International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hmt

Numerical study of interfacial dynamics in flow boiling of R134a

inside smooth and structured tubes
M.B. Darshan, Ravi Kumar, Arup Kumar Das∗
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A numerical study of flow boiling has been performed with R134a refrigerant flowing inside a horizontal
Received 8 November 2021 tube. Flow pattern has been captured using VOF methodology in OpenFoam software up to mass flux of
Revised 2 January 2022
150 kg/m2 s. The various stages of bubble dynamics like nucleation, growth, merging and departure has
Accepted 17 January 2022
been observed for ranges of heat and mass fluxes. The phase fraction variations during flow boiling have
also been observed at two different saturation temperatures and the differences in interfacial features
Keywords: have been reported. An attempt has been made to estimate the number of nucleation sites and the bub-
Flow boiling ble departure diameter for R134a in the case of flow boiling inside the smooth tube. With the help of
Nucleation numerical simulations, the study has also been made by providing artificial nucleation sites in the form
Bubble departure
of indentations/cavities inside the tube. An increase in nucleation sites has been observed for the dim-
Refrigeration
pled tube as compared to the plain tube and the corresponding change in bubble departure phenomenon
Two-phase flow
Dimpled tube has been reported. The heat transfer coefficients at different heat flux, mass flux, saturation temperature
and tube configurations have been evaluated to link observed interfacial phenomenon with enhancement
factor.
© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Flow boiling is an extensively studied area of phase change phe-
nomenon since it finds itself either in industrial applications, in
electronic systems as a cooling method or in domestic usages. In
that, the increasing demand in domestic applications for refriger-
ation, air-conditioners, HVAC in automobiles etc., has driven re-
searchers to analyse various heat transfer characteristics influenc-
ing the flow boiling, so as to come up with energy-efficient sys-
tems. Hence, one can find abundant literature in analysing flow
boiling of refrigerants under different working conditions [1–3] or
with different refrigerants [4–7]. Attempts have also been made
to enhance the flow boiling heat transfer characteristics by us-
ing passive methods such as surface modification of the tube.
Chamara and Webb [8] did a combined study on flow boiling and
condensation with a microfin tube using R22 as a heat transfer
fluid. Goto et al. [9] studied both condensation and evaporation
heat transfer characteristics of R410a flowing inside an internally
grooved tube and compared the same with the plain tube. Well-
sandt and Vamling [10] studied the heat transfer characteristics of
R134a with herringbone structures inside the tube. They further
went on to analyse these herringbone tubes with different refrig-
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arupdas80@gmail.com (A.K. Das).
erants like R407C and R410A refrigerants [11]. Bandarra Filho and
Jabardo [12] further compared the heat transfer characteristics of
R134a with herringbone and micro-fin tubes and concluded that
the herringbone delivers a higher heat transfer coefficient at the
cost of the increased pressure drop as compared to the micro-fin
tubes. Chuan Sun et al. [13] compared the performance of smooth
tube with that of herringbone and 3D EHT (Enhanced Heat Trans-
fer) tubes and observed highest heat transfer performance with
the herringbone tubes. Apart from these continuous internal struc-
tures which enhance heat transfer mainly by disturbing the flow
resulting in early transition to annular flow, research has also been
carried out with discrete internal structures by providing indenta-
tions/cavities on the inside surface of the tube [14].
Although a broad literature can be found in experimental stud-
ies on flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerants and its enhance-
ment, numerical studies on two-phase flow heat transfer is still in
a nascent stage. Yang et al. [15] did a numerical analysis of heat
transfer characteristics of R141B refrigerant flowing inside a hori-
zontal helical tube. Koncar and Krepper [16] did a numerical study
of annular flow boiling of R113 flowing inside a vertical tube by
using CFX. A similar study was made by Chen et al. [17] using the
two-fluid model. Shao et al. [18] did a numerical study on flow
boiling of R410a inside the tube. In the case of tubes with inter-
nal structures, numerical studies have been mainly found to be
with single-phase heat transfer [19–21]. Jafari and Okutucu-Özyurt

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122592
0017-9310/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592

continuity equation and the local continuity equation in a phase

Nomenclature change process can be written as shown in the equations below.
∂  
C specific heat ρ + ∇ . ρU = 0 (2)
Cα compression factor
∂t
g gravitational acceleration ∂   
HLG latent heat ρ + ∇ . ρLU = −m˙ (3)
∂t L
k thermal conductivity

m˙ volumetric rate of phase change (+ve for condensa- ∂   
ρG + ∇ . ρGU = m˙ (4)
tion and -ve for boiling) ∂t
M molecular Weight 
P local pressure Here, m˙ is the source term added in the equation to account
R universal gas constant for the transfer of mass during phase change and is calculated us-
t time ing the equation proposed by Tanasawa [23] as shown below,
T temperature field

 2γ M ρG HLG (T − Tsat )
u inflow velocity m˙ = (5)
U velocity field (2 − γ ) 2r 3/2
Tsat
w thermophysical properties With the assumption that both liquid and vapour phases are in-
Greek letters compressible, the first term in the LHS of the Eqs. (3) and (4) can
αL liquid phase fraction be cancelled out. Then, summing up of Eqs. (3) and (4) with the
κ interface curvature help of integral approach and using divergence theorem, the equa-
ρ density tion for ∇ .U
 can be written as follows:
1 
σ surface tension
∇ .U = m˙

−
1
(6)
μ viscosity ρG ρL
γ Tanasawa coefficient
Representing density(ρ ) in the form of Eq. (1) and replacing the
Subscript same in Eq. (2), the continuity equation can be written as shown
L liquid below:
G gas ∂ αL   = ρG ∇ .U

+ U .∇ αL + αL ∇ .U (7)
∂t ( ρL − ρG )
[22] studied the initiation and the growth of vapour bubble during To control the smearing at the interface, a term is added in the
flow boiling in a microchannel wherein the bubble nucleation is above equation which will be defined only in the interface region
done by using a single rectangular artificial nucleation site. Though where liquid phase fraction greater than zero and less than one
the numerical study on heat transfer analysis can be found in the [24]. Adding this term and using the ∇ .U from Eq. (6), Eq. (7) can
literature in the case of flow boiling of refrigerants, the bubble dy- be written as:
namics has hardly been the focus of these studies. Moreover, the
∂ αL   −
→
 1 1 1

numerical study on two-phase flow and heat transfer inside a tube + U .∇ αL + ∇ . αL (1 − αL )UC = −m˙  − αL −
with multiple artificial cavities has also not been targeted. In the
∂t ρL ρL ρG
present article, the numerical simulations of flow boiling of R134a (8)
have been performed at different heat flux, mass flux, saturation −
→
where, UC is the compressive velocity, used to avoid any disper-
temperatures, contact angle and tube geometry. The focus is on
sion. Hence, it is calculated in the direction normal to the interface
studying the bubble dynamics, nucleation, phase fraction variation
[25] as shown below:
and heat transfer analysis of R134a flowing inside the plain tube
and the tube with artificial cavities provided in the form of in- −
→ ∇ αL
UC = min{Cα |U |, max (|U | )} (9)
dentations (or dimples/cavities). In the succeeding section, the nu- |∇ αL |
merical methodology and the domain description considered in the The governing equation for momentum conservation in terms
present simulations have been given. of the VOF model is given by,

2. Numerical methodology and domain description ∂ρU     T 

+ ∇ . ρU
U − ∇ . μ ∇U
 + ∇ U = −P + ρ g + σ κ∇ αL
∂t
2.1. Mathematical model and governing equations (10)

In the present article, the study is being done with pure refrig-
erant R134a as the fluid. R134a undergoes phase change as it picks
up heat from the walls while flowing inside the tube and hence
is a two-phase flow phenomenon that requires proper prediction
of liquid-vapour interface. VOF (Volume of Fluid) methodology has
been adopted for this purpose in which the conservation equations
are solved for both liquid and vapour phases. Any thermodynamic
and transport properties (w) of the fluid are calculated using the
equation given below:
w = αL wL + (1 − αL )wG (1)
where, αL is the phase fraction which is the ratio of the volume
of liquid in the unit cell to the total volume of the cell. The global
where σ is the surface tension and the last term on the RHS
of Eq. (10) is the surface tension force which is modelled using
the CSF (Continuos surface force) model [26]. The curvature of
∇α

the interface κ is defined as κ = L , where α˜ L is calculated by
|αL |
smoothening αL over a fnite region around the interface and is
done by using the method developed by Lafaurie et al. [27].
The energy conservation equation is modelled as:
∂ (ρ C p T ) 
+ ∇ .(ρC pUT ) − ∇ .(K ∇ T ) = −m˙ HLG (11)
∂t

where, m˙ is the mass flux rate calculated using the model sug-
gested by Tanasawa [23] and HLG is the latent heat. Although the
temperature at the interface is nearly constant during the phase

2
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Table 1
Discretisation schemes.
Term Discretisation scheme and method
∂ (ρU ) ∂ (ρU T )
∂t , ∂t Euler scheme with first order bounded implicit
method
∇ .(ρU U ) VanLeer scheme modified for vector field
(VanLeerV)
∇ .(U αL ), ∇ .(ρU T ) VanLeer scheme [40]
−
→
∇ .(αL (1 − αL )UC ) InterfaceCompression scheme [41].
Diffusion Gauss Linear corrected scheme using central
difference method with non-orthogonal
correction.
Viscous Gauss Linear scheme using central difference
method.
change process, to account for small variation in saturation tem-
perature as a function of local pressure, the Clausius Clapeyron
equation has been used and is written as follows,
Psat,1 MHLG 1 1
ln =− − (12)
Psat,0 R Tsat,1 Tsat,0
To solve the mathematical models described above, at first, the
mesh structure of the geometry is initialised and the boundary
conditions are defined. The solution loop is then started and the
timestep is calculated satisfying the CFL (Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy)
condition. The volume fraction equation (Eq. (8)) is solved by us-
ing MULES (Multidimensional Universal Limiter and Explicit Solver)
method. The thermodynamic and transport properties are then
updated before the solver enters the pressure-velocity loop. The
pressure-velocity coupling is done by using PISO (Pressure-Implicit
with Splitting of Operators) method and the momentum equation
is solved to update the velocity field. The additional equation for
pressure [28] derived from continuity and momentum equation is
also solved. Finally, the energy equation (Eq. (11)) is solved to get
the temperature field. The discretisation schemes used in the simu-
lation is given in Table 1. The residual values for velocity, pressure,
and temperature are limited to the order of 10−8 , 10−8 and 10−10 ,
respectively. The solution is said to be converged if the residual
values reach this order. CFL condition has been set to 0.25 with
which the timestep is calculated to be in the order of 10−6 s in
the present simulations.
Further to achieve bubble nucleation, a method proposed by
Samkhaniani and Ansari [28] has been used in which a thin vapour
film is inserted at the start of the simulation in the domain, the
thickness of which is given as:
y =yc + Cos(π Nx/W )
Here, yc , and N are unperturbed film thickness, amplitude and
wave of perturbation, respectively. As the simulation progresses
the initial wavy interfacial pattern reorganises due to instabilities
and some of the small perturbations get amplified leading to bub-
ble growth. The bubble further departs from the surface due to
buoyancy.
The present model assumes evaporation over the absorbed film
at which microlayer evaporation can be neglected. The evaporation
of rate from a thin film is mainly controlled by mutual competition
between interfacial heat transfer resistance [29] and a suppressed
liquid pressure due to the effect of capillary pressure and disjoin-
ing pressure [30]. Upon crossing the threshold, disjoining pressure
will suppress evaporation from the microlayer and pose a situa-
tion where the microlayer will have the same temperature as of
heating wall. Considering the same in the present work microlayer
formation over the surface is not modelled.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
2.2. Domain description
In the present study, simulations have been mainly done con-
sidering a cylindrical tube of 7.85 mm diameter and 100 mm
length with mass fluxes ranging from 50–150 kg/m2 s. At such
mass flux, the flow regime is observed to have either stratified or
wavy patterns as per the experimental observations in the litera-
ture [31,32]. Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic of the domain under
consideration along with the boundary conditions. Initially, a strat-
ified fluid pattern is placed in the domain with liquid film at the
bottom having a thickness of nearly 3 mm and the vapour at the
same saturation pressure in the remaining region. Separate veloc-
ity inlets for liquid and vapour phases have been given as shown
in Fig. 1(a). At the wall, no-slip and no penetration condition has
been given and constant heat flux boundary condition has been
applied. The simulations have been done with three different mass
fluxes (50, 100 and 150 kg/m2 s) and four different heat fluxes (5,
10, 15, 20 kW/m2 ). The fluid used in the present study is R134a
and the thermophysical properties of the fluid have been taken
from REFPROP [33] and given in Table 2.
Mesh structure considered has been shown in Fig. 1(b). In the
flow boiling simulation, minimum mesh size is mainly required in
the region where the interface needs to be tracked and in the re-
gion where the boiling happens. In the stratified flow, the phase
change is happening only at the bottom part of the tube, hence
mesh size is kept minimum only near the wall and at the liquid-
vapour interface (0.05 mm). Coarse mesh size has been considered
in the upper region of the tube where only the vapour phase is
present. To validate the numerical code with the grid structure
considered, the simulations have been done with the experimen-
tal geometry taken from Lie and Lin [34] and the results of the
simulations have been compared with the experimental. Fig. 1(c)
shows the comparison of the number of nucleation sites for both
experimental and numerical simulations. The maximum error in
the prediction of the number of nucleation sites is found to be
16%. The bubble departure diameter obtained from the numeri-
cal simulations has also been compared with the experimental ob-
servations from Lie and Lin [34]. Fig. 1(d) shows this comparison
from which it can be observed that the present numerical simula-
tions can predict the departure diameter accurately. The maximum
error in the prediction of bubble departure diameter is found to
be about 9.1%. Hence it can be said that the grid setup used in
the numerical simulations can handle interfacial dynamics in the
phase change process efficiently. The number of cells in the case
of plain tube considered in the present simulation is chosen as
2498,400.
3. Results and discussion
(13)
Numerical simulations of flow boiling at different mass and
heat fluxes have been performed using the methodology described
above. Tube geometries have been also varied to observe an en-
hancement in heat transfer. Results of numerical simulations are
described in the sections below.
3.1. Bubble growth and its movement with the flow at different liquid
velocities and heat flux
To understand the complete bubble dynamics in flow boiling, a
representative simulation is considered and a bubble that grows,
merges with the other bubbles, and interacts with the liquid-
vapour interface is focused upon. Fig. 2 shows the phase contour
representations of such a bubble at a heat flux of 10 kW/m2 with
liquid (vl ) and gas velocity (vg ) of 0.27 m/s and 0.6 m/s, respec-
tively. From the phase contour representations at 0.07, 0.08 and
3
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 1. (a) Fluid domain description with boundary condition (b) Grid structure inside the domain. Comparison of (c) number of nucleation sites and (d) average bubble
departure diameter obtained from the present simulation with that of experimental observations made by Lie and Lin [34].
Table 2
Properties of the fluid.
Tsat ( °C) ρ G (kg/m3 ) ρ L (kg/m3 ) CpG (J/kgK)
−3 12.964 1304.7 884.04
5 17.131 1278.1 775.50
0.1 s, it can be seen that initially, the bubbles originate from dif-
ferent nucleation sites and start merging with each other as they
progress downstream. The single bubble formed after merging at
0.11 s grows and appears to get detached from the bottom of the
wall as can be seen in the phase contour at 0.123 s where the bub-
ble seems to fade away in the plane. But in actual the bubble does
not detach from the wall instead it slides along the cylindrical wall
of the tube before disappearing at the liquid-vapour interface. This
can be observed from 3D clips with only the vapour phase shown
in Fig. 2 from 0.12 to 0.14 s, wherein one can easily track the bub-
ble to be sliding along the wall and joining the interface.
With the same heat flux of 10 kW/m2 , similar bubble dynam-
ics have been observed at different liquid velocities while the gas
velocity is kept constant. Fig. 3 shows the difference in the move-
ment of bubbles at two different liquid velocities from bubbles
merging till it disappears at the interface. The movement of the
bubbles in the direction of the flow has been tracked and plot-
ted in Fig. 3(a). The starting point considered for all the curves
in the graph is the one at which bubbles are having the same
initial t/tmerge , wherein tmerge denotes the time at which bubble
merges with the liquid-vapour interface. Here, in each case, bub-
bles 1 and 2 are the two different bubbles merging and forming
one single bubble as time progresses. It can be observed from the
figure that there is a delay in bubbles merging, with bubbles cover-
ing more distance before merging at higher liquid velocities. Even
after that, the bubble formed after merging travels more distance
before breaking at the liquid-vapour interface when liquid velocity
is high.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
CpL (J/kgK) ν G (m2 /s) ν L (m2 /s) kG (W/mK) kL (W/mK) σ (N/m)
1330 8.188e-7 2.1239e-7 0.093360 0.01125 0.01198
1355.2 6.3693e-7 1.9569e-7 0.089806 0.011954 0.010844
Fig. 3(b) shows the temporal variation of velocity of the bub-
ble (after merging) in the direction of flow (vz ) in which it can
be observed that the axial velocity of the bubble vz , is more at all
times when liquid velocities are higher. Fig. 3(c) shows the tem-
poral variation of the centroid of the bubble in the azimuthal di-
rection (θ ). It can be observed that initially before merging there
are not much changes in θ for the bubbles, but the bubble formed
after merging, drifts more along the sides of the wall. Here, it can
be seen from the figure that the azimuthal variation is more for
bubbles at lower liquid velocities. This can be attributed to the fact
that at higher liquid velocities, vz is more for the bubble and hence
the bubble covers more distance in the direction of the flow rather
than in the azimuthal direction. Further, Fig. 3(d) shows the vari-
ation of velocity in the radial direction (Vθ ) with time wherein it
can be observed that the velocity is more when the mass flux is
low which also substantiates the higher drift in the radial direc-
tion in the case of low mass flux.
An effort has also been made to analyse the dynamics of pro-
duced bubbles at high heat flux. Fig. 4 shows the phase contour
snapshots at different time-steps representing the behaviour of
bubbles at a heat flux of 20 kW/m2 . At this heat flux, marginally
different bubble dynamics has been observed as compared to the
same at a heat flux of 10 kW/m2 . It can be observed from the
figure that the bubble formed after merging, shows huge growth
as it moves downstream, resulting in the breaking of the liquid
film. This can be observed in the figure at time-steps from 0.08
to 0.101 s in which the bubble grows and breaks the liquid film
as it merges with the vapour layer at the liquid-vapour interface.
4
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 2. Bubble merging and sliding away at q = 10 kW/m2 , G = 150 kg/m2 s.
The same phenomenon has been shown with the help of 3D clips
showing just the vapour phase also so as to get a clear visualisa-
tion of the dynamics of the bubble.
Further, to depict the growth and movement of the bubble at
different liquid velocities, plots have been made showing the tem-
poral variation of volume and its position as shown in Fig. 5. Here
too, the initial point of the curves considered is the one where the
bubbles have the same t/tmerge . It can be observed from the fig-
ure that the volume of the bubble is lesser with the higher liq-
uid velocity at all times, but the growth rate of the bubble is ob-
served to be nearly similar at different velocities. Also, at higher
liquid velocity, the bubble travels considerably more distance be-
fore it merges with the liquid-vapour interface which can be ob-
served from the graph showing the temporal variation of length
covered by the bubble along the flow. Moreover, at higher liquid
velocity, the process of liquid film breaking and making due to the
merging of the bubble at the interface happens further away from
the inlet as compared to the same at lower liquid velocity.
3.2. Effect of varying contact angle for fluid wall interaction
In the foregoing discussion, the contact angle of refrigerant
R134a-wall interaction was kept as 90° and the bubbles formed
5
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
in the vicinity of the heated surface are observed to slide along
the wall and rupture at the vapour-liquid interface (Fig. 6(a)). The
bubbles appear to be in contact with the surface throughout the
time as it grows but are not observed to depart from the surface.
The contact angle of the tube surface and the evaporating liquid-
vapour combination takes a major role in deciding the size of the
bubble departing from the surface. At higher contact angle there
is an increase in bubble base area and the bubble stays in contact
with the heated surface for a longer time and hence there is an
increased bubble growth period. Also, due to the increase in bub-
ble base area, there is an increase in the interfacial region lead-
ing to more evaporation from the microlayer into the bubble [35].
Because of these two effects, at higher contact angles the bubble
growth and growth period are more. Hence in the present simu-
lations, at a higher contact angle, the bubble growth has been ob-
served which finally ruptures as it comes in in contact with the
vapour-liquid interface, but no bubble departure is seen. Whereas
the bubble growth period decreases at a lower contact angle and
bubble departure is observed to happen early before merging at
the free surface. Hence to assess the bubble departure diameter,
the contact angle condition of the wall was decreased to 60° to
mimic copper tube surface [36] which is predominantly used in
refrigeration and air-conditioning devices. With this boundary con-
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 3. Temporal variation of (a) forward movement (z) (b) velocity of bubble in the direction of flow (vz ) and (c) azimuthal variation (θ ) of centroid of bubble (d) velocity
of bubble in azimuthal direction.
dition, bubbles are observed to depart from the surface which can
be seen in Fig. 6(b), where a representative snapshot of a depart-
ing bubble is shown at a heat flux of 15 kW/m2 . Further variation
in average bubble departure diameter with heat flux can also be
seen in Fig. 6(c) from which it can be seen that the average bubble
departure diameter increases with an increase in heat flux.
Next, from the simulations, as the resultant of bubble dynamics
in the tube, overall boiling performance is studied. Vapour and liq-
uid phase fractions along with the number of nucleation sites are
evaluated in the entire domain to understand the effect of different
heat and mass fluxes.
3.3. Vapour and liquid phase fraction variation and associated wave
pattern at different heat fluxes
Fig. 7 shows the variation of percentage of vapour volume with
time inside the liquid domain at different heat flux, mass flux and
saturation temperature. The heat flux boundary condition given on
the wall drives the nucleation and as the bubbles grow more in
size, more and more vapour is generated in the liquid domain.
Hence, it can be observed from Fig. 7(a) that there is an increase
in vapour volume as heat flux is increased due to the increased
rate of generation of bubbles from the tube surface. For the heat
flux range considered, an increasing trend in generated vapour vol-
ume can be seen initially owing to the heat transfer to the liquid
film from the wall. As time progresses, the liquid film stabilises,
hence, the vapour volume growth rate is also observed to become
saturated over time. From Fig. 7(a), it can be observed that the
vapour volume fraction curve stabilises early at lower heat flux.
Fig. 7(b) shows the effect of mass flux on vapour volume genera-
tion and it can be observed that there is a decrease in vapour vol-
ume generated with the increase in mass flux. With the increase in
mass flux the contact time of liquid with the heated wall decreases
which hinders the formation of vapour. Here too, the vapour vol-
6
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
ume fraction curve stabilises with time and the stabilisation occurs
early for higher mass flux. Further, the effect of saturation temper-
ature of refrigerant over vapour generation can be seen in Fig. 7(c)
wherein vapour generation is found to occur lesser at higher satu-
ration temperatures.
The contribution of bubble dynamics over boiling performance
can be observed by studying the phase fraction at an arbitrary
cross-sectional plane. Fig. 8 shows the variation in average liquid
phase fraction on a cross-sectional plane taken at the centre of the
tube at different heat fluxes (same mass flux). Fluctuations in the
liquid phase fraction can be observed from the figure. This mainly
happens because of the passage of bubbles and wave through the
cross-sections considered which can be observed from Fig 8(b).
The line contour for the vapour phase at different time-steps for
one such fluctuation is shown here. One can clearly observe the
increase in bubble size at higher heat flux than the lower heat flux
from Fig. 8(b). Also, at the same mass flux, at higher heat flux more
chaotic/disturbed wave patterns can be seen (Fig. 8(b)).
To observe and understand the effect of heat flux over wave
pattern, in Fig. 9, interfacial wave pattern contours have been
shown at different heat fluxes. Here, the legend shows the varia-
tion of y/L, where y is the distance from the bottom surface of the
tube to the liquid-vapour interface and L is the total tube length.
From the figure, it can be seen that, in the adiabatic case, at the
entrance of the tube, the wave pattern is not definitive till the flow
is developed after which a definite sinusoidal pattern can be seen.
Whereas, for the diabatic case, for the heat flux range considered,
the wave pattern is found to be chaotic throughout the length of
the tube. At higher heat flux, the bubble generation and growth is
more which results in more disturbances in the wave. An account
of maximum wave height (the difference between trough and peak
of the wave) has also been shown in Fig. 9, where-in an increase
in wave height with an increase in heat flux can be clearly seen.
The black spots in the wave pattern contours of the diabatic cases
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 4. Bubble merging, growth, liquid film breakage and making of interface at q = 20 kW/m2 , G = 100 kg/m2 s, initial void fraction = 0.6.
are the places where a bubble ruptures at the interface leading to
penetration of the vapour phase into the liquid domain. At a heat
flux of 10 kW/m2 , the black spot is seen a bit away from the cen-
treline while the same happens on the centre-line at a heat flux of
20 kW/m2 . This also shows that, at the same mass flux, the bubble
travels more in an azimuthal direction at lower heat flux than its
corresponding situation at higher heat flux.
Hence, from the observations made using liquid and vapour
phase fraction variation, it can be clearly understood that the vari-
ation of vapour volume with time inside the liquid domain is
driven by heat flux given at the wall, disturbance in wave due to
relative velocity between liquid-vapour phases and penetration of
vapour into the liquid core.
3.4. Estimation of the number of nucleation sites
Experimentally estimating the number of nucleation sites over
the tube surface when flow boiling is happening inside the tube is
quite difficult to achieve. Hence, an attempt has been made to es-
timate the number of nucleation sites during flow boiling of R134a
7
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
using numerical simulations. Fig. 10(a) shows the variation of the
number of nucleation sites with heat flux at different mass fluxes
for the domain considered in the present simulation. It can be ob-
served from the figure that, for all the mass fluxes considered, the
number of nucleation sites increases with an increase in heat flux.
Whereas, a comparatively higher number of nucleation sites is ob-
served at lower mass fluxes especially at higher heat fluxes. For
instance, at 20 kW/m2 , the number of nucleation sites formed on
the tube surface is 13.6% higher when the mass flux is 50 kg/m2 s
as compared to that at 150 kg/m2 s. Fig. 10(b) shows the compari-
son of the number of nucleation sites at different saturation tem-
peratures. From the figure, it can be observed that there is no sig-
nificant difference in the number of nucleation sites with a change
in saturation temperature.
One can observe that the average boiling performance increases
with an increase in heat flux. Fig. 10 shows the direct correlation
of the number of nucleation sites with this improved boiling per-
formance. Hence, an effort has been made to observe the effect of
artificial nucleation sites on boiling performances. Various struc-
tured tubes are popular in this context.
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 5. Temporal variation of volume and the length traversed by the bubble along
the flow before the bubble breaks the liquid film when heat flux of 20 kW/m2 is
applied on the tube wall.
3.5. Effect of introducing artificial nucleation sites
Artificial nucleation sites have been accommodated by selecting
tube geometry with indentations/dimples on the surface. The tube
geometry considered is shown in Fig. 11(a). In this tube, dimples
are placed at a distance of 5 mm along the length of the tube and
at each plane, six dimples are placed with equiangular separation.
Fig. 11(b) and (c) shows the vapour only contours (vapour in red
colour) for both dimpled and plain tube, respectively on a plane at
which dimples are placed in the tube. Whereas, Fig. 11(d) and (e)
Fig. 6. Bubble dynamics with contact angle (a) 90° (b) 60° (c) Variation of bubble departure diameter with heat flux at mass flux of 100 kg/m2 s.
8
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
shows the same vapour only contours at the midplane of the tubes.
By comparing the Fig. 11(b) and (c), it can be clearly observed that
at the time instant considered (t = 0.016 s), the vapour genera-
tion process has already initiated from the surface of the tube in
the case of the dimpled tube, whereas, at the same time, in the
case of plain tube no vapour has been generated. This is because
any cavities provided on the heating surface helps in initiating the
bubble nucleation at a low degree of superheat itself [37]. Hence,
in Fig. 11(b) wherein the zoomed view near different dimples has
been shown, the vapour bubbles can be clearly seen to be nucle-
ating from the site of dimples. Fig. 11(d) and (e) shows the vapour
contours on a plane cut at the midsection of the tube at the same
time (t = 0.016 s). Interestingly, here, one can observe that the nu-
cleation has been initiated on the bottom surface of both the plain
and the dimpled tube but the volume of bubble generated can be
observed to be more in the case of the dimpled tube.
The cavities provided not only help in achieving early initiation
of bubble nucleation but also results in increasing the total num-
ber of nucleation sites on the surface. An account of the number
of nucleation sites at G = 100 kg/m2 s and different heat fluxes has
been shown in Fig. 12(a) for both the tubes, wherein, the num-
ber of nucleation sites can be observed to be more in the case
of dimpled tubes for the heat flux range considered. On average,
an increase in the number of nucleation sites of up to 33% was
observed. Accordingly, even the vapour generation is observed to
be higher for dimpled tube as compared to plain tube. This can
be seen from Fig. 12(b) which shows the comparison of tempo-
ral variation of vapour volume fraction between dimpled and plain
tubes.
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592

Fig. 7. Temporal variation of vapour volume fraction inside the liquid domain with different (a) heat flux (b) mass flux and (c) saturation temperature.

Fig. 8. (a) Temporal variation of average liquid phase fraction at the centre of the tube. (b) The vapour line contour near the cross-sectional plane considered at different
time-steps.

The increase in the number of nucleation sites in the case of
tubes with dimples has a significant effect on the bubble departure
phenomenon. Fig. 13 shows a representative snapshot of one such
bubble departure phenomenon in the case of the dimpled tube.
The force balance in the case of bubble departure is the equiva-
lence of buoyancy force to the summation of surface tension, iner-
tia and drag force. If the bubble formed on the surface reaches a
size at which it can achieve the force balance, then the bubble de-
parture can be seen from the surface [38]. In the case of dimpled
tubes, since the nucleation sites are more, the bubbles are gen-
erated very near to each other and this promotes the merging of
different bubbles as the fluid flows inside the tube. The merging of
bubbles can be differentiated into horizontal and vertical merging.
Horizontal merging is when the two adjacent bubbles merge and
form one big bubble. If the bubble formed after merging reaches
the force balance, then the bubble departs from the surface quickly.
This can be observed in Fig. 13, wherein it can be observed in
the y-z plane that the two bubbles (one bigger and smaller bub-
ble) at t = 0.086 s, merge with each other (0.09 and 0.093 s)
and depart from the surface (0.095 s). The figure also shows the
snapshots in the x-y plane where-in the bubble departure can be
confirmed. Vertical merging happens when a bubble that has just

9
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 9. Interfacial wave pattern contour. Colouring has been made based on the troughs and peaks observed in the wave with blue colour indicating trough and red colour
indicating the peak of the wave.
started growing on the surface comes in contact with another bub-
ble that has already departed from the surface. The smaller bubble
is then pulled away from the surface and absorbed by the bigger
bubble very quickly. This can also be seen in Fig. 13, where-in, the
departed bubble at 0.095 s comes in contact with a smaller bubble
that has just grown from the surface (at t = 0.098 s). The bigger
bubble then pulls the smaller bubble away from the surface and
absorbs (at t = 0.098 s and 0.1 s) before rupturing at the liquid-
vapour interface (at t = 0.102 s and 0.104 s). From the observa-
tions made, it can be said that both the horizontal and vertical
merging phenomenon thus promotes the early departure of bub-
bles. This can result in higher bubble departure frequency as the
smaller bubbles too depart quickly as it merges with the bigger
bubbles and hence an increased boiling performance is achieved.
Fig. 13 shows the bubble departure phenomenon in the case of
heat flux at 10 kW/m2 . As the heat flux is increased to 20 kW/m2 ,
the growth rate of bubbles also increases. Hence, more numbers of
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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
horizontal merging are observed as compared to vertical merging.
As the bubble grows rapidly at higher heat flux, the merged bub-
bles then come in contact with the vapour at the interface and are
pulled away from the surface. This makes the estimation of bubble
departure diameter quite complex in the case of tubes with dim-
ples.
In an effort to further understand the reason for increased boil-
ing performance for the dimpled tube, one can observe that the
fluid flow gets disturbed as it flows through the dimpled tube. As
the liquid encounters the cavity a part of fluid heads into the cav-
ity helping in the removal of the vapour from the nucleation site
and allows the liquid to enter into the dimple region. This can be
observed in Fig. 14(a) wherein the streamlines of the liquid has
been shown on a plane along the flow. From the figure showing
the streamlines for the dimpled tube, the streamlines going into
the cavities can be seen which helps in dislodging vapour bub-
ble formed and allowing the liquid part to come into contact with
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592

Fig. 10. Estimation of number of nucleation sites when R134a flows inside a tube at (a) different heat and mass flux with Tsat = - 3 °C (b) different saturation temperature
with mass flux of 100 kg/m2 s.

Fig. 11. (a) Dimpled tube geometry. Vapour generation in the plane of dimples provided for (b) dimpled tube (c) plain tube and in the mid plane of the tube for (d) dimpled
tube (e) plain tube. The figure shows the contour at t = 0.016 s for both the tubes.

the heating surface which shows that the dimpled tube provides
good liquid replenishment. The same cannot be seen in plain tube.
Fig. 14(b) shows the streamlines of the fluid in a plane perpendic-
ular to the flow for both plain and dimpled tubes at different time-
step. In the case of the dimpled tube, at the time-steps considered,
a strong recirculation zone can be seen in the streamlines nearby
to the dimples. This allows the mixing of the fluid and helps in
reducing the negative effects of boundary layer formation near the
wall on heat transfer.
3.6. Estimation of heat transfer coefficient
Further, an effort has been made to calculate the heat trans-
fer coefficient of refrigerant R134a flowing inside the tube under
different conditions as shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 15(a) shows the heat
transfer coefficient variation with heat flux at the mass flux of 100
and 150 kg/m2 s. It can be observed from the figure that the heat
transfer coefficient increases with an increase in heat flux for both
the mass fluxes. The faster flow of fluid through the pipe results in

11
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 12. Comparison of number of nucleation sites and temporal variation of vapour volume fraction between plain and dimpled tube at G = 100 kg/m2 s.
Fig. 13. Bubble departure phenomenon in the case of dimpled tube with heat flux of 10 kW/m2 and mass flux of 100 kg/m2 s.
an increase in higher heat transfer. As a result, an increase in heat
transfer coefficient can be observed as the mass flux is increased.
Fig. 15(b) shows the variation of average heat transfer coefficient
values at different saturation temperatures. The heat transfer coef-
ficient is observed to be higher at lower saturation temperatures.
On average, an increase in heat transfer coefficient of up to 12.94%
is observed when saturation temperature of R134a is kept at −3 °C
as compared to the same at Tsat = 5 °C. Further, the heat transfer
coefficient values obtained from the present numerical simulations
are compared with the correlation provided by Gungor and Win-
terton [39] and shown in Fig. 15(c). It can be observed from the
figure that, for the heat and mass flux range considered, the pre-
dicted heat transfer coefficient lies within an error range of ± 30%
as compared to the correlation. Fig. 15(d) shows the comparison
of heat transfer coefficient when refrigerant R134a flows inside a
dimpled tube along with the plain tube. A clear increase in heat
transfer coefficient can be noted from the figure for the fluid flow-
ing through the tube with dimples on the internal surface. This
can be associated with the combined effect of an increase in nu-
cleation sites and the disturbance in the fluid flow created because
of the presence of dimples on the surface. The effect of providing
12
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
dimples on the surface becomes more prominent as heat flux in-
creases with a maximum increase in heat transfer coefficient of up
to 1.84 times is observed at a heat flux of 20 kW/m2 when the
fluid flows through the dimpled tube as compared to the flow in-
side the plain tube.
3.7. Conclusion
In the present study, numerical analysis has been performed to
study the flow boiling of R134a inside a horizontal tube at low
mass fluxes. Following significant conclusions can be made from
the study:
• When the contact angle of R134a-wall interaction is kept at 90°,
the bubbles appear to slide along the wall as it grows and is
pulled away from the surface only when the bubbles come in
contact with the liquid-vapour interface. The direction of move-
ment of bubbles is influenced by mass and heat flux. At lower
mass flux, more movement can be seen in the azimuthal di-
rection, whereas, at higher mass flux, movement is more along
the flow. At higher heat fluxes too the bubbles move less in az-
imuthal direction.
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 14. Streamlines of fluid flow in both dimpled and plain tube along a plane (a) parallel to fluid flow (b) perpendicular to fluid flow.
• When the contact angle of R134a-wall interaction is kept at
60°, bubble departures from the surface has been observed. The
bubble departure diameter is observed to be higher with an in-
crease in heat flux in the case of stratified flow boiling of R134a
inside the horizontal smooth tube.
• The number of active nucleation sites formed increases with an
increase in heat flux and decreases with an increase in mass
flux. Significant changes have not been observed when satura-
tion temperature is varied.
13
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
• With the introduction of indentations inside the tube surface,
early initiation of bubble formation has been observed. Further,
on average 33% increase in the number of nucleation sites have
been observed in the case of the dimpled tube as compared to
the plain tube. The increase in the number of nucleation sites
is observed to have a significant effect on the bubble departure
phenomenon. The horizontal and vertical merging of smaller
bubbles with the larger bubbles helps in the early departure
of bubbles formed.
M.B. Darshan, R. Kumar and A.K. Das
Fig. 15. Variation of average heat transfer coefficient with heat flux at (a) different mass flux and (b) different saturation temperature (c) Comparison of heat transfer
coefficient for refrigerant R134a flowing inside plain tube with the correlation provided by Gungor and Winterton [39]. (d) Comparison of heat transfer coefficient when
refrigerant flows inside different tubes considered.
• An increase in heat transfer coefficient of up to 12.94% has been
observed by decreasing saturation temperature from 5 to −3 °C.
The introduction of dimples also has a significant effect on the
heat transfer coefficient with a maximum improvement of up
to 1.84 times as compared to the plain tubes.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
M.B. Darshan: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal anal-
ysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing
– original draft, Writing – review & editing. Ravi Kumar: Project
administration, Supervision. Arup Kumar Das: Conceptualization,
Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing –
review & editing.
Acknowledgements
Financial support was received from the Science and Engineer-
ing Research Board, India (Grant No. EMR/2015/0 0 0482).
14
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 188 (2022) 122592
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