Lecture 2

ET3107 – 2021-2022
Lecture 2
Dr Marinos Manolesos
marinos.manolesos@city.ac.uk
Sli.do
 Event: ET3107
 Code: Group_Design
News
 Office hour: Wednesdays 15:00 – 16:00
 CG11 in Tait Building
 1 Person per group
 I will not be replying to chat messages, please send an email
 Mr Abdelrahman Abdeldayem is your new TA. We’ll meet him at 10am

 Teams Groups!
 Recorded Tutorials on Wednesday (f2f) and Fridays (Online)
 Updated Moodle Page

Where are the lecture slides/recorded lectures?
 Moodle!
Where Are we?
Week # Lecture Topic Details
Project Briefing and Team Formation

1 06/10/2021 Design process and project management Intro
2 13/10/2021 Qblade 1 Airfoil +Blade design
3 20/10/2021 Qblade 2 Performance + Pitching
4 27/10/2021 Kinematics Hub + Pitching mechanism design
5 03/11/2021 Qblade / Mesh mixer / Solidworks 3D Printing - TU Berlin
6 17/11/2021 Solidworks - FEA Finite Elements
7 24/11/2021 Design Support Session

Blade Element Momentum Theory
 Wind turbine blades can be

analysed as adjacent airfoils
(blade elements)
 Assumption:
Each blade element is
independent of all others
source: Pechlivanoglou 2012

BEM assumptions Reality
constant
V∞ Fluctuating in time and space domain
uniform
None, Empirical correction

Shed vorticity At root, at tip → Energy losses
models
only velocity distribution along Coriolis forces, centrifugal forces and other
Rotational effects
the blade rotational forces occur
Off-plane rotation (yaw, tilt, floating turbines)

Rotor plane blades rotate aligned
occur
Operate independent Elements not independent

Blade Elements
Only 2D effects 3D effects
Blades No aerodynamic interaction Aerodynamic blade interaction
Aerodynamics Only steady state Unsteady state, transient effects

Root and tip vortices
source: Hansen 2015

Unsteady inflow – misalignment
source: DOI: 10.3390/en10030317

Separated flow in the root region
source: Hansen 2015

So, is it any good?
 Yes, BEM remains the industry standard.

 It is reliable
 It is conservative
 It is quick

Airfoil Design & Polar Analysis
 Airfoil Types & Parameters

 Forces on 2D-Airfoil & Polars
 Derivation of Airfoil Polars
Airfoil Types and Parameters
Are aircraft airfoils suitable for
Wind Turbines?
Airfoils for wind turbines
Structural requirements
demand very thick airfoils at the
root
 Leading edge roughness

deteriorates performance
 The angles of attack are

generally higher than those
for aircrafts

Airfoil Nomenclature
1
2
3
4
5
Airfoil Nomenclature
2
3
4
5
Forces acting on an airfoil
 c: Chord Length
 α: Angle of Attack
 𝑉∞ : Free stream velocity
 F: Resultant Force
 L: Lift
 D: Drag
 M: Moment
source: Hansen 2015
 Point of action: Quarter Chord

Force Coefficients
𝐿′ 𝑎
 𝐶𝑙 𝑎 = 1 2 c
2
𝜌V ∞
𝐷′ (𝑎)
 𝐶𝑑 (𝑎) = 1 2 c
2
𝜌V∞
𝑀′ (𝑎)
 𝐶𝑚 (𝑎) = 1
𝜌V2∞ c2
2
source: Hansen 2015

Force Coefficient variation with AoA and Re
 𝐶𝑙 𝑎, 𝑅𝑒
 𝐶𝑑 𝑎, 𝑅𝑒
 𝐶𝑚 (𝑎, 𝑅𝑒)
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑅𝑒 ↑ → 𝐶𝑙 ↑, 𝐶𝑑 ↓
𝜇 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
We need 360° polars
source: Van Rooij 2004









How do we extrapolate?
Montgomerie Viterna
 near α=[0°;180°]: Flow treated as

potential flow around airfoil  Appr. Constant power output after
Assumptions  other α: flow appr. behaves like for stall
a stalled, thin plate [𝑐𝐷 ≈ 1.4]  Blade experiences high wind speeds
 blending function between potential

flow straight line and flat plate  empirical equations
Mathematical curve
 Based on the aspect ratio (AR) of the
 Pot. flow straight line: tangent to
approach the 𝐶𝐿 curve at 𝛼 = 0, 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 (0)
wing
 points 𝐶𝐿1 and 𝐶𝐿2 that construct  aspect ratio AR

Variables blending function  Variable of resulting coefficient
 2D drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷,90 at α=90° curves
The rotating plane
Let’s consider a section of the blade
Let’s consider a section of the blade
Blade section
Rotor plane
Forces on a blade section
Rotor plane
Chord Line
𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

Chord Line
𝝎𝒓
𝑽∞ 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇
Chord Line
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
Chord Line
𝑫
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
𝑭𝑵
𝑳
Chord Line
𝑭𝑻 𝑫
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
𝑭𝑵
𝑳
Chord Line
𝑭𝑻 𝑫
𝝎𝒓

𝜶 𝑴
𝑭𝑵 𝐹𝑇 = 𝐿 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝐷 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼)
𝑳
𝐹𝑁 = 𝐿 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝐷 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)
Chord Line
𝑭𝑻 𝑫
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
Maximum 𝑐𝑙 /𝑐𝑑 maximizes tangential force 𝐹𝑇
𝑽∞ 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 and wind turbine efficiency!
*This is not always the best way
to reduce the cost of energy
Let’s consider the complete rotor
𝑅
3 ⋅ ‫=𝑟׬‬0 𝐹𝑇 (𝑟) 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑀𝐴𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 2 ⋅ 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑀𝐴𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐹𝑇 (𝑟)
Different AoA and Re number at each section!
 ω𝑟 = Speed of the blade section due to rotation

 𝑽∞ = wind speed
 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 = resulting/apparent/effective wind speed
r
ω 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝑽∞ 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝑽∞ 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝑽∞
ωr1 ωr2 ωr3
𝑽∞
Which force initiates the rotation of the rotor?
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ω∙𝑅
𝜆 = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑉∞
Chord Line
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)
 TSR (𝜆) directly effects the angle of attack 𝜶

and hence the lift and drag forces 𝑐𝑙 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑑 𝛼
Chord Line
𝝎𝒓

𝜶
Rotor Blade Design
 Blade Position & Airfoil Selection

 Chord length
 Twist angle
 Aerodynamic Optimization Algorithms
 Reference Blade Designs
N
Rotor Blade design
Determine:
 P - position
 A - airfoil
 C - chord length
 T - twist angle
…
for each section of the blade

1
1
1
Position
Root Mid span Tip
• Structural properties • Low sensitivity to roughness • Low sensitivity to roughness

• High thickness • High lift-to-drag-ratio • High lift-to-drag-ratio
• Reduced chord length • Medium thickness • Low noise
• Low thickness
source: Burton 2011

Profile Selection – Large turbines
 Check if airfoil is suited for wind turbines (LE roughness

insensitivity, Performance at desired Reynolds number)
 Select Airfoils according to root, mid span and tip requirements

(thickness to chord ratio, aerodynamic performance)
 Select airfoils with highest Lift to Drag ratio for maximum

efficiency of a given rotor diameter
Profile Selection – Small turbines
 The Reynolds number is hugely different (smaller)
 Generally there is no need for very thick airfoils
 Selection as for large turbines, but to increase simplicity and

reduce cost sometimes a single airfoil profile is used.
Airfoil coordinates
 Standard (e.g. NACA 6 series etc)
 Online Databases (www.airfoiltools.com)
 Dedicated Wind Turbine Airfoils (RISOE, TU DELFT, NREL etc)
 Design Your Own!

Chord length
 How do we select chord length for each blade section?
Rotor plane
Chord length
 Different Optimization algorithms provide solutions
 Objective: Extract 𝑃max in every blade section by optimization of

the chord length
16
 Betz Limit: 𝑐𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 59.3%
27
Chord length
 Algorithms already implemented in QBlade
1 16∙𝜋∙𝑅 1
 c𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑧 𝑟 ≈ ∙ ∙ 2 r , for 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 > 3
𝑧 9∙𝑐𝐿 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 ∙
𝑅
1 16∙𝜋∙r 2 1 𝑅
 c𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑧 𝑟 = ∙ ∙ sin ∙ arctan
𝑧 𝑐𝐿 3 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 ∙𝑟
Chord length
1 16∙𝜋∙r 2 1 𝑅
 c𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑧 𝑟 = ∙ ∙ sin ∙ arctan
𝑧 𝑐𝐿 3 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 ∙𝑟
[Hau06]
Twist
Chord Line
Rotor plane
𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕
Why do we need twist?
𝝎𝒓𝟐 Because of the different tangential
speed (𝜔𝑟)
at different blade locations,
𝝎𝒓𝟐 the local AoA varies with blade radius
𝝎𝒓𝟏
𝝎𝒓 Chord Line
𝜶 Rotor plane
𝑽∞
𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇
Why do we need twist?
𝝎𝒓𝟐 We add twist to the blade
so that the local section always
meets the flow at the desired AoA
𝝎𝒓𝟐
𝝎𝒓𝟏 Chord Line

𝝎𝒓 𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕
𝜶 Rotor plane
𝑽∞
𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇
Optimisation Algorithms
Rotor axis
Rotor plane
Wind
[Gasch13]
[Hau08]
Optimization Algorithms
Betz Schmitz
Assumptions: Assumptions:
1. no wake rotation  quasi 2D 1. Wake rotation due to angular
2. 𝑐𝑑 ≪ 𝑐𝐿 → c𝐷 ≈ 0 momentum considered
1 16∙𝜋∙𝑅 1 1 16 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ r 1 𝑅
𝑐 𝑟 ≈ ∙ ∙ ,
r for 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 > 𝑐 𝑟 =
𝑧
∙
𝑐𝑙
∙ sin2
3
∙ tan−1
𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 ∙ 𝑟
𝑧 9∙𝑐𝑙 𝜆2𝑜𝑝𝑡 ∙
𝑅
3
2 𝑅 2 𝑅
𝜃(𝑟) = arctan ∙ − 𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝜃 𝑟 = ∙ arctan − 𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡
3 𝑟 ∙ 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡 3 𝑟 ∙ 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡
Rotor Blade Design
 Determine 𝛼𝑜𝑝𝑡 for each section

corresponding to the optimal glide ratio (depends on airfoil)
 Calculate the local chord length 𝑐(𝑟) and twist angle 𝜃(𝑟)
Resources
 Paschereit, Thamsen. Qblade Course Notes 2021, TU Berlin
 Alber, J. HTW Berlin, Qblade Course Notes 2021, TU Berlin
 Hansen, M. Aerodynamics of wind turbines. Routledge, 2015
 Pechlivanoglou, G. Passive and active flow control solutions for wind turbine blades, 2012, PhD Thesis, TU
Berlin
 Burton, T., Jenkins, N., Sharpe, D., & Bossanyi, E. (2011). Wind energy handbook. John Wiley & Sons.
 Griffith, D. T., & Richards, P. W. (2014). The SNL100-03 blade: design studies with flatback airfoils for the
Sandia 100-meter blade. SANDIA Report, SAND2014-18129, 465.
 Alber, J., Soto-Valle, R., Manolesos, M., Bartholomay, S., Nayeri, C. N., Schönlau, M., Menzel, C.,
Paschereit, C. O., Twele, J., and Fortmann, J.: Aerodynamic effects of Gurney flaps on the rotor blades of a
research wind turbine, Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1645–1662, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1645-2020, 2020.
 Erich Hau (2006): Wind Turbines - Fundamentals, Technologies, Applications, Economics, 2ndEdition,
Springer, Berlin, DE
 Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (Hrsg.) (2013): Windkraftanlagen – Grundlagen Entwurf, Planung und Betrieb,
8. Aufl., Springer Vieweg, Berlin, DE.

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ET3107 – 2021-2022

 Mr Abdelrahman Abdeldayem is your new TA. We’ll meet him at 10am

 Recorded Tutorials on Wednesday (f2f) and Fridays (Online)

 Updated Moodle Page

Project Briefing and Team Formation

11 22/12/2021 Design Support Session

 Wind turbine blades can be

source: Pechlivanoglou 2012

None, Empirical correction

Off-plane rotation (yaw, tilt, floating turbines)

Operate independent Elements not independent

Blades No aerodynamic interaction Aerodynamic blade interaction

Aerodynamics Only steady state Unsteady state, transient effects

source: Hansen 2015

source: DOI: 10.3390/en10030317

source: Hansen 2015

So, is it any good?

 Yes, BEM remains the industry standard.

source: Pechlivanoglou 2012

 Airfoil Types & Parameters

 Leading edge roughness

 The angles of attack are

source: Pechlivanoglou 2012

 Point of action: Quarter Chord

source: Hansen 2015

𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

source: Van Rooij 2004

 near α=[0°;180°]: Flow treated as

 blending function between potential

 points 𝐶𝐿1 and 𝐶𝐿2 that construct  aspect ratio AR

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

 ω𝑟 = Speed of the blade section due to rotation

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

 TSR (𝜆) directly effects the angle of attack 𝜶

𝜶𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 Rotor plane

 Blade Position & Airfoil Selection

Rotor Blade design

for each section of the blade

• Structural properties • Low sensitivity to roughness • Low sensitivity to roughness

source: Burton 2011

 Check if airfoil is suited for wind turbines (LE roughness

 Select Airfoils according to root, mid span and tip requirements

 Select airfoils with highest Lift to Drag ratio for maximum

 The Reynolds number is hugely different (smaller)

 Generally there is no need for very thick airfoils

 Selection as for large turbines, but to increase simplicity and

 Standard (e.g. NACA 6 series etc)

 Online Databases (www.airfoiltools.com)

 Dedicated Wind Turbine Airfoils (RISOE, TU DELFT, NREL etc)