Data Collection Techniques

Dr Aamer Naeem
 Data Collection Techniques
Various data collection techniques include (Qualitative &
Quantitative)

 Using available information

 Observation
 Open interviews (In-depth, key informants).
 Administering structured or semi structured
questionnaire.
 Focus group discussions
 Physical examination of subjects
 Laboratory data
 OBSERVATION: is a technique that involves
systematically selecting, watching and
recording behavior and characteristics of living
things, objects or phenomenon.
 AN INTERVIEW: is a data collection technique that
involves oral questions to respondents either
individually or as a group.
 A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE: is a data collection
tool in which questions are presented that are to be
answered by the respondents in written form.
TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

1. Using available Inexpensive because data are Data are not always accessible,
information already there. Permits ethical issues concerning
examination of past trends confidentiality may arise.
Information may be imprecise or
incomplete.

2. Observing Gives more detailed and context Ethical issues concerning

related information, permits
collection of information on facts
not mentioned in the
questionnaire. Permits tests of
reliability of responses to
questionnaires.
confidentiality or privacy may arise.
Observer bias may arise, the
presence of the data collector can
influence the situation observed.
Thorough training of the research
assistants is required

3. Interviewing Suitable for use with illiterates
permits clarification of questions,
high response rates than written
questionnaires
The presence of the interviewer
can influence responses. Reports of
events may be less complete than
information gained through
observations

4. Small Scale Permits collection of in-depth The interviewer may inadvertently

flexible information and explanation of influence the respondents. open
Interview spontaneous remarks by ended data are difficult to
respondents. analyze.
TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

5. Large Scale Easy to analyze Important information may be

fixed interview missed because spontaneous
remarks by respondents are
usually not recorded or
explored.

6. Administering Less expensive, permits Can not be used with illiterate

written anonymity and may respondents. There is often a
questionnaire result in more honest low rate of response.
responses. Does not Questions may be
require research misunderstood.
assistants. Eliminates
bias due to phrasing
questions differently with
different respondents.
 3. Development of Study
Questionnaires
 Structured and semi structured interviews are
the most commonly used research techniques.
The following need to be considered before designing
questionnaires:
 What are the study objectives and variables.

 Is questionnaire development the best technique to

collect data.
 Is sufficient knowledge on the topic available to us

 Are informants literate or illiterate.

 How large is the sample to be interviewed.

 There are two types of Questions
 OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS: which permit free responses that should be
recorded in the respondents own words. The respondent is not given any
possible answers to choose from.
 Such questions obtain information on facts with which the researcher is not
much familiar, options, attitudes and suggestions of informer, and sensitive
issues.
•Why are you not satisfied with services
offered at the PHC facility.

•Why do pregnant women prefer to be

delivered at home.
 Closed Ended Questions
 Offer a list of possible options or answers from

which the respondent must choose.

 When designing closed questions, one should try to

offer a list of options that are exhaustive and

mutually exclusive and keep the number of options

to as few as possible.
A. What is your Marital status
1= Single 2= Married. 3= Divorced. 4=
Widowed
B. Do You Smoke 1= Yes 2= No
C. What is your source of information on drugs
i. Medical representative Yes No
ii. Pharmacology books Yes No

iii. Medical Index Yes No

iv. Wall charts Yes No

v. Clinical meetings Yes No

vi. Scientific journalsYes No

vii.News letter Yes No

viii.Others Yes No
 Advantages and Disadvantages of open-ended and
closed questions

Open Ended Questions Closed Questions

Advantages Advantages

Issues not previously thought of Answers can be recorded

when planning the study may be quickly.
explored, thus providing valuable new
insights into the problem.
Analysis is easy
Information provided spontaneously
is likely to be more valid than
answers suggested in options from
which the informant must choose.

Information provided in the

respondents own words may be
useful as examples or illustrations
that add interest to the final report.
Open Ended Questions
Disadvantages
Skilled interviewers are needed to
get the discussions started and
focused on relevant issues and to
record all important information.
Analysis is time consuming and
requires experience
Closed Questions
Disadvantages
Closed questions are less suitable
for face to face interviews with
illiterate.
Respondents may choose options
they would not have thought of
themselves (leading question bias)
Important information may be missed
if it is not asked.
The respondents and interviewer
may loose interest after a number of
closed questions.
Open Ended Questions Closed Questions

Suggestions Suggestions

Thoroughly train and Use closed questions only on

supervise the interviewers or issues that are simple.
select experienced people.
Prepare a checklist of further
Pre-test closed questions first
questions to keep at hand to
as open ended questions to see
“probe” for answer (s) in a
if your categories cover all
systematic way.
Pretest open ended questions possibilities.
and if possible, pre-categorize
the most common responses, Use closed questions in
leaving enough space for other combination with open ended
answers. questions.
 In practice a questionnaire has a combination
of open ended and closed questions in such a
way that the interview flows as natural as
possible.
 EXAMPLE:
How did you become a member of the
college sports Committee.
1. Volunteered
2. Elected at a college meeting
3. Nominated by Director
4. Nominated by Sports staff
5. Others Specify
 Steps in designing a Questionnaire
 Content - the study objectives and variables are
the starting point.
 Formulating the Questions - formulate one or
more questions that will provide the information
needed for each variable; check whether each
question measures one thing at a time; and avoid
leading questions.
 Sequencing of questions - design interview
schedule and questionnaire to be consumer and user
friendly; question should follow a logical sequence;
make the questions as short as possible; use simple
every day language; ask sensitive questions at the
end.
 Formatting the questionnaire - there should
be enough space between questions for responses
to be written; instructions for the interviewer be
clearly mentioned; skip patterns to be mentioned;
identification number be given on each page of
the questionnaire.

 Translation - if the questionnaire is to be given

in local language it should be properly translated
into the original language for comparison between
the pre- and post translation version and final
decision regarding rephrasing of the questions.
 Pre testing of the Questionnaire:
 once the questionnaire has been developed it
requires pre testing before its final
implementation. Often there are many surprises
during pre-testing for questions that seem
obviously straightforward.
Quality Control in Data Collection.
 Biases or systematic Error in a study occurs

when the information collected does not reflect

the situation.
 The most common type of bias during

data collection is called information or

observation bias.
 This error can only be minimized through

overriding obsession to detail and a rigorous

training and retraining of the staff.
 No amount of statistical analysis can control

for this bias.

 EXAMPLES of BIAS
 An error in the measuring scale.
 An error in the formulation of

question.
 Difference in perception among

interviewers about a question.

 Inadequate explanation given to

informants about the purpose of

the interview.