NAILERS ON ROOF PURLINS EXTERIOR vt/OOD STUD SYSTEM TIMBER SILL AND JOIST SYSTEM
DRWALL AND TIMBER POST FON CORE PANEL
VArcR BARRIER
(oMmED NMBER rcST
RAKE BOARD SfuNES NEEED TO FOR CLARIT.4
AND TRIM JOIN PNELS NOT APfuIED 2XAWOODCAP
FAIING ON ruRLINS. TO OUTSIDE U€OUND rcST
AP4Y AT TOP FACE OF FRAME 3' RtGtO TO RE€NT UTERAL
BEFORE NAILERS FOAM MOWMENT
2\a
- PLWOOD BASE UNMATED
UPPER SILL
JOIST, 2XASILL
ts FoUNDATION waLL CONCREE
ANCHOR EOLTS AT FOUNDATION
N OTE a'€'o.c. MM.
2 X 10S
This system allows a great deal ot insulationto be packed aT 1 6' O.C
into the nonstructuralwall cavity between trusses. The 2 X 12 PRESSURE
foundationwall mav be offset to the outside of the truss TREATED SILL,
system {with pilastersadded on the inside to suppon tim- ENENDEO TO
ENERIOR TO RECEIW
ber postsl to avoidthe app€aranceof excessoverhang. WALL @NSTRUCTION
R O (OJ F F R A M
MIIN
NGG HEAD
DEER
RSS . EXTERIOR LIGHTWEIGHT I/VOOD STICK FRAME SILL AND FLOOR DECK
TRUSS SYSTEM
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
346 TimberFromeConstruction
SPACE FOR WtRtNG TONGUE ANO GROOVE
AEruEEN NAILERS ., WOOD FLOORING
EMBELLISHMENTS
STOP AT
DISTANCE FROM
ALL JOINTS
\-- GYPSUM
couNoeo gNo _
BOARD
TREATMENT \
2X4NAILER
WITH CHAMFER
T H R O U G S ' aT 24" O.C --
AT
MORTISE WITH 1/2, X 3" NAILER
ENENDED
ENON '/a' RUBBERIZED
SOUND.
--
PENDANT END DEADENING MAT --
EMBELLISHMENT
END AND EDGE EMBELLISHMENTS UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE TIMBER POST OR RAFTER AT FOAM
CORE PANEL WIRE CHASE DETAIL
TONGUE-AND- -- TIMBER POST BATHROOM SUBFLOOR CHASI WIDTH
GR@VE AND DIRECTION TIMBER POST
FLOORING /'4' DEEP NOTCH RESTRICTED BY
/ CUT IN POST TO
GLUED AND IM€RSECTING TONGUE-AND-GROOW
BLIND ACCEM FL@RING TIMBERS \ FINISH FLMRING
NAILED CIO HIDE GAPS FROM
FLOOR SHRINKAGE) TIMBER
JOIST
5X
TIMEER
SILL-.---
4"\
2X4'S
FOR POST
TENON
ANO AEAM /
WIRING COVER -
ruO"PIECE
BASEBOARD
SOLID ALMKING
TO SUPPORT POST
2\A
SILL
2X'S FORM
CHASE AND 2 X 12 SILL
SUPPORT
DRWALL CONCRETE WALL
CONffiETE
.\ SGB ON GRADE
onwaLL cerLrruG
SOUND-RESISTANT FLOOR DETAIL UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH BOX BEAM SILL v\/IRE CHASE DETAIL
DROPPED CEILING DETAIL
CEILING PUNX
AT NORMAL FURRING STRIPS
HEIGHT / WAINSCOT
WRE IN WALL
SUBFLMR CHASE ETENDS
FROM UNDER-fuOOR
SERVCE CHASE OR
TIMBER.SILL CHASE -
BASEBOARD.
WOOD
FURRING
STRIPS\
CAR
,rtMt
Y!
ORWALL
-_ JOIST
-- ,zn'auegenzro FL@RING
DAM
SOUND. .!
. DTADENING 2X'S SUPPORT
MAT (OffTONAL) SUBFLOOR PANEL
\
-- DROPPED TONGUE
coNsnucTtoN E}ASE:E}OARD \^/AINSCOT CHASE
ADHESIW AND€ROOVE
CEILING PGNKS CHASE
GYPSUM BOARD CEILING WITH UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH SURFACE-MOUNTED \ffIRE CHASES AT
SPACERS DROPPED FLOOR DETAIL FOAM CORE PANEL
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
PoleConstruction 347
NOTES
RIGIO INSULATION
1. Poleembedmentdepth dependson sdl, slopeand seis- TONGUE ANO
mtc zone. GROOVE
2. Cross-bracing betweeil polesmay be requiredto ieiisi
DECKING \\\
STANOINGi SEAM
lateralloads il shallow embedment.T.eat all exposed METAL ROOF
surfaceswith app.ovedp.essurelreatment.
3. Pole nolching tor major beams can help align besms
and walls that otherwisewould be out of ptu;b due to
pole warp. Notchingimprovesbearingof majorbeams
but weakenspples.
4. R6fs, walls andtloors shold be insutatedto suit lftal
climatic conditioos.Wall and sotfit insulationshould
meetcontinuouslyat the ioint. penetrafionof insulation
shouldbe minimal.
5. Varioussidingtypes can be used.
OAPPED POLE
6. Dapping.is a U.S. carpentryterm lor clning wood to CONNECTIONS
receivetimb€r connectors.
tffi
lffi-\":fl
lffi'1
-x\^-+
t7 \r:::
tE/==--=l
ir---J
KNEE
EEIN
ol[-J
KNEE ERACINO
rl|-'-l CONCRITE
ffIsfl8%g+',s"" BACKFILL
wooo
ffi
HURRICNE
cLrPS
'"iz-r?,/,)
J/
|
I
|
DECK
JOIST
SPACEO
BEAMS
DAPPED
CONNECTION
TREATEO
wooo
POLE
IEOMETRIC
GRAVEL
CONCRgTE
FOOTING
,TNOTE'
MORE
THICK
BE USEO
DIAGONAL
ARACING
LUMBER
THAN
CAN
2"
ALSO
FOR
OF POLE HOUSE
)
I TREAT€O
H/
I l/ -z
TREATEO
wooo
POLE
2',-O"
wooo
POLE
GALANIZEO
METAL
STRAP
MIN.
-^r-aw
3?i-J1?'S.?'"
POLE CONSTRUCTION
CONCRETE
FOOTING
CONCR€TE
FOOTING
LAG
CLIMATES
BOLTS
REINFORCEO
CONC;RETE
( FROST
NO DEEPER THAN
LINE
2'.O'}
COLLAR
CONCRETE
FOOTING
CONCRETE
\^/ITH EFIKEO
ANCHORAGI
FOOIING
CONCRET€
FOOTING
CONC:RETE
STR
FOOTTNO
P ANCHOR
WITH
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
348 Log Construcfionqnd Defoils
RAFTERS GENERAL
Residential log buildings have become a significant pan of
the home construction industry. The log house industry
ROOFING
comprises two main segments: manufactured. or milled
rrX4ORrX6) houses built ffom kits and custom'built log houses House.
built from kits use logs that have been machined or milled
to a uniform shape in a variety ol profiles. Although kit-built
PURLINS. SET houses can be put together quickly and with few construc
INTO NOTCHED tion skills, the finished product tends to look artilicial. Cus-
tom-built log houses are produced from hand-peeled, hand-
notched logs in their natural prolile. These houses more
closely resemble a traditional log structure. Kits for hand-
hewn houses are also avaalable, but their reconstruction on
site is often complicated because ot longer log lengths and
the heavier weight ot the logs. A hydraulic crane is usually
required. Many building otticials require a structural engi-
neer's approval to accompany the plans, whether the log
house company generates these plans or an architect hired
by the owner.
PUNK NOTES
FLOORTNG
1- Hewing logs square removes most of the sapwood,
which reduces the weight of the log and its susceptibility
to insect damage and rot- The flat surfaces of square
logs are also easy to work with.
WALL LOGS 2. Damage {rom rot (fungal decay} can be prevedted or con-
trolled in several ways: remove sapwood, which is high
in cellulose and lignum on which fungi teed; reduce the
FLOOR log's moisture content to 207o or less by air or kiln dying;
or provide proper air circulation under tloors and around
foundations. Generous root overhangs and properly
maintained gutters help keep water oft the sides ol the
building.
FLOOR JOISTS 3. Insect damage from termites. beetles, and carpenter
PUCED IN ants can be prevented by properly seasoning the wood
MORTISE CUT (kiln or air drying) and by providing continuous vapor barri-
IN SILL LOG ANO ers under ground floors. Also, good air circulation can
FLOOR GIRDER help prevent intestations.
4. Exposed interior logs must be coordinated carefully with
placement of plumbing, electrical wiring, and mechanical
STONE AND
eouioment.
CONCRflE
FOUNOATION 5. Good drainage around the building is important, since log
buildings are susceptible to rot.
6. Manufacturers of prefabricated log structures offer
milled log details to reduce air leakage and improve
weatherability of the wall. Such details include tongue-
FOUNDATION
and€roove joints, dovetailing use of steep splines. and
SILL LOGS butyl gaskets.
7. Spaces between individual logs (chink area) are filled
with chinking, which can vary trom less than an inch to
three or more inches in width.
CHECKS IN UPPER
SURFACE OF LOG
(AT EXTERIOR ONLY)
R E O U I R ES E A L I N G
AGAINST WATER
MORTAR PENETRATION WALL LOGS
CHINKING
CHINKING
- SEAUNT WITH
GAPS
BACKER ROD
CAUSED
BY LOG SHOULDER
SELF.DRAINING OF
SHRINKAGE CHECKS IN UTERAL
LOWER SURFACE GROOVE
OF LOG NEED MUST FIT
NO SEAUNT SNUGLY
ALONG ITS
ENTIRE
PRESERVATIVE
LENGTH
SOLUTION OF
WATER REPELLENT UTERAL GROOVE
AND MILDEWCIDE SCRIBED AND COPEO
TO LOG SURFACE TO FIT LOWER LOG
v\/OOD PRESERVATION-DETAIL SCRIBED OR CHINKLESS LOG JOINERY
URETHANE
@
ix\
FOAM (APPLtED
FROM INSIDE)
K@'
SCRIBED
M
WOOD STRIPS
OR POLES AS
CHINKING
(@
MATERIAL 2-5|DEO SAWN OR ROUNO LOG ROUND LOG, 2-S|DED LOG, 2-StOED SAWN
(NAIL TO HEWN. STACKED CHINKLESS STACKED FUT
WITH CHINKING LOG, STACKED
FASTEN) WITH CHINKING OR SCRIBED FUT WITH
RECOMMENOED (WOOO CHINKING) SPACERS AND
CH INKING
CHINKING DETAILS TYPICAL LOG WALL PROFILES
A
(A'
\v HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
LogConstructionond Detoils g4g
PLYWOOO
SPLINE
CORNER
POST
LOG POST
JACK POINTS
r/4" srEEL
PUTE
REMOVABLE
2X OR WOOD JACK
LJOIST RAtrER
CONCRETE
FOOTING
GALVANIZED
STEEL POST
BASE (FIXED
ADJUSTABLE AflER ALL
BASE USING SHIMS
PLUMB LOG ENDS AOJUSTMENT
IS TAKEN UP)
LOG POST
PURLIN ROOF CONSTRUCTION
USING CANTILEVEREO RAFTERS ADJUSTING
BRACKET
TO SUPPORT OVERHANG AT EAVES
ADJUSTING
NUTS
THREAOED
ROO
CONCRETE
FOOTING
c
F
F
I
B
9
I
z
I
f
a
E
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
350 TimberBridges
GEOTEXTILE FABRIC
TRAtrtrIC
, STEEL
RAIL ANACHED
RETAINER ANGLE
TO POST
FOR ASPHAL]
?',*I @7, SR!i'"JJ*=,'5H''
"*
rcST
- WEARTNG SURFACtr
TIMBER CURB
(ASpHALI. ryp )
CONTINUOUS WIDTH
FiflEsffi::l
,
NA,IL-t--AMIN,ATED
-., STEEL DOWEL CONNECTORS (OPTIONAL) DECK (SPANS TO 2,1 FT)
* s.a'- aq^" oeqa r o"-l-
t4 MrN l
TOI
- GLUED-LAMINATED 16"I
DEck PANEL
\ \ \\\ (coNsrRUC]fD OF 2<
MATERIAL ryP)
LONGITUDINAL BAM
SHORT PANEL
TO PROVIDE
DRAINAGE
OPENING
UNDER CURE
-,,' *i\--\
go'- ss'-){
TRANSVERSE
BRACING 25'€'
O.C. MA. (LUMBER
/ STEEL BEARING
BLOCKS ALSO USED)
fry
Tffi
lNTf QMb DIA I ts BtrN I - STEEL
(IF NECESSAF I) PRESTRESSING ROD
L CONTINUOUS STEEL
NOTE BEAM BEARING SHOE ON SUBSRUCTURE \- o"rtrr*t CHANNEL
STEEL PRESTRESSING ROT
Clear spans for glued taminated longitudinal beams are
from 20 to 100 ft. For sawn lumber beams, ctear sDans can 9e msde-.u.pto 25-ft. Wood specresuseJ are generally
DouglasfirJarchor Southernprne.
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL BEAM BRIDGE
LONGITUDINAL DECK DETAILS
--TRAFFIC
RAIL ATACHED
WARING SURFACE
TO POST
(ASPHALT,
_ * - -"rr=-.*
.- . ^ .
ryP )
CURB \{5614f .-
STEEL
o'.*. *"
\IH RESRESSING ROD, NP
DECK (SPAN UP TO 24 FT)
NMBER RflAINER FOR ASPHALT
GLUED.UMINATED BEAM
BOX SECTION (SPAN UP TO 70 F'r}
| | \w@D
+
'I re.-<e.
i_l erued 1
.TTFFLNER BEAM /
(Nol REoUIRED FoR ,/
STRESS.UMINATED DECK) --
3+FE=Sf-'fi
il['€BB".3u',"S^RT,--,--' T-SECTION (SPAN LJP TO 63 FT)
NOTE CONCRETE ABUTMENT N OTE
Clear spans for gluedlaminated decks are approxrmately 35 fl T-section may be preferable over box section for long spans
because of ease of inspection and maintenance.
Typrc AL Lo NG rru D I NAL D Ec K su pe nEinucr-UEE
ry-prc4L STRESS-LAM I NATED Tt M BER
INTRODUCTION SUPERSTRUCTURES
Although wood was pfobably the frrst malefial used to con.
most common timber bridge superstructure,the longitudi_ post bents connected to the arches with steel gusset
struct a bridge, in the 20th centUry concrete and steel have
nal.beam type consists ol a deck system supponej by a plales. Use ot thrs design is most practical when coiside,
became lhe maior bridge constructron mateflals. Wood is
series of timber beams between two or more suppons. able height is required and wh€n foundations can be con
slrll wrdely used for shon- and med,um-span bridges The
Beamsare constructedfrom logs, sawn lumber,gtued-tam_ structed to resist horizontal €nd reactions. lt is oartlcularlv
strength. light weight, and energy absorpiion propenies
ot Inatedtimber(glulam),or lamrnatedveneertumber(LVL). suitable for deep crossings because long clear spans resuti
tmber make it a desirable material for bridge construction.
Timber can carry short-term overloads r,iithout adverse rn suDstanltatsubstruclure @st savings.
LONG,TUDINAL DECK:Longitudinat deck or stab suoer-
effects. Large wood members are tire resistive, imperyious
structuresare constructed ol glulam, nail_laminatedsawn SUSPENSION: Iimbe. suspension bridges consist of a tim
lo.contrnuous freezing and thawtng, and resist the harmful
lumber,or stress-laminatedlumber decks ptacedlonqitudi_ ber deck structure suspended from flexible steel cables or
€necb ot de-icing agents.
nally b€twe€n supports. with rhe wrde dimensronjf the charns supported by timber towers. This suDerstructure
lamrnationveniel. In this type of superstructure,the deck typ-e_is capablo ol spanning clear distances oi more than
In modern applications, the life of timber bridges
is rscesrgnedto resist all appliedloadsand deflectionwithout 5uU tt and rs normally used only when span requirements
exlend€d to torty years or longer through the use of
vatrve-treated wood, which requires little or no
ireser_ aodnpnat supponing members or beams. Nonetheless, make other bridge types impractical or when it is not feasi-
mainte_ transverse distributor beams are usually attached to the
nance. I he sp€cifications and standards lor ble to use intermediate bents.
preservaltve treatment of wood maintained
the undersideof the deck to help distributethe load.Maximum
by the Ameri_ crearspansare approximately35 ft.
can Wood Preseryers Association (AWPA) aie tne most TIMBER SUBSTRUCTURES
widely used and comp.ehensive documents covering
treat- TRUSS:Trussesare structuralframesconsistino of straioht ABUTMENIS. Abutments support the bridge ends and con_
ment procedures for sawn lumber, glued_laminated-trmber
members connectedto form a senes ol triangles.Trusjes larn roadway embankmenl material. The simplest timber
tgruram,,piltng. and poles used tor trmber bridoes.
canspandistancesof up lo 250 ft In bridgeapplications, a abutment is a sawn_lumber or glulam spread tooting placed
ryprcar trusssuperstructure consistsot two maintrusses.a drrectlv on the surface of the embankment rf foundation
floorsystem,and bracing.Thrstype rs ctassrtied as a deck materia,s permit. Another type is the post abutment, In
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS truss(rnwhich the deck is at or abovelhe levelof the top wnrch lhe superstructure is supponed on sawn lumber ol
All timber bridges consist of two bastc comoonents_the chord)or a through truss (in which the deck is nearthe boi_ gruram posts connected to a spread footing. pile abutments
superstructure and the subskucture lhe superslructu.e
is
tom cttordj.When the herghtof a throught,uss is insuffi_ may be used tt soils cannot hold footings.
the framework of the bridge span and includes
lhe deck,
crenttoJoverheadbracing,rt is calleda half_through or pony
I!91 sV91em,main supponing members, raihngs,
and other
rruss tmDer trussesare constructedin many geometric BENTS: Bents are intermediate suppons between abut
rncrdental components. The five basic types oi superstruc_ configurations,but two of the most popular Uo*_ menls used lor muttiple.span bridges. They are made f.om
ture are beam, deck {slab),truss, arch. and suspension.
The
stnng truss and parallelchord truss. "i"-ttu Lmoer prtes or sawn lumber trames, depending on hetgbt
suostructu.e ts the ponron of the bridge that ttansmits requirements and soil conditions.
roaos trom the superstructure to the supporting roct
or soil.
ARCH: Arches lsed in clear span timber bridge construc_
rmoer substructutes include abutments and bents. Abut_ tron have glued-laminatedtimbers {or the main members.
me,nts support the two bridge ends, while bents provide This type of superstructure,calleda glulamdeck arch.prob. GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
Inlermedrate suppor( f or multiple_spancrossrngs ably b€st shows the versatilityof gluiamIn bridgeconstruc_
For design criteria and specifications tor timber bridges.
uon. Ine gtutamarchesare manufactured in segmental,
crrcular,or parabolicshapes.Two basicarch typesare us€d: reter to the current edition of the American Association of
TIMBER SUPERSTRUCTURES State Highway and Transponation Officials (MSHTO) Stan_
lhe twchinge arch(forshortspansof gOft or less)and the
dard Specrfrcations, tor Highway B.idges and ,,Trmbe,
!9ry9nU.DlNllBEAM(rnbridsedesisn.
measured rn the
rhetonsitude
is three+tinge arch(forlong spansot betweengOand2OOft).
brlogeS Uesrgn, Construction, Inspection, and Mainte-
direction of traffic flow). The simp-lesland rne roaowaytor deck arch bridges is supportedby glulam
nance, U.S Department of Agriculture, August 1992.
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
TimberBridges 35l
BEAM
WTDTH .- LONGITUOINAL BEAM GLUED,LAMINATEO DECK ON GLUED
GMINATED LONGITUDINAL BEAM .-
ANCHOR
BOLT
74'X 30'LONG
4' X 14' W|NG GALVANIZED STEEL
DRIfl PIN
ABUTMEM GE -
STEEL PTATI
BEARING SHOE
-P 1a'aBow
/ I GRADE OR
L WATER LEEL
MIN.
ry.. X 30' GALVANZED
STEEL DRIFT PINS. WP
ltl
1
a
:lll
"lll TYPICAL PILE BENT DETAIL
7T' DIAMETER MACHINE BOLTS. WP
SURFACE
DECK GEOTENILE
FABRIC
I Jl
MULTIRAII../VEHICLE PILE GALVANZED DOME-HEAD HOLE
STAY BOLTS fuCED THROUGH THAN BOLT DtA.. WP.)
DECK AND ABUTMEM AP STEEL |uTE
PIG
=l JI STEEL E}OLT
ATTACHMENT
AT TIMEiEFI c:AP
STEEL PI.ATE
SELF.LOCKING
CUT W€HER
BOLTED
NUT
CONNECTION
ON
rlJTl
I ASPHALT
SURFACE ON
GEOTEXNLE _
WEARING %. THICK STEEL
PCTE NOTCHED
IMO DECK
ffi
2i/w- &G'gSdhvaNzED
]$ll- GLUED-
UMINAruD
NEOPRENE
BUSHING
Yr",'{,'2
STEEL PI.ATE.
ATTACHMENT
TYPICAL
TAG SCREW
HEAVYTIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
352 Tongueond Groove Wood Decking
LAMINATED DECK-ALLOWABLE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED TOTAL ROOF LOADS (LB/SQ FT: LIVE AND DEAD LOADS)
DOUGLAS FIR,/LARCH PONDEROSA PINE PONDEROSA PINE FACE INLAND RED CEDAR FACE
E = 1 , 8 0 0 , 0 0p 0s i E = 1, 15 0 , 0 0 0p s i E = 1,200,00p 0si E = 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0p0s i
F " = 2 . 5 8 5p s i F " = 1 , 4 8 5p s i F . = 1 , 7 2 0p s i F b= 1 , 4 8 5p s i
F " = 1 6 5p s i F , = 1 5 0p s i F , = 1 3 0p s i F "= 1 3 0p s i
ANOOM
ENGTH
SIMPLE SPAN ONTINUOUS
w40
(psf)
l4
x 8 nominal
ttl
v'o-_}. 110
4l
s,4 oR 7Vs-
x 8 nominal
rlrs,r__!r
"Kl
Kfl
-vm/7zzm
-f 5,k" oaz,h" f
I 67
NOTE
must be dividedby I .15. Loadsin table are limited by deflection;Fo= extremefiber stress in bending;F, = horizontalshear.E = modulusof elasticityin millionsof psi.
SPIKE ADJACENT
TOENAIL ADJACENT BOARDS THROUGH
BOARDS AT 3O,, O-C ORILLED HOLES
SOLID DECKING
WOOD DECKING
Wood Decks 353
PIPE RAIL
GALVANIZED :,ttI.tt"'fl[
wELDED WIRE POST AND
FENCING
6X6WOOD
CAP CUT A5
B.^M--,v?//, , /
STAPLED AT SHOWN
TOP. BONOM,
AND POSTS COATED
STAINLESS W i'r.',
TRIM OVER
STAPLE AT
STEEL WIRE
WITH EYE
HOOKS AND
TURNBUCKLES. BOLTS
Wr,,T
t"l
TOP. BONOM. REINFORCE
AND POST CORNER POSTS
WITH STEEL ACTURED
PUTES CAP
,/4roP sLoPED
FoRDRATNAGE
<.,-K) <
t\/ |.J ;: I\,,1
ru;t{ffi ru
ll ll'l l"r
POST AND BEAM CONNECTIONS
SLOPEO TO
SHED WATER
VENTIUTE
ruO THROUGH
BOLTS AT POST
RAILINGS
BOLTEO TO
BUILOING WALL
SPACER: SOLIO WOOO
BLOCK OR EXTERIOR
GRAOE PLWOOO
-AUILDINGWALL
s-l,TAi
r/." THlcK
TEMPERED
HARDBOARD N OTES
AT4 -O'O.C. 1. Includes West Coast and eastern hemlocks. 4. Use pressure preseryative treated material only. All materi-
als below deck surfaces should be pressure treated.
OECK BOARDS 2. Includes western and northeastern pines-
UIO ON EOGE 3. Categories refer to semitransparent oil base stain-
NAIL STAGGEREO
AT SPACER
NOTE
'/a spacing not recommended tor walking surfaces where
high heels are anticipated.
DECKING APPLICATIONS
The BumgardnerArchitects;Seattle,Washington
WOODDECKING
354 Wood Decks
STAINLESS STEEL WITH BANDRAILS ARE REOUIRED FOR SLOPES l:20
TURNBUCKLES 4'O GREATER. CHECK LOCAL CODES
JOIST
HANGERS
AEAMS
CONNECTED GRAVEL
TO POSTS BUCK.
DECK OECK
EOGE -_\ SHOP FABRICATEO
CARRIAGE JOIST
GRADE
OR PAVING
M ETAL SURFACE
HANGER
ANCHOR
PRESSURE BOLT
TREATED PRESSURE
ON CONCRETE STRINGER BOLTED TO CLEAT BOLTED TO TREATED
SUB OR APRON CARRIAGE WITH SPACERS CARRIAGE WITH SPACER
BflEEN SPACER BETWEEN CONCRffE
FOUNDATION
STEP PUTFORM STAIR CARRIAGE WITH STRINGER CARRIAGE WITH CLEATS SPACING A[ER
SHRINKAGE SHOULD BE
STEPS AND STAIRS LESS rHAN r/2-
SILL
GALVANIZED STEEL PRESSURE SEALER
OR PRESSURE
TREATED POST SILL
POST GRADE
//STEEL
ltil;;;
OR PAVING
HOLE FILLED BOLT SURFACE
gvl \l
itFEt:_:
coNcRETE
CEMENT BALUST ON
PUSTIC MEMBRANE
WOODDECKING
plywood DesignDoto 355
GRADE OF VENEER EXPOSURE DURABILITY
ON FACE PANEL cussrFrcaTroN SPAN RATINGS EXPOSURE DURABILITY
MILL NUMBER
APA{ated Sheathing, ApA rated Sturd-lFloor, and ApA_ APA-trademarked panels may be produced in four exDosure
ratedSidingcarrynumbersin their trademarks calledsoan durabiljty classifications-Exterior, Exposure 1, Exoosure 2.
A-B.G-t E r T - A P A O O OP S l - 8 : l ratings.These denote the maximum recommendedcenter and Interior. Note: All-veneer ApA-rated Sheathing, Expe
to{enter spacing in inches of supports for the panels in sure 1, commonly called "CDX" in the trade, is freouentlv
PRODUCT constructionapplications.Exceptfor APA-ratedSidingpan- mistaken as an Exterior panel and erroneously used In appti_
STANDARD els,the spanratingin the trademarkappljeswhen the long cations for whrch it does not possess the required resis-
GOVERNING panel dimension is across supports, unless the strenEi tance to weather. "CDX" should only be used for
GROUP NUMBER MANUFACTURE axis is otheMise rdentrfied.The span rating in the traae appii€tions as outlined under Exposure I below. For
markof ratedSidingpanelsapplieswhen instailed venically. sheathing grade Panels that will be expored permanently to
THICKNESS
the weather, specify APA-rated Sheathing Exterior (a-C
The span ratingin APA-ratedSheathingtrademarksappears Exterior under Product Standard PSI lor manufacturing).
TONGUE
ANO as two numbersseparatedby a slash,such as32116,4g/14.
etc. {An exceptionis APA-ratedSheathingintendedfor use EXTERIOR PANELS have a futty waterpr@f bond and are
on walls only. The trademarksfor these contain a sinqle designed for applications subject to permanent exposure to
numbersrmrlarto the spanratrngfor ApA+atedSiding.) The the weather or to moisture.
lefl-handnumber denotes the maximum recommended
spacingof supportswhen the panelis used for roof sheath- EXPOSURE 1 PANELS have a fulty waterproof bond and are
ing with the long dimension or strength axis of the panel designed for applications where long construction time may
acrossthre€ or more supports.The right-handnumber indi- delay permanent protection, is provtded, or where hrgh
cates the maximum recommended spacing of suppons morsture condtttons may be encountered in serytce Expo
ASSURANCE AGENCY when the panel is used for subflooringwith rhe longdimen- sure 1 panels are made wilh the same adhesives used in
MILL NUMBE
APA'S PERFORMANCE sronor streftgthaxis of the panelacrossthree or more suo. Exterior panels. However, because other comDosjtional {ac-
RATED PANEL STANDARD / ports. A panel marked32116, for example,mav be used tor tors may affect bond perjormance, onlv Exterior Danels
roof deckingover supports32 in. o.c. or for subfl@ringover should be used for permanent exposure to the wealher.
supportsl6 in. o.c.
APA- EXPOSURE 2 PANELS (identified as Inrerior type with inter_
RATED SHEATHING The span ralings in the trademarkson ApA{ated Sturd-l- mediate glue under PS1) are intended for orotected con,
3416 1132|NCH Fl@r and Siding panels appear as a single numb€r. ApA- struction applications where only moderate delavs in
STD@$ACING rated Sturdl-Floor panels are designedspecifi€fiy tor siG providing prolection from morstur€ may be expected
EXPOSURE gle-floor (combined subfloor underlayment)appti€tions
1
under carpet and pad and are manufacturedwjth soan rat- INTERIOR PANELS that lack further glueline information in
-000__ ings of | 6, 20, 24, 32, and 48 in. The span ratingsfor ApA- their trademarks are manufactured with interior olue and
NERQrc7 MP.IS rated Stur+l-Floorpanels,like those for APA{ated Sheath- are intended for interior applications only.
ing. are based on appli€tion of the panel with the long
dimensionor strengthaxisacrossthree or mors supports.
SANDED, UNSANDED, AND
SIDING FACE APA- APA{ated Sidingis availablewith span ratingsot 16 and 24 TOUCH-SANDED PANELS
=-
GRADE in. Span-ratedpanelsand lap sidingmay be applieddirect to
RATEDS|DING
---30&i8-S,\, studs or over nonstructuralwall sheathing(Slurdl-Wallcor Panels with B{rade or b€tter veneer laces are sanded
struction).or over nailablepanel or lumber sheathing(dou- smooth in manufacture to fulfill the requirements of their
itffi E; "j:::_____E ec- ffiJF9" ble wall construction).Panelsand lap siding with a span intended applications (€binets, shelving, furniture, buill-
SZEO FOR SPACING ratingof 16 in. may be applieddirect to studs spaced16 in. ins, etc.). APA-rated Sheathing panels are unsanded since a
FHA EXTERIOR o.c. Panelsand lap sidingbearinga span ratingof 24 in. may smooth surface is not required lor their inlended use. Other
REcocNrTroN -000__ panels-Underlayment,
rel$ \FU{Mg be applieddirect to studs 24 in. o.c. All rated sidingpanels APA rated Sturd-l-Floor, C-D
_-ryj8rc_ roy be appliedhorizontallydirect to studs 16 or 24 in. o.c..
providedhorizontaljoints are blocked.When u$d orer nail-
Plugged, and C-C Plugged+equire
''sizing" only touch.sanding for
to make the panel thickness more unrform.
APA TRADEMARKS able structural sheathing,the span rating of rate.dsiding
panels refers to the maximum recommendedsoacino of Unsanded and touch-sanded panels, and panels with B-
venicalrows ot nailsratherthanto studspacing. grade or better veneer on one side only, usually carry the
GRADE DESIGNATIONS APA trademark on the panel back. Panels with both sides of
Structuralpanel gradesare g€nerallyidentified in terms of B€rade or better veneer, or with sDecial overlaid surfaces
(such as Medium Density Overtay), carry the APA trade-
the veneer grade used on th€ fa€ and back of the oanel
(e.9., A-8, B-C, etc.) or €ted by a nam suggesting the mark on the Danel edoe.
panel's intendedend use (e.9,.APA{ated Sheathing,APA- GROUP NUMBER
rated Sturd-l-Floor.
etc.). Plyw@d can be manufactured from more than 70 species of wood. These species are divided, on the basis of bending strength
and stiffness, inlo five groups under U.S. Prdduct Slandard PS 1€3. Strongest species are in Group 1, tht next stiongest"in
VENEER GRADES Group 2..and so on. The group number that appears in the trademark on some APA trademarked' panels-primarily ;nded
grades-is based on the species of face and back veneers. Where face and back veneers are not from the
Veneergradesdefine veneerappearancein terms oI natu- sme species group,
the higher group number is used, except lor sanded and decorative panels 3/s in. thick or less. These are identified by face siecies
ral unrepairedgrowth characteristicsand the number and because they^ ar€ chosen primarily for appearance-ild used in applications where structural integrity is not critical. Sanded panels
size of repairsallowableduring manufacture.The highest greater than % in. are identified by face species if.C or D grade backs are at least r/Rin. and are no.more than one
qualatyveneergradesare N and A. The minimum grade of specres group
number larger. Some species are used widely in pl)ry@d manufacture, others rarely. Check lrcal availability before jpecifyin"g if
veneer permitted in Exteriorplywood is C{rade. D€rade particular soecies is desired.
i
veneer is used only for backs and inrer plies of panels
intended lor interior use or applicationsprotected from
exposureto permanentor srere misture. CLASSIFICATION
SHEATHING
356 Plywood PonelTypes
APA-RATED SIDING PAN ELS APA A-C APA B-B PLYFORM CLASS I ANO II
For exterior siding. fencing, etc. Can be manufactured as For use where appearance of onlyone side is importantrn Concrete form grades with high reuse factor. Sanded both
conventional veaeered plywood, as a composrte, or as a4 exteriorapplications,
e.9., soffits,fences,structuraluses, sides and mill-oiled unless otherwise sDecified. Soecial
overlaid orrented strand board siding Borh panel and lap boxcarand truck linings,farm buildings,tanks,trays,com- restnctr^is on specres. Class I panels are slrltest, st'on-
srding available Special surface treatment such as V mercialrefrigerators.
etc. ExposureDurabilityClassification gesl, and most commonly ava,lable Also available ln HDO
gr@ve, shallow channel groove, deep groove (such as APA Exterior.Commonthicknesses: tor very smooth concrete finish. in Structurai I (all plies Im
Texture 1-11), kerled groove, brushed, rough-sawn, and ited to Group 1 species), and with special overlays. Expo-
texture€mbossed IMDO). Span Rating (stud spacing lor APA A.D sure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior. Common
siding qGlified for APA Sturd-l-Wall applicationsl and face thicknesses: Bl 32,5h, n I 32,3| a.
For use where appearanceof only one side is importantin
grade classification (for veneer-faced siding) indicated in
e.9.,paneling,built-ins,
interiorapplications, shelving,parti-
trademark Exoosure Durabilitv Classilication: Exterior. Com- APA PLYRON
tions, etc. ExposureDurabilityClassifications: Interior,
mon thicknesses:,tlsz, "le,,slsz,1/u ls/zz 5le. Exposure1. Commonthicknesses.,Io,31e,, /2,5/e.slo.c, Hardboard lace on both sides. Faces tempered, untem
pered, smooth, or screened. For countertops, shelving,
3O3-PLYWOOD SIDING FACE APA B-B cabinet doors, flooring, etc. Exposure Durability Classifica
GRADES tions: lnterior, Exposure 1, Exterior. Common thicknesses
Utilitypanelswith two solidsides.Exposure Durability
Clas-
SYNTHETIC silications: Interior. Exposure 1, Exterior.Common thick-
PATCHES nesses:r/a.3/s,'I z, sla,3Io.16,
APA B.C
Utilitypanelfor farm seryiceandwork buildinqs,
boxcarand
trucklinings,containers, tanks,agricultural
equipment,as a
basefor exteriorcoatingsand other exterioruses. Exposure APA PERFORMANCE-RATED
DurabilityClassification:Exterior.Commonthicknesses:1/.. PANELS.',,,
APA B-D
APA.RATED SHEATHING
Utility panelfor backing,sides of builtins, industryshelving,
slip sheets,separatorboards.bins,and other interioror prc Specially designed for subflooring and wali and rool sheath
tected appli€tions. ExposureDurabilityClassifi€tions:Inte- ing. Also good for broad range of other construction and
rior. Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:,la,3/a,th, sla,31a.6, industrial applications. Can be manufactured as a conven-
tional veneered pllryood, as a composite. or as a nonve-
APA UNDERLAYMENT neered panel. For special engineered applications,
veneered panels conforming to PS1 may be required. Expo-
For applicationover structural subfloor. Providessmooth sure Durability Classitications: Exterior, Exposure 1, Expo-
surfacefor applicationof carpet and pad and has high con- sure 2. Common thicknesses: 5l.a,3la,1/,a, 1lz,5la,3l* 15/o
centratedand impact load resistance.Touch-sanded.Expo-
NOTES sure Durability Classilications: Interior, Exposure 1.
1. Limitations on grad€ characteristics are based on 4 x I ft Commn thicknesses:31e, 'lz, .sln, sla,23l*.31o.
,'lsz
APA STRUCTURAL I AND II RATED
panel size. Limits on other sizes vary in proponion. All SHEATHING
panels except 303-NR allow restricted minor repairs such APA C-C PLUGGED
as shims. These and such other tace aomarance charac- Unsanded all-veneer PSl plywood grades for use where
For use as underlaymentover structuralsubfloor,refriger- strength is of maximum imponance; for box beams, gusset
terastics as knots, knotholes, spiits, etc.. are limited by
aled or controlledatmosphereslorage rooms, pallet bins, plates, stressed-skin panels, containers. pallet bins. Struc-
both size and numb€r in accordance with panel grades,
tanks, truck tlmrs, linings and other exterior applications. tural lis more commonly available. Exposure Durability
303 OC being most restrictive and 303-30 being least.
Touch-sanded.ExposureDurabilitvClassitication:Exterior. Classifications: Exterior, Exposure 1. Common thicknesses:
Multiple repairs are permitted only on 303-18 and 303-30
panels. Patch size is restricted on all panel grades. For
Commonthicknesses:3la,,lz)sln, 'le, 231 r,
sz;3lo, lsz t]
tt6,
3t
ta,
1|
t2,
1At
t32,
t9t
,1L
at
rat
231
t3),
SHEATHING
PlywoodUses 357
EXTERIOR TYPE PANELS INTERIOR TYPE PANELS
APPEARANCE' THICKNESS (IN.) APPEARANCE? VENEER THICKNESS (IN.)
bothsidesare visible.
Smoothface; suitablefor
paanting
Utrlrtypanel;alsousedas
base for exteriorcoatings
on walls and roofs
GRADE
underlaymenton 32 and
GRADE COMMON USES 48 in. spansand for heavy
timber roofs-Touch-
sandedor tully $nded
SHEATHING
358 Woll qnd RoofSheothing
WOOO FRAMING RATED SHEATHING INSTALLED WITH LONG DIMENSION
t6 0.c rlz" ntcl ACROSS STUDS: STAGGER VERTICAL JOINTS
DENS|TY FIBERBoARD
SHEATHING INSTALLED VERTICALLY
AT CORNERS FOR BRACING (SPACE
NAILS 6,, O C . 3,' O C. AT EDGES) LEAVE I/a,. GAP AT EDGES AND ENDS UNLESS
O T H E R W I S ER E C O M M E N D E DB Y M A N U F A C T U R E R
HORIZONTAL
ALOCKING
DOUBLE TOP PUTE UP ENDS
ROOFING FELT
ROOF FRAMING
SHINGLES OR 24" O.C.
SHAKES ON ROOFING
GYPSUM
FOIOW ROOFING
SHEATHING
INSTALLED MANUFACTURER'S RATED SHEATHING
HORIZONTALLY RECOMMENDATIONS
(SPACE NAILS FOR ROOFING FELTS
a"o c.) LEAVE r/6" GAP AT
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE
GYPSUM SHEATHING INSTALLED ENDS AND EDGES
I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
VERTICALLY FOR CORNER BRACING UNLESS OTHERWISE
(SPACE NAILS I 2" O.C. AND USE ADHESTVE) EXPOSURE TO WEATHER OR
RECOMMENDEO BY
NOTE USE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS MANUFACTURER
Nail sidingthrough gypsum board to studs; refer to manu NOTE
facturer'srecommandationsfor specific installationinstruc-
!ons. Cover roof sheathing as soon as possible with roofing telt for €xtra protection from moisture before rmfing is applied.
SHEATHING MATERIALS
CHA,RACTERISTI STRUCTURAL SHEATHING GYPSUM FIBERBOARD PLASTIC
Nailable base Yes No Only highdensity No
Vaporbarrier No No lf asphalt-tr6ated Yes
lnsulation R value 1.2 o.7 2.6 Varieswith manu-
( 12 in. thickness) facturer
Corner bracing provided ves Yes (see manu- Only highdensity NO
facturer'srec-
ommendataons)
rel sizes (ft, except 4x8,4x9,4x10 2 x8,4 x8, 4x8,4x9, 16 x 96, 24 x 48,
sticin in.) 4x10,4x12, 4x10,4x12 224 x96, 48 x96,
4x 14 48x108
Panelthickness{in.) v t' v'2 5le23
tsz3/o r/, to 6 (for roof)
7;i' "'!; "'
Other remarks Plywoodgradescommonlyused Fire-rated pan- Also called insula- Considered an
for roof and wall sheathinghave els are avail- tion board. Can eftective vaporbar-
span ratingsof 12l0, 1610,2OlO, able in be treated or rier. so walls must
2410,24/16,32116,40120,and r/, and 5/6in. impregnatedwith be well vented.
4824; exposuredurabilityclassi- thicknesses. asphalt. Avail- Some products
INSUUTION CAN BE EXTENDED ficationsare Exposure1 and able in regular emit toxic fumes
BELOW FROST LINE FOR Exterior.For unsupported and high{ensity when burned;refer
edges,reter to manulacturer's panels. to manufacturer's
RIGID INSULATION SHEATHTNG recommenoalrons. specifications.
David S. Collins,FAIA;Ameracan
Forest& PaperAssociation:
Cincinnati,
Ohio
/^
t( )t
Y/ SHEATHING
PlywoodSubflooringon Wood Froming 3S9
UNDERLAYMENT NAILING SCHEOULE
CARPET
U^se3d ring shank nails lor undertaymenr up to ,/, in. thickness,4d forr%, in. and thicker. Use
AND PAD
16 gauge slaples, except thal 18 gauge may be used with 'L in. thick underlayment. Crown
BLOCKING WITH wrdth should b€ % in. for 16 gauge staptes, 3/16in. for 18 gauge. Length should be sutficient to
SOUARE EDGE PANELS penetrate subllooring at least % in or extend completely through. Space fasteners at
3 in.
along panel edges and 6 in. each way in the panel interior, excepi for i,/3, rn. or thacker under_
layment applaedwith ring shank nails. In this case, use 6 in. spacing alongedges and g in. spac_
rng each way in the panel interior. Unless subfloor and joists are of thoroughly seasoned
material and have remained dry during construction, countersink nail heads below surface of
the underlayment iust prior lo laying linish floars to avoid nail popping. r/3, in. lf
- Space joints
thin resilient flooring is to be applied, fill and thoroughly sand joints.
APA RATED
STURD].FLOOR
WOOO FLOORING
16.20,24,32
OR LIGHMEIGHT
OR 4a O.C.-
END JOINTS CONCRETE
LEAVEr/s" sPActNG
AT ALL EDGE ANO ENO TONGUE AND GROOVE EDGES
JOINTS (UNLESS (OR PROVIDE 2.' LUMBER
OTHERWISE SPECIFIEO BLOCKING BryEEN SUPPORTS)
BY MANUFACTURER)
ILED
L€AVE r/s" sPAcE
AT ALL PANEL END
AND EDGE JOiNTS
I N T E R ME D I A T E (UNLESS OTHERWISE
RECOMMENO€O BY
PANEL MANUFACTURER)
NOTES
1. For conditionsnot listed,see APA literature. NOTES
2. Use only APA SpecificationAFG{I adhesives,propedy applied. Use only solvent based 1. Appliesto APA rated sheathinggradesonty.
glues on nonveneeredpanelswith sealedsurfacesand edges. 2. The spansassure plywmd continuousover two or more spanswith long dimensionacross
3. 8d common nails may be substitutedif ring or screw-shanknailsare not available. suppons.
4. lOd common nailsmay be substitutedwith 1 r/sin. panelsif supponsare well seasoned. 3. In sore nonrelidentialbuildings.specialconditionsmay requireconstructionin excess o{
5. Spacenails6 in. for 48 in. spansand 12 in. for 32 in. spans. minimum given.
4. May be 24 in.ll3L in. wood strip flooringis instatledat right anglesto joists.
5. Spansar€ limited to the wlues shown becauseol the possibleeffect of concentratedloads.
SUBFLOORING NAILING SCHEOULE
TILE, CARPET,
SHEET GOODS, F o t 7 l $ i n .p a n e l , u s e 6 d c o m m o n n a i l s a t 6 i n . o . c . a t p a n e l e d g| e2 si n, . o . c . a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
OR OTHER supports-Forr%, to % in. panels,use8d commonnailsat 6 in.o.c.at paneledges,j 2 in o.c.at
NONSTRUCTURAL intermediatesupports.For 1r/Band 1rl. in. panelsup to 48 in. span,use I 0d common nails6 in.
FLOORING o.c.at paneledgesand6 in. o.c.at intermediate supports.
APA PLYWOOD
UNOERUYMENT
SANDED FACE
STAGGER
END JOINTS
CARPff
AND PAD
- SITE APPLIED GLUE
PRovlDEt/32-
SPACE BETWEEN BOTH JOIST AND
UNDERUYMENT TONGUE AND
BUN JOINTS GROOVE JOINT
3. Recommended grades have a solid surface backed with a sp€cial inner ply construction that GLUEO FLOOR NAILING SCHEOULE
resists punch-through and dents from concentrated loads.
Panels should be secured with power driven tasteners or nailed per APA STURD-I-FLOOR
table, above.
SHEATHING
360 PlywoodSheothingfor Roofsqnd Soffils
APA RATED LEAVE I/s'' SPACE AT ALL
APA RATEO PROTECT EDGES SHEATHING PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS
SHEATHING OF EXPOSURE 1 (UNLESS OTHERWISE
AND 2 SHEATHING R E C O M M E N D E DB Y
AGAINST MANUFACTURER)
EXPOSURE TO
SHIM AT EACH
RAffER FOR
WEATHER
ROOFING
FLUSH JOINI
AT CHANGE OF
PANEL
THICKNESS DIRECTION OF
SHINGLES OR
FACE GRAIN
SHAKES (FOLLOW
MANUFACTURER'S
OIRECTION OF RECOMMENDATIONS
LONG OIMENSION FOR ROOFING FELT)
CONTINUOUS APA RATED
SCREENED VENT SHEATHING
ANY APPROPRIATE OR EOUALLY SPACEO
EXTERIOR OR LOUVERED VENTS PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE PANEL I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST
GRADE OF ADEOUATE EXPOSURE TO WEATHER. OR USE
SPAN RATING TO ANY APPROPRIATE GRADE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS
CARRY OESIGN OF EXTERIOR APA
ROOF LOADS PLYWOOD FOR SOFFIT EXTERIOR PLYWOOD SOFFIT
SELF.ORILLING
SELF-TAPPING
DECK
scRss
BAR JOIST
FUNGE
BAR JOIS WEB STAPLING SPACES (IN}
INTERMEOIATE
DECK
COMMON NAILS
SHEATHING
SplitRingWood Trusses 36r
SPLICE PUTE --=-\ GENERAL
SPLII RING The first wood trusses were develop€d for bridge design.
CONNECTORS WITH with the kingpost truss the earliest form. lt uses a primirv
3/a '
DtA BoLTS engineering principle: a triangle will hold its shaoe under a
ROOF PURLIN
load untir rts srde members or its ioints are crushed.
WOOD BLOCKING
SPLIT RING
KINGPOST
SPLICE PUTE Next came lhe queenposttruss, in which the peak of rhe
VERTICAL WEB krngpostwas replacedby a horizontalcrosspieceto allow a
MEMBERS rongerDase.
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS(OR
JOISTS)
WOOD BLOCKING
WOOO PURLIN
QUEENPOST
SPLIT RING
Furtheramplificationspermitted greater flexibilityto over-
CONNECTORS WITH come different spanningchallengesand to integratevari-
3/4- DtA- BoLTs - ous combinationsof inclined wood braces. wood arches.
steel tension rods-etc.
NOTES
SPLICE PUTE
1.A built-incamberof approximately j in.per 40 ft spanwilt
be introducedin the top and bottom chordsduring fabri-
PIYCHED HOWE cation.
2. When lumber is not adequatelyseasoned,the trusses
should be inspectedperiodicallyand adjusted.if neces-
sary,until moistureequilibriumis reached.
3. These truss designs are meant only as a guide. To
develop specitic designs, including bracingand anchor-
age.consult a structuralengineer.
WOOD BLOCKING
6;;
SPECIAL GROOVE
WOOD PURLIN CUT IN BOTH WOOD
MEMBERS
PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO
SUPPORT ROOF
PURLINS OR
CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/4' Dta.
BOLTS
BELGIAN S P L I T R I N G C' O
, NNECTOR
2't2' ANO 4 TNSTDE OtA
SPLICE PLATE
SPLIT RING CONNECTOR
PERPENDICUUR
WEB MEMBERS
3/4- otA-
qt
( anotr.r. SPECIAL CUT,OUT
(DAP} FOR SHEAR
PUTE
SHEAR PLATE
THREADED 2tl2' aND 4 "
EXTENOED TO tNstoE otA. /
SUPPORT ROOF SUSPENDED
PURLINS OR JOISTS ROD
(OPTIONAL)
SPLICE PLATE
Pitched trusses are very economical for spans up to 70 ft A typical span (l) / depth (d) ratio for the Pratt, Howe, or Bel-
(with an average spacing of 15 ft), since the rember sizes gian truss is 4 to 6, which gives a relatively norrul slope of STEEL GUSSff PUTE
are small, the joint details relatively simple, and the trusses 4:12 lo 6:12. Fink trusses are prelerred where the slope is
easily fabricated. steep (over 7:12). Scissors trusses and other typ€s of SHEAR PLATE AOLT
raised lower chord pitched roof trusses are used for sp€cial
All pitched trusses require either knee braces to columns or conditions where clearance or appearance requir€s an N OTE
some other provision for lateral restraint against wind or arched bottom chord. Consult with structural enoineer to Shear plate conn€ctors are commonly used to connect
other forces, check deflection. wood lruss members to steel gusset plates but may be
used to connect wood to wood.
PITCHED TRUSSES CONNECTORS
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland
WOODTRUSSES
362 SplitRingWood Trusses
wooD
PURLINS
WOOD SPLICE PLAIE
NOTE
A greatercenterdepthminimizesde{lection
andthrusl on walls.
WOOD (OR STEEL) sctssoRs
KNEE BRACE
MAY CONNECI PITCHED TRUSSES
WITH SPLIT RINGS PUTE WOOD PURLINS
WOOO SPLICE
AT TOP ANO/OR u-f7T-T-'--
BOTTOM CHORD
l// | \l_,-^-> VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS
EXTENDED TO SUPPORT
?ltl ROOF PURLINS
(OR JOISTS)
iEo.i i i
ffi
wooD
JOIST (OR
PURLINS)
wooD Jorsrs
UMINATED TOP
CHORD
UMINATED OR SOLID
WEB VEMBERS
ffi
SHEAR PUTES
wlrH 3/a" Dta. BoLTS
AT TRUSS ENDS NOTE
ONLY
All members in same plane use
metal gusset plates for web to
chordconnections.
VERTICAL
SWAY BRACING
OF STEEL RODS
oR wooo rN STEEL SPLICE PLATE
BOWSTRING
END SECTIONS
MlN. i ONE lN Bowstring trusses are theoretically the most efficient and Connections and knee brace requirements are samalar to
MID.SPAN FOR economical of all wood truss types for larger spans, panicu- that of pitched trusses, since lateral load forces have a sim
LONG SPANS larly over 80 ft. although spans up to 250 tt are obtainable. ilar etfect on them. The bottom chord members may also
CONTINUOUS UTERAL Conneclions are simple and designed to give minimum be glue laminated to eliminate splices.
BRACING RUNS FULL LENGTH
stresses to the web members. A typical span (1)/depth {d)
OF BUILDING FASTENED TO AONOM
CHORD OR WEB MEMBERS NEAR CHORD ratio for bowstring trusses is 6 to 8.
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia
Rachard
J. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudiojCrownsville,
Marvland
WOODTRUSSES
SplitRingWood Trusses 363
WOOO TRUSS
WOOD SPLICE PUTE
r*"""
SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
wrTH 14" DtA AOLTS\
STEEL PURLINS
THROUGH VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS
TOP CHORD MAY BE
BOLT EXTEND TO SUPPORT
SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
ACCOMMOOATE DRATNAGE
UG BOLT REOUIREMENTS
ANGLE
BARING
PUTE TOP
PUTE
BUILT-UP
POST OF
2X
BEARING
PLATE
wooo
TRUSS
wooD
STRAPS SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
WITH 9L" OIA. BOLTS ..-
SPLIT RING WOOO PURLINS
CONNECTORS TOP CHORO MAY BE
wtTH 3/4" otA. WEA MEMAERS
SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO
BOLTS EXTEND TO SUPPORT ACCOMMODATE DRAINAGE
REOUIREMENTS
ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BUILT-UP
POST TO
MATCH
TRUSS
WIDTH
NOTE
End grain b€aring of posts provides suppon for the truss-
FLAT HOWE
SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS
wtTH r/4" DtA. BOLTS \
wooD
TRUSS
THROUGH
AOLT
ANCHOR
BOLT
MORTAR WOOD BLOCKING
WARREN BffiEEN WEB MEMAERS
CMU Combinationsof flat truss types are sometimesuseful. For
Flat trusses are generallyless economicalthan oitched or
(GROUT bowstring trusses, since connections are usuallv more Instance,a t.ussmay be builthavingone-haltprattandone_
complicated and higher side walls are required. But half Howe design.Warren t.usses mav have ends ol erther
becauseof their geometry.flat trus$s allow th€ smallest Pran or Howe designsincorporated,dependrngon the typ€
rof area versuspitchedor bowstring trussesfor the same ot support.In general,Warren trusses are used for shoner
BEARING spans.
PUTE span. As in pitched trusses. the maximum soan for flat
N OTE trussesis about 70 ft.
Flat trussesdo not requireknee bracessincethe uorer and
With scissor trusses, use slotted holes in steel to allow for A typi€l span (1)/depth{d) ratio for all types of flat trusses lower chordstake the placeof a laterargrace.
thrust. rs generallyI to 10.
DETAIL_BEARING ON MASONRY WALL FLAT TRUSSES
TECOProducts;Collier,West Viroinia
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville. Marutand
WOODTRUSSES
364 Joists,ond TrussedRqfters
Wood Trusses,
GENERAL
Monoplaner trussesare usually made up lrom 2 x 4
or 2 x 6 lumber. Spacing.normally 24 in. o.c., varies
lor spmial uses, esprcially in agriculture.Camber is
designed for dead load only. Bottom chord furring
generallyis not required for drywall ceiling.Joints in
plywood floor or roof should be staggered.Many
trusses are approved by model codes, such as BOCA,
I C B O .F H A , a n d S B C .
cAMBER = L(FT)
(USUAL) 60
REeIOENTIAL TYPE TRUA€ED FLOOR JOIET BRACING
STEEL PLATE CONNECTED
Adequatebracingof trussesis vital. Sufficientsupport
at right anglesto plane of tru$ must be providedto
DUCT SIZES DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE hold each trus member in its designatedposition.
OF DUCTWORK Consider bracing during design, fabrication, and
Ease of running electrical and mechanicalservicm erstion. In addition, provide permanent bracing/
through framing is a major advantageof trussedjoists. DEPTH 12" to 20" anchorageas an integral part of the building.Strong-
Most manufacturec provide a large rectangularopen backs are often used,
panelat midspan;this void will generallyaccommodate- SHAPE
a trunk line. A 4x9 o x tz 7x 13 8x14
Sizes given here are approximations.Becauseweb r0" 12" 14"
sizeand anglesvary with different brands,the designer
T"-
8"
is €utioned to verify individual sizescarefully. Note n
that shapeE is the duct that will tit in a flat trusswith 9" 13" 17"
double chords too and bottom. E 6" t0" 14" 18"
nl
55 PsF 6) 40 PsF (A 55 PsF 55 PsFad
n
60-0 53-3 TO LONG 40',-AO'
COMMERCIAL LIVE LOADS
FLOORS
80 PsF aD) 100 PsF (A 120 PsF
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING {C TO C) tl
DEPTH
12"
14"
12"
19-0 ,
21-4
16"
17-3
19-4
24"
1 5 -1
i6-6
12"
17 - 3
19-4
t6"
l5-8
t7-7
24"
t3- t
14-9
12"
16-0
r8-0
16"
14-7
16-4
24"
l2-4
13-6
! CHOROE,20 GAUCE 6TEEL
Top chord live load 40 psf 20 psf 35 psf 60 psf 80 psf 100 psf
Top chord dead load 10 psf '10psf
10 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10psf
Bonom chord dead load 5 psf l0 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10 psf 10 psf
Total load @ 55 psf @ 40 psf @ 55 psf @ 80 psf @100psf @120psf
NOTES
1. Spans are clear. inside to inside, for bottom chord 5. Asterisk{'l indietes that tru$ has double chords,
bearing.Valuesshom would vary very slightly for top and bottom.
a truss with top chord loading. 6. Spansshown are for only one type of lumber; in
2. Spansshould not exceed 24 x depth ol truss. this case-#2 Southern pine, with an fo value of
3. Ocigned deflection limit under total load is Q/240 1550. Charts are availablefor other grads and
for roofs, 11360 for residential flors. and l/480 sprcies. Lumber and gmdes may be mixed in the
for commercialfloon sme tru$, but chord size must be identical. Re-
4, Bmf soansincludea +15%short term stress. petitive member bmding stressis u$d in this chart. TYPES OF FABRICATED TRU66EA
WOODTRUSSES
Wood JoistConnections 365
ruYWOOO
CONTINUOUS
NAILER FOR
LATERAL
SUPPORT
TimothyB. McDonald;Washington,
D.C
WOODTRUSSES
366 WoodTruss
Construction
MIN SLOPE - 1 75 12 WP
PLWOOD ROOF
SHEATHING
K|NG rcST CryP MAX SPAN - 37' APPROX )
ryP, R@F
FUSS ---
-
XX
MODIFIED OUEEN POST
CryP. MA. SPAN. - 47 APPROX.)
TOP AND
BOfrOM
CHORD
PROTECTIVE
FUSHING
WOOD TRUSSES
Wood TrussConslruction 367
RECTANGULAR OPENING
{AT MIDSPAN. TYP.) ..
roT=\
DUCT A -.-
DUCT B -.
+
SCISSORS 'ryP. MAX SPAN : 45'-O" APPROX )
SPAN : 42'{"
T R U S S E D R A F T E R SS p A C t N G ( C T O C ) ( t N . ) - R e S t O E t t r r n r _ I O A O S
ROOFS
B.40 PSF c. 55 PSF c.55 PSF" BOWSTRTNG CryP. MS SPAN - S.€. appRox.)
PITCHED TRUSSES
E
tl
_,V
CHORDEEB
ORIENTANON
tx
H
CHORDryEB
ORIEMATION
PARALLEL TRUSSES
GENERAL
Metal plate{onnected wood trusses have been used in
building construction since 1953, when the metal connec-
tor plate was invented. These proprietary metal plates are
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING (C TO C)(IN.)_COMMERCIAL FLOOR LOADS available in a range of styles and tooth orientations. The
metat ptates are punched with barbs that grab onto the
F. t20 PSF wood truss, thus reducing the hand nailing reauired to fabri_
cate a structure. Plate size tor a given truss is based on a
combination of the tooth withdrawal strength of the plate,
the tensile and shear strength of the steel, and the nei sec-
tional area of the lumber.
WOOD TRUSSES
368 Wood FloorTrussDetoils
2X6.MIN
CODE APPROVED
ANCHOR AT STRONGBACK
TRUSS - RESTRAINTD AT
EACH .---\
EACH END
\ \
(SECURE
THREE 1@
WITH
WOOD
TRUSS
CUT BELOW
BTAM, IF
REOUIRED
GTERAL - 2 X 4 VERTICAL BLOCKING.
BRACING SECURE WTH ruO 1Od
(REAUIRED) NAI S A] ]OP AND BOflOM
N OTE
Locate strongbacks at maximum 10 ft o.c. at free-span
trusses.
SOLID
TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT EXTERIOR WALL BEARING DETAIL DIAGONAL BRACING AT BEARING END
INTERIOR BEARING WALL
WOOD GIRDER
BEARING
BEARING
2X LEreER
CONTINUOUS
SUPPORT TO
FOUNOATION
SOLID WOOD
BL@KING UNDER
TRIMMERS ABOVE
6 WOODTRUSSES
Wood RoofTrussDetoils 369
COMMON WOOD
(HOWE TRUSS)
TRUSS
WEDGE
CAMLEWR
STEP.DOWN COMPONENTS
OWRHNG
AMILEWR
OWRHANG
-,.
LEWL
ffi_\_+
R*f*o*t RruN --_|==-
U
6MMON
W@D TRUSS
EEARING
BELOW
WALL
+- (HOWE TRUSS)
WOODTRUSSES
370 Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
BEARING WALL WOOD ts@IST
BL@KING NAILED TO BLOCKING NAILED
TOP PGTE BELOW WOOD TO TOP PLATE WITts
WTH Ad NAILS AT LJOTST. ilP.--- 8d NAILS AT 6' O.C
1 1/2" flP
6'OC.. ryP. reB
STIFFENERS, J PLWOOD
LAMINATED-
VENEER LUMBER ryP. EACH SIDE OR OSB
FLANGE (OR WHERE CLOSURE
soLrD wooD) REOUIRED. J
PLW@D OR
OSB WEB --
ffiB
TYPICAL rivooD I-JOIST SNFFENER
SIDE, IF
NTCESSARY
DO NOT BEWL-CUT
JOIST BEYONO
INSIDE FACE
EEARING 2'-O'MU.
MANUFACTURER'S
DETAILS)
W@D tsJOIST AS
RIM JOIST. NAILED
TO TOP PUTE
AELOW WTH Ad NOTE
NAILS AT 6' O.C.. TYP
Joist must b9 designed to carry the load-bearing wall.
LOAO-BEARING CANTILEVER DETAIL
WEB
TYPICAL BEVEL-CUT JOIST STIFFENER
- 2X SOLTD WOOO
TACH NAILED TO SIDE
SIDE, IF OF WOOD BACKER
NAIL TO NECESSARY. BEARING
2X SL|O
JOIST WEB WOOD RIM
. LEAVE 1/16' ' V'6" GAP, SEE BOARD
,,/ MANUFAftRER'S SOLID WOOD
RECOMMENDATTONS WOOD tsJOIST
BACKER
5. A high degree of unitormity, with no crowns, checks, or STUD BEARING WALL DETAILS CANTILEVER DETA,ILS
loose knots_
6. Plumbing and HVAC can easily be run through web struc- DISADVANTAGES
ture (based on the manufacturer's guidelines). 1. Material costs are generally more (per linear foot) than 3. Less lateral stitfness than solid lumber.
7. Starts with dry materials, so there is much less shrinkage for solid lumber (for standa.d residential floor ioist dimen-
4. Can be shifted by winds during construction due to light
than with solid lumber. saonsand spans)-
weight.
8. W@d lioists €n generally be set at wider onrenter 2. Contractors are less {amiliar with wood l-joists and can
5. Some adhesives used in laminated-veneer components
spacang. thus reducing installation time. creale problems by cutting holes into webs and weaken-
may pose indoor air{uality problems.
ing the member.
WOODTRUSSES
Wood l-JoistConsfructionDetoils 371
wooD r-otsT / BACKER
DOUBLE SOLID WOOD FILLER AEARING WALL
BLMK (usEo
aLocK wlTH ABOVE (STACKED
INSTALLED HEAW LOAD ON
TIGHT TO
METAL €tST
BONOM
wooD L-rorsT)
OF TOP
\
FUNGF
I
\l
BLGK
WEB
STIFFENER
BACKER
(EACH BLMK
WEB STIFFENER
INSTALLED
SIDEi MAY BE REQUIRED
IGHT TO
FOR JOIST STABILIW TOP OF
HANGER COMPATIBILry,
OR JOIST BOfrOM
REACTION)
FUNGE
N OTE NOTE
Connectim between iorsts must provide adequate load Conn€ction between joists must provide adequat€ load
translerbetween members transterbetweenmembers
wooD t-JolsT coNNECT|ON TO WOOD WOOD I.JOIST CONNECTION TO WOOD
I-JOIST HEADER BEARING WALL ABOVE AND BELO\/V
I-JOIST HEADER (HEAVY LOAD)
WOOD SOLID
L.'OIST wooD
rcUBLE- FILLER
HADER BLCK
a
o
o
J
)
x
U
F
)
METAL
w@D RAMING
STAIR ANCHOR AT
(xRAGE EACH SIOE
N OTE wooD
Connectron between joists must provrde adequate load Thicker wood plate over beam may be required; check
transter between members. hanger manufacturer's top flange nailing iequirements.
STAIR CARRIAGE CONNECTION WOOD I-JOIST SUPPORTED AT TOP OF
DETAIL LATERAL LOAD BLOCKING AT END
BEAM (OR WALL) v\/ALL
wooo
tsJOIST
NAILED TO
TOP PUTE
WITH Ad
NAILS AT
6'O.C -
ffiB STIFFENER (EACH
SIDE: MAY BE REOUTRED
FOR JOIST STABILR,
HAreER COMPATIBILW. SILL
oR JO|ST REACTTON)
WOODTRUSSES
372 Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
WOOD IJOIST ALOCKING WOOD BACKER -
NAILING PER
I'JOIST VENTILATION BLOCK MANUFACTURER'S
WOOD I JOISTS BU]T HOLE CUT IN BEHIND REOUIREMENTS
ABOVE RIDGE BEAV BLOCKING T\
WEB OUTRIGGER
__-srNGLE (OR DOUBLE)
VENTILATION // 2X OUTRTGGER
HOLE CW
BLOCKING
IN
WEB
:(
VENTIUTION
74'PLW@D WOOD HOLE CUT IN
GUSSET I.JOIST BLOCKING
EACH RANER WEB
SIDE
WEA
.;
STIFFENER
EACH
SIDE
WHEPE
REOUIRED
OOUBLE 2X WOOD
i
BLOCKING
WMD PUTE; FOR SOFFIT
SUPPORT.
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIOGE BEAM WOOD I-JOIsT RAFTER AT OVERHANG \^/OOD I.JOIST RAFTER WITH
DETAIL OUTRIGGER
wooD t-JolsT ,-- METAL CROSS
STEEL SRAP MAY BE RAilER, /. ERACING AS w@D .- NAIL OUTRIGGER TO
REOUIRED WHERE IJOIST
SLOPE EXCEEDS 7 12 -w@o
// REOUIRED
RAffER. /' WE'.e.la.tlNgf€B
BEVELED WEB
WOOD I-JOIST LJOISTS STIFFENER
RAflER, WP. -\ BUN AT EACH SIDE,
RIDGE WHERE wmD r-JorsT
RIDGE REAUIRED BLrcKING
BEAM
CONTINUOUS
PGTE VENTIUTION
SLOPED HOLE Cfr IN
METAL BLMKING
JOIST WEB
HANGER
\
=".o-r,*L-l SINGLE (OR
rcUBLE) 2X
2 X 4 L@KOUT 1X8
OfRIGGER
NAILED TO FASCIA
W@D I.JOIST .-
NAIL 2X CRIPPLE
END NAIL BL€K (WTH
AEWLED WEB
INTO LOOKOUT
>i< SHEATHING
WEB SNFFENER
STIFFENER MA TO2X6
AT OTHER
ilCH SIDE SIDE
NOTE SUAFASCIA
oF wooD tsJotsT)
WHERE /
REOUIRED- Uplift connectionsmay be required Uplilt connectionsmay be required.
I/VOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT'OVERHANG r/YOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT OUTRIGGER
DETAIL
W@D FJOIST BLGKING
VENTIUNON
HOLE CUT IN
BL@KING WEB
WOOD IJOIST NOTCH
RA-ER, WP.-.\ OUTRIGGER
BEVELED AROUND
WOOD PLATE WOOD LJOIST
FOR SLOPES FCNGT
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM WOOD I.JOIST RAFTER AT OVERHANG FLY RAFTER DETAIL
DETAIL
WOOD tsJOIST
BL€KING,
EACH SIDE -
WOOD tsJOST BLrcKING w@D
tsJOIST
WNTI4TION
HOLE CUT IN
BLOCKING WEB _-
BEWLED WEB WEB
STIFFENERS STIFFENER
EACH SIDE EACH SiDE
WHEN METAL
REOUIRED
MOUMED
JOIST
HANGER
LAPPED VI/OOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT TYPICAL BIRD'S MOUTH I.JOIST CUT Check code and manufacturer's requiremenls lor all ventila-
RIDGE BEAM DETAIL tion hole sizes cut in blocking web.
WOOD TRUSSES
Glued-LominotedConslruction 373
STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED SAWN OR
TIMBER TAPERED -
The.term"structuial
gluedlminatedtrmber,refersto an
engrneered, stressJated producl made Of WOOd lamina-
trons bonded with adhesives. wrth lhe grarn approximatelv STRAIGHT DOUBLE TAPERED*CURVEO
pa.allel lenglhwrse Laminaled preces cin be end_iorned
t6 /SAWN OR
torm any tength. or glued edge_to.edg€ to make wider t-l
tl
pre@s, Or ol bent preces curved durrng glutng
SI NGLE TAPEREO_STRAIGHT
DOUBLE TAPERED_PITCHEO
STANDARD DEPTHS I
A
STANDARD WIDTHS
/A\
// \\
/\
GOTH IC
CAMBER +
Camberis curyature(circularor parabolic)made into struc_ LAMINATEO DOME PARABOLIC
turcl glued laminaled beams opposite the anticipated
dellectron movement. The recommendedminimum cam-
ber is one and one-halftimes deadloaddeflection.After ini_ STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER SHAPES
tial dead load detlectionand additionatplastic deformation
(c@p) has taken place, this usually will produce a near NOTES ON SHAPES
l€vel floor or rmf beam under dead load conditions.Addi- Consideration must be given to the perimeter bond
1. Beam nam€s describe top and bottom surfaces of the
tioml camber or stope may insure adequate drainageof beam design since wind torces will produce loads in this
beam. Sloped or pitched surfaes should be used on the
r@f b€ams. On long-spanroof beams and floor bearirsof member. The length of main members ol the radil arch
tension side of the beam.
multistory buildings,addjtionalcamber may be needed to system, whjch must span a distance greater than hall the
2. The three hinged arches and frames shown above oro_ dome diameter, limit the maximum practical dome diam,
counter the optical illusionof the beam sagging.
duceiorizontal reactions r€quiring honzontal ties or mod_ eter. The tar smaller members of the triangulated dome
rtred loundations. result in the greater diameters. The triangulated system
FIRE SAFETY 3. The triangulated and the radial arch are the two basic can be designed for five or more segments with an equal
types of stuctural glued laminated wood dome svstems number of peripheral supports at each segment.
The self-insulatingqualitiesof heaw timber cause a slow available. Both systems require a tenston ring at the 4. More complicated shapes may be fabricated. Contact the
burning. Good structuraldetails, eliminationof concealed dome sping hne to conven axial thrusts to venrcal loads. American Institute oI Timber Construction (AITC) and the
spaces, and use of verticallire stops contributeto its fire American Plywood Association (ApA.
performance.HeaW timber retains its strength under fire
longerthan unprotectedmelals.
Roger W' Kipp. AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
374 Glued-LqminotedConstrucfion
ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESS RANGES FOR STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBERI-NORMAL DURATION OF
LOADING
EXTREME TENSION COM PRESSION COMPRESSION
FIBER IN 1 PARALLEL PARALLEL HORIZONTAL PERPENDICULAR MODULUS OF
BENDING' TO GRAIN TO GRAIN SHEAR TO GRAIN ELASTICITY
NOTES
1. Multiply dry{ondition{f-use stress rangesby the above wide faces ot laminations, For ranges of allowable current American Instilute of Timber ConstructionPubli
factorsfor correspondingwet{onditionsofrse value. stressesfor members loadedprimarilyas axialmembers cationAITC 117-Design (Table2).
2. Values given are for members loaded perpendicularto or loaded parallelto the wide {ace of laminations,see 3. Valuesshownare for the tensionzonesof the member
NOTES
l.Total load carying weight capacity includes beam 3. Deflection limits: roof = 1/rm,floor = r/3@ 5. AITC tables extend to members up to 40 leet in span.
weight. Floor beams are designed for uniform loads of Ameri€n PlywoodAssociation(APA)tablesextend up to
4. Values are for preliminary design purposes only. For
40 ps{ liv€ load and l0 psf dead toad. 48 feet in span. The design of members of far greater
complete information see the American Instituto of Tifr
2. Allowabli stresses: Fb = 2,400 psi (modified volume fac-
'165 ber Construction Timbe( Consttrction Manuat. span is possibleusing good engineeringpractice.
tor). F" = psi, E = 1.800,000 psr.
GLUED-LAMINATED
CONSTRUCTION
Glued-LominqtedConstruction:Connections 375
BENT STEEL PUTE
TO CARRY SUSPENOED
LOADS BOLTED TO
BEAM ABOVE
N OTE
GLUED
Very light loads may be placed near bottom of beam; how- UMINATED
ever, the heavier the load the higher on the beam th€ sus- BEAM
wooo
pensaon points should be located. N OTE COLUMN
This detail is recommended for use with heavy loads.
SUSPENDED LOAD-BENT PLATE
ATTACHED TO SIDE -SAODLE
SUSPENDED LOAD
RAFTER TO COLUMN CONOITION
BEAM CANTILEVER
SIDE PUTE
WELDED TO STEEL N OTE
An abrupt notch in the end of a w@d member reduces the
effective shear strength of the member and mav permit a
more rapid migration ot moisture in the lower portion of the
member causing potential splitting. The shear strength of
the end of the member is reduced and the exposed end
RAFTER TO BEARING WALL grqr.n may also result in splitting b€cause of drying. At STEEL COMPRESSION BOX
rnclrned beams, the taper cut should be loaded in bearing.
CONNECTION DESIGN
The design of connectionstor glued laminatedtimber and
sawn timber is similar. Gl@d laminatedlimbers and their
loads, however, often are much larger than sawn lumber,
so the effect of increasedsizeshouldbe takeninto account
in the design.
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
376 Connections
Glued-lominoiedConstruction:
,e" MtN.
CLEARANCE
LAMINATE:O
BEAM
CLIP ANGLE,
BOTH SIOES
TO PROVIOE
LATERAL
SUPPORT i OO
NOT FASTEN
TO BEAM
ANCHOR
wooD wooo
wooo COLUMN COLUMN
COLUMN GALVANIZEO
CARRIAGE
BOLTS
EIOLTS
WELOED
STEEL CEMENT
ANCHOR WASH BEARING
AASEPLATE
E'OLTS PLATE
CONCRETE
BASE
GALVANIZEO
oR ztNc
coATto
STEEL ANCHOR
\^/ET POBT ANCHORAGE TO \|VOOD COUUMN ANCHORED WITH U-ETRAP COLUMN ANCHORAGE
CONCRETE BABE STEEL BASEPLATE TO CONCRETE BABE
This derail is rmmmended for indurtrial buil4
This detail is r€commendedfor herw duty us where ings 8nd warehds to r6i't both horizontal
moisture protection is d$ired. Anchor is *t and tq6 rnd uplifL Moisture bsricr is |'mfr
leveledin ret concrete after scre€dino. mended. lt may b€ usd with shear plat6
TimorhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
GLUED-LAM
INATEDCONSTRUCTION
Glued-LominoledConstruction:Connections
SUPPORTED BEAM
AEARING PLATE
TOP SURFACS
FLUSH WITH
V
",,i
t\
.);>
\i
CONCEALEO
PURLIN HANGER
NAILS OR LAGE}OL]-S
BATS
THROreH
BEAM
U-PLATE
SLOTTED
.rOP HOLES
IN PLATES
WILL RESIST MOMENT
BUT NOT EPLIT SEAM.
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington.D.C.
GLUED-LAMINATEDCONSTRUCTION
378 WoodSiding
HORIZONTAL OR
DIAGONAL SIOING
VERTICAL SIOING
EUILOING PAPER
LAP SIDING BUILOING PAPER
BEVEL
TERMITE SHIELO
(OPTIONAL )
'BLOCKING
OPTIONAL F@OR JOISTS EXTENOEO
LTLINE
CORROSIVE
NON-CORROStVt
METAL FLASHING
BELTLINE
NON. CORROSIVE TLINE
ORI P METAL FLASHING
FLOOR JOISTS BUILDING PAPER UNOER
FLOOR JOISTS
FUSHING
BUILOING PAPER
BUILOING PAPER UNDER RASHING
UNDER FLASHING
STU O STUO OR
BLOCKING
AUILOING PAPER BUILDING PAPER
FACE NAILIO
FACE NAIL
r/."EXPANSION
BOAROS €I" OR I/2..
wtotR. ruo NA|LS CLEARANCE OVERLAP
PER BEARING
TON<}UE ANO OROOVE I VERT. OR HORIZ.I CHANNEL (VEffi. I BOARO ANO BATTEN (VERT.I
FINISH
CARPENTRY
37s
' , 't r r " . r t r " . t . t z z " , ,
tz,,,,nttr,. ata.,_
z---------------- -r:,
-___-_--F
ft nT-
tttl,l
I I l-il1-
I ii#-
I I I l l lz -
I----1l lr-r--
lt"-
TEXTURE I.II REVERSED BOARO AND BATTEN ROUGH SAWN
4" OC
6 0R{
a- o.c
OPTIONAL
BUILDING
PAPER
STAGGER AUTT
JOINTS OVER
STUDS
7j-"
,/\
6- MrN I
RATED CLEARANCE I
SIDING ABovE GRADE/
N OTE
LEAVE I/s,, sPAcE AT END STARTER MAY USE BANENS
AND EDGE JOINTS UNLESS OTHERWISE STRIP ,- Nailable panel or lumber TO CONCUL
RECOMMENOED BY MANUFACTURER sheathing required BUTT JOINTS
VERTICAL BA
FFF
ommended for most siding applications. For best perlor-
mance, stainless steel nails or aluminum nails should be
consid€red. APA tests also show that electricallv or
mechanically galvanized steel nails appear satisfaitoru NOTE
w-hgl-11lating meets or exceeds thickness requirementl
of AS-TM 464l Ctass 2 coatings and is further'prorJcreJ The types of pl! rood recommended for exterior siding are
DV yelow chromate coatino APA grade trademarked medium density overlay (UbOi
Typ€.303 siding or lexlure 1-1 I [rt-t I speciat 303 sidrngi'
3. Only- panels 1V,r.in. and thi-cker that have certain groove
I,l-11 plywood srding is manufactured with 3/" in. wrde pJr
depths and spacing quality fo( 24 in. o.c. Span Rating.
allel gr@ves and shiplapped edges. MDO is recommended
4. For.braced. wall iift2 in. or
.seclions with % in. siding Ior parnt trntshes and is available in a variety of surfaces.
applied horizontally over studs 24 n. o.c, space narls 3 303 plywood panels are also available in a wide variety;f
AUTT AND SHIPUP OVER UP In. o.c. atong panel edges- surfaces. The most common ApA plywmd siding pinel
FUSH drmensions are 4 x I fl but the panels are also availa-ble in 9
HORTZONTAL JOINTS and 10 ft lengths, lap srdrng to 16 ft.
FINISHCARPENTRY
380 Wood Joints
,#l
/'ll
-a\
.A
'/ll ll
.C.t I
"")^
BACK BATTEN
".ffi 1l
SPLINE
'l I I (._t4- |
;A
' "'tr I
TONGUE ANO GROOVE BUTTERFLY WEDGE BUTTERFLY SPLINE
-'-Y"-./
"V-
\tr "v
\-l
\,
s-z
IV
!,j--
--V-
KEYEO JOINT
STOPPEO OADO
v---S--
WOOD SPLINE
---lr-
*
FOXTAIL WEDGE
SHOULDER TONGUE AND GROOVE
MITER JOINTS
WEDGED JOINTS
RALWOODWOR K
ARCHITECTU
Wood Joints 38r
\\,
\\\t
VI
-\Y,a l
z
g
\"/\
->2 €
OOVETAIL HALFUP SECRET DOVETAIL LAP OOVETATL THROUGH MULTIPLE
(MITER DOVETAIL) (HALF BLIND) (COMMON DOVETAIL)
DOVETAIL JOINTS
V
>rt -,-
v
;
<*-7
-iY-/
MITERED HALF LAP CROSS LAP
LAP JOINTS
w
THROUGH TENON PINNEO ALIND HAUNCH BLIND
HALF BLINO
HAUNCH
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
382 CobinetDetqils
BUTT JOINT. SET GENERAL
NAILEO.PUNIED
AND SANDEO The Architectural Woodwork Instatute's Ouality Standards
classify custom-manufactured cabinets in three categories:
premium, custom, and economy. The materials, toinery,
HARDWOOD EDGE
MAY 8E MOLDED and finish quality are delineated in the specifications for
TO PROFILE cabinet shops to follow. Premrum is the highest grade, with
close tolerances reserved for only the finest cabinets. Cus-
OF WEB FRAME tom€rade cabinets, the most common, are made lrom
very good materials with durable joinery. Economy-grade
illl--
WOOD SPLINE MITER cabinets are used for utilitarian and inexrensive residential
SHOWN (TONGUE AND caDrners.
GROOVE ALSO USED)
3to" uor
OR PBI
The AWI Ouality Standards classify cabinet parts as
exposed, semiexposed, and concealed. 3nd specify a mini
mum grade for each. The finish to be used is specified as
paint grade or stain grade or whether plastic laminate or
ulr-
WALL CABINET
other material will be used.
LINE OF WEB FRAME To prevent movement caused by wood shrinkage, use only
kilndried solid lumber or panel product for base supports.
PUSTIC UMINATE
PUSTIC UMINATE COUNTERTOP ON
oN 3/4" MDF oR PBI ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used on the three AGS
pages on cabinet details: MDF{ediumdensity libeF
board: PBI;ndustrial oarticleboard.
NUI
l\\)L
l,\:
____________y/)
---------74
|
L\\17-7771
EDGE OETAILS
F:lv///,t/)
ltl
1I HARDBOARD//
ll lll BAcKING-
AACKSPLASH
lll_
Flush overlay construction oflers a clean, contemporary
lL__llr-
-Tl[
POST FORMED PUSTIC designbecauseonly the doors and drawerlronts are visible
UMINATE ON BASE ll \/ |
in elevation-The grain between doors and drawer lronts suPPoRT
MDF OR PBI
can be matched by cutting all pieces from the same panel. r .""^' *"-
,+l x I
Thiscabinetstylelendsitselfwell to the use ot plasticlami- ll/\l
ry
nate tor exposed surfaces. Conventionaland concealed \
hinges are availablefor a varietyof door thicknesses.Door
and drawer joinery and materialsmay vary from the selec-
tion shownin the details.
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION
-Fll
FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION-
VERTICAL SECTION A.A
-TII-
HARDBOARD BACKING
POST-FORMED LAMINATE COUNTERTOP
SCRIBE TO
U U
MEUMINE, WOOD
BACKSPLASH VENEER, OR PLASTIC
UMINATE SURFACE ON
-:-tE
MOF OR PBI. TYP.
SOLID SURFACE.
SOAPSTONE. GRANITE
MARBLE. OR OTHER
]TIE ----]
STONE ON THIN,SET BED
3/a" PLYwooD
STONE COUNTERTOP
AASE CABINET-SECTION C-C
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
Cobinet Detoils 383
HARDBOARD
BACKING, TYP
MEUMINE. WOOD
VENEER OR PLASTIC
iFgs,?rE
UMINATE SURFACE
ON MDF OR PBI, NP l1 ll llll
:-1F L_ll -]/
tL)
- ___jilL_ ITF \ lr_ --'__--/
REVEAL
\--
TYP
REVEAL.Typ.J
WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
li llN
IJN\
uilll
AD
BASE CABINET S€CTION
soLtD
C.C
HAROWOOO
=ryz N-
\ \
CABINfr
-DRAWERFRoNT
DOOR TYPICAL CABINET ELEVATION
HMWH
UMgUM
of door and drawerfronts with differentthicknesses.
nur,:'ffir ll ll
:=vW:r: 'E
illl llll FLUSH
WITH
INSET CONSTRUCTION
FACE FRAME
ln this style ol construction,all dmr and drawer faces are
-,- r,,
-lF: )V =W
flush with the face of the €binet. This style allows the use
of differentthicknessesfor dor and drawer fronts.
WJ
most expensiveof the lour cabinetdoor styles because,in
additionto the cost of providingthe face frame, there is the
u
illl cost of the increasedcare n€ededto fit and align the doors
ano orawers.
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
384 Cobinei Detoilsond Hqrdwore
-----w_
F-lI
t{--
Ii l 1tt-
-. -]lll E'
1 I F]
iltl
ilil_
qJ[-
lIl_
Ulr
l=llllll lrll-=llllll
Lllr-
-=-- ---- ,xl
- REVEAL, TYP
;3:t'fFIi{ :s=..+E.HIYJ'
ilt l
ffiffi. =
tl
MDF OR PBI
\
t, l*m T =fl '-,-
-l l -TEr --nilM
^."L-l
l'\\-
ll
ffi
=;lu
lttl
u - -z) ill[\
N\ llllI
,r...urr-Z "*"*t- ur, I
NL :Ullillrl I
llu roR^wER
u I [\IZZ|]- -:Z.L I
|l\)-t-
\- onnwen llll I -WiA1i,,.
lt]?n:f: - I W) . ,o". I
"o*o"oo*o
=U |lll | EiEP,R?1y-,| V/,/( FR^ME. aAcKtNG. J
ll lilt nrnoaonno llll | *-
-rw aYP- , I
(2 nP
--v
rYP- |
ll lll\ls:- ii,cl'^s,-111|
FRAME
ll lA Z I iltT I
:====1) I I/+
',n I :=:="P'2
il
ll ll_
il
lllll
ll ltz*:
ll lt-: --- - llll
lll I
I
I tr-
ll]fi- _--]x il:m:ffi
ilfl-- llll I lLillf-
--TNll--
,o=.:*fi7-:Mn BASE | aasE ll\/l
:$:?n:-1l^l l/\I | 3t5:?f,'"-ll^l l^l I suPPoRT
BLOCKING/
.41 \ |
II /\
il/ \l
I
i/\ /\ | J/\ /\ | Jr \
BASE CABINET BASE CABINET BASE CABINET
REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION FLUSH INSET qONSTRUCTION (WITH
VERTICAL SECTION A-A (WITHOUT FACE FRAME) FACE FRAME) VERTICAL SECTION A-A
VERTICAL SECTION A.A
without face
frame, revealover
lay, flush oveday
n. up
heighl
1 Consulta woodworkingprofessionaltor shelf specificationsto carryanticipatedloads.
, Givespecialconsiderationto buildingvery wide and/orvery tall doors of this thickness;con,
openrn9;no catcn
sultmanufactur€r for guidelines.
requiredon self,
3 Thicknessof glassfor doors shouldmeet localcode.
closing styles
a Use like materialsand thicknessestor face of cabinetdoors and drawerfronts. Veneer core
doorscannotbe guaranteedagainstwarping,telegraphing,or delamination.
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
Wood Shelving 38s
8 MM DIA WOOD DOWELS
METAL STANDARDS GENERALLY
SURFACE MOUNTED
NOTE
All dimensions and spacing are
based on a 32 mm module
2"Ml
BOX FRAME
BLTND DADO
METAL CAM INSERTED
INTO FRAME WALL
THROUGH OADO
SUPPORT DETAILS AT SIOE
WOOD VENEER OR
PUSTIC UMINATE
,r'PLYWOOO
MEOIUM DENSITY
PARTICLEBOARO
OR FIBERBOARO
NOTE
WOOO EOGE BANO
This system can b€ hand mounted or machineinserted.A
half turn of the cam screw tightens connection and pre-
vents disassemblv.
SEMI-FIXED FRAME/SHELF DETAIL
\F _-<
{'"*"""
HANGING
NOTE
CLEAT HANGING BRACKET
All details except hanging bracket and rail must also be floor
N OTE
This system can be used for horizontal shelf attachment or
\F
\tr
supported. vertical divider suppon. BULLNOSE
BOOKSHELF vt/ALL ATTACHMENT REMOVABLE GROOVED SHELF DETAIL SHELF EDGE DETAIL
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
386 InteriorWollPonelingDetoils
COVE MOLDING
9 WAINSCOT CAP
z
caowir E
MOLDING
o
wooD lRrM
I
L BACK UP WOOO VENEER a
E
l
\ BED MOLDING F
5
@
soLrD wooo
RAIL (AND STILE)
\ oEruttL ropr.r F
z LIP MOLDING
FLUSH PANEL
MOLDING
FLAT PLYWOOD
RAISED PANEL ,.
PANEL WITH
WOOD VENEER
<F
PLYWOOD
/ <PUSTER BELOW BACK,UP
P ENTABUTURE
RAISED PANEL
PLYWOOD BACKUP
AASE CAP
BASE CAP
BASEBOARD
BASEBOARD
BLOCKING
ALOCKING
BASE SHOE
BLOCKING
MEDIUM OENSITY
FIBERBOARO FOR
PAINT FINISH ONLY
RAISEO PANEL
BASE CAP
AASEBOARD
BASE SHOE
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
Wood Stoirs 387
GUIDELINES required width of a stair L Height of handrail above stair nosings: 30 to 34 an.;34
Conslruction details on thrs page are for shop-built stairs Handrail projection: 3,/2 in. maximum. to 38 in. per ADMG. Guardrail height at landings: 36 or
using Premium Grade Standards of the Architectural Wood- Stringer projectionr 1'12in. maximum. 42 in.; check lo€lcode.
work Institute. W@d stairs used in private, residentialapplr For a stair to comply with ADMG, no proiections are 9. Design handrails that can be gripped easily and fit the
cations usually are not governed by the ADA; however. allowed Into the mrnrmum requrred starr wrdth. hand. Recommend€d diameter is 1,/a to t,/, in. for
wood stairs in commercial lacilities and olaces of oublic round handfails and a similar srze for an eilrblrcal or
5. The width of a landing or platform should be at least as rounded square edge section. Handrails should be
accommodatron must conlorm to ADA accessibrlrtygutde-
wide as the stair.
lines (ADMG). Details on these lwo pages depict both structurally designed so that both downward {vertical}
alternattves. 6. The maximum vertical rise of a stair between landinqs is and lateral (horizontal) thrust loads are considered.
12 tI- 10. Exlensions ot handrail at top and bottom ot stair may
1. Check current l@l building codes and regulations lor 7. Biser height: 4 in. min. and 7 in. max. aflect total length ot required run. Verify extensions
requirements that may differ from the general recom- '11 required by local codes or ADAAG when designing a
Tread width: in. min.. measured from riser to riser.
mendations provided here. stair.
Variation in adiacent treads or rjsers should not exceed 3/
2. Interior stair width: 36 in. minimunr. 1 1 . Refe. to related stair topics in chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9.
16in. The maximum difference allowed the tread width or
3. Minimum headroom is 6 ft 8 in. as measured verticallv riser height within a ftight of stairs is % in. ADAAG
from a dragonal line connecting lread nosings to the requires unrform treads and risers.
underside of the finished ceiling or stair landing directly Nosings project 1rl2 in. max. Check codes and ADAAG
above the stair run. Recommended headr@m is 7 ft. for other restrictions.
4. Only handrails and stair stringers may prcject into the
ffi['fJ,"\]:
NffEL POST
ROUTED FOR ALL
INTERSECTING
TREAOS ANO
BLOCKING
FLOOR LEVEL
HANORAIL (INSTALL ON
FINISH BOTH SIOES WHEN
DESIGNING FOR PERSONS
WITH OISABILITIES)
AALUSTER
BALUSTER
DOVETAILEO
TO TREAD
ACCESSIBLE NOSINGS FOR
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
TREAO
RffURN
BLOCKING .
CARRIAGE
FACE
STRINGER
WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
BLOCKING
BEruEEN
CARRIAGES
Center carriage is recommended
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
388 Wood Stoirs
HOUSED STRINGER AT
NOTE
Open riser stairs do not comply with Americans
with DisabilitiesAct AccessibilityGuidelines.
FLUSH
TRANSITION
l/2" RADtus
WALL OR
SOLID RAIL
TRtM Typ. = CARRIAGE - CARRIAGE
TREAD
9PACER -S
wooo BLocK
CUT TO FIT NO STRINGER NOTCHED STRINGER
ADAAG
ACCEPTABLE
BASE AT WAL|_ NOSTNG CLOSED RISER STAIRS AT \^/ALLS AND SOLTD RAILING vi/ALLS
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
AT TREAD ANO RISER RADtus'/2" STEEL ANGLE WITH UG
OR THROUGH BOLTS TO
60'MtN BEAM AND CARRIAGE
FULL
STRINGER ST€EL ANGLE
BEYOND
NOTCHED
STRINGER
ADAAG ACCEPTABLE
NOSING
BEAM TREAD
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
CARRIAGE
CHAMFER
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
Wood Ornomenls 389
CYMA MOLDING -
CORONA (DRIP
MOLDING) -- --
DENTILS
SCROLL
GEE
MOLDING
AAY.LEAF
FRILZE
ORNAMENT
l
OGEE MOLDING WITH
TALON ORNAMENT _
FRIZE
DOOR ------__\
OVERDOOR DETAILS
wooD
CORBEL (BRACKET)
] "o**,.-
- --^.---
@_ . lirliffiear
] ORNAMENTS
EWt
r IaRCHTTRAVE
:i
PUSTER APITAL
FLfED PIUSTER
V \ / O O DC O R B E L S
GENERAL
W@dwork is considered an ornament when it has a sEcial
or uniq@ design that does not tall within the standard cate .STOP'
FLUTING
gories ol architectural woodwork as defined bv the Archi-
t€ctural Woodwork Institute.
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
Wood Ornoments
ffi ffi ^
M
_l
]va"-.e
jFRrzE
ffi "&
W
#
@
I ARGITRAVE
PIUSTER
CAPIT&
FIREPUCE
%$tri
M
SURROUND
ffi r\l
1t
(NON-
COMBUSTIBLE)
MATERIALS
PIUSTER
w
SHAfl PANEL
@
ALSO CALLED
ffi u
\
CANDEUBRUM
PANEL
.(qT/A
G.fr
@ @ W FIREPLACE MANTEL
MISCELLANEOUS ORNAMENTS
@N
:."o*^-ff
-:::: .=]--
ffiM
ffiW
A
WL)
PINEAPPLE
AA
ACORN ACOR,N
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
GENERAL
N OTES
Intenor trim ts a generally decorative treatment -applied
The Architectural Woodwork Institute differentiates wood 1. Blockrng that recerves moldings shoutd be set
atter mll. floor, and ceiling finishes have been installed. lt olumb
trim €ccording to its length. Standing wood trim is trim tevet, true. and straight, with no distortion, and should be
can be made of flat or molded wood from single pieces of that
can be accommodated easily wilh s,ngle lenglhs ol wood provided for full surface contact. Attach blocking to
wood or built-up pieces that give a more complex ind deco_ iub-
l@penorng on specres). such as crown moldings, fasc;as, slrales wrth nails, screws. or bolts.
ratrve appearance_ lnterior trim conceals joints between
dif_ soffits, chair.rails. baseboa.ds, ana sfroe motOing's.'nunnn!
ferent materials and blocks air infiltration through wails, 2. Woodwork should be stored in a dry, ventilated space. tf
tflm. is usually made up of frnger jointed woodto achievJ
which typically is greatest at material joinrs. Int;rior vim this is oot possible, seal the ends ot all pieces as ioon as
rne rengths customarily needed tor thrs tvoe ot trim.
also- frames wall and ceiling openings idor and window/ possible- Moldings should be at optimum moisture
cm
skylrght trim). defines planar edges (crown and base mold_ tent at the time of installation and should be allowed to
Ingl, and acts as a visual divider between dissimilar materi_ acclimate to project conditions before installation.
als (chair rail). 3. Joints In adjacent and related members should be staq_
gered. Cope at inside corners and miter at outsiae
coi.
ners to produce tighlJitting
ioints with full surface
contact lhroughoul lhe length of the jornt, use scarf
DOOR CASING Jornts{face mitered) for end-to€nd joints in trim.
4. Blind nail where possible, and use finishing nails in
BUILT.UP CORNTCE exposed areas.. Predrill as required to eliminat; splitting;
MOLDING set exposed nail heads for filling.
5. Most flat rrim like baseboards and casing has a ploughed
or retieved back, whjch gives wide trim a degree of itexi
orrry, alowtng tt to frt snugly against a wall surface
6. The molding profiles illustrated are a small sampling of
those available from most millwork shops. Custom "pro_
liles should be shown on drawings full size. Dimensrins
grven are tor typical Stock molding profrles.
wrNDow
casrre ---
r>\
:(/b
-_+'_v
_,.\
| >--
l,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ \
(,2-72-*, L-4-'rJ
| / / / / / >1 aTEDEDGE
l/'- t
fuINTH BLOCK
F7__* LJ--/_A
// / / >\-r'
f / /./ ,/ /\ a-7-7-7---
TYPICAL WOOO TRIM AND MOLDINGS NOTE
WINrcW Casings are used to tinish the joint b€tween the window or
F%ME BLIND INSIDE CORNERS OF d@r h€ad and side jambs and wall finish. Often a casing
SHAPED MOLDINGS used at windows is also used as apron material, wtth th;
Hru STOP
ARE COPED (CUT WTH
JAMB PAffiING @PING SAW TO FT wde stde toward the stool
OVER COMOURS
PARTNTG G PffiNG OF ADJOINING MIM CASINGS
STOP
OR
PARTING SIDE JAMB
WINDOW
ASING
SASH. WP.
INSIOE STOP
-t/
STOOL MTERED
AT CORNERS
r
ARON MMERED
AT CORNERS NOTE
LEMON S;PLINE OR
SCARF E}ISCUIT JOTNT St@ls are used as interiorcaps on windowsillsand recetve
TYPICAL WINDOW TRtM ca$ng fiom above and apron below. They are specifiedby
MOLDING CONNECTTON DETAILS width of rabbetand degreeof bevel.
W@D BL@KING
AS NECESSARY, AP MOLDING
sTooLs
WP (MreRED AT
CROWN MODING @NER)\ MOLDED
CryPICALLY USED
TOWARO TOP OF MOLDING
tfr-" N W'?'*Ew
CORNICE ASSEMBL).) AT TOP
CORNERS
MOLDED
D@R
ASING
ONE.PIECE
ll N N N P-=o='=oo*o
BASEBOARD
:l N N t.i N
\ ovouo
SHOE
ts S S M'Fhiq::
NOTE
PLINTH BLOCK
DENNLS Baseboards and base moldings are used at the juncture of
\ aase MoDING BASE CAP wall and floor exclusively. Baseboard may be one piece
PICTURE BASEBOARD {with integral.base cap) or flat with optional base cap. Sepa-
MOLDING BED MOLDING rate caps and sh@s are flexible and tacilitate a close fit to
BASE SHG
uneven wall and lloor surfaces.
TYPICAL CORNICE TRIM TYPICAL DOOR AND BASE TRIM BASEBOARD AND BASE MOLDINGS
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
392 InteriorWoodTrimond Moldings
,\';
\"
,r4
-tf
/
o"/ I
/t,
<?
N OTE
ffv
Crown moldingsare appliedalone at the joint betweenwall
NOTE NOTE
and ceilingor togetherwith other moldingsin a built-upcor-
nic€,typicallytoward the top of the corniceassemblyjmea- Cove moldingsare used at insidecorners,such as wall-to- Bed moldings are used at the bottom of built-up cornices
e' 'r6a oi^6 r^ odd6 wall or ceiling-to-wall. and at other vertical-tehorizontaliunctures.
CROWN MOLDINGS COVE MOLDINGS BED MOLDINGS
1/2' - Y^-,
"*Fffi t fiI
w \rm
((p
rVTtxl
i l\\r- F ROUNDS
i|u/ N
11h6'frP.
Mwn
t- a
r*-n
:l/\r I Auh* rx R
l>
,.eI V2^ li/lll.! W,hr F\
NOTE
V }F)*L1Z
-T--
BASE CAPS
N OTES
U_p/ U.I_ly Ey
%W
T1
td* aR a WWMW
,lu = a s n ilW u) II-EYVN
._-l_-
rf R.
rl -2
fI
; F\trSSN
lf-J
| r:r
ll..-l
NOTE
These moldings are used in panelsto concealjoints, over N OTE
NOTE
window jamb edges in a multiple{pening window, and as Backbands are applied as trim at the outer edg6 of door
Stops are used at iambs to guide windorc and stop doors. astragalsat middlejoints oI doubleleal d@rs. jamb and head, among oth€r uses.
|
--- ---T
1 th. - 21b". wP.
1--
t N
|:'
SIS:
N
S
FS
+!,
a
*l b-lo
IIE*WWF
t,7
|
a.
%:
%-,-,
N\v-
*t\z F F-a ?b
NOTE NOTE
Cap or rake moldings are used at head of door and window Panel moldings are typically used as door and wainscol
trim and at top of wainscots. trim, mitered together and arranged in rectangles.
CAP OR RAKE MOLDINGS CHAIR RAILS PANEL MOLDTNGS
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers 393
FACE VENEER FACE WNEER
/- PLYWOOD TYPES
/
- PARTICLEBOARD VENEER CORE The term "plywood"meansa panelproductmadeof three
or more layers{plies)of w@d or wood products(veneersor
overlays and/or core materials)that have been laminated
into a single sheet (panel).Plywood falls into two groups
according to materialsand manufacturing:
W
GENERAL
Architecturalwood panels are made from wood material F I R E - R E T A R D A N T P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
that is cut or formed into sheel Droductsthat are reterredto
Mediumdensity industrialpanicleboardmay be treateddutr
as the "panel core.- These sheets are used alone (with or ing manufactureto carry a UL Class'l frre ratingstamp
without a finish) or laminatedtogether with other veneer (flame spread20, smoke developed25). This materialcan
products to make plywood. A great variety of panels are
manufacturedusing differentcore materialsand adhesives be used as substratefor panelingrequiringa Class'l rating.
or binders and various torming t€chniques and surfaco A THEDru
treatments. The characteristicsof the panels vary with MEDIUM-OENSITY PANERN
FIBERBOARD (MDF) CORE
these differencesin materialand construction_
MDF is made from wood particles reduced to fib€rs in a This is the slicing method most often used lo produce
moderate?ressur€steam vessel,combinedwith resin.and veneers for high{uality architecturalwoodworking. Slicing
PANEL CORE TYPES bonded together under heat and pressur€.The surface is is done parallelto a line through the center of the log. A
flat, smmth. uniform.dense,and free of knots or grainpat-
Panelcores,which sere as the substratefor laminat€sand combinationof Gthedral and straight-grainpatternsresults,
tern. MDF is useful as a substrate for paint, thin overlay with a naturalprogrsssionof patternfrom leaf to leaf.
veneers on the outer surfae, are classifiedby ingredients materials,veneers,and decorativelaminates.The homoo€-
and methods of runufacture. The following types of panel neous edge allos machiningand paint finishes. MDi is PLAIN.SLICED (FLAT-SLICED)
cores are suitabletor architecturaluse: VENEER
ono of the most stable mat-forred panel productsand is
widely us€d as an architecturalparel.
INDUSTRIAL GRADE
P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E
M O I S T U R E - R E S I S T A N TM O F C O R E
This core type is made by using heat and pressureto bond
Some MDF is bonded with an exterior resin to oroduc€a
together synth€ticresinor binderand wmd particlesot var-
highlywater-resistantproduct.
ious sizes- Employed in a wide variety ot architectufal
woodwork applications,industrial grade particleboardis
especially well suited as a substrate for higlFquality VENEER CORE (PLYWOOD)
veneers and de@rative laminates.When used as mnels This panel product is made up of alternatinglayersof thin NARROW
without any surface layqs, the product is called panicle- SNIED
veneer and is commonly known as plywood. Adhesive is PAreRN
board. When used with wood vener on the surface.the placedb€tween the layers,and th€ panelsa.e presseduntil
panels are referred to as particl€ore plywood. Particle- N OTE
th€ adhesiveis set; heat is often used to sp€ed the cure.
board core classifiedby density or weight per cubic ft falls The two outside layers, often sel€cted for species,grain, Ouarterslicing,roughlyparallelto a radiusline through the
into three categories: and appearance,are calledthe face venesrs. log segment, simulates th€ quarter-swing process used
with solid lumber,In many speciesthe individualleavesare
1. Low density---lessthan 40 lb per cubic ft (640 kg per HARDBOARD CORE narcw as a result. A series ot stripes is produced,varying
dbic meter) in density and thicknessamong species. "Flake" is a char-
Hardb@rdis made of interfeltedfibers consolidatedunder
2. Medium density--4o to 50 lb per cubic ft (640 to 800 kg acteristicof this slicingmethod in red and white oak.
heat and pressureto a densityof 31 Ib per cubicft or more.
oer cubic meter) Availablewith either one side (S'lS) or two sides (S2S) QUARTER-SLICED VENEER
3. High density-more than 50 lb per cubic ft {80Okg per smooth, hardboard is often used for €sework backs.
cubic meter) drawer bottoms, and divider panels. Architecturalwood- KNIFE
workerstypicallyuse two types of hardboardcore:standard
MOISTURE.RESISTANT (untempered)and tempered. which is standardhardboard LOG
P A R T I C L E B O A R DC O R E that has been subjected to a curing treatment to increase
Some mediumdensity industrial particleboardis bonded its stiffness,hardness,and weight.
with phenolic resins, which makes it more resistant to
swellingwhen exposedto moisture.Phenolicresins,unlike
urea resins, do not emit significantquantitiesof tomalde
hyde. The most common gradesare type 2-M-2 (M-2exte-
rior glue)and 2-M-3 (M-3exteriorglue).
PATTERN
CHARACTERISTICS OF CORE MATERIAL PERFORMANCE N OTE
Rift verers are producedmost often in red and white oak.
rarelyin other species.Note that rift veneersand rift-sawn
PANEL TYPE ABILITY solid lumber are produced so diff€rently that a "match'
between them is highlyunlikely.In both casesthe cutting is
(mediumdensity) done slightly off the radius lines. minimizing the "flake"
ass@iatedwith quarterslicing.
core (MDF) RIFT-SL|CED (R!FT-CUT) \/ENEER
Lumber core-hardw@d
softwood
board core
N OTE
or
ffi
VERY
PAfrERN
BROAD
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
394 PonelProductsond Wood Veneers
SLIP MATCH
ffiffi BOOK MATC:H RANDOM MATCH RUNNING MATCH
mmffiffiffi
WIVVIW
WIVIW W
NfMTm
PANEL
hl/Ah
1234135/
END MATCH ARCHITECTURAL END MATCH E}AI-ANCE AND CENTER MATCH BAT-ANC:E MATCH
BOOK MATCHING
Book matching is the most commonly used match in the
industry. In it, every other piece ol veneer is reversed so
ad,acent pieces (leaves) are "opened" hke the pages of a
'tight"
book. Because the and "loose" faces jlte-rnate in
adjacent leaves, they reflect light and accept stain differ
ently. The veneer joints match, creating a symmetrical pat,
tern that yields maximum continuity of grain.
SLIP MATCHING
Adtoining leaves are placed (slipped out) in sequence with-
out being turned, thus all the same face sides are exposed.
The grain figure repeats but toints do not show grain match
All faces have some light refraction.
END MATCHING
End matching is often used to extend the apparent length
of available veneers lor high wall panels and long con{er
ence tables. End matching occurs in two types:
RANOOM MATCHING
Veneer ieaves are placed next to each other in a random
order and orientation, producing a casual board$y-board
effect in many species. Conscious effort is made to mis-
match the grain at joints.
RUNNING MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from as manv veneer leaves
as necessary. This often resulls in an asymmetrical appear-
ance, with some veneer leaves of unequal width.
BALANCE MATCHING
rCost retlects raw veneer Each panel lace is assembled from an odd or even number
costs weighted for waste or yield N OTE
characteristics and degree of labor drlfrculty of veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
'?Seasonalfactors may When quanered or plain sliced are listed on the same line,
affect availability
the widrh dimensions are listed with quartered lirst and BALANCE AND CENTER MATCHING
3Availability ot blond
teak is very rare. plain sliced second.
Each panel face is assembled from an even number of
veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming.
Thus, there is a veneer joint in the center of the panel, pro-
ducing horizontal symmetry.
ARCHITECTU
RALWOODWORK
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers 395
FACING MATERIAL TYPES
Wmd product substratesare classifiedin two main facinq
material categories:decoratrvelaminates/overlavs ana
wood veneers.
DECORATIVELAMINATES/OVERLAYS
This finish surface category can b€ broken down into the
tollowingbroadgroups:
WOOD VENEERS
W@d veneers are produced in a variety of industry stan-
dard thicknesses.The slicing process is controlled by a
numberof variables,but the thickn€ssof the veneerhas lit-
tle bearingon the qualityof the 6nd product.
Most veneers are tak6n from largs tre€s, but some are
DIAMC)ND REVERSE DIAMOND SKETCH FAC:E sliced from fast{rowing trees, dyed, and regluedin molds
NOTE to create "grain" patterns.Th€ color of these reconstituted
veneers is establishedduring manufactur€ because the
During specitication,use both names and illustrationsto high percenlageof glue line resists later staining.
define the desiredeffect, as nares vary by regionlor these
matchingtechniques. The manner in which a log segment is cut with relationto
SPECIAL V\/OOD VENEER MATCHING OPTIONS the annualrings of the tree detemines the appearanceof
the veneer. Individualpieces of veneer, refered to as
"leaves," are kept in the order in which they were sliced{or
COMMON FACE VENEER PATTERNS OF SELECTED COMMERCIAL SPECIES referenceduringinstallation.The group ot leavesfrom one
slicingis €lled a "flitch" and is identifiedby a number and
FACE VENEER PATTERN th€ gross squarefeet it @nt8ins. Th€ faces ot the leaves
PRIMARY
COM M ERC IAL Pr.-AtN SLTCEO with relationto their positionin the log are identifiedas the
HAROWOOD SPEC (FLAT CUT) ROTARY CUT "tight tace" (toMrd the outside of the logl and rhe "loose
face" (towardthe insideor hoart of the log).
NOTES
1. To achiew balancedconstruction.panelproductsshould
be absolutelysymmetri€l from the c€nter line. Materials
used on either side should@ntract and expandor exhibit
moisturepermeabilityat the sme rat€ as the veneer.
2. In parel construction,the thinnerthe facing matedal,the
less torce it can generateto cause warping.The thicker
th€ subslrate, the more it can r€sist a warping move-
menl or rorce.
3. Wood veneer standards: For hardwood plwood, the
face veneer characteristicsof the Hardwood Plwood
and Veneer Association (HPVA) have generally been
adapted for use. These tace grades apply to custom
architecturalw@dwork.
4. Flamespreadfactors:The fire rating of the core material
Yellow poplar
determinesthe ratingof rhe assembledpanel.Fire-retar-
methods ol dant veneered oanels must have a tirHetardant core.
Particleboardcore is availablewith a Class| (ClassA rat-
ing, but MDF is not currentlyavailablewith a lire rating.
I The headings above reter to the face vener pattern, not Existingbuildingcodes. ex@pt where locallyamended,
buyer in an explicitmannerto avoidthe possibiliryo{ mis- providethat facingmaterialsr/a in. or thinnerare not
to the rethod of cutting. Fa@ ven@r panerns other understanding.Fo( example,plain-slic€dveneercut on a
consideredin determiningth€ flame spreadratingof the
than those listed are obtainable by special order. venical slicer or Dlain-slicedveneer cut on a half-round panel. For more information, refer to the Architectural
'zThe method of cutting lor a given face wneer pattern rotary lathe could be specified.
Woodwork lnstitute guide 'Fire Code Summary."
shall be at mill option unless otheMise specified by the
ARCHITECTURAL
WOODWORK
396 Screens,Blinds,ond Shutters
HAUNCBED
MORTISE AND
I
TENON JOINT,
ARCHITECTU
RAL WOODWORK
CHAPTER SEVEN
THERMALAND
MOISTIJREPROTECTION
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
fems over Occupied Spoce 3gg
WEARING When the membrane is lurned up on a wall, il
SURFACE is prel to surface drarns and to allow a minor portron to tnlil
erable.to terminate it above the wearing surface
to !lim, trate to the membrane.
wEARING Inate the possibility ol ponded surface
\)&-- water Denetratino
.\ COURSE tne wail above the membrane and running down A drainage course of washed, round gravel or prelabri.
behinj
+.ORAINAGE COURSE it into the building. cated drainage composite should be provided above the
PRorEcrroN oR protection board, over the membrane. This permiti
^O-
&a 0 WORKING SLAB Penetrations should be avoided wherever possible. water to filter to the drain and provides a place where
o 6, .d '( protectton at such critical locations, pipe
For
sleeves should rt can collect and treeze without damaging the wearing
NSULATION be cast into.the structural slab against which couase.
the mem.
or-are can be terminated by flashing onto the pipe
sleeve- INSULATION
DRAINAGE
COURSE When required, insulation should be located above the
Treatment at reinforced and nonreinforced joints
de_ membfan€, but not in direct contact with it.
PROTECTION
pends on the membrane used. See following pages.
C} BOARD
PROTECTION OR WORKING SLAB
<l Two.concepts can be considered in the detailing
WATERPROOFING of ex_ A concrete slab could be placed soon after lhe mem-
pansion joints at the membrane tevet:
MEMBRANE ttre posirive seat
o concepl directly at the membrane level and brane, protection board, drainage course, and insulation,
d the wa-
" " r ,G--BERg?Effg.^- tershed concept with rhe seal at a higher tevet rl requrred, have been installed. lt would serve as pro_
than th; tection for the permanent waterprogfing materials and
membrane. Where additional safeguards are
desired, a Insulation below, provide a working platform for con_
drain€ge gutter under the joint could be considered.
EIASIC Frexrbte upward suppon of the membrane is st.uction traflic and storage of materials (within weiohr
COMPONENTS OF required in
WATERPROOFING each case to provide watershed_type arainage. limitsl, and prcvide a substantial substrate for the plaie_
SYSTEMS expin_
sion joint details should be considered and ur=sed ment ot the finish wearing course materials.
GENERAL in ac-
co.dance with their movement capability.
WEARING COURSE
The basiccomponents,subsystems,and featuresfor a
Durtdrngdeck waterproofingsystem are the structural The positive seal concept entails a greater risk The major requirements for the wearing course are a sta_
than the
Durtdrng watershed concept, since it relies tully
deck or substrateto be waterproofed,water on positive seal blesuppon of sufficient strength, resistance against lai_
proofingmembrane.protectionof membaane,drainage, joinery of materials at the membrane eral lhrust, adequate drainage to avoid ponding of water,
levei, where the
insulation,and wearingcourse.See followingpagesioi membrane is mosl vulnerable to water penelration. and proper treatment of ioints. Under a thick-set mortar
Since
genelc membrane applications. the precision requi.ed is not always attainable. bed supponing masonry units, a prefabricated drainaoe
this con_
cepl ts best avoided. composite helps resist freeze-thaw damage to tie
SUSSTRATE wearing course by expediting water flow down to rhe
Th€.watershed concept, allhough requiring a g.eate,
The substrate referred to is reinforced cast-in-olace subsurface drainage system.
nergnr and more costly concrete forming, is superior
structural concrete. Pr*ast concrete slabs pose more in
sareguardtng against leakage. having the advantage Joints in which movement is anticipated should be
technicalpfoblemsthan €st-in-place concreteand the of
provrotng a monoltthic concrele water dam treated as expansion ioints. Various compression seals
probabiliryot lasting watertightnessis greatly dimin_ at the mem_
rshedand difficult to achievebecauseof the multitude brane level. However, it a head of water rises to are available that can be inserted into a formed ioint
the
height of the materials joinery, thrs concepr becomes under compression. lvlost of these, however, are not
of ioints which have the capability ot movercnt and
must be treated acco.dingly. atmost as vulnerable as the positive seal concept. flush at the top surface and could fill up with sand or
nererore, dratnage is recommended at the membrane din.
.r
The concrete used lor the substrate should have a min- level-
Wet sealants are the materials most commonly used in
imum density of 1762 kg/m3 1110 lb/ft3) and have a PROTECTION SOARO movaog joints at the wearing su.face level. Dimension A
maxrmummotsturecontentof 8% when cured. is the design width dimension o. the dimension at which
Tie mmbrane should be protected frcjm damage
SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE the joint will be formed. The criterion normally used for
th.oughout construction. protection board shoul{
6e determining this dimension with sealants capable of
A monolithic concrete subst,ate slope of a minimum I l applied atter the membrane is installed. The properi;6-
l25 movement is to mulliply the maxtmum exgected
mm/m {% in./ft| should be maintained. Stooe is besr ing of application after placement of the membrane
is movement in one di.€ction by 4. Generally, this is ex.
achievedwith a monolilhicsl.ucturalslab and not with mponant and varies with the type of membrane pected to be about three-fourths of lhe rotal
used. anticipated
a separateconcrete fill layer. tsoilow the manufacture.,s printed Insrructtons. joinr movement, but il there is any doubt,
mulripiy the
MEMBRANE ORAINAGE SYSTEM total anticipated ioint movemenl by 4. lt is better io have
lhe joint too wide than too narrow. Dimension B (sealant
Oetectionof leakagecan be a signiticantproblemwhen Drainage should be considered as a total system
t.om depth) is related to dimension A and is best established
the membrane is not bonded to the structural slab or the w€afing surface down to the membrane, including by the sealant manufacturer_ Generally, B is equal to A
when additionallayersof materialsseparateit trom the use o, multilevel d.ains. f o r w i d t h s u p l o ' 1 3 m m ( % i n . l , I 5 m m l e l r ei n . ) f o r a 1 6
structuralslab. Therefore,only membranesthal can be Drainage at the wearing surface rs gene.aily mm l7B in.l width. and 16 mm {% in.) tor '19 mm (3/orn.l
bondedto the substrateshouldbe used. accom_
pxsneo In one ol two ways: {11 by an and greater widths. This allows some tole.ance Ior self-
open jornt and
pedestal. system permitting the rainwater leveling sealants.
The.membraneshould be appliedmder dry, frost-free to penelrate
raproly down to the membrane level and subsurface
conditionson the surfaceas well as throughoutthe deprh Reference: ASTM C 898 and C 981. Highlights of text
drainage system; and (2) by a closed-joinr sy"te.
of the concreteslab. ae_ and figures are reprinted with permission fro,-mCommit.
srgned to remove most of the rainwater rapidly by slooe
tee C-24 ot the American Society for Testing Materials.
/zsuPPoRT\ _WEARING
f-f
6 SURFACE
t- WEARING
SURFACE ( SEALANT
l r_i-l
\gAB
MEMBRANE
POSITIVE €EAL CONCEPT LEVEL
OPEN JOIN?
{MOST VULNTRASLEI
- WEARING
SURFACE FOR JOINTS UP TO l/2" W|OE
WEARING
SURFACE
SEALANT
EONO BREAKER
MEMBRANE ANO JOINT
LEVEL FILLER
WATERSHED CONCEPT (PREFERREO) SLIOING PLATE
WEARING
NN
SUPPORT\ FOR JOTNTS Up TO tt/2', wtOE
/
---v,ll
\dA ./ WEARING
SURFACE
--,Jl SEALANT
BOND BREAKER
-
SLIOTNG METAL
SUPPORT
COMAINATION POSITIVE
NWNN
.\\\S\\\\ r,\\Wr\\\ a\\\W\\ FOR JoINTS wtDER THAN t,2.,
(sHowN) pLUs EXpaNsoN SAL@TTER
OR WATERSHEO
coruCeei
{PROV|OES AOOITIONAL SAFEGUARO) SEE OTHER PAGES FOR JOINT OESTGN
"WET" SEALANTS
OIMENSIONS
EXPAN6ION JOINT CONCEPTS AT JoINT
MEMBRANE LEVEL EXP-AIIS|oN coNcEPTS aT WET SEALANT OETAILS AT
WEARING SURFACE LEVEL WEARING SURFACE
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
400 PlqzoBuilt-upBituminousMembroneWoterproofingSystems
TYPE I FELT SE:ALANT IN VERTICAL
SUBSTRATE ASTM O CONCRETE JOINTS
MEETING
The building deck or substrate referred to is reinforced 226 OR ASTM D JOINT SEAL
227 deR Atav-
casl-rn-place struclural coocrele. J MINOUS PLASTIC SURFACE
ZL_ CEMENT I/EETINIG
V FEDERAL
The structural slab should have a tinish of suilicientlv :__b_ --
ss-c-ls5c'
SPEC
TYPE
-4 LB LEAD COUNTERFLASHING
o\ NAILEO TO WOOO NAILER
rough texlure to provide a mechanical bond lor the mem- @
'
oD . O\- nEtruronctruc TREATEO WOOO NAILER
brane, but not so rough lo preclude achievrng contrnurty
t" WITH LEAD FLASHING
of the membrane across the surface. CAST IN CONCRETE
REINFORCEO CRACK
EUILT-UP BITUMINOUS
The concrete should be cured a minimum of 7 days and RENFORCED MEMBRANE
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
aged a minimum of 28 days, including curing time, be- PROTECTION AOARO
tore applicalion of the bituminous membrane. Curing is JOINTS
TREATMENT AT REINFORCED TERMINAL CONDITIONS ON CON-
accomDlished chemically with moislure and should not
CRETE \^/ALL BELOW FINISH
be construed as drying. Liquid or chemical curing com- SURFACE AT GRAOE
CONCRETE JOINT OPTIONAL \^/EARING
pounds should not be used unless approved by the man-
ulacturer of the buill-uD bituminous membrane as the SEALED VERTICAL
malerial mav interfere with the bond of the membrane JOINTS IN CONCRETE
to the structural slab. f MtN.
At expansionjoints, gaskets and tlexible preformed RIGIO NSULATION R160 INSULATON MEVARAN€ 6FLICE
oQ
Penetrationsth.oughthe membranesuchas conduitsand
pipes should be avoided wheneverpossible.Penetra- REINFORCE
LAYEre
CORN€R WIfH TWO
OF WOVEN RENFORCEMENT
tions must be flashedto a heightabovethe anticipated FABRIC EMBEOOEO IN HOT BITUMEN
OR FIA€HINO CEMENT CARRY
water tablethat may extendabovethe wearingsurface. FSRTC ONTO ECK ANO UP WALL TO
FULL HEI4T OF FLAeHING
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
PlqzoLiquid-AppliedElostomericMembronewqlerproofingsystems
40t
SUBSTRATE ooueLc THrc<NESS MEMSRANE BONOFO
r
. J TOGLTHER CONCRETE JOINT
The building deck or subslrate relerred to is rerntorced
cast-in,place structural concrete_ +i$lQEt
-,-- -E% IN6iRUCTO€
toPTroNAL)
P.F3.oi%xu.+I'"aL JorNTs
o^
QE'NFoRCED .(.E .II G \- L,QUID-APPLIED
" o --
Polymeric, latex, or other organic chemacal_based srEEL coNT o lL ME-MBRANE-
admix. rsnouGt
- - o cnac<ll\
JOINT SEAL
lures or modifiers can coat the concrele partrctes
and - \ --
;-' I H A | R L T N Ec F a c K
teduce lhe abilitv ol lhe membrane to bond
to ths sub.
strate. Admixtures should not be used in the concrete THtCKNeS6
J-''.,t
_-
/oousLe MEMBR^NE BONOED LIQUIO.APPLIED MEMBRANE
unless determined that theV are acceptable for -
use wrth l*- 6.- -
a----JJ3""'.'lit"1
_ FACTURER.S
PROTECTION BOARO
lne membrane ts J .
NSTRUCTIONS
The underside of the concrete deck should not gt-ffi,o-o"".,.o I_Ei!,tN {loN c_o_No
GRADE
r-rro r.r-eE6VE rrr.r'iGH
coNcRETe
have an walL
rmpermeable barrier. A metal liner or coaling THRoUGHJoi\T]:\ MEMBRANE
that forms -- -.- . -f -s -L
a vapor barrier on the underside traps moisture in r- coNsTRUcrroN PROTECTTON BOARO
the /
concrete and destroys or prevents the adhesrve . . /. ecrxroa.Eo =re..\
bond ol )!oHl coNTrNUouS
Ine membrane to lhe upper surtace of the concrete. rHRouGH JorNT----\b'
ANO JOINTS IN G)ONCRETE ? N
SLAB
The sur{ace should be ot sufficiently rough texture
to
provrde a mechanical bond for the memb.ane,
but not so
rough as to preclude achreving contrnuity of the
mem
brane ot the specified thickness across the surface.
\ LIQU-IO-APPLIED
MEMBRANE
The concrete should be cured a minamum of 7
days and -\sEauarur
aged a mrnimum of 28 days, rncluding curing time.
be-
\--- \JOINT FILLER
rore apprrcalron ot the liquid_applied membrane.
Curing \ co^srnuct,o^ TURNUP DETAILS AT REINFORCEO
rs accomplished chemically with moisture and
should noi JOINT IN CONCRETE JOINT
De construed as drying_ Liquid or chemical curing
com_ TREATMENT
pounds should not be used unless approved OF NONREINFORCEO
by thi man- etUT-FED JotN-r tN coruCae-re
utacturer of the laquid,applaedmembrane as the material
may anterfere with the bond of the membrane
slae
t d 3Bi,:+-,J,5-,,CI3'"'
22A. 'r\
IEfrfil /-rotNr=EAL----\
to rhe
struclural slab. MASONRY
METAL COUNTER-
-- il
FLASHING WITH i l z l l l l'iF l / , r n r s r wEARTNG ".i.1
MEMBRANE FOi: I I / / SURFACE AT \g I
""""'
LAPPEO ANO
JOINT
HOLES
SEAL
PE.
lLffi Y\i;$
3i$ '.m-93"
for the particular membrane.
FINISH WEARING
SURFACE f
GRADE
TERMINATION WITHOUT REGLET WITH REGLET
ON WALLS
LIQUIO-APPLIEO
A liquid-applied memb.ane, because ot its inherent
ad. MEMARANE
TERMTNAL coruorrroNs oru
hesive properties, may be terminated flush on CO_NCRETE WALL BELOW FINISH
the wall
wrthout the use of a reglet. Howeve., the use .TERMINAL CONDITION WITH \MEARING SURFACE AT GRAOE
3E=o5S'.*wEaRrNG
of a realet
In a concrete wall has the advantage of providing grei'ter goF_xt+r.*P
depth protection at lhe terminal. OPTIONAL LIFTABLE
ESCUTCHEON-
rcNT SEAL PIPT SYSTEM SEAL
TERMINATION AT DRAINS JOINT SEAL
Drains should be designedwith a wide flange or base as
an Integralpan. The drain base should be sat flush with INSULATION
the structuralslab. Vehicularsupportingdrainsgener
DRAINAGE COURSE
axy requrreaddttronatweep holesdrilledinto them (see
detaill. PROTECTION AOARD
TREATMENT AT REINFORCED
JOINTS STAINLESS
:;E!A?:?MERrc erostowec,i
SUPPOR- GASK€f
PROTECTION BOARD METAL REIAINER
The liquid-applied
membraneshouldbe p.otectedfrom r/16' ELASTOMERTC
damagepriorto and durng lhe remarnderof deck con_ SHE€T MEMaRANE
WATERMOOFING
srrucrron.the proper timing of lhe applicationof tttd' u,*
the AONOEO LAP
Doarots lmportantand the manufacturer,sprinted in_ ^NO 60NOEO
JOINTS
TO
L IOUIO - ^PPLIEO
structionsshouldbe followed. Lreuro-appLrEo vewecirue
MEMBRANE AS PER
rcrcLrlHtc STFUCi MANUFACTURER'S
SLAS NO CURB - INSTRUCTIONS
ASTM C 898_ Hightighlsof rexl and,igures
l"-tu1:1"":
Ae rep-nntedwith permissionfrom ASTM COmrn'ittee
u 24 ot the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Matenals. WATERSHED CONCEPT EXPAI\ISION
JOINT
WATERPROOFING
AND DAMPPROOFING
402 BuildingInsulotion
INSULATION DEFINED
The word insulate comes from the Latin "insula. " meanino
island, i.e.. an isolated and/or separated Filace or condition:
An insulating material is one that isolates sources of elec-
tncitv, heat, or sound energy. Building insulation should
effectively isolate heat, sound or both
a(! (
i\\v
u wr
i1
/)
*orove"e'r-{)y'Vf
o f2a^--coNVEcTloN
M''EMENT
NouoveuErutY
/:t
fn
Vermiculiteand perlite insulationare composed of small, l{ there are many smallfibers of insulationmaterialwithin a
rock-like,rounded granulesthat have small contact points given space, they provide more surface area than larger
It is virtually impossible to construct a perfect vapor barrier.
'bader" that limit h6at conduction. Spacesbetween the granules fibers in the same ar€a. Since thickness o{ air films sur
The word is us6d in common buildino terminol-
containinsulalingair. roundingany fiber is essentiallythe sare understill air con-
ogy Construction vapor barriers are actually vef effectrve
vapor retarders made of such materials as polyethylene and
ditions, smaller libers provide more surlac€ and more air.
Extrudod,molded, and foamed plasticinsulationsare cellu- Largerfibers may leavelargergaps and paths that allow air
various facings on insulation that do not totally stop mois-
lar or honeycombed.Walls of the cells conductheat around to flow by means oI convection.Granularand cellularinsu-
ture vapor transmission. When a retarder reduces the trans-
the c€lls. Cells contain a large volume of air that greatly lation also possess air films. lf the cell or space between
mission of moisture to one perm or less, it may be referred
increasesinsulationvalue. granulesis too large,convectioncurents €n occur that will
to as a vamr barrier.
transmit heat acrossthe soace.
BUILDING
Fd-
v,0-
ola
urU
fr3;
igil
U^>
rd<
>uJ
dt
9
x
I! ID
>s
U
L
l
F
o dE3
zoo
T
u
o
t
t
INSULATION
83tr >: lL S.ix J0-
LO F oo
u o l<E
3
o
o
bans and blankets
rigid boards
(rigid boards)
Vermiculite (loose
or ngid b@rds)
1 . By volume
2. Aged unfaced or spay applied
THERMALPROTECTION
BuildingInsulotion 403
THERMAL INSULATTON BASIC MATERIALS
Thermal insulation@ntrols heat flow under tempera. PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND FORM
tures ranging from abslute zero to 3000oF. This Thermal insulationis made from the following basic
materials: Thermalinsulationis availablein the followingphysiel
broad range can be gbdivided into four generaltem- forms:
perature regimesthat classifyapplicationsfor vaious l . M I N E R A L F T B R O U SM
: a t e r i asl u c ha s g l a s sr,m k .
tvpesof insulation: slag, or asbestosrhar is melted l. LOOSE FILL: Dry granulc, nodules, or fibers
.pri inio it iri pouredor blown into place.
1. LOW TEMPERATUBES: lnsulation for vm*ls fibers. "no
containing cryogmic materials, ruch as liquefied 2. MINERAL CELLULAR: Materiatsuch as foamed 2 . F L E X T B L E O R S E M | R t G t D ; B t a n k e ba n d b a t t s
natuiel gas. glass,calcium silicate,perlite, vermicutite, of wool-likematerial.
ioamJj
2. AMBIENT TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor buitd- concrete,or ceramic. 3 . R I G t D : B o a r d sa n d b t c k s .
Ing structures. 3. ORGANTCFIBROUS: Materiatsuchasrcod, cane_ 4. MEMBRANE: Reflrctiveinsutation.
3. MEDIUM TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor tanks, cotton, hair, celluloe, or syntheticfibers. 5. SPRAY APPLIED: Mineral fiber or insutating
pip6, and equipment in industrial prces heai 4 . O R G A N I C C E L L U L A R : M a t e r i a l$ c h a s c o r k , concrete.
apDlications. foamed rubDer,polystyrene, or potyurethane. 6. POURED-lN-PLACE I n: s u l a t i ncgo n c r e t e .
4. HIGH TEMPERATURES: Refractory or other 5. METALLIC: Aluminum or other foils, or metallized 7. FOAMED-lN-PLACE: polyurethane,urea formal-
speialized insulation materials used in foundrv orga,nic reflective membranB that must face air, dehvde-
work, nuclear porcr facitities, te aercspi! 96 filled. or evacuatedsoac6.
industry, and $ on. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Architects and buildec are generally concerned with Heat flos through materialsand sprceby conduction.
rne.d6rgn and material performance of buildino conv_trtion, and radiation. Convmiion .na
Insutataons that opecte within ambient temperaturi are functions of the roughnss ot ,urt.""s,lii.o"'"1
"onOr"iiori
limits. As tempectuG range much above or below ment, and the temperaturedifferencebetweenthe
ambrent conditions, d6ign and per{ormane reouire_ air
ano sudrce. Mas insulatioos.by their low densitiB.
ments_change and flust be matched with insulation are oestgned to suppre$ conduction and convction
materials that withstand the stress introduced by acrossthelr.sectionsby the entrapment of air molftules
extreme temperaturG, large temperature differentials, wrlnrn ther structure. Convective air cg1lgn1r
and themal cyclinO. CURVE (c) ar"
Jo;r6L:3osT b" surounding marrix of fib;;; ;;-;e-ilt
:,:1{,
and .the
the chancesof heat transfer by the collision oi
BUILDING INSULATION_THERMAL air.moleculesis reduced. Radiant t transts Uet*el
FUNCTIONS oolcts.operates independentlyof"ai air currents and is
E fNsuLATroN / conrroiled by the characterof the surfacs (emisivitv)
The. -two maior furctiom of building insulations are THrcKNEss wtrH / and the.temperature difference uetween'warm
to- (l) control tef,peraturB of inside surfeE that U LOwEST CoSa /+_3 oij-
.// lffis.emrtttng radiation and cooler objects absorbing
altrct the comf6t ot Gupants and aid or deter LAYERS
raotatlon-
condenstion and (21 consrve enerqv bv reducino U \ | -//
heat transmision through buitding'sctions ttrai 0
INSULATION The rmistanc€ of thse modes of heat transfer
oer€rmtn€ the_en€rgy.requirements for both heating a mav be
retardedby the elementsof a buildingwall sction.
(B'
and cooting. E@mmics in fuel consumption en bi CURVE
THERMAL
PROTECTION
404 ExletiorInsulotionond FinishSyslems
FINISH AND BASE UYERS ARE THICKENED FOR HEAVY DUTY USE GENERAL
-\\HEN
aRE usED ovER HEAVY DUTY MESH lNsrEAo
' --x -> MECHANTCAL FASTENERS Exterior insulation and finish systems provide a uninter
/// -oF RICESSED rNTo PANEL
rupted layer of rigid insulation that is attached by adhesives
ormechanical faateners directly onto the building substrate
A continuous tiberglass mesh layer is then applied and
OR PLYWOOD SUBSTRATE
- EXTERIOR GYPSUM BOARD
attached bv adhesives oi mechanical tasteners A finis'
coat covers and seals the entlre system.
NOTES
I lnsulalron panels are made in varyrng thrckness from l
INTERWOVEN FIBERGLASS to a in., depending on the wall U-tactor reqriremenls
MESH RETNFORCEMENTLAYER Thev come in varying sizes, generally 2 x 2 11'2x 4 ll, ol
2 x'8 ft, depending on manufacturer or sysEm used
Exoanded polvstvrene (l to 2 lb/cu ft) is genslly usPd
POLYSTYRENE INSUUTION above qrade; extruded polystyrene (2 to 3 lb/cu tt) is gen
PANEL erallv used below grade or in high lrallic areas
2. For areas likely to t€ceive abuse by high impct or.high
traffic, a heavy duty fiberglass mesh reinforcerent layer
ADHESIVE
is used in addition to, or in place of, the standad mesh
Also, zinc casing beads are frequently used at fnish layer
edges.
3. When mechanical lasteners are used they should be
installed tlush with oI, preferablY,recessed into the insu
lation Danel to orevent "bubbles" on the surfce When
recessed, some manufacturers provide an insdation plug
over the lastener to leave a continuous layer otinsulation
at the surface belore the finish is applied
4. For walls with damaged or brittle subslrates, a mechanl
callv fastened track ststem is used bY some mnutactur
CMU SUBSTRATE ers io fasten the insulaion panels to the substrale'
5. The svnthetic-stucco finish layer is generallY weather
resistmt. crack resistant. and vapor p€rmeable and ls
troweled, rolled, or sprayed onto the surface over the
PLASTIC FASTENER
ground coat adhesive. lt is generally made fnm acrylic
DISK
polymers with an aggregate or silica sand, quru chrps.
br marble chips to glve it the desired texture Color is
INSUUTION PLUG NOTE achieved bv either tinting the finish coat with ligment or
CORROSION RESISTANT MECHANICAL FASTENER painting the surface.
SYNTHETIC STUCCO Extend mechanical fasteners
FINISH UYER GROUND COAT ADHESIVE ANACHES MESH into studs.
TO INSUUTION BOARD
INSUUTION
PANEL
INSUUTION
PANEL
FIBEFIGLASS
MESH
SUBSTRATE
5/a" MtN.
FIBERGUSS
CMU SUBSTRATE
MESH
ROUTER CUT
INSUUTION PANEL DRIP
FINISH UYER BACKER ROO
CMU
PARAPET DETAIL
INSULATION
BACKER ROD
PANEL
ANO SEAUNT
ROUTER CUT
3la" MtN
DECORATIVE EXPANOED
V-JOINT ,r
FINISH UYER POLYSTYRENE
INSULATId
FIBERGUSS BOARD
MESH MESH { EXTRUDED
3L" MtN.
INSUUTION POLYSTYRENE
PANFL FINISH UYER INSUUTION
BOARD
SUBSTRATE
CMU
OECORATIVE JOINT
CMU
EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL AT FLOOR LEVEL
SULATION
PANEL
SUBSTRATE'
FIBERGUSS
INSUUTION MESH
PANEL
FIB€RGUS5
MESH BACKER ROD
AND SEALANT
FINISH LAYER BRING GROUND
COAT, FIBERGLASS
CMU MESH, AND FINISH
SIDEWALK
UYER DOWN
ONTO WALL
Maryland
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsville,
INSULATION
EXI'ERIOR SYSTEMS
AND FINISH
WoterVopor Migrotion 405
WATER VAPOR MIGRATION grven, setecl an average value or use judgment in
assign.
Ing a value based on the character and potential installa_ MATERIAL PERM IN-]
Water is presentas vapor in indoor and outdoor air and as
tion method of the material prooosed td use. THERMAL
absorbedmoisture in many building materials.Within the INSULATIONS
rangeot temperaturesencounteredin buildings,water may . Start at the top of the list and note any material
that has Luilular glass 0.0-
existin the liquid,vapor,or solid states.Moisture'relateA less permeance than the materials above it on the list. At Mineral wool, unprotected
problemsmay arise from changesIn motsturecontenl, thatpoint the possibilrtyelrsts that vapor leaking through 29.4
lne rrsl mdtenal may condense on the second, provided
Expanded polyurethane (R-11 blown) 0 . 4- 1 . 6 5
lrom the presenceof excessivemoislure,or from the Expanded polystyrene - €xtruded 1. 2 5
effects ot changesof state, such as freezingwithin walls or the dew point (condensation point) is reached and the Expanded polystyrene - bead
mvement is considerable. In that €se, provide ventila_
2.0 - 5.85
deteriorationof materialsdue to rouing or corrosion.
t,on through the cold-side material or modify the design PLASTIC AND METAL FOILS AND FILMS'
ln the designand constructionof the thermal envelooeof to eliminate or change the material to one of greater p;r
0.0
buildings(lhe enclosureof desired temgeraturesand meance. Polyethylene (4 mil) 0.08
humidities),the behaviorof moisture must 6e considered, Polyethylene (6 mil) 0.06
particularlythe change of state from vapor to liquid (con Polyethylene (8 mil) 0.04
densation). Problemsa.isewhen morsturecomesinto con ESTIMATED Polyester (1 mill o.7
tact with a relativelycold surface {temperaturebelow the PERMEANCE Polyvinylchloride,unplasticized (2 mit) 0.68
%Mffi
dew point),such as a window, or within outdoor walls or GWts(% ) 50.0 Polyvinylchloride, plasticized (4 mit) 0 . 8, 1 . 4
undeHoof ceilings. Excessivecondensationwithin indoor vapor BUILDING PAPERS, FELTS, ROOFTNG
walls that enclosecold spacesmust be considered. retarder 0.6 (lowest) PAPER53
Insulalion 29.0 _-
While moisture moves in still air by vapor pressure differ Duplex sheet, asphalt lamrnated,-trmum
Wood
foil one side (43)a 0.176
ences, it is important to recognizethat mojsture in air is sheathing 2.9
moved by the air. Consequentlv,tne causes of ajr motion 4" brick Saturatedand coated roll roofing(326)4 0.24
must be considered,especiallythe infiltrationand exfiltra- veneer Kraftpaperandasphaltlaminated. rern-
1.1 {next}
tion at undesirableleakagerates at windows, doors, and forced 30-12G30 (34). 18
other penetrationsthrough the thermal envelope of the Asphalt-saturated, coatedvaporbarrier
EX.A,MPLE paper (43). 0.6
building.
ln this examplethe vaporretardertransmits I grainot mois- Asphalt-saturated, not coatedsheathrng
pape( (22)4 20.2
Moisture problems in residencesgenerallyoccur in sea- ture per square toot per hour for each unit of vaoor ores-
sonswhen the outdoortemperatureand vaporpressureare 15-lb asphaltfelt (701! 5.6
sure diflerence,or one perm. and nothingelse iranjmits
low and there are many rnd@r vapor sources.These may 1slb rar lelt (70)4 18.2
less. However.since the cold brick veneer is nearlvas low
includecooking,laundering,bathing,breathing,and perspi- In permeance.it is advisableto make certainthat the vapor Singlekraft,doubleinfused(16)d
ratlonlor the @cuF€nts,as well as automaticwashers and retarderis €xpertlyinstalled,with alt openingsa pipes ind LIQUID APPLIED COATING MATERIALS
dryers,dishwashers,and humidifiers-All of these sources with outlet boxes or ioints carefullyfittod or sealed.Alterm- - MO COatS
combine to cause vapor pressure ind@rs to be much tively, the brick veneer mav have open mortar joints near Aluminum varnishon wood
higher than outdoors, so that the vapor tends to migrate the top and bottom to serve both as reep holes and as 0 . 3- 0 . 5
Enamelson smooth plaster 0 . 5- 1 . 5
outward through the buildingenvelop€.Vapor cannot per- vaporreleaseopenings.Theywill also ventilatethe mltand Primersand seal€rson interiorinsulation
meate glazed windows or retal dmrs. but most other help reduceheat gain in summer.
buildingmaterialsare pemeable to some extent. Walls are
board o . 9- 2 . 1
Miscellaneousprimersplus one coat llat oil
panicularlysusceptible to this phenomemn, and such paint on plastic
migrationmust b€ prevent€dor at least minimized bv the 1 . 6- 3 . 0
Flat paint on interiorinsulationboard 4
use ot ow pemeance membranes, alled vaDot retarders ESTIMATED Water emulsionon interiorinsulationooaro
lfomerly, vapor bailersl. fh6/ arc now called retarders, PERMEANCE Paint- three coats 30-85
nol barriers, because they do rct stop moisture flow coG
pletely.A vaporretarderis a materialthat has a flow ratino
cwETm- Exteriorpaint,white leadand oil on wood
Furred 50.0 siding 0 . 3- 1 . 0
of one perm or less. ('l pem = 1 gcin/hr ft - in. Hg vapoi space Exteriorpaint.whit€ lead-zincoxideand oal
pressuredifference;there is no metric perm.) 8- CMU 2.4 on wood 0.9
4" brick Styrene-butadrene latex coating.2 oy'sq fl 11
Vaporretardersshould be installedas close as possibleto veneer 1.1 (lowest) Horwrnytac€tateIatexcoating,4 ozlsq ft
the side of the wall through which moisture enters. Estab. 5.5
Asphaltcutbackmastic
lish the side of moisture entrance in walls of controlled l/16 in. dry
r@ms wilhin buildings.Howswr. the beneficialeffects of 0.14
3/16in. dry 0.0
g@d vaporretardersar€ lost without adequateair barriers. Hot melt asphalt
EXAMPLE
2 ozlsq ft 0.5
Moisture in building materialsusuallyincreasestheir ther Vapor(underpressure)would easilypass throughthe inte- 3.5 oZsq ft
mal conductancesignificantlyand unpredictably.porous 0l
rior finish,be slowed by the concreiemasonryrinit, and be
materialsthat become saturatedwith moisture lose most neadystopped by the cold brick veneer.Unlessthis design
of their insulatingcapabilityand may not regain it when is radicallyimproved, the masonrywill become saturated
they dry out. Dust, which usuallysettles in airspaces,may and may cause seraouswater stainsor apparent"leaks" in NOTES
become permanentlyaffixed to originally reflective suc cold weather.In addition,alternating treezingand thawing '1.
faces. Moisture migrationby evaporation,vapor flow, and of condensationwithin the masonry wall can physicallt The vapor transmission rates listed will Dermit comoari
condensationcan transpon significantquantities of latent damagethe construction. sons ot ruterials, but selection of vapor retarder mateil
heat.panicularlythroughfibrous insulalingmaterials. als should be based on rates obtained from the
manufacturer or from laboratory tests. The range of val-
Positive steps should be taken to prevent migration of ues shown indicates variations among mean values for
moisturein the torm of vaporand acumulation in the form materials that are similar but of different densitv. Values
ol water or ice within buildingclmponents. Vapor retard- are Intended tor design guidance only.
ers. corectly l@ated near th€ source ol the moisture, are 2. Usually installed as vapor .etarders. lf used as exterior
an effective reans of preventingsuch migration.Venting linish and elsewhere near cold side, special consider-
of moistureladon air frem bathrooms,laundryrmms, and ataons are required.
kitchenswill reduceind@r vaporpressure.as will the rntrq
3. Low permeance sheets used as vapor retarders. High
ductionol outd@r air with low rcisture content. p€rmeance used els€Mere in construction.
PERMEANCE AND PERMEABTLITY
4. Bases (weight in lb/500 sq ft).
OF MATERIALS TO WATER VAPOR
BUILDING SECTION ANALYSIS 5. Permeability (perm in.)
MATE R IAL PERM IN.'
FOR POTENTIAL CONDENSATION
MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
Any buildingsection my be analyzedwith simple calcula-
tions to determine where condensationmight @cur and uoncr€te (1;2:4 mix:) 3.25 Based on data lrcm ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentats,
Brick-masonry (4 in. thick) 1984 l-P section. chaoter 22.
what might be done in selectingmaterialsor their method 0.8-1.r
of assemblyto eliminatethat possibility.The section may or Concrete masonry (8 in. cored, limestone
may not containa vaporretarder.or it may containan inade- aggregate) 2.4
quateone; the bualdingsectionmay includecold-sidemate- Plaster on metal lath (3/din.) tb
rials of comparativelyhigh resistance to the passage of Plaster on plain gypsum lath (with stuos, 20
vapor (which is highly undesirablel.With tew exceptions, Gypsum wallboard {% in. plain} 50
the vaporresistanceat or near th€ warm surfaceshouldbe Structural insulating board (sheathing quaf
tive times that of any components. The table gives peF tIy, 20 - 50s
meance and permeabilityof building and vapor retarder Structural insulating board {interior,
materials.These values can be used in analyzingbuilding uncoated. 1/, in.) 50-90
sectionsby the lollowing simple method: Hardboard (r/e in. standard) 11
Hardboard (r/s in. lempered) 5
. List the materials,without surface lilms or airsoaces.in Built-up roofing (hot mopped) 0.0
the order of their appearancein the building sectron. Wood, fir sheathing, % in. 2_9
beginningwith th€ insidesurtacematerialand working to Plywood (Douglas fir, exterior 9lue, '4 in.) o.1
the outside. Plyw@d (Douglas fir. interior glue, 1[ in.) 1.9
. Againsteach malerial list the permeance(or permeabit- Acrylic, glass fib€r reinforced sheet, 56 mil o.12
ity) valuefrom the table or a more accuratevalue if avail- Polyester, glass fiber reintorced sheet,
able from tests or manulacturers'data.Where a rangeis 48 mil 0.05
VAPORRETARDERS
406 Wood Shinglesqnd Shqkes
REMOVE OLD RIOGE
] A'' WIDE 30 LB UNDERUYMENT IO- ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR LESS COVERING: REPLACE
OVER TOP PORTION OF EACH 7" ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR MORE
l'lz MlN WITH CEDAR BEVEL SIOING
COURSE OF SHAKES
30 LB FELT UNOERUYMENT MilAL VALLEY
SPACED
{1 X40R
SHEATHING
I X6)\
+it 7 FDSHING SHOULD BE ALUMINUM
OR 26 GAUGE MIN GALVANIZED IROI
30
REMOVE 6'
WIDE STRIP
OF OLD
ROOFING;
CRIMPED MN
USE LONGER NAILS TO
vaLLEY FusHtNG \ r/d' PENETRATE THROUGH NEW
SHAKES ANO SHEATHING
NOTES
Shakes€n also be appliedover any existing wall or roof.
UNIFORM Brick or other masonrv requires venical frameboardsand
WIDTH
SHINGLES
horizontalnailingstrips.
3" TO 5'
wroE Over stucco, horizontalnailingstrips are attacheddirectlyto
wall- Nailsshould penetratesheathingor studs. Over wood,
applyshak€sdirectlyjust as it on new sheathing.
OOUBLE STARTER
COURSE \iVOOD SHAKES APPLIED TO EXISTING
STNGLE (SAWN) STNGLE (HANDSPLTT)
ROOF
AV
No. 1 straight srde wall Producedin the same manneras tapersplitshakesexcept that by
18x% splittingfrom the same end of the block,the shakesacouir€the same
24 x 3le" thicknessthroughout.
tt
(,
RED CEDAR SHINGLES
NO. 3 BLACK LABEL
t--l ffi
MAXIMUM EXPOSURE RECOMMENDED FOR ROOFS (IN.}
tl
tt
tl
tt
r-l
HALF-COVE
":?:"*
and up slaner course; to
rnteilayment over 4in12 entire r@f;
entire roof anterlaymentover Fancy butt shingles are 5 in. wide aod 7 ltzi^. long, custom
entire r@f produced to individual orders.
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
Wood Shingtesond Shqkes 4O7
ROOF SHAKE PANEL
SHEATHING
ROOF PANEL
30 LB BUILOING
PAPER
SINGLE COURSING
APPLICATION
EXPOSURE OF SHINGLES
NAILING
STRIP
SHEATHING NOTES
1. Sheathing may be strip type, sotid 'l x 6 in. , and diagonal
SIDEWALL PANEL APPLIEO IO NAILING STRIPS type, io plywood, fiberboard, or gypsum board. Horizonlal
PANEL NAILED TO w@d nailing strips (1 x 2 in.) should be used over frbef_
SHEATHING AT STUDS board and gypsum sheathing. Space strips equal to shin-
gre exposure.
2- Many finishes can be used on red cedar shakes and shin-
gles: solid color or semitransparent {,,weathering,,)
30 LA BUILDING stains, exterior latex paint with primer, wood preseria.
tive, and bleaches.
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
408 Aspholtond CompositionShingles
EAVE FLASHING
ECHEDULE OF UNDERLAYMENT EAVES FLASHTNG STRIP Eave flashing is required wherever the JanuarY daily av-
PREVENTS AACKUP DAMAGE
erage temperature is 30oF or less ot where there is a
Single layer of 15 lblasphalt etura' possibiliry of ice forming along the eaves.
ALL LAPS SHOULD
ted lelr over entire rbbf BE OUTSIDE
WALL LINE NORMAL SLOPE_4 IN./FT OR OVER
Two layers of 15 lb asphalt salura'
ted telt over entire roof
A course of 90 lb mineral surJacedroll roofing or a
course of 50 lb smooth roll roofing is installed to
t/. to 3/s
overhangthe underlay and metal edgelrom
t5 LB ASPHALT FELTS
||\
in. Extend up the roof far enoughto cover a polnt at
UNOERLAYMENTT ,
least 24 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
When the werhang requirm flashingwider than 36 in.,
the horizontal lap joint is cementedand lcated on the
roof deck extending beyond the exterior line of the
buildinq.
205-225 lb/sq
I rar
Fiberglass
Three-tabsquare butl
G; Oroanictelts 235-30O lb/sq
36"x1
SHEET METAL,
CAP FLASHING
260-325 lb/sq
I r+r
Fiberglass
Two-tab souare butt
fil Organiclelts 300 lbi sq
36" x
NOTES
FLASG
1. Exposure5 in., edge lap 2 in., lor all designs. T ORF TOP
EDG AM TE STffi 36'MIN.
2. Mo.e than one thickress for varying suttace texture OVER FELT
ONG RAKE
3. Many rated as wind resistant.
4. All rated as wind resistant. w@D
DECK
(VARES)
5" EXPOSURE
MET
w
MINUS FIRST TA8 srRrP MrNs 72 TAB
n--
SMOOTH
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES, AND ROOFCOVERING
SloteRoofing 409
WOOO POINT WITH
STRIP
ELASTIC CEMENT
SOMETTMES
OMITTEO
COMBTNG
ELASTTC SLATE
CEMENT
ROOFING
SLATE
INSULATION a
SECTION
o
:- J<
FN
<l
J(,
oz
oQ
ELASTIC CEMENT
za
ol
o{
POINT WITH ni
W
INSUL '/. t-oi
ATION
.tn. slate and 45#, 50#, or 65# prepared.oll
r@Ing lor he&aerslate-
8 . N A I L F A S T E N I N G : U s l a r g eh e a d .s l a t e . s h , ard
copper wtre nails, cut copper,cut bra$, or cut vel-
OZ COPFER
tow metat stating nails. Eeh slate purched with
FLASHTNG
oc ,4o., NEoPRENE rwo, natt hots. Use nails that are I in. longer
than
SHEET tnrckn6s of.slat€.Coverall exposd headsw-ithelas-
O:P= E
=::
N ::::
VALLEY
: ::HEET
rrc cement. ln dry climats hot dip galvanizednails
EAVE
GABLE RAKE may be usd.
TWO NAILS
TO A SLATE
RAFTER
NSULATION
ROOFERS
r" /a€ G . 6 0R a.
JE!'S8.3=
35"R:?"J- 1 1 , 1 2 ,1 3 , 1 4 .1 6
a.e split in th6e thicknesses: rlrd, t/t,3/a,
':fhg,sfa-t6_
!3,3h, 1,11/a.
5i''SR"'"?+E"sIF" WOOO RAFTER
RECEIVE SLATE
TO RC)OFING SLATE
l:],
and 11/z in.
rl. ar.rd larger.slat6 are not often
srzes. Handom widths are usually used.
used in the*
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
410 Concrete TileRoofing
WEEP HOLE
AROWEL FUI L 1 O" MASON TROWEL
1O" MASON
M MORTAR FULL OF ryPE M
OF frPE -
MORTAR
NAIL COVER
HERE OryBEN
,' MORTAR REOUIRED)
', CoNTACT NAIL HERE (WIIEN
, IS MADE WIIH .I
REQUIRED) MORTAR BED
THREE TILts.S AND rcINT TO
FINISH
i NAIL HERE
(WHEN
REOUIRED)
S TILE E}ARREL
FI-AT TIT-E SPANISH
NOTE
Mortar contact is made with 3 tiles
MORTAR AND TILE PLACEMENT
GENERAL
Concrete tile is manufactured by extruding a mixture of
ROLL TILE
oortland cement. sand, and water on individual molds under When usina roll, or mrssion,tile, apply the first murse
irioh oressure. The finish surface of the tile is covered with above a meial brrd-stopwith weep holes. Fit the underside
a;ementitious material that has been colored with syn of the tile with speciallyformed eave closure strrps' las-
thetic oxides. The tiles are cured to required strengths tn tened insidethe tile cover. The headsof all remainingtiles
chambers where humiditv and temperature are controlled. shouldbe alignedwith the horizontalguide lines.Adiust roil
Moisture absorption by concrete tiles can lead to structural tile soacinqto provideuniformexposure'with at leasta 3
in. hbadlap.Jamminginterlockingtiles together(side to
._METAL
r@{ problems, and particular Gre should be given to spects
BIRD-STOP
fying the correct corcrote til€ for a given environment side)will restrictmovementand result in brokencorners' WITH WEEP
HOLES
For both categories of concrete tilHoll or flat-it is impor- ROOF SLOPE 1 X 2 MOLDING
tant to adhere to minimum slope requirements as follows:
For roof slooes5 in. in 12 and less.solid sheathingmay be
'1.
be installed on roof decks with
Roll tile and flat tile cn used with dr without battens. Nailingis not requiredwith UNDERUYMENT CARRIED
more when at least one layer of
slooes of 4 in. oer ft or battens, but every tile should be nailed if battens are not OER METAL BIRD-STOP
3Glb felt underlayment is apptied horizontally and tiles used. ln eithercase, perimeternailingis requiredIor 3 ft or
a minimum 3 in. headlap. Use of
are nailed or wired with three courses.whichever is greater,from all €aves, rakes, TYPICAL ROLL TILES
spaced sh€athing is notrecommended. ridges,hips,or valleys.{Donot nailintovalleymetal.)
2. Anv concrete tile can be used on solid-sheathed roof For roof slopes between 5 and 7 in. in 12. nail every other
decks with slopes less than 4 in. per ft as long as two or tite over soiid sheathingwith battens and every tile if bat-
more layers ol No. 30 or No.40 asphalt-saturated (non tens are not used.For slopesbetween7 and 12 in. in 12,
perforated) felt are set in hot asphalt o. mastic lo serue with
every otherlrle shouldbe nailedover solidsheathrng
as the underlayment. A single layer of modafied bitumen- battens.Perimeternalltngis requiredin all thesesituations
coated roofing systems rollgood sheet with laps either
torched or heat welded is acceptable. Venical lath strrng- For slopes12 in.io 12 and greater,naileverytile oversolid
ers with horizontal battens are installed over the under- sheathingwith battens;perimeternailingis n*essary.
layment. creating a supporting surface lor the tile, which
must be installed with at least 4 in. headlap. Do not use
TILES sET IN MORTAR
spaced sheathing.
3. Reqardless of slope, in l@alities vvhere the January
The practiceof installingcementtiles with mortarover a
me;n temoerature is l€SS than 30oF. Stricter mrnimum built-up subroof evolved in hrgh-windand higtFmoisture
requirements appv. Rofer to the National Rooling Con- areasof the southeasternUnitedStates ln this system. the
tractors Association manual- built-uosubroofprovrdesthe moisturebarrier,and the tiles
oroteci the subroof from solar ultravioletrays, high winds,
FLAT TILE ind externaldamage.This concretetil€ system €n also b€ WEEF HOLES
usedon low-slopeioofs, but the minimumis 2 in. in 12. On METAL trAW RTSER WnH
When using ttat roof tiles, a metal eave-riser wath weep slooes b€tween 5 in. in 12 and 7 in. in 12, additional N OTE
holes should be installed at the eave line. During installa- mechanicallastening is requiredfor the lirst three courses This detail is for pitches 4:1 2 and greater
tion, adjust tile spacing to provide uniform exposure, with a of tile in areassubiectto high winds For r@fs with steper
minimum 3 in. headlaD. INSTALLATION OF FLAT TILES
slooes.tile shouldbe mechanielly fastened. FIELD
RIDGE NAILER
OF SUFFICIENT
ATTACHMENT PROCEDURES FOR CONCRETE ROOF TILES HEIGHT TO MAINTAIN
EVEN PUNE OF
FIELD TILE NAILING RIDGE TILES'-\
WMD SHEATHING
AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
Miscelloneous
RoofingTiles 4tl
COMPOSITE ROOFING TILES
Fiber cement. cemenl w@d, galvanized steel with acrylic
coatrng. and ceramic slate roofing tiles are popular alterna_
trves to clay or concrete roofing tGs },e.e tomposire r,tes
nave_oeen desrgned to be lighter, slronger. and easier
to
Inslail than traditional, "natural, tiles. Thetr strength
and
combination of ruterials make them more lire re'tardani
and wind resistant than conventional tiles.
FIBER CEMENT
Fiber cement tiles combine organic flber with cement, sil_
rca, water, and other additives. The resulting product is
a
rooJ slale thar rs tightweight, strong, versatil6, and easy
to
Instail. Ihe tttes can be made in a variety of dtstinctive E}OTTOM RIE}E}ED SIOE CEMENT WOOD TILE
shapes. colors, and textures that mimic natural materials OF FIELD SHAKE LAYOUT
such as_slate and patterned wood shingles. Fiber cement
tiles resist deterioration and moisture penetration and are Cf OFF
UNDERUP
immune to pests and lungal growth. iley are wett_suitea MEN FINISHING
ror coastat regrons and other areas with high humidity. GABLE IF I
OERHANGS
Frbercement tiles should be applied to narlable decks only.
l-or plywood decks with rafters spaced 20 rn or less, the
plywood,should be at least '4 in. thick. lf rafters are spaced
greater than 20 in., % In. plywood is recommended. io fas_
len, use standard |/, in. galvanized 1 1gauge flat_headroof_ FUSHING
Ing nails wrth a % in. head. Flashing should be
of a
noncorrosive metal not lighter than 2g gauge.
CERAMIC SLATE
Ceramic slate tiles combine the l@k ot natural slate with CW OFF
OVERGP WEN
the fireGin strength and durability of ceramic tite. Such tiles STARTING AT GABLE /
haw the thickness, texture, and appearance of older slate oFtoN{
but at a Jraction of the weight and cost. They are imperyi_
ous to treez+thaw cycles, tire. moisture, and effiores- TWO UYERS OF /
cence. UNDERUYMEM/
TOP SIOE OF FIELD SHAKE EAVE OETAIL
CEMENT WOOO TILES CEMENT WOOD TILES
Cement wood trles are lightweight tiles that €n be used for
reroottng as well as for new ccnstruction. They have
excel-
lent impact resistance and ar€ easily sawn and nailed. As a
richly textured, composite product. cement w@d tiles cre_
ate an aesthetic similar to that of heavy cedar shakes yet
provde the fire protection ass@iated with cementitious
products. Cement wood_tiles, with their composit€
of port-
land cement and w@d fiber, are long lasting. The poriland
cement is noncombustible and allows for Class A fire rat-
Ings. and.the rcod fib€rs provide excellent tensile strength
and a light weight when compared to standard concr;te
lrles.
END AP
(SECURE
SCREWS
VERTICAL I.AP
RIDGE AT GAE}LE
METAL ROOFING TTLES
-$
, eaneN
HEIGffi
N OTE ABOVE
SHATHING
When an equal oumber of full courses cannot be accommo_ The tascia_must be positioned above the root deck sheatfts
drted at the pitch change, a full panel can be bent to Ing or rarters by the height ot the batten. The tascia
suit.
vvnen lne
_rmflrne changes drarutically, install a batten at becomes the first oanel batten
rne prtch change.
SOLID SHEA]-HING A.]- EAVE SOLID SHEATHING RIDGE OETAIL
METAL ROOFING AT PITCH CHANGE
METAL ROOFTNG DETAILS AT EAVE ANO RTDGE
SHINGLES,
ROOFTILES,
AND ROOFCOVERING
412 Cloy TileRoofing
FTXTURE crRcuLAR aNo
CIRCULAR COVER TOP _v_ ^T_YP^E^.Ti
STARTE R RIOGE COVEF
OETACHEO
GABLE RAKE
UN DER
EAVE PIECE
FIELD TILE
TILE
ITHESE PIECES MAKE
UP THE MAIN EXPANSE,
''FIELO" TILEO
OR OF
AREA )
TOP FIXTURE
FLASHING
FLASHING OVER TILE AT FLAT ROOF
FLAT ROOF MEETA SLOPE TILES OVER TILE AT SHEO ROOF RIOGE SECTION
NOTE
IN CLIMATES WHERE
SNOW AND ICE
BUILDUP OCCURS;
VALLEYS SHOULD
Bt avoroEo
VALLEY SECTION / CONCRETE ROOF
AND ROOFCOVERING
ROOFTILES,
SHINGLES,
L- 5'-O' TO 39.-O" POWER SEAM CLO9URE
w- 3 -6.. C)OVERAGE
L-3-O-TO 39-O'
w- 3'-4- COVERAGE
INSIOE
CLOSURE
V BEAM ALUMINUM
L- 3'-O' TO 39-o- FLASHING
w- 5 -5'. C)OVERAGE OUTSIOE
CLOSURE
FACTNG
SHEET
FACING
/// //.[\
FLASHI NG
COF'RUOATEO
L- 3'-O. TO 39_o"
w- 2'-a- c-ovERAeE
EXPAN6ION JOINT
NOTES
l. Endlapsfor roofing and sidingshallbeat teasr in.
6
ano .tastened at every rib. Two fastenersmay be
I3y]l"d *L"l designing for a negative (uptiftl
toaotngcondttron.
2. Minimum sidelapsshall be equar to one rib
or
c-orrugationand laid away from prevailingwind.
tsastenerssh?ll be spaceda maximum of lj in. on
centerfor all typesol rooling and siding.
^
3. F-or rofing,_fastenerushall prerce onty th€ high AND SIDING N.
corrugation..Forsiding,fastene.sshallpierceeith'er BOLD RIB 4" Box RtB
OESIGN BEAM I coRRUGATED
Ine htgh or low corrugation.Consult manufacturer LOAD 0.032rN 0.040 tN. 0.032rN. 0.040rx. 0.032rn. 0.040
ror proper shet metal fastenersand acc6sories. THICK
rN U.UJZ IN 0.040 rN 0 . 0 3 2r n . 040 rN
THICK TH ICK THICK THICK THICK
4. Minimum slopesfor sheetroofing are as tollows: TH ICK TH ICK TH ICK
20 95 rzJ 100 120 131
a. I in. depth corrugated_3in 12. l5'l 90 98 103 124
b. 1rlz in. depth ribbed-2 in 12. 77 t00 a2 98 r07 124 73 80 86 104
c. 13h in. v-@rrugated_2 in t 2. 87 71 85 92 r07 64 69 77 92
5. Se ,page on Metal Walls for insulation detaits 60 OJ 83 96 qf
62 ?o
and tire ratedwall assemblies. NO :vatues are basedon uniform poritire 1do*n*ard1-ndliifGg
83
t-ildin singtespan onty.
ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
414 lnsuloledMetol Ponels
INNER FACE EXTRA STRENGTH OF
PERFORATEO DEEP SECTION ONEN
FOR SOUND PERMITS FULL
CONTROL HEIGHT PANELS
INTERMEDIATE
INSUUTION
METAL DIVIDER
(OPTIONAL
FOR EXTRA
CONTROL)
THERMAL
INSUUTION
EXTERIOR
PANEL
CUSHIONED SEAM
GASKETED
PANEE DO
NOT INTERLOCK;
ANY PANEL MAY
BE PLACED OR
REMOVED WITHOUT
NESTED JOINT
CONCEALS
PANES
INTERLOCK INSULATION
SIMILAR TO CORE
=)
a ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
4t5
VAPOR RETAROER OELETE BITUMEN ON
TEMrcRARY ROOF NAILABLE OECKS AND
WHEN REQUIRED I SECURE WITH FASTENERS
NOTES
INSULATION
1. Fo. smooth surface rools omit gravel or slag and add
addiriooal ply using inorganic plysheets only.
2. On slopes over 1 in./lt atl felts along top edge must
usually be slrapped and back-naited.
3- When vapor retarder is used, edges of feh should be
turned up to a height of 2 in. above cant strio at ver-
tical surlaces. Felrs should overlap alt roof edges a
minimum ot 6 in. befo.e application ot roofing. 6 in.
of felt musl be re-turned over the insulation and
mopped solidlv.
20 YEAR TYPE BUILT.UP ROOF OVER INSULATTON
NOTES
'1.
Over nonnailable deck or insulation omit rosin paper
and cement with asphalt. Nailing strips must b€ pro-
vided.
2. Minimum slope to, ofganic felt: '/, in.ttt.
3. Minimum slope for tiberglass telt: O in./ft.
4. Consult manufacturer lor spacing of nails for partic-
ular rooling system.
OECK
/NATLABLE
I
MINERAL SURFACE
{ovER
EXCEPT
WOOD,
PLYWOODI
+g+
IJ
ROOFING.
SELVAGE
3'' SIOE
2"
IS
LAPS
SIDE
IF
LAPS
UNGRANULATED:
IF
SELVAGE 'ASPHALT
BETWEEN
r.r6 0 0 0 0 0
IS GRANULATEc)
PLIES OF i5 Lg FELT
ASPHALT TYPE II.N,
II!, OR E )
STEEP GRAOE ASPHALT DETERMINEO BY PATTERN Fc)R NAILING BA6E
ROOF SLOPE
SHIET c)R VAPOR RETAROER OVER
NAILABLE OECK
MINERAL SURFACE BUILT- UP ROOF
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
416 Built-upRoofing
. ASPHALT
DECK . .\
)/
FIRST LAYER
PREFGMEO R@F
INSUUTION BOARD -
ASPHALT EDGE OF ROOF '
SECOND LAYER
AGGREGATE
THREE-PLY OVER NAII.-AE}LE DECK THREE-PLY OVTR NON.NAII.ABLE DECK
N OTES
NOTES
1. lI applied over sheathing pansls, add rosimized sheathing paper between the deck and
base sh€et. 1. For a more con$ryative system, specify four plies rather than three.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable product. 2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable producl.
ASPHALT TYPES
SoFTENTNG POTNT (.F)
KIND OF ASPHALT
EreE OF ROOF
ONE NAIL €R PLY
GENERAL
A built-up roofing (BUR) system is composed ot a base faced on one or both sides with fine mineral sand or other high temperatures in order to achieve complete fusion and
sheet attachedto the r@f substrate,two or more reinforc- release agents to prevent adhesion inside the roll prior to strong bonding of the plies. There is an optimum viscosity
ing felt ply sheets, and a surfaced cap sheet. AsDhaltand aoolication. range and an optamum temp€rature range at the point of
coal tar are the bitumens used for built{p roofing.As the application that allow complete fusion, optimum wetting
heatedmoppingbitumen fuses with the saturatingbitumen Prepared r@ling materials are saturated and mat€d felts and mopping properties, and the desirable interply bitumen
in the roofinglelts. the layersare welded together.Surfac- with talc, mica, sand, or ceramic granules incorporated into weight. The equiviscous temperature (EW) is defined as
rngs rncludeaggregate,minerals,protectiveor reflective the weather surface of the telts, both to provide weather the temperature at which the viscosity of roofing asphalt is
coatings,andsmoothsu.face. protection and for decorative purposes. Reinforced flashing 125 centistokes, plus or minus 25'F, at the mop bucket or
membrane consrsts of a glass-fiber base lelt that is lami- Ielt layer immediately prior to application to the substrate. A
Fourtypes of asphaltand two types ot coaltar are presently nated with cotton or glass fiber fabric and coated with centistoke is a unit that measures the kinematic viscosity.
used as bitumensin built-uproo{ingsystems.The gradeof asphalt. Rosin-sized sheathing paper asa rosin+oated build-
asphaltused for BUR systems shouldbe appropriate for ing paper generally used in built-up roofing to separate felts Centistokes = IDynamic ViscosiV/Densityl x Centipoise
the slope ot the roof. Backnailingof telts is recommended from wood olank root decks-
for built up roofingwhenever the roof slope exceeds '/2 in. The recommended EVT range for roofing asphalt, Types I,
per ft. Aggregate-surtaced built-up roofing should not be ll, lll, and lV, is the temperature at which a viscosity of 75
usedon slopesexceeding3 in. per ft TEMPERATURE centipoise is attained, plus or minus 25"F. The recom,
mended EW range for coal tar products, types I and lll, is
Reinforcingtelts for BUR may b€ saturated. coated. or Proper application temperatures are vital to the creation of a
the temperature at which a viscosity of 25 centipoise is
impregnatedwith bitumen and are manufactured{rom both quality root membrane system. Temperatures that are too
attained, plus or minus 25"F. One consequence of a change
organrcand inorganicmaterials.Organicfelts are manufac- high can lead to incomplete coverage, voids, and a lack of
in EW from 125 centistokes to 75 centipoise, plus or minus
tured from the fiber of paper.wood. or rags.Saturatedfelts waterproo{ing qualities. Temperatures that are t@ low can
25"F, is the potential need to increase the temperature at
are saturatedwith asphaltor coal tar bitumen. lmpregnated lead to poor adhesion, high expansion propenies, and low
which bituren is heated in the kettle or tanker. Excessive
roofing telts are generally lighter in weight and termed tensile strength.
and prolonged heating of asphalt and coal tar products may
impregnatedbecausetheir surface is not completelycov- have a deleterious effect on the quality of the producl.
ered (coated)with asphalt. Saturatedand coated roofing Bitumens can be heated at high temperatures for short
felts are generallylactory coated on both sides and sur- periods of time without damage and must be heated at
NationalRootingConlractorsAssociation;Rosemont.lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
417
ASPHALT
SECOND LAYER FIRST LAYER
PREFORMTD ROOF PREFORMED ROOF
. ASPHALT INSULATION BOARD INSUUTION BOARD --\
EreE OF ROOF
ASPHTT
\!------- \, \ ---------\ \
ROOF
R@F
ASPHALT GUSS
ASHALT, EMULSION, OR FTBRAED
{UMINUM TOP COAT ASHALT, EMULSION, OR FIBRATED
ALUMINUM TOP COAT
THREE-PLY OVER NAII,-AEILE DEC}< THREE.PLY OVER NON.NAITABLE DECK
NOTE
lf applied over sheathing panels, add a rosiftsized sheathing paper between the deck NOTE
and base
sheet.
ror a more Conseryattve system, specify four plies rather than three
SMOOTH SURFACE BUILT.UP ROOFING
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
'
4t8 ModifiedBifumenMembroneRoofing
NAILABLE
DECK
"="'"'-
r
PFL-ORMLO
TNSULATTON
ROO'
BOARD ----
\ON NAIGBLF
\\
\.
BASE SHEET
..-
EDGE OF ROOF
CAP SHEET
\MODIFIED BtrUMEN SHEET
SURFACED WTH
MINERAL GRANULES. SURFACED WrH MINERAL ffORCH ryELDED. HOT-MOPPED,
METAL FOIL, OR FIELD. GUNULES, MET{ FOIL. '!R SELF.ADHERED TO BASE
PPLIED COATING OR FIELD-APPLIED COAT1NG SHEET)
TI /O-PLY OVER NAIL.A,EtLE OECK TWO.PLY OVER NON-NAILABLE DECK
N OTE
lf applied over-sheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot-mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath
ing paper between th€ deck and base sheet.
NON.NAIUBLE
ASPHALT / AY SHEET
EreE OF R@F
MODIFIED BIUMEN
SHET CTORCH reLDED,
HOT-MOPPED, OR SELF.
AOHERED TO AASE SHTM
GP SHEff (SURFACED
Wffts MINERAL GRANULES.
N OTE
lf applied ovetrsheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot,mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath-
ing paper between the deck and base sheet.
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;
Rippeteau Architects,PC:Washington. D.C.
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
Eg!!!-upond Modified BitumenDetqits 419
GENERAL
=
-- XFJAbS,'FiEJ;'4?83'^ In. general. the details for installation of bitumen rooftnq_
whether burlt-up roofing or modifred Oltumen rootLnq'_
ail
srmrrar In many respects. Details for both types of rdofrno
are included where applicable. I he details strow typicat
cqni
gluons that occur at bitumen roofs. such as roof;dge con-
orrons, prptng penetrations, and equrpment suppodJ
L"J?S?|i9",3X.FJFUSHING
-
FIB_ER GNT STRIP SE] IN BITUMFN
(OPTIC)NAL FOR MC)DIFIED BIUMEN)
RilOVABLE COUNTERFUSHTNG
UP ME:TAL AT JOIMS
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
420 Built-upond ModifiedBitumenDetoils
1 2' WLDE FELT UNDER JOINT
JOINT COVER 4 TO 6
WIDE SET tN MASTIC STRIPPING (MODIFIED JOINT COVER. 4- TO 6'
BITUMEN FLASHING STRIP) WIDE SET IN ELASTOMERIC
SEALANT
3. This detail should be used only where the deck is supported by the outside wall.
4. This detail should be used with light{auge metals, such as 16 oz. copper, 24{auge galva-
NOTE
nized metal, or O.O4Oin. aluminum. A iapered edge strip is used to raise the gravel stop. Fre-
quent nailing is necessary to @ntrol thormal movement. This detail should b€ used onlv when the deck is suppbned by the wall. An expansionioint
5. Wood bl@king may be slotted for venting wher€ required. detailshouldb€ used for a deck not supportedby a wall
IN SfuNT
CAULK WTH SEAI}NT
SET BOLTS
NEOPRENE PAD
DRAW BANO
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY
WATERTIGHT UMBRELU
24' O.C. OWRUPPING JACK BY
RAOIUS OF 3' TO 4'
REMOVABLE
COUNTERFUSHING SHEET MSAL ROOF
JACK MIN. A' ABOVT
BASE FUSHING (OR ('/"'MIN
R@FING
MODIFIEO BIruMEN CLEARANCE TO UMBRELG)
FCSHING STRIP)
1/.' MlN. CLEARANG TO PIPE
FASTENTRS APPROXIMATELY
NOTE
N OTE
This detail allows for roof maintenancearoundthe equipmentsupport. Continuoussuppon is
preferredin lightweight roof systems becauseequipmentweight can be spread over two o-r This detail depicts site-fabricated construclion. Many manufacturers now offer prefabricated
more supponingmembers. Clearancemust be providedfor removal and replacementof roof llashing piece! or permit the use ot materials lor flashing purposes other than those shown
ing and flashingbetween parallelsupports. he.e- Proprietary designs vary widely: consult individual manulacturers about use.
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
Built-upqnd Modified BitumenDetoils 421
WOOD NAILIF. NOMINAL 2 X 4
METAL FRAME
SEAL STRIP
FUSHTNG RECEIWR APPROXIMATELY
/- 24' O C.
COUMERFUSHING EXTENDED
DOWN TO ROTEfr AGAINST
FOOT OAMAGE (OffIONAL)
EreE OF SUMF
sRrFlNG FELTS sRtffiNG FELTS
METAL FGSHING
SNAINER
CUMANG RING
SET BOLTS IN
EUSTOM€RIC
DECK SEAUNT
CUMP -
MJUSTS WRTICALLY
AND HORIZONTALLY -
SMIFING
FELTS
NOTE
TAPER INSUUNON TO DUIN
This detail allows for expansionand contractionof pipes
N OTES without roof damage.
1. Minimum30 in. square,2'l2to 4 lb leador 16 oz solt cop 3. Stripping felts extend 4 in. and 6 in. beyond edge o.f PIPE ROLLER SUPPORT
per flashingset on finishedroof Ielts set in mastic.Prime llashingsheet, but not beyondedge of sump. ROLLED FUSHTNG
LEAD
top surfacebefore stripping. 4. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended. 1'OOWN rMO PIPE
2. Membraneplies,metalflashing, andflash-inpliesextend PLUMBING VEM STACK
underthe clampingring.
ROOF DRAIN
FUSHING RECEIWR
COUNTERFUSHINc;
o-?:- - 't)
/ - // SITE-FAE]RICATED DETAIL
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY A' O.C. PREFABRICATED
PIPING BOOT
(CONSULT
MANUFACTURER
BASE FbSHING FoR spEctFtcarloNs),,--1
FIBER AM STRIP
SET IN BruMEN _
PREFABRICATED DETAIL
N OTE N OTES
This detail illustrates another method of eliminating pitch 1. Sheet lead minimum of 2rl, lb per sq lt.
pockets and a stisfactory method of grouping piping that 2. Minimum clearance of 12 in. from cant strips and other
must come up above the r@f surface. curDs or prpes.
MULTIPLE PIPE PENETRATION SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION
NationalR@fing ContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
422 EPDMSingte-Pty
Roofing
EPDM SINGLE-PLY ROOFING agarnst wind uplift forces. Some membranes require field
application of surfacings or coatings to provide weather
Ethylenepropylenediene monomer (EpDM)membranes resrslance, aesthetrcs, or other propertjes. Specifications
are 30 to 60 mil thick, single-sheetroofing materials.They for formulation and installation of EPDM membranes vary
are availableeither nonreinforcedor reinlorcedwith fabric wth the individual manufacturer.
Seamsin the membraneare splicedandcemented.EPDM
membranesare highlyresistantto degradation from certain Separation layers of asphalt-saturated organic felt or board-
chemicals.ozone,and ultravioletradiationand have excel- type r@f insulation permit the membrane to move relative
lent resilience,tensile strength, abrasionresistance,hard- to the deck without abrasion. Membrane terminations at
ness. and weatheringproperties. roof edges, parapets, and other flashings employ material
id€ntical to the roof membrane material shaoed to conform
EPDM membranes may be laid lmse, mechanicallvfas- to the substrate and area berng flashed. Standards for
tened, or fully adhered to either nailable or non-nailable EPDM membranes are maintained bv ASTM and the Bub-
decks For loose-laidsystems, ballast provides resistance ber Manufacturers Association.
SEPARAION
UYER NAIGALE
FrcM SHEET (tF REOUIRED) DECK
\ \ LOOSE.LAID EXPANSION JOINT
\ \\--
\\2 /. SEAUNT
DRAWBAND SET IN
ELASTOMERIC MASTIC
PREFABRICATED
COWR ADHERED
TO EPDM MEMBRANE
WITH APPROPRIATE
ADHESIW
SEAL EDGE OF
COVER WITH UP
EDGE SEAUNT
z' ile-vilnarue
OVER NAII.-AEILE DECK OVER NC)N.NAIL-A,E}LE DECK SMOOTH CONCRETE, / CAULK WITH
ErcSED SURFACES EUS;TOMERIC
LOOSE-LAID EPDM ROOFING MUST BE SEALANT
WATERMOOFED
/ ANGLE
COMPRESSIEILE / cuMPtNG
EUSTOMERIC ,/ 8AR WTH
SEPARATION / SLONFD
EPDM UYER TAPE TO SPAN
IRREGUURMES ANCHOR
SHEET\ OF REQUIRED) HOLES
\r \/'--\
) FASTENERS
IN
EXPNSION
SHIELDS
PRIME
CONCRETE
IF REOUIRED
-- CURED OR
3 UNCURED
MEMBRANE
ADHERED TO
WALL AND
MEMgRANE
WTH
ADHESIVE
SEAL EDGES
OF FUSHING
EDGE
SEAUNT
EPDM MEMBRANE
INDIVIDUAL OR BAR.ryPE FASTENING STRIP APPLIED TO DECK
MECHANIAL FASTENER OR W[L. FASTENED 1 2" O.C,
INSTALLEO UNDER UP
OVER NON-NAILAE}LE DECK PARAPET COUNTERFLASH I NG
MECHAN.ICALLY FASTENED EPDM ROOFT
SEAL EOGES OF CURED OR UNCURED
FUSHING WITH LF FLASHING MEMEiRANE
EOG€ SAI..N ADHERED TO BELLOWS
EMM SHEET- AND MEMBRANE WIH
MLAE]LE DECK APRC)PRIAT€ ADHESIVE
FLUIBLE VAPOR
RETARDER TO
SERVE AS COMPRESSIBLE
NSUUNON INSUSTION
RETAINER.
/ ilrL"viEearue
CHAMFER
EACH SIDE
oF wooo
CURB
OVER NAITAE}LE DECK TO DRAIN
OVER NON-NAII-AE}LT DECK
FULLY ADHERED EPDM ROOFING EXPANSION JOINT
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
Singte-ptypVC Roofing 423
SINGLE-PLY PVC ROOFING ryPE l: Unreinforcedsheet . TAPER INSUUTON 24' DOWN TO DRAIN
Polyvin-yl chloride (PVC) membranes may be nonreinforced ryPE ll, CLASSl: Unreinforcedsheercontaining fibers
or.rernlorce-dwith glass fibers or polyesier faOnc aS io ryPE ll, CLASSll: Unreinforcedsheet containingfabrics
6d
mils thrck. Seams are formed by heat or chemical weldrna
TYPElll: Reinforcedsheet conrainingfibers or fabrics
and may require additional caulkrng pVC memb,anes
aie
resrstant to bacterial growth. industrial chemical afto,
PVCmembranesmay be laidloose,mechanically fasrened.
spheres, r@t penetration, and extreme weather conditions
PVC membranes have excellent fire resrstance and
or lullyadheredto etthernarlable or non nailable
decks.For
seam_ looselaidsystems,ballastprovides,esistance against;n;
rng capabttft€s.
uplrttlorces. Some PVCmembraneshave a factory-appled
coatingto provideweather resistance,aesthetics,or other
ASTM Standard D{434 classes pVC materials into several
properties to the membrane. Some membranes may
types and classes dependrng upon the conslruction of lhe
requiretield applicationof surfacingsor c@tingsto provide
sheet materiall
these ororerties.
ryC SHEET\ NAIGBLE OECK -\
3X?..- SEFeT"-o" F'S.'J^H)FF
---
ROOF DRATN
HAT-MLDED OR HEAT-WELDED OR
CHilIALLY FUSED UPS GEM&IY FUSED UPS
FASTEN AS
REOUIRED
W@D NAILER
EACH SIDE GAMFER
SECURED TO EACH SIDE OF
BAR.ryE FASTENER DECK WITB
.- @WRED APPROPRIATE
WMD CURB
WIH FASTENERS
TO DRAIN
MEMBUNE PIECES
SLIP SHET
(IF REQUIRED)
WATER-.OR
SOLWM-BAS;ED
DHESW\
*\ EXPANSION JOINT
SMOOT CONC:RETE-UPOSED
SURFACES MUST BE WAERRMFED
.\ AULK WTH
EUSTOMERIC SEAGM
ANGLE UMPING BAR
MH SLOTTED NCHOR
|..&ES
@MPRESSIBLE
EUSTOMERIC TAPE TO
SPAN IRREGUURMES
ryC FUSHING MEMBRANE
ADHERED Tc) WALL AND
€LDED TO MEMBRANE
PRIME CONCRETE
FASENING STRIP APPLIED
TO DECK OR WALL,
FASTENED 1 2' O,C.
ryC MEMBRANE
OVER NON-NAII,ABLE DEC:K SLIP SHEET (IF REOUIRED)
FULLY ADHERED PVC ROOFING
PARAPET COU NTERFLASHI NG
MEMBRANE
ROOFING
'-
424 Single-PfyPVCRoofing
Sheel reinforced with fiberglass or polyester ing, wealhering, and waler absorplion.
Weather restriclions during inslallalion: 0o-1 20oF tem' ..$r- pvc MEMBRANE wELoEo
y' To Pvc COATED METAL
perature range. Substrates and welding/bonding sur- FLASH ING
MATERIAL PROPERTIES taces must be dry. FASTENEO AS
Thickness: 48 and60 mil;45 milminimum
Typically REQUI RED
Merhod of repair: Clean surface; hot air or solvent weld
SHEET
graY;othercolorsavailable
Color:Typically of PVC patch
FIRST LAYER
ROOF
INSULATION
BOARD
AT-WELOEO OR
HEAT-wELoEo oRr THOD "A ',
EMICALLY FUSED T WELDED
CHEMICALLY FUSED LAP
MECHANICALLY
SECOND LAYER ASTENEO PVC OISK
ROOF
IN SULAT ION AT-WELDEO OR
BOARD HEMICALLY FUSED
'
THOD "C
- TYPE FAS]
ERED WITH
Membrane sheets are laid loose over.oot insulation {also For system with no slope limitations which secures A mechanically anchored rool system is appropriate ior
laid loose) and secured at the petimetet af,d around pen- membrane to substrate with bonding adhesive and by rools that cannot canv lhe additional load ol ballasted
mechanically fastening lhe membrane to perameter and roof sVstems. Systems are available with lasteners that
etrations only. The membrane is then covered with a
ballast ol river-washed slones (typically l0 lb/sq ftl or penetrations. Syslem is appropriale for conloured roots oenetrate the membrane or that requlre no membrane
and rools that cannot withstand weight of ballasted penelration.
appropraate pavers.
system.
This syslcm wo.ks eflicienlly with insulatioo app.oved The membrane is anchored to the rool using metal bars
Membrane can be directly applied to deck surface of con-
or individual clips, and it may be installed over concrete,
bv the membrane manulacturer and on r@fs with a slope crete, wood surfaces, or be applied to compatible insu-
not exceeding 2 in 1 2. wood, metal, o. compatible insulation.
lation that is mechanically lastened to the deck.
Membrane sheets are laid loose over a sloped roof deck 1.T',
and with the insulation on lop of it. When the roof deck
is dead level. tapered rool insulation is either loose laid MEMBRANE
,INSULATION
by one of two methods: Either a loose labric is laid over WITH
INTEGRALLY
the insulation, wilh a minimum of 10 lb/sq ft of ballast BONOEO
laid over rh€ labric, or insulation with an integrally CONCRETE
bonded concrele tacing is used in place of the fabric and FACING
OR STONE
loose ballast. Membrane manufacturers should be con- BALLAST OVER
sulted for their approved insulation list. In this roofing FABRIC
svstem, the membrane is protected ftom year'round M EMBR ANE
temperature extremes. direct exposure to weather. and
damage from other sources. The heat gain or loss is just TAPERED
FILTRATION I
the same as i{ the insulation were installed under the FABRIC\
INSU LATION
membrane. Since lhe walerprooling membrane is placed i
on the warm side ol the insulation, it funclions as a vapor H- \ t -eo..asr BARRIER IF
REQUIRED
retarder. For high humidiry conditrons with a dead level
roof deck utilizing tapered insulation, a separate vapor
barrier should be placed directly beneath the lapered in'
C)EAO LEVEL ROOF
sulation to oaevent condensalion.
Billings,Montana
CTAArchitectsEngineers;
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
Liquid-AppliedRoofing 425
GENERAL 12" W|DE
REINFORCING - --- JOINT COVER
. 4I TO 6" WDF
Liquid-applied roofing systems are systems primarily FABRIC OVER sET rN MASTTC
applied as liquids at ambient tempe.atures. Most of them METAL 4<-z ,_
h?v.e som€ sort of reinforcing fabric that is applied along
FGNGE <\_ r- -. -:- LroutD-appLtED
with the liquid component. Liquid,applied rooting applied -rJ1{..' Lff'" }?:RBil'='
over exasting roofs is not generally accepted as a "mem,
brane" but as a coating.
METAL SET IN
Acrylic latex and urethane are the two main types of liquid- MASTIC: PRIME
FUNGE BEFORE
applied roofing. Acrylic latex refers to a familv of products STRIPPING
that use water,based polymers and cure by water evaoora- NAILS APPROX
tion- Liquidapplied urerhane roof coatings are chemically 3' O.C. STAGGERED
cured lo form an elastomeric membrane. Because these LIOUID'APPLIED
@tings are applied as liquids, installation is relatively sim- ROOF BASE COAT
(UNDER FLANGE)
ple, even for roofs with irregular geometries or multiple 1 'h"
penetrations. For systems using a reinforcing tabric, a coat,
ang is applied to an acceptable surface. While the coating is .-
CONTINUOUS CLAA
still wet, a layer of polyester or fjberglass is laid into it iof NOTES
lwed by an additional layer ol coaling. Subsequent layers
L Attach nailer to masonry wall. Refer to Factory Mutual
may be added as desired or necessary.
data sheet # 1-49.
Liquid-applied rooling systems are appropriate for new con- 2. This detajl should be used only when the deck is sup-
structaon but are most commonly used 6 enhancements or ported bv th€ outside wall.
for repairs to existing roo{s, including modified bitumen 3. This detail should be used with light€auge metals such
r@fs and built-up roofs. as a 16{2 copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.04 in.
alumanum. A tapered €dge strip is used to raise the
Advantages ol liquid-applied roofing are that it conforms gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to control ther-
very well to irregular surfaces, is easily applied, and comes mal movement_
Roofslopeminimumis 1/oin.in 12 or 29o:no maximum
in various colors. However. it does cause marginal ponded
water performance end is best used in sloped roof situa, GRAVEL STOP RETROFIT LIQUIO-APPLIED ROOFING
IOnS. OVER EXISTING METAL ROOF
CHAMFER
ROOF COANNG OR SEAUM
ACH SIDE
W BACKER ROD REINFORCING
OF W@D FLEXIBLE VAPOR RETMDTR
CURB TO TO SERW AS iNSUDTION
/\ffi[E AGYLTC DRAIN:
TOPCOATTNG
RflAINER: AnACH TO T