Int. J. tlydrogen Energy, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp.

285 289, 1994

Pergamon Copyright 0 1994InternationalAssociationfor HydrogenEnergy
Elsevier ScienceLtd
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MIXING AND COOLING MODELLING OF CRYOGENIC FUEL IN

LIQUID FUEL ROCKET ENGINE TANKS

V. F. PRISNIAKOVand V. N. SEREBRYANSKY
Dniepropetrovsk State University, Gagarin Av. 72, 320625 Dniepropetrovsk 10, Ukraine, C.I.S.

(Received for publication 21 April 1993)

Abstract The work conducted here is the investigation of longitudinal stirring of cryogenic fuel in rocket tanks, the
definition of the appropriateness of the process and the principles of its hydrodynamical and heating modelling. We
offer a mathematical model too, which describes liquid cooling during bubbling by splashing, considering its
longitudinal stirring.

NOMENCLATURE C) Vapour parameters

a Temperature conduction factor u Ascending flow
R Gas constant d Descending flow
C Specific heat 0 to the starting values of parameters
DE Longitudinal stirring factor
F Area INTRODUCTION
0 = 9.81 m s -2 Free fall acceleration
One of the ways to apply liquid hydrogen effectively in
H Liquid layer height
rocket cosmic engineering is through its use in the cooled
W Reduced velocity (consumption in-
(under boiling point) or in the slushing state. The hydro-
tensity)
gen has a greater value of density, low value of pressure of
L Heat of vaporization
saturated vapours and low value of enthalpy than at the
m Mass
usual storage temperature in the triple point and,
~V Ejection factor
especially, in the slushing state.
p Pressure
These overcooled and slush-like hydrogen advantages
q Specific heat flow
improve the characteristics of a rocket engine plant with
r, R Radius
hydrogen as fuel. The necessary volume of hydrogen
T Temperature
tanks is reduced. The full pressure in the tank decreases
x Coordinate
considerably. Cold storage is created in the tank. It
p Density
allows us to increase the storage time greatly, for exam-
2 Heat conduction factor
ple, in the process of prestarting preparation of the rocket
Dynamic viscosity factor
under the conditions of heat supply from the environ-
a Surface tension factor
ment without drainage of its vapours and component
losses.
Indexes At the present time we use vapour vacuum pumping
1 Bubbling liquid and its vapour and bubbling by helium splashing methods to obtain
2 Bubbling gas overcooled and slushing states of cryogenic liquids [1 4].
s Parameters on saturation line The bubbling technique can be applied to cool hydrogen
Infinity directly onboard the rocket after tank fuelling. The
L Longitudinal stirring parameters minimum liquid hydrogen temperatures achieved in the
p At constant pressure laboratory by bubbling by helium splashing are from
v At constant volume 14.8 to 15.5K [3, 4]. It is mentioned that feeding of
f At free liquid surface helium must have a temperature less than 16.8K without
t At the volume over free surface environmental heat supply.
dl Delay Nowadays there is a small number of works on cryo-
(') Liquid parameters genic liquid cooling by bubbling by helium splashing.

285
286 V. F. PRISNIAKOV and V. N. SEREBRYANSKY
Especially, it concerns large liquid volumes comparable
with the capacity of rocket fuel tanks. Here, the stirring of
the liquid phase and heat and mass exchange between the
vapour-gas and liquid phases acquire special signifi-
cance. Insufficient knowledge of this process and such
parameters as its cooling time to the designated tempera-
ture, mass exchange characteristics, gas consumptions
and liquid losses, especially for the hydrogen-helium
system, makes the future investigations in this direction
very necessary.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES
Liquid bubbling was investigated in model experimen-
tal plants with different liquids and gases. The process
hydrodynamics were studied in a water-air system in a
cylindrical vessel 0.4 m in diameter and with 1.5 m liquid
level height. Stratification was created artificially in the
water by hot layer forming at the liquid surface with a
depth of 0.5 m. The air was supplied from the bottom of
the vessel through different structure collectors. Liquid
temperature was measured at several levels of vessel
height. Feeding gas consumption was measured too. The
operation mode of the bubbling system was estimated by
the following parameters:
Vr
Y = ~,, Ejection factor,
1/"
W = F - ' Reduced velocity (consumption intensity).
Here, V' is the liquid volume over the collector; ~ is the
temperature full levelling time in the liquid volume; F is
the vessel cross-sectional area; and l?" is the gas con-
sumption.
The time for full levelling of the temperature profile in
the water was 46-75 s, depending on gas consumption,
and the ejection factor was JV" = 55-61 with W =
(0.32-0.52) × 10-3m s-1. We discovered no gas supply
collector structure influence on the bubbling system
parameters.
The further investigations were carried out on a model
plant with liquid nitrogen and bubbling helium with
process visualization, and also on two vessels with liquid
oxygen. One of them was an industrial spherical vessel,
8 m in diameter; oxygen temperature was 83-85K, heli-
um consumption was 10-20 g s - 1. Its temperature profile
full levelling time was equal to 600 s with ejection factor
JV" = 50-79. The other vessel was a rocket fuel tank, 3 m
in diameter and 65 m 3 in volume, with an oxygen temper-
ature of 93K. The reduced helium velocity for it was
(10 3-7.3 × 10 3 ) m s - 1, and the temperature full level-
ling time was 100-56s, with Jff = 34.5-13.5 at these
conditions.
As was mentioned before, the greatest interest is in
getting hydrogen cooled below its boiling temperature
and then its slushing one. Conducting experiments with
liquid hydrogen, especially in large-volume vessels, is
connected with great danger because of its explosion
hazard. That is why nitrogen was chosen as the bubbling
liquid to determine main process regularities, in particu-
lar, stirring and cooling intensity. Nitrogen is a cryogenic
liquid like hydrogen and it has a saturated vapour
pressure in triple point close to that of hydrogen. Liquid
nitrogen is rather cheap, and safe in experiments with
large-volume vessels. Visualization of the process in the
plant with nitrogen allowed us to investigate the bub-
bling process hydrodynamics. While gas was supplied
through the part of the tank cross-section at the bottom,
the flow which practically all the gas bubbles are in, has a
conical shape with an angle of 10-12 ° and motion up
towards the free liquid surface. The gas liquid flow
widens because of liquid injection and also because of
bubble volumes increasing at the time of their coming to
the surface. The circulation of liquid with an ascending
current appears in the tank in the part of the section
located over the gas supply collector, and with a descend-
ing current in that part where gas bubbles are absent
(Fig. 1). The circulation leads to component stirring and
heat and mass exchange process intensification.
A physical model of stirring must be accepted as
follows.
(1) During the delay time, which is determined as the
time interval from gas consumption appearance begin-
ning up to the end of the circulation process forming, the
liquid stirring is absent.
(2) Liquid phase stirring takes place after the end of the
delay time, with the set value of stirring parameter.
To estimate the delay time, we offer the following
formula:
(1)
ra, = ~ + Uk a + ,
~ .t.vl o l o r q . j 117
I0 0
Fig. 1. Mixing model. 1 Tank, 2--velocity profile, 3--ascend-
ing current, 4--descending current, 5 inlet gas manifold.
 MODELLING OF CRYOGENIC FUEL 287

where k,, k d a r e proportionality factors relating to veloci- The energy equation is transformed from equation (3)
ties of ascending and descending currents and D is the as follows:
tank diameter. Factor quantities k u = 1.1 and ka = 0.9,
which were gained by the authors in experiments on dT dm~
nitrogen and oxygen, coincide fully with data of the (rn'~C~l + m2Cv2) ~ - (L + R1T )
dz
literature [5].
Experimental estimation of lag time conducted on dR
= 4rcR2qL -- 4rcR2p d~ " (4)
measuring the liquid temperature change at the gas
supply level, gained on water, nitrogen and oxygen
coincides fully with calculations made under formula (1). We suppose that we can disregard gas motion inside
Our experimental data processing allowed us to obtain the bubble and energy losses because of pulsating motion
recommendations on calculation of the longitudinal stir- of the bubble itself. It means that liquid temperature
ring factor D L. The results (Fig. 2) are described well by change near to the phase separation border takes place
the well-known formula [6]: due to heat transfer by heat conduction. Then the heat
flow being a number of equation (4):
Pe = 65Fr T M . (2)

Here, Pe = W H / D L is the modified Pecklet number and qL=2 r=R, (5)

Fr = W / g D is the Froude number.
must be found from solving the equation:
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
dT'~ R 2 dR ~T'l a 0 ( OT'l"]
Single bubble-surrounding liquid interaction
dr t- r2 dr c3r - r 2 t?r r2 dr ]' (6)
Considering bubble sizes and comparing them with the
under boundary conditions:
volume of the surrounding liquid, one can consider the
temperature of the vapour-gaseous mixture in the bubble
r = o, T', = T~(p';),
equal throughout its volume. Its energy change under
these conditions is described by the following equation of r ~ o% T' 1 = T'~. (7)
the first law of thermodynamics:
The pressure in the bubble is determined by the Relei
dU = dQ - p d f . (3) equation:

Here dU is the internal energy change; dQ is the thermal ,r d2R 3/dR'~ 2] 4,u'1 dR 2a z
energy change; and d • is the bubble volume change.
Convective heat transfer from gas to liquid leads to
liquid evaporating from the "inner surface" of the bub-
ble. It is accompanied by vapour supply into the bubble Vapour mass change in the bubble due to evaporation
and changing of the partial pressures of gas and vapour at the phase separation border is described by the
relations in it, and also by changing of the temperature. Hertz-Knudsen equation:
Evaporation leads to the decrease of the temperature of
the liquid layers surrounding the bubble• dm'~ ~[p~(T) - p'~]
d~ [2gR] T~9(p'~)]1/2 4~zR2' (9)

where c~is the accommodation factor.

Other obvious relations are:

P'; • P2 tt

- .~o P'~ = Rx T , P2 = R J ; p = P l + P2;

m'~Rx (10)
p'~ = p
m'~R 1 + m 2 R 2"
O -3
-2.0 I In the general case, the gas inside the bubble must
-8 -7 dissolve in the surrounding liquid up to equilibrium
kQFr concentration. However, as heat exchange processes take
Fig. 2. Determination of longitudinal stirring factor. 1 Water place considerably quicker than gas diffraction, we can
air, 2 helium oxygen, 3--helium-nitrogen, 4--Pe = disregard the diffusion influence on temperature in the
65FrTM. bubble and its growth or collapse.
288 V.F. PRISNIAKOV and V. N. SEREBRYANSKY

We also can disregard inertial and viscosity terms in The heat flow from the unit surface q(r) is determined
equation (8) if the pressure in the liquid is constant or is as the sum of heat flows which are carried away by
close to constant. hydrogen evaporating from the free surface and by the
It is supposed that the average speed of bubbles vapour-gaseous mixture of the bubbles which came out
coming to the surface at the tank height is close to of this surface:
constant and, judging by experiments, it is 0.24-0.32 m
S-1 q(r) = L~[ps(T'lf) -- p~t](2r~R1T'lf)- 1/2
Liquid pressure changes with tank height under the
, dg/s
following law: + (rn'~C~l + m 2 C v 2 ) ( T - Tt' ) ~ f , (17)
P = fit' + P'lg( H -- x). (11)
where d n j d r is the quantity of bubbles from the unit free
M o d e l o f stirr&g a n d cool& 9 surface of liquid in unit time.
The equation (12) in the relative variables under the
Hydrogen stirring and cooling are determined by heat
boundary conditions (14)-(16) runs as follows:
exchange in the liquid phase.
Stirring in the bubbling system is described by a one- dO ~20
parameter diffusing model with the parameter factor of d F o -- ~.~2 + Vo, (18)
longitudinal stirring under the following assumptions:
• the side tank surface is heat isolated; F o = 0; 0(£, 0) = fo(£),
(19)
• enthalpy change of the liquid phase is a continuous
function of both coordinate and time;
• specific heat of liquid at the constant pressure
C'p = constant;
Fo>0,~=0;
(h=°,
~ ~=o

• liquid temperature at a cross-section of the tank is (~O)=-Ki(Fo).(20)

constant; and
• stirring parameter does not change with the length In formulae (18)-(20), 0 = T'1/T' o is relative temperature;
and tank cross-section. = x / H is relative coordinate; Fo = DLZ/H 2 is the
The differential transfer equation runs as follows: Furye number; K i = q H / 2 [ T'o is the Kirpichev number;
Po = q.,H2/2[T'o is the Pomerantsev number. In the
c3T'~ ~2T'~ qv general case, the Pomerantsev number is a certain func-
(12) tion of coordinate :? and time Fo: P o = P o ( £ Fo).
g'r - DE ~x 2 + C'pP'I"
Then equation (18)'s solution will run as follows [7]:
Here qv is the power of the internal heat sources, which is
determined by hydrogen evaporation into the helium
bubbles and its cooling:
0(~, Fo) =
;o' fo(g)dx +
f? Ki(Fo')dFo'

din'; + Po(.~, Fo')dg

q~=L dz nv, (13)

where n, is the quantity of bubbles in unit liquid volume. + 2 ~ cos(iz£)exp(- iHc2Fo)

The equation (12) is added to by boundary conditions. i=1
At the starting moment of time, the longitudinal temper-
ature distribution is known: x fo(~)cos(irc~)d~ + 2 ( - 1)i cos(iTri)
i=1
= 0, T~(x, :) =fo(x). (14)
At the level of gas entry: x f;° K i ( F o ' ) e x p [ -- i2rt2(Fo -- F o ' ) ] d F d

X = O, T > 0. L~ ~X ; x = O = O. (15) + 2 ~ cos(i~)

i=1
Heat exchange with the vapour-gaseous "cushion" is
accomplished at the free hydrogen surface in the tank
under the known law:
x
f? exp[-- i2r~2(Fo -- Fo')]dFo'

x = H, z > O.
-
A[(~T'I~
\~X/x=,,
= q(z), (16) x
fo Po(2, F o ' ) c o s ( i ~ ) d ~ . (21)

where 2[ = C'pp'1D E is the effective heat conduction. Here, Fo' and ~ are integration variables; i = 1, 2, 3 . . . .
 MODELLING OF CRYOGENIC FUEL 289

/
We can get a particular case from equation (18) which
. )..
describes liquid stirring without heating or cooling be- ,I
cause of the action of internal heat sources (Po = 0). The 8-- 1
boundary conditions (19) and (20) are left as before. This
case also has an analytical solution, which one can easily 3
\
get from equation (21) by considering Po(~, Fo') = O.
4
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE -•- 7

J
We examined the process of single helium bubble -r
growth in nitrogen and the heat flow changes in time
during nitrogen evaporation into the bubble. The results
obtained are shown in Figs 3 and 4. One can see that the
bubble growth because of evaporation from the phase
separation border completes in 1.5-2s. The heat flow
reaches its maximum in 0.1 s, but then it decreases
sharply, and by 1.5 s it reaches about 5~o of its greatest
quantity.
I
85 9O
T(K)
Fig. 5. Temperature profile at tank height. 1, 2, 3 Experiment
(1 r = 0 s ; 2 327s;3 600 s); 4 - calculation data T = 577 s.
1.4

We compared calculated and experimental tempera-

1.3 ture profiles at a given height of the bubbling layer and at
o a given time for the modelled systems with oxygen,
n,- nitrogen and water, and tanks with liquid oxygen de-
1.2 scribed before. The results are shown in Fig. 3. The
experimental and theoretical results' concordance proves
I.I
the validity of the chosen model of stirring, and the
presence of criterional formulae describing the process al-
lows us to formulate the main principles of its hydrody-
i.o I I I I namical and heat modelling. The further direction of our
0.2 0.4 0.6 Q8 investigations is connected with refinement of the model
T/T o of helium bubble interaction with cryogenic liquids in-
Fig. 3. Change of the bubble radius in time. Helium nitrogen, cluding hydrogen. We hope to use the method of the
T'] = 78K, TO = 78K. calculation of hydrogen cooling for volumes which may
be equal to rocket fuel tank volumes.

REFERENCES

10,5 1. M. A. Buchko and S. L. Serova, Experimental researches of

the process of overcooling and forming of slushing cryogenic
liquid by bubbling. J. appl. Chem. 44, 2014 (1971).
8.0 2. L. G. Vinokur, V. A. Shaposhnikov, V. V. Gorokhov and E.
A. Tityushin, Overcooling of liquid nitrogen by helium by the
o- bubbling method. Chem. Oil Machinebuild. 3, 24 (1972).
5.5 3. M. P. Malker (Ed.), Liquid Hydrogen. Mir, Moscow (1964).
4. A. Schmidt, Experiments on cooling of liquid hydrogen by
helium injection, in Liquid Hydrogen p. 404. Mir, Moscow
(1964).
3.0 5. V. N. Sokolov and I. V. Domansky, Gaseous liquid reactors,
in L. Machinostroyeniye. Leningrad (1976).
6. M. B. Kats and M. M. Rosenberg, Mathematical description
050 0.5 tO 1.5 2.0 of structure of liquid flows in the bubbling reactors consider-
r(s) ing its cross unevenness. The influence of scale factors. Theor.
Basis Chem. Technol. IX, 670 (1975).
Fig. 4. Change of the heat flow on the phase separation border 7. A. V. Lykov, The Theory of Heat Conduction. Vyschaya
of the bubble in time. Helium-nitrogen, T'1 = 78K, TO = 78K. Schkola, Moscow (1967).