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Reading and Writing

Information Sheet No.1

Topic: Text as a Connected Discourse

MELCs:
1. Describes a written text as connected discourse EN11/12RWS-IIIa-1

Objectives: At the end of the module, you will be able to:

1. distinguish the difference between a text and a discourse;
2. realize the necessity of making text connections.

If we speak of Text as Connected Discourse, we will be dragging in two interrelated

concepts – the text and the discourse. The understanding of the text requires an
understanding of the discourse. As defined, discourse is the expression of ideas that a
person can think of. I want that pair of shoes as a sample sentence gives us an idea
that someone wants a particular pair of shoes; this idea is considered a discourse. In
addition, the ideas in discourse may spark responses or may provoke an action.

In terms of text, it refers to the sum of the discourses. When we link the discourses
together, it makes up a large unit of written language we call a text. A text shall have the
following characteristics (M. Jorgensen & L. Phillips, 2002):

 Cohesion – the connection of ideas at the sentence level.

 Coherence – the connection of ideas at the paragraph level.
 Intentionality – dwells into the purpose of the author/writer.
 Informativity – the quantity of new information in the text.
 Acceptability – how factual the pieces of information are.
 Situationality – the socio-cultural appropriateness of the text. Is it appropriate or
acceptable to the target reader?
 Intertextuality – the connection of the succeeding discourse to the previous one. It
also talks about the existence of the succeeding text because of the previous one.
TEXT AND CONTEXT CONNECTIONS

This Unit is intended to help learners understand the necessity of making text and
context connections as a prerequisite to critical reading and reasoning. This Unit
presents topics on claims of text, types of evidence, logical fallacies to avoid when
writing academic texts, and critiquing texts. This Unit also hopes to hone your academic
reading skills to make you a critical reader who does not just accept information
presented in a text but one who engages in extensive research to verify the veracity of
information indicated in any text.

A. CRITICAL READING AS A REASONING SKILL

One of your goals as a reader is to become a critical reader who can recognize an
author’s main point and central idea, distinguish the support for that point, and
successfully interpret the meaning of his claims. It is dangerous to believe everything

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you are told without questioning any aspect. This is precisely why critical thinking,
especially as applied to reading, is a necessary skill to develop.

Critical reading is an analysis that involves a deeper examination of the claims

(fact, value, or policy), as well as the supporting points and other counterarguments. It
requires understanding the text’s meaning, analyzing how the topic is developed, and
evaluating the credibility and adequacy of the kinds of evidence used to support the
argument presented. Thus, critical reading involves the following skills: comprehension,
analysis, interpretation, and critical evaluation (RMIT University, 2007).

Comprehension is the process of understanding the main idea of a text or what the
text says. Analysis is determining how the information is presented. Interpretation is
knowing “what the text means in a broader sense” (RMIT University, 2007, p. 1). Critical
evaluation is understanding the logic behind the writer’s argument.

All critical readers can evaluate an author’s support for a point and determine
whether that support is solid or not. When you do critical reading, it does not only mean
that you read to obtain the content knowledge (what information or message the author
is sharing), but additionally you have to read for a level of understanding through which
you can evaluate the writing.

Critical reading requires critical thinking. Fahim and Sa’eepour (2011) posit that
developing the learner’s critical thinking is tantamount to developing their
comprehension abilities as well. As learners engage in critical thinking while reading a
text, they get to see the whole picture—the writer’s claim, the pieces of evidence
presented in support to his/her claim, the merits of these arguments, and the soundness
of the conclusions drawn. Hence, critical thinking and reading are intertwined that the
development of one skill will lead to the development of the other.

Critical reading requires you to ask the challenging questions:

“Do I believe what I am reading?” “Does it make sense?” “Is the argument
compelling?” “Is the evidence provided sufficient and credible?” “What is missing?”
“What is most important?” “How does this fit with what I already know?” “How is this
useful to me?” “What do I need to do with this information?” When students read
critically, information in the book comes alive and they remember what they read.

B. EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CLAIMS IN A TEXT

We make claims every day that allow communication and social interaction to
endure. However, these claims, if not thoroughly thought of, can lead to disagreement,
which in turn sometimes lead to disunity.

Our role as readers and as communicators does not end after the text is read. We
have to assess the information shared to us. We need to process how it can be useful in
our context as learners. It is beneficial to learn how to identify claims and to eventually
make sound ones.

A claim is simply the central/main argument of a text. It is the most important

part of the text. The claim defines the paper’s direction and scope of the text. It argues
and persuades the readers about the merits of the argument through research,
evidence, testimony, and academic reasoning. A claim is an expressed opinion or a
conclusion that the arguer or writer wants to be accepted by audience. Claims are
statements that assert. Unlike imperatives and interrogatives, claims are generally
declarative whose truth and falsity can be verified. We use claims as tools to influence
people. Because claims challenge the belief or opinions of others, they require support
in the form of reasons and information, whereas other kinds of statements do not. In
general, claims are part of any written or oral arguments or propositions. These are
assertions of facts or belief that need to be supported with evidences.

As you start developing your claim for your arguments, you will find it helpful to focus
not only what you want to argue, but how you want to argue it. That is, you might want
to evaluate what sort of claim would best suit your topic and the argument you want to
make. Any of the claims described in this handout can be used to develop your primary

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claim (your thesis), but may also be used to develop your sub-claims (sub-topics/main
ideas).

The following are the characteristics of good claims:

 A claim should be argumentative and debatable.

 A claim should be specific and focused.
 A claim should be interesting and engaging.
 A claim should be logical.

We can categorize almost all arguments as belonging to one of the following types:

1. CLAIM OF FACT is an argument that is verifiable through evidence. It asserts

that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based on facts or data.
Questions of fact include “What is true or false?” “What happened/did not
happen?” “How do we know this?” and “What exists/does not exist?” A fact claim
is not a fact; it only claims to be a fact, it only asserts a stand regarding a
debatable topic. A persuasive speaker must provide arguments which build a
case for the claim, showing that the claim is probably true or, at least, is more
likely to be true than false. In defending this type of claim, make sure that your
evidence is sufficient, accurate, recent, and comes from reliable authorities.
Also, arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is most important.

Examples: (1) Smoking marijuana is less harmful to one’s health than smoking
cigarettes.
(2) Converting to solar energy can save homeowners money.
(3) Graft and corruption in the Philippines is difficult to eradicate
because of the long-ingrained values system of padrino and utang
na loob, which are positive values, yet often abused.

2. CLAIM OF VALUE attempts to prove that some things are more or less desirable
than others. Claims of value evaluate the inherent goodness or morality of an
event and the value systems by which we should make decisions. This claim
exhibits value judgments, expresses tastes and morals, and resolves conflict
between values. Simply put, it argues whether something is good or bad; hence,
value claims are evaluative arguments. Questions of value include “Is it good or
bad?” “Is it right or wrong?” “How moral or immoral?” “Of what worth is it?” “Is it
ethical or unethical?” Value claim is an arguable statement concerning the
relative merits of something which is measured subjectively (e.g. “Boracay is a
better place to go on a summer vacation than Palawan.”) However, note that it is
not merely a statement of subjective judgement; a claim of value is also
assessed on accurate information. In defending this type of claim, use real-world
examples and illustrations to clarify meaning and make distinctions. Moreover, it
is highly persuasive to use the testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable
or highly regarded people share your values.

Examples: Gay marriage is immoral.

Fetal tissue research is wrong.
It is morally wrong to have sex before marriage.
Opera is not as entertaining as musical comedy.
It is unethical to submit a plagiarized paper just to comply with the deadline
of submission.
Waking up early to do a paper is better than sleeping late to finish the
paper.

3. CLAIM OF POLICY suggests a solution to a problem that has been defined or

described by an argument. Questions of policy include “What should be done?”
“What should we do about it?” “How can we solve this problem?” “What course
of actions should we pursue?” “What should not be done?” Claims of policy
address the course of action we should take, the policies we should adopt, and
the way that we attempt to solve problems. When you are defending a claim of
policy, if necessary, establish that there is a need for change. Often, this type of
claim is recognizable by the use of should, must, or ought. A claim of policy
requires the proponent to convince the audience that the proposed action will be
beneficial. This claim calls for an action, by the government, an individual, or an
international body.
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 Examples: Bringing of electronic gadgets like laptops and iPods should be
banned in schools.
You should support restrictions on abortion.
Our government leaders should take the lead in protecting our environment.

Other examples:

Topic: Coffee

Fact: Coffee has caffeine and can make a person’s mind active.
Value: Taking coffee is good because it can stimulate our brain into becoming
more active while doing a major project, especially at night.
Policy: Take coffee in moderation because though it is good for the brain, when
taken excessively, it also has some harmful effects such as insomnia,
nervousness, restlessness, irritability, and upset stomach (Nordquist,
2016).

Topic: Economic Policies

Fact: Policies that redirect the economy towards creating decent jobs for all and
ensuring universal access to essential services mean greater reliance on
public employment and public expenditures on labor-intensive services
like education, health, water, housing, public infrastructures, and green
investments.
Value: Economic policies benefit the poor through proper public employment and
expenditures.
Policy: Economic policies should always be pro-people.

REMEMBER:

All kinds of claims may also be explicitly or implicitly made.

Explicit Textual Evidence – stated directly in the passage.

Example: It was a dark and stormy night.

Implicit Textual Evidence – not stated directly, but a reader understands it

because of clues in the text.
Example: The trees were swaying wildly outside Anne’s window as she
prepared for bed, and the gutters were overflowing.

Which type of claim is right for your argument? The type of thesis or claim you
use for your argument will depend on your position and knowledge on the topic,
your audience, and the context of your paper. Even if you start with one type of
claim, you probably will be using several within the paper. Regardless of the type
of claim you choose to make, it is easy to identify the controversy or debate you
are addressing and to define your position early on in the paper.

DETERMINING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

In order to make your audience see the merits of your position regarding a particular
issue, you need to present arguments and pieces of evidence. An argument is not a
fight; it is an assertion of the merits of your claim based on specific pieces of evidence.
An evidence is a proof in support to the argument presented. Evidence can be any of
these: facts, statistics, expert’s testimony, historical, literary, or research findings.

Types of Evidence

There are three types of evidence which you can use in support of your claim on a
particular issue: (1) logos (logic), (2) ethos (ethics), (3) pathos (emotion).

1. Logos (Logic)

Logos depends on logic or reason; hence, it is considered as an appeal to the

intellect. Logos uses inductive and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning
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 presents some specific facts and then formulates conclusions from them. If inductive
reasoning begins from specific to general, deductive reasoning is the opposite; it
begins from general to specific. Deductive reasoning begins from a generalization
and then applies it to a specific case” (Weida & Stolley, 2013).

Logos or logic has three subcomponents: statistics, facts, and testimony.

a. Statistics refers to figures or numerical values.

Example: Filipinos ranked as the fifth happiest people in the world based on
Gallup poll released on March 19, 2015 which surveyed 143 countries
(Garcia, 2015).

b. Facts are information proved to be true.

Examples: (1) The Philippines is the only country in Asia that does not
legalize divorce.
(2) Territorial dispute is the cause of World War II.

c. Testimony is an expert’s statement which is the result of a rigorous research

study.
Examples: (1) Vygotsky (1978), who founded the theory of human cultural
and biosocial development, states that social interaction facilitates the child’s
acquisition of language.
(2) Jones (2006) claims that web-based writing instruction helps
develop students’ writing skills.

2. Ethos (Ethics)

Ethos is a Greek word for character. Thus, ethos refers to the trustworthiness,
credibility, or reliability of the writer. Hence, the writer’s authority or expertise in
the field lends his/her text credibility.

Weida and Stolley (2013) present the ways on how to establish your credibility as
an author:

o Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those
sources properly.
o Organize your argument in a logical, easy-to-follow manner. You can use
the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological
order, most general to most detailed example, the first to the most recent
example, and the like. The Toulmin Method, developed by a British
philosopher, Stephen Toulmin, is a detailed analysis of an argument that
can be broken down into three parts: claim, reasons, and evidence. As
a writer, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of each argument
considering its three main parts.
o Proofread the argument. The presence of too many grammatical lapses in
your paper can cast doubt on your competence as a writer.

3. Pathos (Emotion)

Pathos refers to an emotional appeal. It is a persuasion technique which touches

on the reader’s emotions. An emotional appeal enhances an argument. Instead
of just mentioning the number of children who are engaged in child labor, this
evidence can be supported by a story of a child who is selling candies to
passersby to help his sick mother buy her medicine. In order to paint a picture in
your readers’ minds, you can tell a story. Stories can be culled from
observations, experiences, or interviews. You may interview one or two children
and ask them why they are working at an early age instead of studying.

TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

Text evidence is used to support claims, propositions, assertions, and many other
types of ideas. Through providing text evidence, one may check the validity of the
assertions. In addition, to fully comprehend a reading, a student must answer text
dependent questions that require them to support their reasons, assertions and claims
with lines or citations from the text.

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 As readers, writers, and thinkers, it is natural for you to develop ideas, ask
questions, and make claims regarding what you are reading.

1. Citing textual evidence requires you to look back into the text for evidence to
support an idea, answer a question, or make a claim. This evidence usually takes
the forms of facts, statistics, anecdotes, paraphrases, examples or
illustrations, expert testimony or quotations, and graphical evidence like
chart or tables. Writers sometime quotes textual evidence directly, taking a
selection word-for-word from their source.

For example: According to Gomez (2018), “Reading and writing are two skills
every person will need in the workplace” (p. 42).

2. Citing evidence requires you to think more deeply about the text, analyze the
author, source, etc.

You may start your statement using the following examples:

a. As noted on page 79, …
b. When the author states, “…”
c. An example of this occurs when the main character says, “…”
d. As stated in the text, …
e. The author illustrates this point when she states,
f. Toward the end of the story Ken says, “…”
g. As Albert Einstein pointed out,
h. In the words of …
i. This point is evident on the second sentence of the first paragraph …

Here is a list of common verbs used to introduce textual evidence:

argue reveal show report highlight

comment conclude observe analyze counter
point out suggest note discuss propose
imply claim explain state maintain
emphasize purport justify find demonstrate

Remember: Good evidence does not require a lot of explanation to fit a claim. Again,
evidence is what makes your writing believable. Consider the following criteria when
looking for any text evidence:

1. Relevancy – assessing whether the evidence is appropriately topical and timely.

2. Sufficiency – accounting for all evidence, including counterarguments,
alternative perspectives, and/or conflicting reports.
3. Sourcing – noting the author and context of the evidence.
4. Credibility – considering whether the source of the evidence offers expertise on
the subject.
5. Accuracy and Verifiability – judging whether the evidence is valid and
trustworthy.

PARTS OF A TEXT DEVELOPMENT IN AN ARGUMENT

Consider all essential parts of text development in an argument below when reading
and analyzing any form of academic writing.

1. Claim – every argument is based on some claim—a statement that readers

do not accept and they will not accept without good reason. Claims offer
critical solutions to intellectual problems; they suggest to readers that they
ought to change the way they think or act with regard to the problem at hand.
Because a claim is always debatable, it must always be based on reasons.
2. Reasons – provide your logical basis for making a claim. You cannot expect
readers to accept your claim just because you say so. They look for you to
support it with reasons—a statement that, taken together, give readers a
basis for accepting your claim. Because your reasoning is always debatable,
it must always be based on evidence.

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 3. Evidence – provides the logical basis for your reasoning. Readers may not
accept your reasons unless you support them with evidence—statements,
numbers, photographs, or other representations of states of affairs that your
readers accept without question, at least for the purposes of the argument.
Evidence consists of unarguable facts that lend concrete support to your
claim.
4. Counterclaims – a reader may have counterclaims (and counter-reasons or
evidence) that contradict or challenge the claim made in your argument. You
must consider the reader’s probable disbelief or doubt on something and
respond to it. Hopefully your response will be convincing enough so that it
dispels the reader’s doubts. We call this process Acknowledgment and
Response. Acknowledgement recognizes the alternate claim that run
counter to the claim you have made. Response indicates your degree of
disagreement with the counterclaims at hand.

Example:

Claim Reason Evidence

The girl should have a Dogs are lovable. Dogs are warm and
dog. fuzzy. Dogs like to play.

ASSERTIONS

Assertion is a statement that is either true or false. Assertions, depending on

one’s reference, can have several types. When used as a literary device, the four
types of assertions are basic, emphatic, escalating, and I-language. The table
below differentiates one from the other:

Types of Assertion Definition Sample

Basic Assertion Simple and I can only wish that the farmers were
straightforward granted the land they deserve.
statement to express
emotions, opinions,
and belief.
Emphatic Assertion Expression of We can feel the suffering of the
empathy toward a indigenous community because of
person, which is continuous militarization in their
shown through the homes. We can help them by
recognition of an becoming aware of their circumstances
emotion followed by and by providing support to their
the statement of causes.
support.
Escalating Assertion Arises from the lack If the government cannot protect its
of response to basic people, there is no other way but for
assertions compelling the people to revolt against it.
one to be firm
towards one another.
I-Language Follows the format: When you bash me for questioning
Assertion 1. Description of some pronouncements of your
behavior president, I feel sad knowing that your
2. Effect blind faith can make you irresponsible
3. Description of and biased. Therefore, I would really
feelings based prefer that you assess my questions
on the effect and clarify my intentions first before
of one’s you resort to bashing.
behavior
4. Description of
desire

Knowing about the types of assertions can help us engage the texts that we read
critically. It is the reader’s duty to utilize all available textual evidences to determine the
validity of the points raised in a text.

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 Likewise, the same skill is necessary when we are tasked to write our own claims.
Our assertions will be assessed based on the merit of the evidences we include in our
texts. A text that logically presents meritorious claims and counterclaims is more likely to
be appreciated and will build the author’s credibility, than a text full of logical fallacies or
statements based on subjective analysis.

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