02 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K.

I1 , et al

Design and Fabrication of Dynamic Response Prosthetic Foot Using Rattan Canes

Kelechi D. K1., Ndubuka G. I. N1, Onwukamuche C. K2, Nkuma-Udah K. I1, Ofoegbu. M. C1,
Eluke U. C.1, Igwe A.C.3, Okey-Mbata. C. C.1, Ekezie J.2 and Azeez T. O.1
1
Departments of Biomedical Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
2
Departments of Prosthesis and Orthosis, Federal University of Technology. Owerri, Nigeria
3
Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Federal Medical Center, Owerri, Nigeria

(Received January 05, 2021; Revised February 15, 2021; Accepted February 25, 2021)

Abstract

Design and fabrication of prosthetic foot to exhibit dynamic response mechanism requires the knowledge of
biomechanics and bioenergetics for gait comfort. The tensile strength of a prosthesis and compression force
experienced come from patient weight, energy release and distribution pathways, which guarantee swing, step-
2
wide motion and balance restoration in time. Average ultimate tensile strength of 8.68N/mm was sustained by
load at break of 396.66N, modulus of 1119MPa and ductility of 9.5mm. Flexural strength of 26.4 N/mm2 oc-
curred when load at break of 16.04N, modulus 229.16MPa for elongation 55.1mm on rattan cane. Left positive
transtibial stump cast with patellar tendon bar, popliteal fossa depression, medial and lateral flares had surface
smoothen to prosthesis standard. Fixation and lamination with epoxy resin, fiber glass and stockinet measures
were [(MPT-SE17):(C35):(ML9.3)]cm; [(TT-SE 14.5):(C33.5):(ML10.3)] cm; and [(DT-SE4):(C27.5):
(ML9.3)]cm. Gait analysis revealed terminal swing and heel strike of normal height 8cm and deformity 0cm
while early stance and late toe off of 0.3cm and 7.7cm were respectively for deformity and height. The gait
parameters ranges are cadence (96-98) steps/min, steps time (0.6-o.71)s, right step length 40(cm), stride length
(84.5-86.5)cm, stride per 5 minutes (425-430) cycle, walking length total (44.2-45)cm and walking length total
per 5 minutes (220-223)m.

Key Words: Design; Prototype; Rattan Cane; Prosthesis; Lower Limb; Biomechanical property.
1. Introduction
Anatomical part lost of human has started to in-
crease within and around the globe creating aware-
ness on the danger associated with noble natural life
style when certain diseases, war/sport trauma, and
accident occur. To the amputees, there exists nega-
tive stigma entertained which often times determines
quality of life as well as autonomy. Physio-
mechanics gait parameters like gait symmetry,
iwalking speed, energy expenditure are constitu-
tively harnessed to Amputee’s comfort. Other im-
portant considerations are such that were conceptual-
ized at early prosthetic limb deign to concretize the
restoration of biomechanical performance while re-
ducing unfavorable effects [1]. Also, prosthetic limb
technologies in the developed countries have deliv-
ered classed lower limbs which far outpaced that of
the developing countries. This has given impetus to
millions of amputees in the third World to access
cheaper devices made from very low technology and
to even unreliable feet. Energy conserving prosthetic
feet are always scarcely available in developing
countries, because of the price.
Energy storage and return prosthetic feet
made to imitate ankle plantar flexor’s action is said
to conserve energy during the mid-stance phase of
the gait and releasing same during i push-off phase.
Consequently, there is induction of enhanced veloc-
ity of stride and gait stability [2] when all energy is
dually expanded rightly. A major setback in the de-
sign and fabrication of these energy conservation
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Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19
feet in most developing countries is the expensive
cost of production. Another is the principal proc-
esses which require expensive machineries and the
engrafted principles. This is further compounded by
poor and/or unavailability of electric power supply
to accomplish the construction processes. Hence,
any attempt to producing such types of prosthetic
feet must also critically re-evaluate the simplifica-
tion of the fabrication cost [3].
In the instance is Solid Ankle Cushion Heel
foot which has come to recognition in the recent
years as the most advantageous compromise be-
tween durability, functional stability and most im-
portantly for its cost-effectiveness. Several new feet
with dynamic elastic response qualities have also
been designed to aid movement. The motivation for
these new designs is several opportunities that ex-
isted that paved way for the use of innovated materi-
als with abilities to conserve and release energy in
ways which enable walking and running [4].
Since the introduction of SACH foot in the
early 1950s by the University of California in the
United States, the design has led to a series of re-
search aimed at improving it. Hence, research beam
light has focused repeatedly on the development and
enhancement of the prosthetic feet [5]. Variables re-
lated to gait analysis, ground reaction force, energy
return, fatigue strength, weight reduction, and cost
reduction, have been well researched. Efforts into
sensitizing design of prosthetic foot that can replace
the lost in all considerations [5] have not yielded
functions as expertly as natural foot. This may mean
that challenges encounter during design and fabrica-
tion mostly apportioned to materials and imperfect
technology galvanizations are culprits. For instance,
the need to reduce the cost of production, enable
crossing of leg, and ensure adequate toughness have
led to the introduction of the Jaipur foot in India [6].
Since shock absorption is of great importance, the
energy storage ability of different foot devices at
stance phase of gait have been compared in a study
[7]. The analyses have shown success in different
feet models like the flex feet, carbon fiber feet, Seat-
tle feet, Stun feet, and others.
03
Rattan canes are derived from the stem of the
rattan plant and as local material have been found
useful in many activities for commercial gains. It has
been in use for structural engineering because of its
pliability [8], craftsman and other application e.g. in
bridges construction, household furniture and others
[9-10]. The tensile strength, light weight, durability,
and biomechanical properties had been considered
advantageous as engineering biomaterial for weight
bearing [11].
Therefore, the design and fabrication of dy-
namic prosthetic right foot to mimic rapid respond
was in consideration of the spring property and other
biomechanical characteristics of rattan cane. Conse-
quently, the efficiency, durability and cost effective-
ness of prosthetic foot made were related to rattan
cane biomechanical properties as bio- material in
medical rehabilitation technology.
2. Materials and Methods
The design and fabrication of a dynamic response
prosthetic foot for lower limb transfemoral, tran-
stibial, knee disarticulation, and other forms of am-
putees use require the understanding of biomechan-
ics, bioenergetics and performance in gait. The ten-
sile strength, compression forces sheared from pa-
tient’s weight, energy release and distribution part-
way on each step by step forward motion and resto-
ration among others were considered. In this work,
quality of materials and design pattern were consid-
ered prime factors that will militate against effi-
ciency, ductility, and robustness of the device fabri-
cated. Considerably, material turf, molecular charac-
teristics methods of procession may constitutively
affect the longevity of the device. Hence biome-
chanical properties of material and bio-efficiency to
energy conservation were also primary in the design.
2.1. Sourcing and Procession of Rattan Cane
The rattan cane was sourced from Odupkani, Cross
River State of Nigeria where the genera Lacco-
sperma (formerlyiiAncistrophylum), Calamus, Ery-
04 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al
mosphatha iand Oncocalamus were identified and
selected. These were locally harvested with sharp
knife and scaled mechanically without heat or
chemical agent.
Each genus was divided into three parts, 55cm in
length and is of thickness 20mm in diameter. These
pieces of rattan cane measured and calculated were
restructured to desired shapes by applying Blow-
torch technique of Technical Craft man.
2.2. Instron Machine Analytical Procedure for Bio-
mechanical Properties of Materials (Ultimate Test-
ing).
Instron machine was programmed to measure all the
biomechanical properties of rattan cane considered
basic and important to ensure quality and durable
design. It has a running time of 4 hours, 44 minutes
to estimate compression, torsion, fatigue, hardness,
tension, and flexure tests among others. Therefore,
in the machine was appropriated Young’s Modulus
as is delivered by E = σ/ɛ. Since the properties of a
material may vary with same type and this depends
on constitution even when configuration remains the
same. Instron machine allows the application of
equation 3 that addresses stress and strain relation-
ships from equivalent stress to associated equivalent
strain.
2.2.1 Materials, Tools and Equipment
All consumable and solid materials were preformed
or imported and were sourced within local labora-
tory. These include1/8kg fiberglass, 1kg epoxy
resin;(10 millimeter of Epoxy Resin Saturator; 10
millimeter Cobalt Catalyst), Nuts and bolts, Adhe-
sives and 3 sticks of 20mm Rattan cane. Others are
Aluminum pipe/pylon, Aluminum Socket Adapter,
Aluminum pylon adapter, Stockinet (3inch) X
200cm, Plaster of Paris (POP) bandage and POP
powder.
The tools were narrowed to reduce price but
are specific for use to achieve basic aims and objec-
tives. These are Hammers, Scissors, Pliers, Jig saw
machine, Drill machine, Stone grinder, Anvil, Drill
bits, Vice, Working bench, Measuring tape, Hand
drill machine, Hand saw, Plastic suction machine,
Surform files and Hand files.
2.4. Principles of materials and components Selec-
tion for Prosthetic Foot
The choice of fabrication components was predi-
cated on achieving device that is ductile, with ac-
ceptable luster, affordable, readily available, and du-
rable. Consequently all materials should commune
to dynamic below knee limb prosthesis with capabil-
ity to energy distribution and retention at gait cycle.
Commercially available sourced components were
prosthetic socket, liner, pylon and adapters which by
design principles, should ably support fabrication
techniques.
Prosthetic socket was made of cheap and
easy to source thermoset which has low weight but
possesses high strength because it was laminated
with fiberglass. Epoxy resin, stockinette and fiber-
glass were used for the socket fabrication such that
the epoxy resin constituted the matrix. The stocki-
nette and fiberglass served as reinforcements to ob-
tain final standard size for the adapter and pylon.
The pylon and its adapters obtained were
measured in the workshop for desired specification
to give these;
• High tensile strength: - to resist tensional forces
• High compressive strength: - to reduce compres-
sion forces as a result of the weight transmission
• High bending strength and high shear strength,
• Light weight: - to reduce energy consumption by
the amputee.
Therefore, Aluminum based pylon and
adapter was used because of its low density and high
strength while fixable standard pylon and its adapter
were of same quality.
Selected materials for prosthetic feet include
poly- urethane foam, EVA foam, silicone gel,
wooden keels, carbon fiber keels, and other metallic
keels, because these will favor easy and strong align-
ment with rattan cane. The general idea was to maxi-
mize the spring- like characteristics of the rattan cane
and tap into the good flexibility and strength to fab-
ricate a dynamic foot with properties comparable to
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19 05

carbon fiber prosthetic foot. Thus:

KET = ½ mv2
2.4 Principles of Design and fabrication of Rattan KET = ½ Iw2 1
cane Prosthetic Foot
Certain concepts were drawn from existing designed where KET = transformational kinetic energy, and
feet and limbs which marched with the applied prin- KER = rotational kinetic energy
ciples base on the rattan cane structure and biome- Again, mechanical energy of objects has to
chanical properties estimated. Also these concepts exist because of position and shape before motion,
meet with the aims and objective of this study, as that is gravitational energy and because of deforma-
well as that which are the vivid concerns of Ampu- tion caused by weight. The energy is usually lost as
tees in their common demands within our geographi- hysteresis in strain energy during gait and these are
cal region. Thus: but potential energy. The standard formula for the
1. A dynamic response prosthetic foot to be used by calculation is thus;
physically active lower limb amputees using pros- PE = mgh.
thesis. 3. Magnitude of the toe-off propulsion force exerted
2. The prosthetic foot to consist of rattan cane by the energy conservation is directly proportional to
formed in such a way that it stores gait energy upon the amount of the ground reaction force generated at
heel strike, but releases the same energy at gait toe heel strike. Applying first law of thermodynamics
off. Since there is limb remains (stuck) to which its 4. The prosthetic foot fabricated and aligned with a
muscle pull will brings communicative linear kinet- typical transtibial socket made from epoxy resin and
ics energy changes as the limb geometry changes to fiber glass.
accommodate prosthetic joints to effective function 5. Rattan Canes are connected to the transtibial
respond. Therefore energy transformation takes socket via a pylon adapter and a socket adapter
place as rotational and angular (figure 1). (figure 2).
Consequently, linear kinetics -energy exist- 6. Rattan Canes should be bound together by bolts
ing vertically can be calculated, while at the joints and nuts to obtain a mechanism that function by re-
the distribution can be calculated differently because solves as strain and stress apply over load with re-
energy that exists there is for angular or rotational duced energy lost explained by Young’s Modulus
motion in time. delivered by
E = σ/ɛ. 2
where ɛ = (d L) is strain and σ = (F/A) gave stress.
7. The foot should have combination of three canes;
two vertical canes, heated and bent accordingly and
Single horizontal cane bent in U-shape figure 3.
8. The device fabricated to have extremely low price
compared to convectional dynamic response feet. A
dynamic response prosthetic foot that will serve as a
cheaper replacement for carbon fiber feet.

2.6. Design and Fabrication Considerations

Figure 1: Conceptual prototype rattan cane foot diagrams show ing A. Side view , oriented verti-
cal; a = 20mm, B. Horizontal display of Superior view; a = 20mm, and C. Side view and D
All the tools and equipments were specific for the
fabrication because of material type and accessory
components. Also to meet with design concept, con-
struction materials were selected on precision, such
that the mechanism of energy store and release ad-
 ɛeq = [ɛ1 - ɛ2)2 + (ɛ2 - ɛ3)2 + (ɛ3 - ɛ1

06 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al

here to the princi- foot, arbitrary material must be introduced in combi-

ples of essential nation to get first strain and deviatoric strain I1, J2,
characteristics of respectively. Consequently stress increases with in-
material which crease in material weight [73]. The secant elastic
may vary consis- bulk modulus KS and secant elastic shear modulus
tently but de- GS is said to be given by [74].
pends on consti-
tution. The same
can be explained I1 = ɛ1+ ɛ2 + ɛ3 = ϴ, = [ɛ1 - ɛ2)2 + (ɛ2 5
by an equation
- ɛ3)2 + (ɛ3 - ɛ1)2]1/2
that addresses
strain and stress
relationships. The This can only explain the complex behavior of the
equivalent stress materials as a function of I1 and J2 when resolved as
to ass oc ia ted described by [74]
equivalent strain
is well addressed Ks = Ks (I1, J2), Gs = Gs (I1, J2 ) 6
by von Mises yield test [71]
Therefore if there is no consideration on vol-
2 2 1/2
σeq = ½ [(σ1 – σ2) + (σ 2 – σ 3) + (σ3 – σ1) , ume change as the rattan cane foot is arrayed with
load, failure will occur in the neighborhood of sys-
ɛeq = [ɛ1 - ɛ2)2 + (ɛ2 - ɛ3)2 + (ɛ3 - ɛ1)2 ]1/2 3 tem (that is nonlinear material stuff) caused by di-
latational strain energy density TV which is solely
elastic or distortional strain energy density TD. As-
where σi and εi are the main stresses and strains, suming that failure is brittle cleavage or plastic flow,
respectively, and ν is the Poisson ratio. either TV = TV,0 or TD = TD,0 is satisfied, where TV,0,
Material properties under stresses is said TD,0 are the critical elastic strain energy densities
to produce shear strain and the relationship may be [75-76]. Hence such unexpected failure may lag con-
understood by essential equation thus; σ eq = f(εeq) sistently over time for rattan cane, and may typify
[72]. longevity relationship of device with isotropic mate-
Since the rattan cane samples were not com- rial properties used in designing it. But the failure
pletely dried at onset of fabrication, factors like vol- criteria for the nonlinear material can be source thus
ume of fluid and the consequent hydrostatic pres- [72]
sure are expected to be analyzed by thus:
.
TV = K3 (I1, J2) dI = TV, O for failure
7
; Θ = ε1 + ε2 + ε3 by cleavage,
4
TD = (I2, J2 ) DJ 2= TD,O for failure by
As there exist hydrostatic pressure and vol- slip
ume change during analysis. From equation 1, σ1 =
σ2 = σ3, and in resolution σeq = 0 and ε eq = 0
Since the entire device is to be structured 2.7. Design and Fabrication method of Dynamic
with constitutive measures and materials that define Response Rattan Cane Prosthetic Right Foot
junctions in the wholeness of socket as well as the The foot system (1) is a combination of 3 heat-bent
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19
rattan canes. Two vertical canes (2) and one plantar
horizontal cane (3) connected together by a series of
bolt, nuts and washers (4). The horizontal cane
forms the flatness of the foot and is bent in a U
shape (5) to encompass the two vertical canes figure
3. The heel part of the horizontal cane is curved up-
wards to help create a medial arch- like design which
is responsive to increase the spring effect of the foot
by ensuring a propulsive toe-off figure 1. The distal
end of the Vertical cane is convexly curved (6). This
curve, just like that of the Medial Arch is positioned
to act as a spring (which when compressed, stores
potential energy but when decompressed releases
kinetic energy), compressing down upon heel strike,
thereby storing energy; releasing same during the toe
off of gait.
2.7.1. The Transtibial Socket/Liner
The liner (7), made from Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
(EVA) foam, serves as a protection for the stump
from the plastic socket (8). The socket extends from
the stump end to a level above the femoral condyles.
2.7.2. Measurement, Casting and Lamination of the
Socket
Measurements for the fabrication of the socket for
this work were obtained from a positive cast at the
Royal Prosthetic and Orthotic Clinic. The cast was
left transtibial with all the features of a transtibial
stump including patellar tendon bar, popliteal fossa
depression, medial and lateral flares, and others ob-
tained parameters are as in a table 1.
Surform file was used to smoothen and round
up the surface of the cast in line with prosthetic stan-
dards.
The dimension of the cast is as follows:
MPT – SE = 17cm
TT – SE = 14.5cm
DT – SE = 4cm
where: MPT - Mid Patella Tendon; TT – Tibia
Tubercle; DT – Distal Tibia; and SE – Stump End
After modification, the cast was transferred
to the lamination jig for plastic lamination with ep-
07
oxy resin, fiber glass and stockinet. These laminates
were laid on the positive cast and the socket adapter
Table 1: Showi ng the Landmark, Circumference
and Medi ol ateral Di ameter of the Cast
Landmark Circumference Mediol ateral
Diameter
MPT 35.0CM 9.3CM
TT 33.5CM 10.3CM
DT 27.5CM 9.3CM
SE 22.5CM 5.0CM
centrally fixed at the distal end of the positive cast.
After the setting of the plastic (2days), the positive
cast was broken out of the socket. Trim- lines were
drawn and cut out using a cast cutter and jig saw.
Trim- line finishing was done with a Bench top
grinding machine.
2.7.3. Pylon System and Socket Adapter Articulation
system to the Rattan cane Foot
The socket adapter (9) usually made of Aluminum
or stainless steel is laminated together with the
socket (8) to obtain a very strong connection. The
pylon (10) acts as the spacer between the stump end
and the foot. Usually, a proximal and distal pylon
adapter is used. While the proximal part connects the
pylon to the socket adapter, the distal part connects
the pylon to the foot adapter. However, for this
work, a standard socket adapter was used on the
socket. Also, a standard proximal pylon adapter (11)
connects the pylon to the socket adapter. Conse-
quently the distal adapter is replaced by connecting
the pylon rigidly to the upper part of the Vertical
cane (2) using a stainless steel pipe clip (12). The
Structure provides a definite mechanism for easy
height-wise adjustment of the pylon (figures 3 & 4).
2.8 Rattan cane Prosthetic Foot Assemblage
The various shaped rattan cane were assembled and
aligned together to obtain a whole prosthetic foot
cane typical of conceptual design (figure 3). At com-
puted precise points were holes of 2mm drilled on
08 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al

each bit of rattan cane wood ance over time.

on which were passed 2mm The patients SACH foot were disconnected
thick and 8cm bolts with and the Rattan foot were fitted (figure 5). All the Re-
washers. These were secured spondents were allowed to use the device to perform
with equivalent thickness nut gait on a straight quite road at about 5pm when envi-
as each bit became whole. ronmental temperature is within 20 to25 0C. In the
The socket with its four days walk analysis, each Respondent was al-
adapter and the pylon with lowed 2 hour acclimatization period before the set
its adapter were connected as time of analysis same day. Repeated performances
shown in figure 4. The per Respondent were recorded and computed, and
socket was slightly inclined average measurement taking with standard gradu-
at about 10 degrees of flex- ated tape (Table 2).
ion and neutral medio- lateral
Figure 4: Fabricate d Le ft
angle.
Lo we r Limb Prosthe sis with
Rattan Cane .
With the help of the
Pipe binding clips, the above
setup was bound on the rattan foot tightly. This
method of binding therefore allowed for easy height
adjustment as well as mediolateral rotation adjust-
ment figure 1D
In the fabrication of devices trial runs and or
test runs are usually carried out to establish, confirm
operative principle, safety and functional durability
depending on device type and its application or us-
Figure 5: Respondent performing gait cycles with Left Rattan Cane
age. In this study, two basic forms of testing were Foot Prosthesis
considered appropriate and of importance. These are
Biomechanical Test of the Rattan cane and Gait per- Respondents were videoed with a steadily
formance with the Rattan cane device formed. and stably camera position, he or she ambulates
along a parallel walking beam. The video was
2.9. Gait Analysis zoomed on a computer screen, and every step by
The patient gait testing with the device was done to step motion and each step accessed of gait was ana-
check the ability of the device to withstand load and Table 2: The ave. outcome is true reprti ve of g ait perform-
shock as steps are taken. Four Respondent Amputees ance of the four respondents wi th rattan cane prosthesis
who were selected have been involved in gait activi- Gait Parameters Respondents
ties with another type of device prior to performance 1 st
2 nd
3 rd 4 th Ave
test with the new fabricate and the foot sizes must be Cadence (per M in) 97 98 97 99 98
within 8cm. For parameters that determine gait effi- Right Step length (cm) 40 40 40 40 40
ciency, a five minute walking test method was Step time (s) 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69
adopted instead of the usually prescribed Six minute Steps taken per 5 min(c m) 485 490 485 495 489
walking test method (6-MWT). Stride length (cm) 84 85 86 85 85
The recruited patients were transtibial Ampu- Strides in 5 minutes (cm) 425 430 430 430 430
tees using a Transtibial Prosthesis with SACH foot Walking length per min- 44.2 44.8 46 45 45
for the past 6 months and are of no diagnosed dis- ute (m)
ease condition but fit with psychophysiologic bal- Walking length total per 221 223 225 225 223
5 minutes (m)
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19
lyzed.
To ensure validity and accuracy of configura-
tions of each slide, the prosthetic rattan foot size
(Heel to Toe) was used as a reference or a buffer
(Figure 5)
Height of the prosthetic rattan foot was as shown
above (Figure 4).
As the patient performs gait, the deviations
in the foot height were obtained with graduated-
Tape in centimeters and measures recorded accord-
ingly. Applying Hooke’s Law, Stress is proportional
to Strain; therefore the Load (Patient weight) trans-
ferred to the prosthetic rattan cane foot is propor-
tional to the Height deviations. These deviations are
measurable values of the shock absorption.
2.9.1. Cadence (firm step/minute)
The number of firm steps taken by every Amputee is
an outcome of stored energy at initial contact and the
release of the same to weight (body and prosthesis),
gravity, and ground friction resolution. These were
recorded in number of steps per minute and are com-
parable to the suggested varied range standard out-
come of normal individual of between 70 – 90 steps
per minute. Every Amputee comfort as steps are
generated also tailed proportionately with energy
release and conserved momentarily for further re-
lease.
2.9.2. Walking Length (Unswerving per minute)
The principle behind dynamic rapid respond in gait
is to sustain continual energy expansion not only at
initial contact but as the foot swings perpendicularly
in resolution to obtain length coverage on the ground
against weight and gravity. Minimum or maximum
comfort can be generated so long as energy is con-
tinuous in time chosen. Therefore distance overcame
in hour will reveal comfort in speed and ease of en-
ergy resolution over weight, gravity and ground fric-
tion. Hence the dynamism and rapid respond of
prosthetic foot is characteristic supportive from bio-
mechanical properties of rattan cane. Walking length
total per minute is possible as shown in a study [77]
with continual energy release and momentary con-
09
servation.
2.9.3. Swing (Stature respond in support)
Individual stature determines degree of energy store
at normal nutrition, and is a factor of normal physi-
ology in respond to environmental conditions mostly
than time consumed. The principle is such that sus-
tains physic fitness in time prior to reference foot
stride strike of the ground friction for motion inde-
pendent of time and rate.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Results
Four samples of rattan canes selected from the spe-
cies iCalamus deerratus, Erymosphatha macro-
carpa, Oncocalamus manni and Laccosperma
secundiflorum. These species bio-rigged quality and
biomechanical constitutions conferred physic-
mechanical nature considered appropriate for pros-
thesis foot fabrication. Consequently the bio-
mechanical test results expressed values obtained
from crude procession without chemical substance
application. Therefore figures 6 and tables 3 - 12
3.1.1 Biomechanical Analysis Result
The four rattan cane samples showed varied out
comes as shown in the figures and tables. All varia-
tions in biomechanical property are relative only to
phyto- material science but remain exploring.
3.1.2. Gait Analysis
The reference Foot length on the first slide was 8cm
and this was maintained and used to ensure accuracy
throughout the analysis at assumed height of defor-
mation for the prosthetic foot measured on loading
weight of the body transferred to the foot device.
Terminal Swing: showed normal height as the Am-
putee was about to load the prosthetic foot device
and hence no deformity at a height = 8cm
(figure 7).
10 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al
wooden rod 3

30
Heel Strike: showed height
40
of 8cm and immeasurable

F le x u r e s t r e s s ( M P a )
deformity of 0cm as load-
F l e x ur e s tr e ss ( M P a )

30
20
ing commenced heel strike
20
10
positioned (figure 8).
10
Early Stance: At early
0
0 stance, the Amputee per-
formed Toe off of the con-
-10 -10
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0. 8 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
tra lateral limb less an-
Flexure st rain (mm/mm) Flexure strain (mm/mm) chored weight, and load
wooden rod 3
10 was on the prosthetic foot
to produce deformity of
C o m p r e s s i v e s tr e s s ( M P a )
10
8
C o m pr e ss i v e s tr e ss ( M P a )

8
0.3cm and reduced height
6 to7.7cm as less inclined
6
4
load is distributed possibly
4
even (figure 9).
2
2
Mid Stance: At mid stance,
0
0
the Amputee performed a
-2 -2
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12
single stance on the pros-
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0. 04 0.05 0.06 0. 07 0.08

Compressiv e strain (mm/ mm) Compressive strain (mm/mm)

thetic limb with maximum
weight and load excited.
Fi gure 6: Flexural Stre ss and Strain of S amples. A Shows flexural strength 34.43 N/mm 2, load at break of 32.82 N,
modul us 255.65 MPa and elongation (ducti li ty) of 66.81mm. B. It had flexural stre ngth 29.91 N/mm2 , load at break of Deformity 0.6cm produced
14.86N, modu lus 230.22 MPa and el ongation (ductility) of 43.25 mm. C & D Show Compressive Stress and S trai n. C. reduced height to 7.4cm
Had compressi ve strength of 8.79MPa, compressi ve load at break of 330N, modul us 622.53MPa. D. Had compressi ve
stre ngth of 9.94MPa, compressive l oad at break of 309N, modul us 283.14MPa (figure 10).

Figure 7: Walk ing cycle revealing Terminal S wing of Gait Figure 8: Walking cycle showing Heel Strike of Gait
Table 3: Load, Extension, Tensile Strain and Stress at Break of Table 4: Energy a t Break, Modulus, Load and Energy at
the Sample s Yield o f the Samples
Samples Loa d at Extens ion at Tens ile Tens ile stress at Sampl es Energy at Modulus Load at Energy at
Break Break s train at Break Break (Au tomatic) Yiel d (Zero Yiel d (Zer o
(S tandar d) (Standard) Break (Standard) (S tandar d) (MPa) S lope ) Sl ope )
(N) (mm) (Standard) (MPa) (J) (N) (J)
1 36 7.0 607 0 16 .25 03 1 0.180 56 4.673 56 1 8.02920 573.63460 655.88499 1.87295
2 23 6.6 747 7 5.583 28 0.062 04 3.013 44 2 1.75566 1433. 71708 ----- -----
3 66 8.1 803 6 7.333 44 0.081 48 8.507 54 3 4.98099 1033. 90968 ----- -----
4 31 4.8 639 1 8.833 44 0.098 15 4.008 97 4 4.13338 1434. 74068 696.38710 0.66349
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19 11

Figure 9: Early Stance of Ga it Figure 11: Early Toe Off/Te rminal Stance of Gait as Respondent
weig ht is exe rted on the Proto type Rattan Cane prosthesis

Table 5 : Final Area at Area Reduction and True Stress Table 7: Flexure Strain at Break , Fle xure S tres s at Break,
at Yiel d. Average UTS 8.6 8 N/mm2, loa d at break o f Energy at Yiel d and Flexure Extension at Yield
3 96.66 N, modulus of 1 119 MPa and elongatio n
Flexure Flexure Energy at Flexure
( ductility) of 9 .5 mm. s train at stress at Yield extension at
Samples Final A rea at A rea True stress at Yield Break Break (Zero Yiel d
Reduction (mm2) (Zero Slope) (Pa) (S tandar d) (Stan dard) Slope) (Zero S lope )
1 78.53982 875 3081.39982 (mm/mm) (MPa) (J) (mm)
1 1.05452 0.64003 1.02557 12.53687
2 78.53982 -----
2 0.61368 2.23797 0.94334 11.22391
3 78.53982 ----- 3 1.00996 5.26464 3.31765 22.12000
4 78.53982 899 8059.82947 4 0.65382 2.38406 1.83023 15.82422

Figure 10: Mi dstance of Gait as Responde nt weight is

Fig ure 12: late Toe o ff of Gait when Respo nde nt weight exerted is
topped o n prototype Rattan Ca ne prosthe sis resolve d to obtain balance.

Ta ble 6: Loa d at Break, Mo dulus , Flexure Load and Extens ion Table 8: Fle xure Lo ad at Yiel d, Flexure Strain at Yiel d an d
at Break Flex ure Stress at Yiel d. Average Flexural streng th 2 6.43 N/
Load at Modulus Flexu re lo ad Fle xu re mm2, lo ad at break of 1 6.04 N, modulus 2 29.1 6 and elonga-
Break (Automatic) at Break extension at tion (ductility) of 5 5.1 mm.
(Stand ard) (MPa) (Stan dard) Brea k Flexure loa d at Flex ure strain Flexure s tres s at
(N) (N) (Stand ard) Yield (Zero at Yiel d (Zero Yiel d (Zero
1 -3.9 895 3 180.249 46 3.98 953 69 .7 562 6 Slope) (N) Slope) Slope)
1 128.2638 4 0.189 52 20.57 71 4
2 -13.95 001 250.520 19 12.95001 40 .5 948 4
2 129.7361 1 0.169 67 20.81 33 3
3 -32.81 620 255.653 32 32.81620 66 .8 090 7 3 214.5830 4 0.334 39 34.42 51 7
4 -14.86 060 230.219 81 14.86060 43 .2 504 7 4 186.4308 2 0.239 22 29.90 87 6
12 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al

Table 9: Compressive Extension , Compressive S train , Compressive presses into the ground to generate the propulsive
load and Compressive Stress at Bre ak of S ample 1, 2, 3 an d 4 of Cane
force of deformity 0.3cm as if weight draws on
S amples Compressive Compressive Compressi Compressi
extension at strain at ve load at ve stress at height from 8cm to 7.7cm (figure 12).
Break Break Break Break
(S tan dar d) (Stan dar d) (Stan dard) (S tan dar d)
(mm) (% ) (N) (MPa) 3.2 Discussion
1 10.35031 8. 62526 135.87352 1. 73000 Alternative desire for prosthetic foot which Ampu-
2 6.15203 5. 12669 242. 3. 09246 tees need to met with daily work actives in society
88120
3 9.10000 7. 58333 330.06693 4. 20254 have been a global challenge given that not all have
4 13.40016 11.16680 309.04013 3. 93482 the resource demanded by manufacturers. Also the
increasing demand of prosthetics by Amputees in the
Early Toe Off/Terminal Stance: At this stage, the globe has necessitated numerous types of natural and
limb is at maximum dorsiflexion moment in prepara- artificial materials often been used in rehabilitation
technology. In order to ensure balance in quality of
Table 1 0: Energy and Extension at Break, Compres sive Load and Compress ive
Strain at Maxi mum Compres sive Extens ion of Cane s amples common materials used in prosthetics is to trace the
Samples Energy at Extens ion Compressive load Compres sive line of standard requirements [5].
Break at Break at Maximum strain at
(Standard) (Standard) Compressive Maximum Again, all these various types of metals and
(J) (mm) extension (N) Compres sive plastics are selected to categories specified in ISO
1 2.87794 -10.35031 134.66585 8.66328
2 3.75961 -6.15203 240.88321 5.15169
10328 for load level A 100. Consequently, no matter
3 4.51703 -9.10000 328.24210 7.61576
the region of the globe, traditional materials for spe-
4 6.99279 -13.40016 307.82941 11.19675 cial low limb prosthesis exist locally but are differ-
ent from other areas and [78] may include combina-
tion for the propulsive toe off. Weight restoration is tion of metal and plastic, plant and animal prepara-
compensatory to height 8cm as deformity is off to tory, metallic alloys and hydrocarbon.
give 0cm (figure 11). Therefore the random search of the biome-
Table11: Modulus, P oisson’s Ratio, and Compressive Load at Yiel d and
chanical properties of rattan cane plant, among four
Compress ive Extension at Yiel d sample stems species selected without consideration
Samples Modulus Poisson's Compress ive load Compress ive to degree of dryness in this study was to obtain en-
(Aut omatic) Ratio at Yield ( Zero extension at Yield
(MPa) (Chord) Slope) ( N) (Zero Slope) (mm) hanced feet of level A 100 capable of energy conser-
1 523.00939 --- -- 401.32556 3.30016
vation as gait cycles are performed.
2 683.36692 --- -- 650.67346 0.65219
The biomechanical properties of phyto-
3 622.53276 --- -- 690.63397 3.75016
biomaterials often reveal the structural formation
4 283.13789 --- -- 780.93927 6.10000
and possibly serve as one of the basic factors to the
strength and biocompatibility. Consequently applica-
Late toe off: At this stage Toe off is almost com- tion of biological materials in biomaterial science
plete. The Heel is off the ground. The Toe region and biomedical engineering follow after concrete
analysis of structure, biomechanical, and molecular
Table 12: Compress ive Strain and Stress at Yiel d, Anvil Height and Thick- compositions especially when rehabilitation technol-
ness . Average compress ive strength is 8 .02 MPa, co mpres sive lo ad a t break
of 254 .44 N a nd mo dulus 5 28.0 1 MP a. ogy focuses on pliability.
Samples Compress ive Co mpres sive Anvil Thick nes It is obvious from the result that all samples
s train at Yiel d s tress at Yiel d height s
(Zer o Slo pe) (Zero Slope) (mm) (mm) have the required parameters necessary for weight
(% ) (MP a) bearing and compression at various limits stress and
1 2.75 013 5.10984 120.000 00 10.0 0000
strain with resilient energy conservation for shearing
2 0.54 349 8.28463 120.000 00 10.0 0000
in time. A minimum ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
3 3.12 513 8.79343 120.000 00 10.0 0000
range of 6.0N/mm2 and maximum of 115N/mm2
4 5.08 333 9.94323 120.000 00 10.0 0000
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19
with average possible standard of 8.68N/mm2 were
obtained from rattan cane sample, when an average
load at break point 396.66N weight is applied. Also
the choice was enhanced by the fact that the com-
pressive load yield at zero slope of 690.63397N
which when above gives longevity over time was
well compensated by the 4.17931Mpa and
7.61576Mpa modulus. The compressive stress and
strain at maximum compressive extension at area of
0.078540cm2 and compressive load at maximum ex-
tension of 328.24210N to yield -9.10000mm at
break standard when energy at break is 4.51703J to
shear is relative. Therefore the firm turf consistency
observed throughout fabrication and gait analysis
convey that there exist elastic strain energy densi-
ties within molecular structure that can be altered by
volume change and spaces that exist then. The volu-
metric expansion part of deformity when on top load
is relevant to and keeps the Passion ratio constant
[79]. But since failure surface in the Haig-
Westergaard stress space (ᶓ, ρ) can be obtained
through transformation equations according to an-
other study [80].
ᶓ= ; ρ= GS
8 strain and stress measurable as shown in Table 1 as
where v is the Piosson ratio of the material
Therefore, Rattan cane prosthesis longevity
is within the failure boundary of critical values of
the elastic strain energy densities TD.o and TV,o earlier
observed during design. The eventual spaces are
time dependent and environment, and energy rele-
vance there unto will be explained as in a study [73],
while fabricated device shelf- life may be calculated
from the equation (7) as arbitrary material with
space.
Though this study is not holistic when mo-
lecular composition and structural arrangement is
core consideration. The findings revealed that rattan
cane wood may have pliability which possibly is re-
lated to stuff arrangement and molecular biochemis-
try [81]. Could these physical properties be the rea-
13
sons why the cane lack the ability to retain water
molecules when left at atmospheric condition in the
open field as observed in this study?
The biomechanical analysis showed ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) of rattan cane at minimum
range 6.0N/mm2 and maximum of 11.5N/mm2 .The
ultimate average possible standard of 8.68N/mm2
was obtained from four randomly selected samples
at different dryness as average load at break point
396.66N weighed (Figures 1-3).
A study have shown that 16% content mois-
ture of spruce can reduce the maximum compressive
strength by 50% [82], but same study failed to enlist
rattan cane among the woods considered for the
standard of 13N/mm2. This suggests that rattan cane
is different and, when at ultimate tensile strength
range and on discrete differential load at break point
ranges from 236.6N to 668.18N (as given by four
samples), can sustain modulus range of 573.63Mpa
to 1434.74MPa at producible ductility range of
5.8mm to 16.25mm.
Therefore an approximate average ductility
of 9.50mm length of rattan cane can only be possible
if weight at break point of 396.66N exert UTS
8.68Nmm2 and modulus 1119MPa. Consequently,
the four samples characteristically showcased tensile
in a work [64] and, that average of 0.10556mm/mm
and 5.05088mm/mm distributed respectively when
exceeded, irrespective of molecular structural cohe-
sion force, rattan cane damage results as in a study
[50]. More work is needed to confirm the molecular
structure binding energy of rattan cane. Again, the
final area to area reduction is constant at
78.53982mm2 for true stress at yield and is in the
range of zero to 8998059.82947MPa for rattan cane
(Table 4). This remained consistent throughout the
whole 8cm length (test chosen length) of rattan cane
for lower limb prosthetic foot fabricated.
Flexural strength analysis of rattan cane re-
vealed strain and stress demonstration and absorp-
tion when load at various break ratio points were
exerted as in all the prototype Figures. An average
flexural strength 26.43N/m2 was expressed when
14 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al
load at break of 16.04N was given to rattan cane and
modulus 229.16MPa inclusive resulted to ductility
of length 55.1mm. The result further revealed that
flexural stress and strain ranges 0.16967 to
0.33439mm/mm respectively and modulus 20.57714
to 34.42517MPa at zero slope (Tables 5-8) can pos-
sibly support multi-shaping with rattan cane. The
insight adduced in this case is that at UTS, flexural
strength encourages energy distribution (from the
skeletal muscles) [83] along the entire length of rat-
tan cane (on tensile stress and bond stress) [64] early
to allow pliability (at which occasion multi-shaping
can be possible) as load at break point applies.
Hence, energy dispersion along the length,
area, and possible shapes originated during fabrica-
tion (in the case of prosthetic foot and structural en-
gineering) do occur. The same is retained even when
load at break points is incident on planted biomate-
rial [22], [84]. This was made sustainable by the re-
sults from compressive strength at load break points
(Figures 2-12). This behavior is comparable to that
of ferrous irons which gives elongation even without
increased force and still remain durable because of
may be cylindrical nano- inhomogeneity [85].
But there exist also allocation analytic and
generalized analytic function system to spatial prob-
lem created within space with toroidal cavity and a
space non-axisymmetric problem [86], and the same
is associated with natural rattan cane possibly be-
cause of dynamic stress. These problems explain the
elasticity coefficient of rattan cane material and pos-
sibly the shelf- life of the device formed.
It is obvious from the results of biomechani-
cal test that rattan cane has the required parameters
necessary to engineering weight bearing. Also that
compression at various limits stress and strain has
resilient energy conservation for shear in time.
Again, the choice of rattan cane was enhanced by the
fact that the compressive load yield at zero slope of
690.63397N which when above gives longevity over
time, was well compensated by the 4.17931Mpa and
7.61576Mpa modulus. Compressive stress and strain
had maximum compressive extension at area of
0.078540cm2 .But when average maximum load at
point extension of 328.24210N yield -9.10000mm
length it can be related to break standard as energy at
break is 4.51703J to shear. These constituted to the
firm turf consistency observed throughout fabrica-
tion and gait analysis as in other studies [3, 60].
Reference height of 8cm was chosen during
the gait analysis to ensure easy and accuracy in the
measurement of deformity height that may occur on
the prosthetic foot on load, and of the fact that aver-
age height range in this region is well accommo-
dated. The body weight of patient generated energy
on the rattan cane prosthetic foot resulting in dy-
namic ripple distribution and partial retention to al-
low terminal swing, heel strike, early and mid
stance, early toe off/terminal stance and late toe off
[87].
At terminal swing the amputee weight had
full resolution and load not applied, hence there is
no deformity on the dynamic rattan cane prosthetic
foot. Consequently there is reduction on vertical and
horizontal height even at heel strike and on leg
swing set which would not happened if there was
reinforcement as is also shown in studies [2], [88].
During early and mid stances there were deformities
of 0.3cm and 0.6cm length short observed respec-
tively? These were because of less inclination and
full weight exertion on the device. The deformities
from 8cm to 7.7cm and 7.4cm were restored at early
toe off/terminal stance when there is dorsiflexion
moment in preparation for propulsive toe off as oxy-
gen uptake by the Amputee increases [89]. At late
toe off when the heel is off the ground there is en-
ergy instance conservation [90], and this is compara-
ble to a study where 1mm deformity in height was
recorded [7]. The dynamic (springing) revelation can
only be explained in consideration of biomechanical
factors of rattan cane as recorded above and is in to-
tal agreement with Hooke’s law. Also studies have
revealed that inflexibility contributes too little en-
ergy conservation and distribution [2, 7, 89, 90].
In fabricating a dynamic response prosthetic
right foot from locally available Rattan canes known
for its flexibility and load carrying abilities, the bio-
mechanical properties were carefully integrated. A
Afr J Med Phy, Biomed Eng & Sc, 2021, 02 - 19
study, [7] investigated different prosthetic foot mate-
rials that conserve energy when compacted by the
body weight during stance (early stance) , and the
revelations stand consumable in choose of materi-
als. The finding included measurements of the deter-
minants of gait and oxygen consumption which was
not given serious consideration in this study. Also in
the study prosthetic foot tested included Flex feet,
Carbon copy feet, Seattle feet, and Sten feet among
young Amputees, while here young adults from age
range not above 35 years were the Respondents.
Again there were better results of dorsiflexion in this
study.
The present study was tested on four young
transtibial Amputees (Respondents) already using
Transtibial prosthesis with a Solid Ankle Cushioned
Heel Foot (SACH foot). This therefore afforded an
opportunity to compare gait perceptions of the Am-
putee while using the new device which has not been
reported before. The outcome showed significant
difference in that effortless and ease of gait cycle
were acknowledged testimonies though analysis re-
vealed variation in results. The height fluctuations at
the point of heel strike and remaining period of
stance and its return to normal after the toe off is
evident that energy was stored at heel strike and re-
leased at toe-off. These height fluctuations could
explain the shock absorption experienced by the
Amputees during the gait analysis. Shock absorption
identified is an important feature when there is need
to compare different types of prosthetic feet [14].
This importance can be traced to the hypothesis that
the shock exerted onto the residual stump of the Am-
putee can be reduced by incorporating a shock ab-
sorption design into the prosthetic foot [14]. The ‘C’
design used in this work is similar to those found in
various carbon fiber feet and helps to improve shock
absorption and dynamic energy return. A study [15]
posited that some of the materials currently in use
for dynamic response feet included graphite com-
posite (of carbon fibers), Delrin, Kevlar, Polyure-
thane, elastomer and flexible rubber. This study has
added a new material, which is readily available,
cheap and locally sourced, ‘The Rattan Cane Foot’
15
The gait analysis results supported the biomechani-
cal findings from rattan cane than biomolecular
structural arrangement in that load was well bear and
shear while energy was transmitted and restored
along the entire device, to support the multi-shape
constructed and give balance comparable to basic
gait parameters [89]. Therefore rattan cane plant has
shown dynamism, stiffness, pliability to cushion the
lower limb. Absorption and transmission of energy
supported performance of gait at undetermined or
specific dryness state as in table 13. It is possible
that rattan cane for lower- limb prosthetics may re-
quire re-enforcement [91] at high stress areas where
energy retention is needed for compensation as in a
study [60]. Rattan cane is readily available locally
and can easily be processed at fabrication work
places to obtain cheap prosthetic limb.
4.0 Conclusion
The result of biomechanical property of rattan cane
in this study varied from that obtained in a study
within same region [92] of the globe. Therefore, fur-
ther work is needed to be carried out on rattan cane
at different dryness to ascertain the structural and
biomechanical properties and confirm reasons for
the variations. Again there is variation of result from
sample species which were considered due to vary-
ing degree of dryness instead of molecular differ-
ences. The same is true of flexural strength which is
associated with elastic strain density variation as
volume change becomes obvious creating space
volumetric expansion part of deformity when force
is applied conservatively on the device. The study
has shown that rattan cane possesses the required
tensile and compression strength that satisfied ISO
10328 level A100 rehabilitation standard and can be
considered bio-engineering material in medicine
specialty.
The design and fabrication of dynamic re-
sponse rattan cane prototype prosthesis was in the
curves made with the cane which when compressed
via patient weight/loading will flatten, thereby stor-
16 Kelechi D. K1 ., Ndubuka G. I. N1 , Onwukamuche C. K2 , Nkuma-Udah K. I1 , et al
ing potential energy. This energy can consequently
be released to the load in accentuation during toe off
and helps to reduce the amount of energy required
for gait. The gait analysis clearly shows the dynamic
nature of the foot during patient gait. The prosthetic
right foot can therefore replicate the dynamic re-
sponse found in carbon fiber feet at a very cheap
price. Active patients can now afford a dynamic re-
sponse foot which quality performance is compara-
ble.
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