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An ideal data collection procedure should be clear, unbiased, reliable and valid. It must
produce evidence to answer research question or test hypothesis. Measurement of variables of
interest is done through data collection method.
Advantages
Ø Tailored according to research needs
Ø The researcher can determine exactly what data will be collected and can identify the
specific tools that will be used.
Ø Defined and consistent protocol
Ø Completeness of data is ensured.
Disadvantages
Ø Time consuming
Ø Rely on patient recall and communication abilities
Ø Bias may occur due to various factors.
Ø Need to check reliability of raters.
Advantages
Ø It is easier and quicker.
Ø Absence of researcher’s biases.
Ø Economical and time saving
Ø Examine the trends over time
Ø Participant’s co-operation may not be necessary & it eliminates the biases related to partici-
pant awareness.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Disadvantages
Ø Accuracy, completeness and reliability depend upon original individual collecting the data.
Ø It may not be ideally suitable for answering current research question.
Ø Missed data and inaccuracy are common.
Ø Two biases are commonly expected- selective deposit and selective survival.
Data collection methods
Unstructured
1. Self reports Interview Semi structured
SAQ Structured questionnaire
2. Bio-physiologic measurements.
3. Observational method.
4. Psychometric measurements.
5. Other - projective technique, Q - sorts, vignette.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Unstructured Interview
Ø It is characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. It will not follow a system of
predetermined questions and standardization techniques of recording information.
Ø Interviewer freely asks the questions according to his own wish when required or omit the
certain questions.
Ø Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very few questions asked to direct the trend of
the interview.
Ø Researcher is having greater freedom to record or omit the responses.
Ø It is conversational in nature and conducted in naturalistic setting.
Ø It may be also called as ‘Grand Tour’ technique.
Advantages
1. Information obtained in such a casual manner enhances reliability and credibility of date.
2. Explorative and qualitative studies
3. Less prone to interviewer biases.
4. “Probs” questions can be assuring additional information to clarify.
Disadvantages
1. Interviewer requires great deal of knowledge and skill in order to analyse the data.
2. Information cannot be compared.
3. Analysis will be difficult.
4. Data interpretation based on researcher’s perception and subjective feelings.
5. Time wasting.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Advantages
1. It is efficient researches obtain the view forms of many individual in a short time.
2. It helps for richer and deeper opinion of expression.
Disadvantages
1. Some of the people will be having discomfort in expressing their views.
2. Group culture inhibits individual opinion.
Structured Interview
Ø It involves asking the same questions, in the same order, and in same manner of all respon-
dents in a study.
Ø Interviewer uses structured interview schedule.
Ø It commonly have fixed type, and closed ended questions.
Ø It also known as standardized interview.
Ø Interviewers are not permitted to change even specific wording also.
Ø It increases the reliability and credibility of data.
Merits
1. Data from one interview to the next one are easily comparable.
2. Recording, coding and analysis of data is easy.
3. Avoids irrelevant purposeless conversation.
Demerits
1. In-depth information may not be possible.
2. Exploration of data is limited.
3. It may not cover all the possible responses or respondent views.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Initial Phase
♦ Establish report and assure them data will be kept confidential
♦ Indicate how long interview will be taken
♦ Obtain informed consent and explain their rights and privileges.
Interview phase
1. Ask only one question at a time. Use show card for many responses for closed questions.
2. Repeat question if necessary.
3. Avoid unnecessary description of question.
4. Listen carefully to the subjects answer.
5. Allow the subject sufficient time to answer questions.
6. Do not show any signs / expressions of surprise, shock or approve.
7. Maintain neutral attitude.
8. Use probes when necessary
9. Do not summarize or paraphrase interview.
Recording Phase
1. Record responses as they take place.
2. Coding sheet is must preferred for structured questionnaire.
3. If any questions not answered, again repeat the question to the respondent.
4. Verify the schedule for completeness.
Closing / Termination Phase
After interview has concluded, participants should be asked if they have any questions. Explana-
tions can be given at this time.
Advantages
1. Responses can be obtained from a wide range of subjects.
2. Response rate is high in face to face interview.
3. Clarify - subjects can be given clarification regarding ambiguous and confusing questions.
4. It enhances reliable quality data, hence it allows probing in semi structured interview and in-
depth response can be obtained.
5. It will minimize missing information and response related bias such as yea - Sayers, I don’t
know.
6. Questions can be asked according to the order specifically mentioned or planned, i.e., order
of questions protected.
7. It provides highest control over the samples. Hence, subjects are interviewed face to face. In
other method, subject may pass the questionnaire to other individual to answer.
8. It helps to collect supplementary data if required.
9. Greater flexibility in keep the subjects at ease
10. Data are not influenced by others and it minimizing the risk of contamination among re-
spondents.
11. It is a good method for illiterate, poor expression and bad handwriting subjects.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Disadvantages
1. Training programme is needed for interviewers.
2. It is time consuming and expensive.
3. It will not ensure anonymity, in case of sensitive issues, data obtained may be biased, and
hence subjects may provide socially acceptable answer. (Social desirability response)
4. High degree of interviewer’s biases.
5. Rosenthal effect - Interviewer may influence subjects.
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a structured instrument consists
of series of questions prepared by researcher that a
respondent is asked to complete.
Ø SAQ also known as ‘survey’ .The instrument is called a questionnaire (SAQ) when respon-
dents complete the instrument themselves, usually in a paper and pencil format.
Ø Questionnaire - measure knowledge, attitude etc.
Ø Questionnaire are commonly used data collection tool
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
o Difficult to construct
o Easy to analyse and compare
o Commonly used in quantitive studies.
o Time- saving
o Fixed and artificial
o Relevant data
o More objective
Types of questions
1. Open ended 2. Closed ended 3. Demographic 4. Contingency questions 5. Filler questions
Contingency Questions
Items that is relevant for some respondents and not for others. E.g., what about hospital experi-
ence? (who never hospitalized can not answer).It is also called as skip questions.
e.g., Yes / No, if yes - poor good very good
Filler Questions
Filler questions are items in which the researcher has no direct interest but are included on a
questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other questions to make the
subjects to answer more honestly. If their focus only on the purpose of the study, they may
hesitate to answer or provide more approved answer.
Specific Types Of Closed Type Questions (Selection type items)
1. Multiple Choice Questions
It is a type of question offer two or more responses alternatives. It commonly contains
3 to 7 alternatives.A multiple choice item consists of two parts. A first is stem, which can be a
question or incomplete statement, the second part consists of several options (distractors and
correct response) from which to select a correct answer. (Distractors also known as decays or
foils)
Forms and Types of MCQ
1. The correct answer form
Three or more responses are given but only one of them is correct.
2. The best answer form
There one or more responses are correct but one of them is the best answer. The sub-
jects are requested to select best one.
3. The multiple response form
Here two or more responses are correct and the subject is request to identify the all cor-
rect responses.
4. The negative form
The stem has a negative approach. In response one may be correct response.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
2.Cafeteria Question
It is a special type of MCQ that asks the respondents to select best response that most closely
corresponds to their view. Usually it will be having all positive statements.
3.Dichotonomus Questions
It requires respondents to make choice between two response alternatives such as yes / no, male
/ female.
4.Rank order questions:
It requires respondents to rank the items along the continuum from most important to least impor-
tant by assigning rank to the items.
Example
Nursing students value different things during their study period. The following tool
contains list of ideas or often cited by many individuals when they are asked to name things they
value most. Please arrange the statements from most important to least important to you by
assigning 1,2,3, beside the statement.
Recreational activities ()
Academic activities ()
Money ()
Friendship ()
Advantages of Questionnaire:
1. Questionnaires are applicable to wider and large number of samples.
2. Anonymity will be maintained.
3. No field staff required to supervise the data collection procedure.
4. It is free from interviewer related biases.
5. Best method for collecting information regarding sensitive and controversial issues
6. The participants will response the items naturally and exhibits candor behaviour.
Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
1. This method is not applicable to all individuals especially illiterates, visually challenged, etc.,
2. It has poor sample control. It may be filled by some person other than the respondent.
3. Response rate is low, Follow up reminder required to achieve higher response rate.
4. Respondent may not follow the order of questions.
5. High chances for missing information.
6. Probing and clarification of items are not possible.
7. Risk of contamination among the respondents is quiet high when mailed questionnaire is not
adopted.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
ATTITUDE SCALES
Our emphasis from the beginning of the text has been on the objective measurement of
research variables. Sometimes we are most interested in studying subjective
variables: attitudes, feelings, personal opinions, or word usage. How can we measure subjective
variables objectively? The answer is an instrument called a scale.Attitude denotes the inner
feeling or belief of a person towards a particular phenomenon.
Methods of assessing attitude:
1. Direct Method: It is the best way to assess the attitude of the individual. It involves assessing
the behaviour in natural setting and real life situation. This method is commonly applied in qualita-
tive research.
2. Indirect Method: It is the method commonly adopted in research to assess attitude. It involves
asking the individual directly how he feels about a subject through the use of questionnaire or
interview. In this method, he is also asked to indicate his agreement or disagreement with a series
of statements about a controversial subject.
General components of Attitude Scales:
1. A stem, which is a statement relating to attitudes or an attitudinal object to be rated by the
respondent.
2. A series of scale steps.
3. Anchors that define the scale steps.
There are different types of anchors that can be employed: numbers, percentages, degrees of
agreement/disagreement, adjectives (e.g., worthless/valuable), actual behavior, and products (e.g.,
samples of nursing care plans to be rated 1 to 6). Usually numerical anchors are preferred.
Types of attitude scales:
A scale is an instrument which measures subjective variables. Each of these important scale
types provides the means to gather subjective data objectively.
1. Differential scale-Thurstone scale.
2. Summated scales-Likert scale.
3.Cumulative scales-Guttman’s scale.
4. Factor scales-Semantic Differential Scale and Multi Dimensional Scales.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Thurstone Scale
Ø Selection of items is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items of relevancy and
unambiguous in implication.
Ø Researcher collects a large number of statements usually twenty or more.
Ø The statements will be evaluated by panel of judges, each of whom asked to arrange the
statements in 11 piles from most favourable to least favourable.
Ø The items which bring out a marked disagreement between the judges in assigning a position
are discarded.
Ø Median value calculated, and any one statement is computed as median by all judges.
Ø All the items arranged in random order, and respondents are to state whether they agree or
disagree to the item.
Ø The respondent is to give his reaction to each statement by endorsing or rejecting it. Median
value of the statements that he endorses establishes the score.
Ø This scale is considered as most appropriate and reliable when used for measuring single
attitude.
Limitation
Values assigned to the various statements by the judges may reflect their own attitude.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. Proper instruction should be given to the respondent. Respondent are asked to indicate
the degree to which they agree or disagree with the opinions expressed.
INSTRUCTIONS: Individuals may have difference of opinion in regard to sex education to
adolescents. The following tool contains opinions of various people in the form of statements.
These statements are neither right nor wrong. Kindly indicate your degree of agreement or
disagreement after carefully reading the each statement below. Circle the letter which best
describes your response to the statement. If you strongly disagree with the statement, circle
SD. If you DISAGREE, circle D, AGREE, A, or STRONGLY AGREE, SA.
2. Never give any approval to the responses if interview method is adopted. Do not summarize
the responses given by the respondents. Respondent may change his degree of agreement
due to influence of the one item over another.
3. Strictly follow the order and wording of the questions.
4. Use response show card if you use more than 5 degrees during interview.
5. If neutral or undecided responses expressed, repeat the statement after all the statements
are responded.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Semantic Differential Scale consists of two opposite adjectives with a 7-point scale be-
tween them. Respondent is asked to rate a given concept by selecting one point on the scale that
best describes his or her point of view. The adjectives commonly used such as effective/ineffec-
tive, good/bad, or important/unimportant. The semantic differential is a method for measuring the
meaning of concepts that was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1957).
Components:
The semantic differential has three components: (1) the concept to be rated in terms of its attitu-
dinal properties, (2) bipolar adjectives that anchor the scale, and (3) a series of 5 to 9 scale steps
(7 is the optimal number of steps suggested).
Logic underlying the semantic differential stems from the recognition that, in spoken and writ-
ten language, characteristics of ideas and objects are communicated largely by adjectives. It is
reasonable on this basis to assume that meaning often can be and usually is communicated by
adjectives; it is also reasonable to assume that adjectives can be used to measure various facets
of meaning.
Factor analytic studies of semantic differential scales have suggested that there are three
major factors of meaning assessed by such scales: (1) evaluation, (2) potency, and (3) activity.
Advantages:
1. Highly flexible and easy to construct.
2. It is very useful in evaluating several concepts such as person, place, situation, abstract idea,
controversial issue and so forth.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Instructions:
The purpose of this questionnaire is to measure what certain things mean to you. I am interested
in what these ideas mean to you. There is no right or wrong answers. The page that follows has a
different idea printed at the top followed by pairs of opposite words below it to describe each idea.
Each pair of opposite words is separated by seven spaces. We call these spaces scales. For
your better understanding, please read the following example.. My home.
My self as Mother
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
OBSERVATION
Approaches of Observation
Molar Approach - the molar approach entails observing large units of behaviour and treating
them as a whole. This approach is adopted in qualitative studies using unstructured observation.
Molecular Approach - the molecular approach uses small and highly specific behaviours as
the unit of observation. Each movement, action, gesture, or phrase is treated as a separate entity
Types of Observation
Observation methods are broadly classified into Structured and Unstructured based on
the time frame and controls.
Based on the time frame and controls- Structured and Unstructured Observation
Based on observer role - Participant and Non-Participant Observation
Structured Observation
It aims to provide measurable and quantifiable data that are valid and reliable.
Characteristics of Structured Observation
1. It signifies a particular systematic approach to the business of quantifying behaviour.
2. It usually conducted in natural setting (clinic) as contrived settings such as laboratory.
3. The researcher determines, well in advance, What variable to be observed, and how it should
be measured?
4. It involves systematic way of recording of behaviour with objectivity.
5. It is guided by the preplanned structured or semi-structured instrument
6. It involves recording the frequency of the behaviour or rating the behaviour using check list or
rating scales.
7. The behaviour or events recorded by direct observation or indirect methods such as audio
taping, video taping, process recording and also using mechanical aids.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Unstructured Observation
Participant Observation
1. Observer becomes more or less a member of group which is under observation.
2. The observer plays a dual role that is as observer and also as participant.
3. He may assume the role of an attentive listener or a full fledged participant.
4. It is flexible, reliable and discloses the hidden, minute and delicate facts.
Non-Participant Observation
1. The observer takes a position so that his presence does not disturb the activities of the group.
2. It is very helpful in recording and studying the behaviour of the members of the group in detail.
3. Non-participant observation is used in the case of abnormal individuals, infants and children.
4. Observer merely observes the phenomenon or views the situation with out interacting with the
participants.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
CHECK LIST
Checklists are items that encompass several items on a topic and require same response
format of all items. It consists of a list of items with a place to check or to mark “Yes or No”. A
checklist enables the observer to note only whether or not a trait is present. It consists of a listing
of steps, activities, and behaviours which the observer records when an incident occurs.
Responses to the checklist items are largely matter of fact, not judgement.
It is two dimensional in nature i.e. Items and response.
Definitions
A check list is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of perfor-
mance or attributes, which are checked by a researcher for their presence or absence.
Checklists are constructed by breaking a performance and the quality of a product, which
specifies the presence or absence of an attribute or trait which is then “checked” by the rater /
observer.
Uses of checklist:
Checklist will be very useful for evaluating skills, behaviour, conditions, personality, mani-
festations, and mastery of particular exercise.
1. In one of the arrangements, all items found in a situation are to be checked. For example,
observer may be asked to check (√ ) in the blank beside each activity undertaken in the unit.
1.Washing hands (√)
2.Wearing mask ( )
3.Following aseptic precautions. (√)
4.Following barrier technique ( )
2. In the second form, the observer is asked to check with a yes or no or asked to encircle or
underline the response to the given item. For example,
Does unit have disinfection solution in the hand washing area? Yes / No
3. This is the form which all the items are positive statements with checks (ü) to be marked in
a column on the right, for example,
The school functions as a community centre. ( )
4. In the fourth form, the items are presented in sentences and the appropriate response out of
the supplied responses is checked, underlined or encircled, for example,
The Student Nurses Association organizes various student activities. - Weekly,
fortnightly, monthly, irregularly.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into groups of related items.
2. The response items should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
3. Formulate the list of items on the basis of standard procedural guidelines, best supportive
evidence, and consultation of experts.
4. All items should be arranged in logical order.
5. Express each item in clear, simple language, observable and measurable concrete concepts.
Each item should assess or describe only one behavior or criteria.
6. Items should be discriminative in quality i.e to secure the required information and details.
7. An intensive survey of the literature is made to determine the type of checklist to be used in a
particular research.
8. Avoid negative statements whenever possible.
9. Ensure that each item has clear responses: yes or no.
10. Reviews the items independently.
11. Checklist must have the quality of completeness and comprehensiveness.
12. Pilot study or trial run will help to develop most appropriate items.
Disadvantages of Checklist
Ø In many situations, summative scoring (overall score) and interpretation of scores will be
difficult.
Ø Does not indicate quality or degree of performance, so usefulness of checklist is limited.
Ø It has a limited use in qualitative research studies.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
RATING SCALE
Rating scales resemble check lists but are used when finer discriminations are required.
Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a trait or characteristic, it enables us to
indicate the degree to which a trait is present. Rating scales provide systematic procedures for
obtaining, recording and reporting the observer’s judgement.By a rating is meant the judgement of
one person by another.
A.S.Barr and others state, “Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or
judgement regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a
scale or values. Rating techniques are devices by which such judgement may be quantified.”
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Example:
Indicate the degree to which the staff nurse practices universal precautions in General
Medical Ward? The numbers represent the following values:
5-very good,4-good,3-Fair,2-Poor, 1-very poor.
1 2 3 4 5
Limitations
1. Some characteristics are more difficult to rate.
2. Subjectivity element is present.
3. Lack of opportunities to rate students.
4. Raters tend to be generally generous.
5. The measurements obtained from the rating scale are largely based on assumptions and
judgements of the raters.
6. Three types of errors are common -
1. Error of Leniency,
2. Error of central tendency and
3. Error of Halo effect.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Biophysiological Methods
Definition
“Biophysical method involves the collection of biophysical data from subjects by using the
specialized equipments to determine physical and biological status of subjects.” For example,
blood pressure measurement by using special equipments such as sphygmomanometer and
stethoscope.
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.
N U R S I N G RESEARCH : DATA COLLECTION METHODS
References
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269 - 292.
2. Polit D.F. & Hungler B.P. Nursing Research - Principles and Methods. 6th edition, Philadelphia
Lippincott 1999. 307 - 384
3. Nieswiadomy R.M. Foundations of Nursing Research. 5th edition, New Delhi : Pearson Educa-
tion 2008 210 - 258
4. Suresh K. Sharma. Nursing Research & Statistics. 1st edition, New Delhi : Elsevier 2011.
176 - 221
5. Burns N. & Grove S.K. Understanding Nursing Research. 4th edition, Missouri : Saunders
2007. 358 - 399
6. Sidhu K.S. Methodology of Research in Education. 5th edition, New Delhi : Sterling 2011.
131 - 172
7. Kothari C.R. Research Methodology. 2nd edition, New Delhi : New Age 2008. 69 - 121
8. Rajammal Rajagopal K. Evaluation, Statistics and Research & Education. 1st edition, Chennai
Shantha 2006. 28 - 79.
9. Sidhu K.S. New Approaches to Measurement and Evaluation. 1st edition, New Delhi : Sterling
2007. 130 - 150
L .Anand,Lecturer,College of Nursing,NEIGRIHMS,Shillong.