Bio Tutorial Respiration, Photosynthesis, Transpiration

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Respiration is a process in which organic molecules act as a fuel. Th e organic molecules are broken
down in a series of stages to release chemical potential energy, which is used to synthesise ATP. Th e
main fuel for most cells is carbohydrate, usually glucose. Many cells can use only glucose as their
respiratory substrate, but others break down fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids in respiration.

Glucose breakdown can be divided into four stages: glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation

Glycolysis is the splitting, or lysis, of glucose. It is a multi-step process in which a glucose molecule with
six carbon atoms is eventually split into two molecules of pyruvate, each with three carbon atoms.
Energy from ATP is needed in the fi rst steps, but energy is released in later st
eps, when it can be used to make ATP. Th ere is a net gain of two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose
broken down. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell.

The fi rst step in glycolysis involves adding a phosphate group to a glucose molecule. This produces
glucose-6-phosphate. The processs is called phosphorylation. It raises the energy level of the compound,
making it able to participate in the steps that follow. The phosphate group comes from an ATP molecule,
which is converted to ADP in the process. Next, the atoms in the glucose-6-phosphate are reorganised to
produce fructose-6-phosphate. No atoms are added or removed. Glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-
phosphate are therefore isomers, and the process of changing one to the other is called isomerisation.
Once again, this is necessary to make the next step in the pathway possible. The next step is another
phosphorylation, this time adding a phosphate group to the fructose6-phosphate to form fructose
bisphosphate. This undergoes a catabolic reaction by being split (lysis) into two molecules of three-
carbon sugars, triose phosphate. The two are actually slightly diff erent from each other – they are the
isomers dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate. The triose phosphates are then
oxidised to pyruvate, by having hydrogen removed from them. This oxidation is catalysed by a
dehydrogenase enzyme. The enzyme can only work if there is another molecule present that can take
up the hydrogens that it removes. This molecule is called NAD, which stands for nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide. NAD is a coenzyme – a substance that is needed to help an enzyme to catalyse its
reactions. The addition of hydrogen to a substance is called reduction, so NAD becomes reduced NAD.
when triose phosphate is oxidised to pyruvate. Two ADP molecules are converted to ATP for each triose
phosphate. This uses some of the energy that was in the original glucose molecule. Glycolysis transfers
some of the energy from within the glucose molecule to energy in ATP molecules. This is an example of
substrate level phosphorylation, which distinguishes it from the way ATP is synthesised in oxidative
phosphorylation.

Link rection
Once inside the mitochondrion, the pyruvate undergoes a reaction known as the link reaction or
oxidative decarboxylation. This takes place in the matrix. During the link reaction, carbon dioxide is
removed from the pyruvate. This is called decarboxylation, and it is catalysed by decarboxylase
enzymes. The carbon dioxide is an excretory product, and it diffuses out of the mitochondrion and out of
the cell. Pyruvate is a three-carbon substance, so the removal of carbon dioxide leaves a compound with
two carbon atoms. At the same time as the carbon dioxide is removed, hydrogen is also removed from
pyruvate. This is again picked up by NAD, producing reduced NAD. The remainder of the pyruvate
combines with coenzyme A (often known as CoA) to produce acetyl CoA.

The Krebs Cycle

The link reaction is given that name because it provides the link between the two main series of
reactions in aerobic respiration – glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix
of the mitochondrion. It is a series of reactions in which a six-carbon compound is gradually changed to
a four-carbon compound. First, the acetyl coA made in the link reaction combines with a four-carbon
compound called oxaloacetate. You can see in Figure 2.7 that coenzyme A is released at this point, ready
to combine with more pyruvate. It is has served its function of passing the two-carbon acetyl group from
pyruvate to oxaloacetate. This converts oxaloacetate into a six-carbon compound called citrate. In a
series of small steps, the citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate. As this happens, more carbon dioxide
is released and more NAD is reduced as it accepts hydrogen. In one stage, a diff erent coenzyme, called
FAD, accepts hydrogen. And at one point in the cycle a molecule of ATP is made. Each of the steps in the
Krebs cycle is catalysed by a specifi c enzyme. These enzymes are all present in the matrix of the
mitochondrion. Those that cause oxidation are called oxidoreductases or dehydrogenases. Those that
remove carbon dioxide are decarboxylases. Remember that the whole purpose of respiration is to
produce ATP for the cell to use as an energy source. At fi rst sight, it looks as though the contribution of
the Krebs cycle to this is not very large, because only one ATP molecule is produced during one ‘turn’ of
the cycle. This direct production of ATP is called substrate-level phosphorylation. However, as you will
see, all those reduced NADs and reduced FADs are used to generate a very signifi cant amount of ATP –
much more than can be done from glycolysis.

The last stages of aerobic respiration involve oxidative phosphorylation: the use of oxygen to produce
ATP from ADP and Pi .

Respiration without Oxygen

When free oxygen is not present, hydrogen cannot be disposed of by combination with oxygen. The
electron transfer chain therefore stops working and no further ATP is formed by oxidative
phosphorylation. If a cell is to gain even the two ATP molecules for each glucose yielded by glycolysis, it
is essential to pass on the hydrogens from the molecules of reduced NAD that are made in glycolysis.
There are two different anaerobic pathways that solve the problem of ‘dumping’ this hydrogen. Both
pathways take place in the cytoplasm of the cell. In various microorganisms such as yeast, and in some
plant tissues, the hydrogen from reduced NAD is passed to ethanal (CH3CHO). This releases the NAD and
allows glycolysis to continue. First, pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal; then the ethanal is reduced to
ethanol (C2H5OH) by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. The conversion of glucose to ethanol is
referred to as alcoholic fermentation. In other microorganisms, and in mammalian muscles when
deprived of oxygen, pyruvate acts as the hydrogen acceptor and is converted to lactate by the enzyme
lactate dehydrogenase (named after the reverse reaction, which it also catalyses). Again, the NAD is
released and allows glycolysis to continue in anaerobic conditions. This pathway, known as lactic
fermentation.

These reactions ‘buy time’. They allow the continued production of at least some ATP even though
oxygen is not available as the hydrogen acceptor. However, as the products of anaerobic reaction,
ethanol or lactate, are toxic, the reactions cannot continue indefinitely. The pathway leading to ethanol
cannot be reversed, and the remaining chemical potential energy of ethanol is wasted. The lactate
pathway can be reversed in mammals. Lactate is carried by the blood plasma to the liver and converted
back to pyruvate. The liver oxidises some (20%) of the incoming lactate to carbon dioxide and water via
aerobic respiration when oxygen is available again. The remainder of the lactate is converted by the liver
to glycogen.