Moral Agent: Ethics: Flourishing Life

ETHICS: FLOURISHING LIFE
MORAL AGENT
Part I
MORAL AGENT (12 hours)
This part addresses the following questions:

 How does culture shape moral behavior?
 Can culture be the ultimate determinant of values?
 Is there a Filipino understanding of right and wrong? What
is the Filipino concept of right or wrong? What are its
influences?
1. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

a. Culture and its role in moral behavior
b. What is cultural relativism? What are the Strengths
and weaknesses of Cultural Relativism? Why is it not
tenable in ethics?
c. Are there an Asian and a Filipino understanding of
moral behavior? Strengths and weaknesses?
2. UNIVERSAL VALUES
a. Values and Ethics
b. Necessary for Human Survival
3. THE MORAL AGENT:

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
a. How is a moral character developed?
The circular relation of acts that build character and acts
that emanate from character
b. Moral development
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CULTURE
IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1.a
CULTURE
AND ITS ROLE
IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Articulate what culture means.
b. Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture.
c. Discuss how culture affects moral behavior
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Culture Everywhere
There have been many definitions of culture to the extent that
there was no established universal definition. It is left out to be in its
complexity. But whenever used scholarly, it is simply described,
presented with some definitions, and often associated with arts,
humanities, traditions, beliefs, race, customs, values, systems, practices,
perceptions of a certain community or society.
To descriptively use culture, one can say that a person is
“cultured” if he is appearing or behaving in a manner that conforms to
what one expects. Just like the Spaniards, the early Americans
described the Filipino tribal peoples as uncultured, which means
uncivilized and savages. This is because their behaviors did not match
theirs.
The culture was an indicator of a “higher” standard of
civilization. This prejudiced anthropological term can be traced back
around the same time as Social Darwinism, in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Social Darwinism as a theory of the world was
essentially a racist concept in which the closer a cultural group was to
the normative, Western, European standards of behavior and
appearance, the more evolved that group was.
But culture gradually changes over time. As a cultivated
behavior, it is experienced everywhere. All human persons and groups
possess a culture that consists of laws, language, beliefs, values,
customs, norms, behaviors, and even material objects. Each culture as
it is passed and shared from one generation to another improves or
declines.
Even each of the early Filipino tribes has its own unique culture.
Nowadays, it is acknowledged that all indigenous tribes are equally
unique. Every culture is a product of development. But culture is
universal since all societies develop shared ways of perceiving, relating,
and producing in their environment.
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Material and Non-Material Culture
Culture can either be described as material or non-material,
which are interconnected and interplay leading to the development of
a society. A culture that shapes identities could also be categorized as
nature (biology and genetics) and nurture (environment and
surroundings). Some elements of natural and nurtured cultures can be
in any or both material and non-material cultures.
Material culture refers to everything is physical, solid, corporeal,
spatial, temporal, explicit, actual, sensible, visible, audible, and tangible.
Some sociologists also call this a symbolic culture which includes
mores, gestures, language, values, norms, folkways.
Anything culturally material could be objects like arts, signs,
buildings, architectures, artifacts, behaviors, etiquettes, writings,
equipment, instruments, tools, costumes, habits, food, jewelry, utensils,
designs, dances, smell, inventions, transports, and human bodies. An
example of material culture is the popular culture of cellphones, digital
gadgets, television, computer games, tattooing, hip-hop arts and
music, and body piercing.
Non-material culture refers to everything immaterial, abstract,
spiritual, intellectual, intangible, implicit, mental, psychological,
hidden, invisible, elusive, vague, and unseen.
Everything that is culturally non-material includes intangible
beliefs, ideas, spirituality, knowledge, philosophies, unwritten laws,
moral values, systems, emotions, assumptions, orientations, and life.
An example of non-material culture is the part of corporate
culture that includes policies, philosophies, professional ethics, core
values, seminars, conferences, contracts, rules, and regulations.
The interplay between material and non-material, or nature and
nurture culture changes society as well as defines moral behavior. As
human beings who are determined to be good, they necessarily do
everything to have a better society. Culture does define moral
behaviors and likewise is shaped by moral behaviors.
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Culture Shaping Personal Behavior
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Cesare Lombroso
studied the physical characteristics of prisoners, to find a biological
basis for moral behavior, particularly crime. Lombroso used the term
atavism to claim that certain individuals were more weak-willed, and
more prone to criminal activity, than their supposedly more, evolved
counterparts. This means that culture is something that evolves in the
same way biological organisms evolve. (courses. lumenlearning.com)
Though cultural
evolution was thought to
be a natural adaptive
system, it has also
intentionally nurtured or
produced unique results
depending on location,
historical moment, and a
group of people.
With a natural
culture that includes
biological and genetic
inheritance, human beings
have natural forms, abilities, essential limits a variety of personal
behaviors. Human persons are composed of blood, genes, flesh, and
bones that generate complex behaviors. They are the only beings
capable of thinking and moral behavior. Culture inevitably and
automatically forms moral behaviors.
Culture Shaping Moral Behavior

People are born and raised in the same culture with shared
moral behaviors and personality traits. They are free to have them or
not. For instance, they define their duties in terms of a contract or social
rules and follow them devotedly. If they do not follow, they may suffer
some punishments. That is behaving under culture.
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Culture: televisions,
computers, internet, books,
radio, songs, and
magazines, also implicitly
promote beliefs, values,
moral principles, priorities,
aspirations. It determines
people to behave morally.
As culture influences
how people learn, live, and
behave, it slowly shapes
their moral awareness, thinking, and behaviors. Thus, people learn
morality because of all these aspects of morality either through social
interaction, conscious observation, and conditioning.
Using the same example of Rachels (2003), the Eskimo moral
behavior of lending a wife to the guest is considered as part of their
culture. This customary practice is seen to be an effect of the Eskimos’
strong adherence to the value of hospitality. “Lending a wife to a guest
for a night” as determined by hospitality is so interesting to analyze.
Why is hospitality the underlying reason for such moral behavior for
most Eskimos and outsiders?
Culture refers to the way people understand themselves as
moral individuals and as members of the culture itself. Some culturally
induced behavior patterns like speech, body language, and humor,
even become so deeply embedded that they are no longer fully aware
of and could not understand them. However, these challenges them to
question the existing social rules and other parts of the culture that
had shaped them for the good of society.
The capacity for questioning is called moral reasoning. It is the
moral behavior determining the difference between what is right and
what is wrong by using logic. It is an assessment of what is the possible
consequences of the intention of a behavior. People are frequently
confronted with moral choices, and so judgments are made objectively
or in consideration of culture or relevant factors.
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In a large society where there are many webs of subcultures,
the large culture often dominates. So, its values may be considered
correct and maybe promoted — not only by families and religious
groups but also by schools and governments.
Because of social experiences including cultural objects, people
in some subcultures may rise and assert their values when they deem
that some cultural elements such as class, political, economic, and
cultural distinctions are unfair and undesirable. Their moral awareness
is getting more serious and wider.
With examples of how people become fully aware of how
culture influences their moral behaviors, challenges them to promote
the common good, and justice, morality is born. Peoples realize that
even if their interdependence is what truly brings meaning to morality,
they are moral persons who can improve their culture.
Moral Behavior Shaping Culture

Culture is beyond the natural. It necessarily changes, and is
changed by many human interactions in the world. People have been
continuously nurturing culture through their moral behaviors.
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Culture may dictate the typical way one does things. Paying
attention to the context or culture of behavior and to the way people
and objects interact helps one to recognize how culture influences
behaviors. But having recognized the influence patterns, one easily
changes the situation or culture itself in whatever way one desires it to
be. Moral behavior changes culture.
As social and moral beings, people naturally or easily affiliate
and conform to the accepted moral standards of their own culture. But
as active moral people, they can also actually shape their culture by
creating new moral standards and behaving morally.
As the people make the principles of justice and compassion
into social standards or laws, they also can disobey or to change them
especially when they become unjust and dehumanizing.
Human persons are the only beings who can behave morally or
immorally. They are the only ones who can make sacrifices for others’
sake at their own expense. Because of this, they can build their moral
society or moral culture that is governed by moral principles, essential
social relations, and moral values such as honesty, love, honor,
courage, prudence, justice, temperance, and patriotism. Hence, culture
influences morality as morality influences culture. They may not
always agree but moral reasoning or behavior can conduct social
discourse that keeps them progressing from time to time.
For instance, a corporation must maintain moral behaviors:
good leadership, the exercise of ethical values, adherence to
competence, communication of vision, and building of community
structures to create a humane corporate culture. Institutions
continuously shape society’s culture through their members’ moral
behaviors.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
Course/Year: ________________________ Schedule: _____________________
PART I1.a: CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR
a. Individual Work: Discuss how your community influences your

behavior.
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Group Discussion: This is done by fives. Each share her work.
b. Individual Work: Recall the most important influences of culture

to making choices between what is good/right and bad/wrong. List
down at least five (5). Explain why culture is important in morality.
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MY EXPLANATION WHY CULTURE IS IMPORTANT IN MORALITY
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Group: Divide the class in six. Each student share her output to her
own group.
STATE 1 PRINCIPLE. EXPLAIN, AND ELABORATE THRU APPLICATION.

Principle Explanation Application
(In a sentence) (Its significance to you) (In your situation or life)
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ia.1: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN CULTURE

a. Individual Work: Make a short essay on “cultural embeddedness
(rootedness in culture) of human behavior.”
ESSAY RUBRICS: 10 PTS
CRITERIA EXCELLENT (2) GOOD (1.5) FAIR (1) SCORE
All statements are focused on Most statements are focused on Few statements are focused
FOCUS the topic. the topic. on the topic.
COHERENCE All arguments are coherent. Most arguments are coherent. Few arguments are coherent.
ACCURACY All information are correct. Most information are correct. Few information are correct.
CLARITY All arguments are very clear. Some arguments are clear. Few argument are clear.
The presentation is very The presentation is persuasive. The presentation is slightly
PERSUASION persuasive. persuasive.
T O T A L
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ia.2: CULTURE AND MORALITY
a. Individual Work. Considering the essay rubrics in the early page,

discuss briefly the following:
1. Relation between culture and morality

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2. Difference between nature culture and nurture culture

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3. How culture affects personal and moral behaviors

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4. How moral behaviors shape culture

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CULTURE
IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1.b
CULTURAL RELATIVISM,
ITS STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS,
AND WHY IT IS NOT ACCEPTABLE
IN ETHICS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Recognize the differences in moral behavior of
different cultures.
b. Appreciate the differences of cultures.
c. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural

relativism.
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Moral and Cultural Relativism
Being born with nature and culture means that each human
person is born into a natural, social and cultural setting — family,
community, social class, customs, language, beliefs, philosophy,
connections and environment.
There are differences in moral behaviors of different cultures.
The ideologies that focus on this cultural difference are moral and
cultural relativism.
Moral or ethical relativism is the position that there is no
objective standard or test among the moral standards among cultures.
There are no universal or objective standards of conduct. It
acknowledges different cultures and individuals having different moral
standards of right and wrong that change over time.
Whereas, cultural relativism holds that there are different
societies with different moral codes which do not have special status.
There are no objective standards in ethics since moral standards,
norms, values and practices are culture-bound or understood as
sensible only relative to one cultural context.
Cultural Relativists’ morality, therefore, depends on specific
social and cultural circumstances (traditions, customs, etc.). So,
behavior is judges as ethical or moral if the culture of the agent
approves of it, and unethical or immoral if the same culture
disapproves of it. The moral relativist holds that there is no universal
moral truth, but only beliefs, ethnocentric values, and perspectives and
none of them is more valid than another.
Cannibalism and slavery in some parts of the world and
headhunting in the Philippines centuries ago were morally relative or
considered good by tribes who practiced them as part of their culture
even though they were condemned by other societies who did not
practice it.
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James Rachels (1993) gave an outstanding discussion on
cultural relativism, which will be summarized and organized for easier
understanding. Cultural relativists have the following claims:
1. Different societies have different moral codes. There are no
universal or moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
2. The moral code of one’s society has no special status because
it is but one amongst many.
3. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong
within that society.
4. There are no objective standards that can be used to judge a
society’s code better than others.
5. All preferences are based on some absolute rational standards.
One should not judge other cultures.
6. One should always be open-minded to and tolerant of the
moral code of others.
As a moral theory, cultural relativism cannot just be
disregarded. Some of the above claims can be its strengths (true) or
weaknesses (false). It is very important to acknowledge Rachel’s
arguments against some of their claims.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Relativism

1. Cultural Differences Argument
a. Different societies have different moral codes. (PREMISE)
b. Therefore, there are no universal or moral truths that hold

for all people at all times. (CONCLUSION)
STRENGTH: This means that only customs of different societies

are all that exist instead of universal moral codes. These
customs cannot be categorized as correct or incorrect because
there is no independent standard to judge what is right and
wrong. Every standard is bound by a culture so that it is good
to consider other cultures that can offer new learnings, other
perspectives or ideas, new opportunities, and even
undiscovered truths.
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WEAKNESS: This, for Rachel, is an unsound argument since

the conclusion does not follow from the premise — even if the
premise is true the conclusion could be false. The weakness of
this is its attempt to derive a substantive or true conclusion
about a subject from the mere fact that people disagree about
it. This does not mean that the conclusion is false but is open
to question. Besides, some values are shared by all cultures.
Rachel has a good explanation of why this is an invalid
argument through his two examples.
Example 1:
b. The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas
the Callatians believed it was right to eat the dead.
(PREMISE)
c. Therefore, eating the dead is not a universal or moral truth
(neither objectively right nor objectively wrong). It is merely
a matter of opinion that varies from culture to culture.
(CONCLUSION)
In example 1, the premise is “The Greeks believed it was
wrong to eat the dead; the Callatians believed it was right
to eat the dead.” Does it now follow that from the mere fact
that they disagreed or were different, there is no universal,
moral or objective truth? The answer is no, it does not
follow or proves nothing because the practice could be
universally, morally, or objectively right (or wrong) and that
one or the other of them was simply mistaken.
Example 2:
a. People in some societies believe that the earth is flat;
whereas, other societies hold that the Earth is (roughly)
spherical.
b. Therefore, there is no “objective truth” in geography. Belief
in the shape of the earth is only a matter of opinion, and
opinion varies from culture to culture.
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Example 2 is unsound because some societies might simply
be wrong in their beliefs. There is no reason to think that if
the world is round then everyone must know it. Similarly,
there is no reason to suppose that if there is moral truth
then all people, without any exception, must know it. Just
because various societies disagree on something does not
mean that there is no objective truth about that matter.
2. No Morally Inferior Societies

a. The moral code of one’s own society has no special status
because it is but one amongst many.
b. Therefore, we could no longer say that the customs of other
societies are morally inferior to our own.
STRENGTH: This means that people have to stop condemning
other societies merely because they are “different.” It is good
to first appreciate cultural differences and not impose one’s
culture. This is important because many societies have used
force or violence just to impose their culture with worse effects.
Nobody comes from a neutral position so that personal beliefs
and activities should be understood only in terms of that
individual’s own culture.
WEAKNESS: This could stop being critical to other bad cultural
practices such as slavery and infanticide. This can hinder one
to say anything against or consider such practices as wrong or
bad. So to take this seriously is to slowly immune everyone
from criticism, and eradicate morality and development. Being
tolerant may not be appropriately applied to all behaviors such
as headhunting, stealing, and lying are all acceptable.
Example:
a. There are some societies whose moral code is “do not lie”
while the others, “it is okay to lie.” The moral code, “do not
lie” is just one among the many; it has no special status.
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b. Therefore, one could no longer say that societies with the
cultural practice, “it is okay to lie” is inferior to societies with
the moral code “do not lie.”
In the example, the premise is “since there are different
moral codes or being one amongst many is no special
status,” and the conclusion is “therefore, no moral code or
society is inferior to the other.” This is illogical. “Do not lie”
is obviously a superior moral code; it is the ideal and
universally accepted value around the world. One can never
do away with comparison and measuring things with the
degree of goodness to truly find the best.
3. Standards of our Society
a. The moral code of a society determines what is right or

wrong within that society.
b. Therefore, we could decide whether actions are right or
wrong just by consulting the standards of our own society.
STRENGTH: This means that people simply ask whether the
action is in accordance with the code of one’s society. It is but
necessary to always put things into their proper context such
as consulting the standards of one’s society for better
understanding. This can be a show of respect to and one’s
rootedness in one’s culture.
WEAKNESS: This is disturbing because only a few people think
that one’s society’s code is perfect. It fails to accept that not all
beliefs and cultural or social practices are equally admirable.
This will only forbid one from criticizing one’s and other’s codes
of conduct. Every society has its own imperfections that it
inevitably needs others’ constructive criticism. There can never
be a relative right and wrong because societies exist in relation
(comparison) with each other. If there were no better culture,
then why is there still a need to promote toleration? This only
acknowledges that there is a better culture that one should
aspire for.
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Example:
a. Supposing a code of an ethnic tribe in Saudi Arabia that

allows family owners to do anything to their slaves
determines what is right or wrong within that society.
b. Therefore, we could decide that the employers’ family who
raped Filipina maids is right just by consulting their code.
In the example, the whole argument is unsound because
Filipina maids do not recognize such code. The standard to
be used here to decide whether the action is right or wrong
need not be an international standard but by reason alone.
How can they treat maids as slaves? Even slaves are human
with rights. It only shows the inferiority of their culture and
how they disregard human rights.
4. Doubtful Idea of Moral Progress
a. There are no objective
standards that can be used
to judge a society’s code
better than others.
b. Therefore, the
idea of moral
progress is called
into doubt.
STRENGTH: The idea

of moral progress is called into doubt
because societies are just living up to their
own ideals. Different societies could mean different ideals. It is
but proper to refer to one’s ideals as standards. Cultural
relativists ask by what standards one may judge the new ways
as better. The early societies have a different society from
today’s society so that to use today’s standard in judging the
past societies is unfair and impossible.
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WEAKNESS: This argument is unsound. Challenged ideals are
the real measures of progress. Here, there is nothing to
compare and no reason to use the term progress. It could only
lead to mediocrity and moral indifference. There are legitimate
social changes for the better. The changes such as women’s
rights were seen more as progress rather than a deterioration.
Andres Bonifacio and Martin Luther are some examples of
those who sought to change their societies for moral progress
and are well-recognized as such by many societies until today.
Example:
a. There are no objective standards such as the Western
standards that can be used to judge the Filipino code —
abortion is wrong.
b. Therefore, the idea of moral progress in the Philippines is
doubtful or not possible.
In the example, America may have or any nation may not
have an objective standard to criticize the Philippines for
not allowing abortion but it does not necessarily mean that
people are not moral or could not progress morally. A
moral code that may be in others but not in one’s culture
does not necessarily mean that one’s culture is inferior or
has no moral progress. Other economically progressive
countries could be morally poor and vice versa.
5. Danger of Absolute Rational Standards
a. There is a danger of assuming that all preferences are based
on some absolute rational standards.
b. Therefore, one should not judge other cultures.
STRENGTH: “Many (but not all) of our practices are merely
peculiar to our society,” says Rachel (1993). He adds: “There
are many other matters that we tend to think of in terms of
objective right and wrong that are really nothing more than
social conventions like ‘women should cover their breast’.”
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Aside from some absolute rational standards as bases of all
preferences, instincts and emotions are equally important
considerations. Besides, objective right and wrong are hard to
tackle and difficult bases to judge other cultures. This
promotes being non-judgmental to other cultures, and could
open to better interactions and social learning experiences.
WEAKNESS: This could weaken social responsibility as if
humans cannot do anything to change their preferred culture.
People will be afraid to struggle with the search for absolute
rational standards. It can only lead to deterioration or
corruption of moral values, institutions, and societies. If this is
the case, there will be no fundamental universal values to which
people can build their organizations, institutions, and societies.
Example:
a. There is a danger of assuming that preferences like women
should cover or should not cover their breasts are based on
some absolute rational standards.
b. Therefore, one should not judge cultures whose women do
not cover their breasts.
In the example, the two preferences are neither right nor wrong
or there is no objective reason why one custom is better. The
valuable insight appreciated
by Rachel is that many
practices are just products of a
that need not be judged as
right or wrong. There seems to
be a trend of moralizing
everything.
6. Keeping an Open Mind

a. One should keep an open mind.
b. Therefore, one should always be tolerant of the moral code
of others.
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STRENGTH: “Cultural relativism is an antidote to dogmatism
since moral views can reflect the prejudices of one’s culture or
society” (Rachel, 1993). Some acquired feelings, which were
thought to be true are put to challenge. Because of the strong
feelings, it is hard to seriously accept any challenge. But one’s
that challenge is received with an open mind, then
undiscovered truth begins to unfold. Being open-minded is to
be tolerant. It opens one to accept and try new things,
discoveries and cultures.
WEAKNESS: Keeping an open mind can also lead to nowhere.
Too much of it romotes skepticism and atheism as there will no
longer be consensus and established fundamental beliefs. It
may not actually lead to one language for unity and common
standards. The open mind should only be for important points,
without accepting the whole theory. Tolerance seems to be the
“ultimate good” which is irrational as this suggests that heinous
crimes like rape and murder should be tolerated.
Example:
a. One should keep an open mind to the case of homosexuals.
b. Therefore, one should always be tolerant of homosexual
practices.
In the example, being open-minded may make one accept that
there is nothing evil with homosexuality, that it is not their fault,
and could not escape being attracted to others of the same sex.
But deep within, one may feel different or dissatisfied over
homosexual acts or gay marriage. Besides, the argument is
illogical because being open-minded to homosexuality is not
an expression of tolerance to homosexual acts such as gay
marriage even if it is legal in many Western countries. Religious
beliefs and other cultural values may sometimes affect one’s
intolerance to these homosexual acts but still open-minded.
Some things cannot be tolerated yet this alone does not
necessarily make one a close-minded person.
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Ethical Relativism: Unacceptable in Ethics
Cultural relativism is obviously self-contradictory as it could not
claim absolute relativity if it discounts absolute truths or standards.
With the apparent inconsistencies of ethical relativism and
despite its strengths, ethical relativism remains unacceptable as a basis
in Ethics. Its weaknesses prove that it is not based on reason and
objectivity. Its partiality and subjectivity cannot execute a good moral
judgment and support moral progress.
Cultural relativism subscribes to cultural practices or social
norms instead of analytical thinking and independent critical decision-
making. Clinging to cultural tradition, one is not able to think hard for
himself and struggle for rational answers.
According to MacKinnon and Fiala (2015), “cultural relativism is

a kind of intellectual laziness or lack of moral courage. Rather than
attempting to give reasons or arguments for my own position, I may
hide behind some statements… simply to excuse myself from having
to think about or be critical of my own ethical position.”
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Cultural relativism can neither overcome nor defeat the sense
of morality inherent to mankind. Morality is entrenched already in the
intellect of people and gradually developed by culture.
By the use of reason one knows that some things are right and
other things, wrong. As they relate with factors including culture, they
draw moral standards from their experience to guide their behaviors
and ultimately have a good society. It is literally impossible for one to
deny the existence of moral absolutes such as no lying and killing and
not to rationally believe that moral standards are necessary for human
survival and progress.
To end, let Claude Levi-Strauss’ be everyone’s reminder:
“The more we claim to discriminate between cultures and customs
as good and bad, the more completely do we identify ourselves
with those we would condemn. By refusing to consider as human
those who seem to us to be the most “savage” or “barbarous” of
their representatives, we merely adopt one of their own
characteristic attitudes. The barbarian is, first and foremost, the
man who believes in barbarism.” (goodreads.com)
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I1.a: CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR
c. Individual Work: Discuss how your community influences your

behavior.
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Group Discussion: This is done by fives. Each share her work.
d. Individual Work: Recall the most important influences of culture
to making choices between what is good/right and bad/wrong. List
down at least five (5). Explain why culture is important in morality.
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MY EXPLANATION WHY CULTURE IS IMPORTANT IN MORALITY
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Group: Divide the class in six. Each student share her output to her
own group.

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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ia.1: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN CULTURE

a. Individual Work: Make a short essay on “cultural embeddedness
(rootedness in culture) of human behavior.”
T O T A L
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ia.2: CULTURE AND MORALITY
b. Individual Work. Considering the essay rubrics in the early page,

discuss briefly the following:
1. Relation between culture and morality

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2. Difference between nature culture and nurture culture

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3. How culture affects personal and moral behaviors

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5. How moral behaviors shape culture

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CULTURE
IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1.c
ASIAN AND FILIPINO

UNDERSTANDING
OF MORAL BEHAVIOR:
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES,
REASON, AND IMPARTIALITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity
in their own moral experiences.
b. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino
understanding of moral behavior.
c. Evaluate elements that need to be changed.
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Asian Understanding Moral Behavior
Human reason is capable of handling a variety of information.
Unlike animals, human children have no difficulty learning about the
world no matter how often they change or become different. They are
endowed with the flexibility to undergo long years of cultural and
moral programming that enable them fully use enough information to
navigate their world — to determine what is right and wrong.
Because culture is instrumental to the development of morality,
it may seem that people from all over the world who have different
cultures have their morality. This is just like the Asian or Eastern culture
which seems different from the Western culture.
Apparently, Western culture focuses more on individualism
(individual performance and achievement) while Eastern culture
centers on collectivism (group welfare, relationships, and identity).
For example, in the Asian or Eastern culture particularly Chinese
culture (in which Confucianism has influences of maintaining good
relationships and showing loyalty, respect and honor), good business
culture is about saving face for oneself and others and showing
appropriate loyalty and honor. But in western culture, good business
culture is about independent performance, risk-taking, and a better
environment of discussion and democracy.
Filipino understanding of Morality: Strengths and Weaknesses
With Southeast Asian tradition that is both tribal and animist,
Hispanic Catholic tradition and American and Japanese influences,
Filipino culture became the foundation of Filipino morality.
Filipinos as Asians are also collectivists who identify what is
good and bad through their relationship with their families, regional
affiliations, and peer groups. A family determines moral behaviors and
what a good Filipino is. The self-concept as a moral person and moral
standards are strongly tied with the family’s interrelationship with
others.
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Even if there are many ethnic groups with distinct cultures in
the Philippines so that Filipino culture may seem arbitrary, the selected
popular Filipino moral values or standards embody the local ethnic
values. They have both strengths and weaknesses. There are at least
ten Filipino core values: [1] pakikiramdam (sensitivity), [2] pakikisama
(smooth interpersonal relationship), [3] pakikipagkapwa-tao
(camaraderie), [4] hiya (shame or self-control), [5] kagandahang-loob
(benevolence or kindness), [6] utang na loob (indebtedness), [7] lakas
ng loob (moral courage) o bahala na, [8] pagkamaasikaso
(hospitability), [9] paggalang sa nakatatanda (respect for the elderly),
and [10] pagmamahal sa pamilya (filial love).
1. PAKIKIRAMDAM. The literal translation of pakiramdam is feeling.

Pakikiramdam then is “having a feeling with,” which could also
mean sensitivity and empathy. It is a Filipino nurtured skill to read
or be with and in other’s feelings to maintain smooth relationship.
But it is not just a feeling because it is also the willingness to
understand the messages of other’s indirect or bodily and spoken
expressions. Others may consider this then as observation and
emotional intelligence in order to do pakikisama.
STRENGTH: This can start, maintain and end with smooth

relationships if one is truly nakikiramdam. It is not easily learned
but once it becomes a skill, one can easily size up people,
understand their indirect and covert behaviors. Unlike Westerners,
Filipinos can easily get along with other nationalities because they
know how to makiramdam. This is best in relationships as one is
always feeling for or considerate of other’s feelings and welfare.
WEAKNESS: But this can be very unsure because one’s
pakikiramdam may be mistaken. Aside from the possibility that one
may misinterpret behaviors because of fleeting emotions, it is
difficult to make personal interpretations especially that behaviors
do not necessarily reflect the person’s intentions. In serious cases
such as when life and common welfare are at stake, one cannot rely
on pakikiramdam to make moral and critical decisions.
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2. PAKIKISAMA. The literal translation of makisama is to go with or
to accompany. Pakikisama then is ‘to make fellowship with,’ which
could also be translated as smooth interpersonal relationship,
relating well, comradeship, and getting along with. After
napakiramdaman or being able to feel the other, one should
makisama or relate well. It is another learned skill of dealing well
with others including strangers. This is done to avoid conflicts and
to keep mutual good feelings at all costs and at all times to anyone
in order to do pakikipagkapwa-tao.
STRENGTH: Pakikisama is taking a further step from pakikiramdam
to making fellowship or getting along with others. One has to be
present with and make whatever supports the other. Filipinos are
known successfully anywhere else in the world because they live
with people regardless of their differences. They are also known
for being loyal because they know how to makisama or stay with
others whether in easy or hard times.
WEAKNESS: But this can be very negative if it is meant to
simply avoid conflicts or confrontations. Pakikisama can also
be faked when one simply submits to the majority without
scrutiny and good reason. This can be one’s generous praise or
smile to another but with an ill will. Using sarcastic languages
may be hard to decipher as they seem to be pakikisama but
actually destroy relationships. Filipinos hardly say “no” to
others. One may know how to makisama but arbitrarily and
could not maintain a genuine relationship.
3. PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO. It is literally ‘sharing oneself as a fellow

human person to to thers,’ which could also be translated as shared
identity, social work, and self-in-the-other. After napakisamahan or
having made fellowship with the other, one has to makipagkapwa-
tao or to share oneself as a fellow human being. According to
Patricia B. Licuanan, it is an entirely unique Filipino skill of having a
regard to the dignity and being of others. Part of pakikipagkapwa-
tao must be expressed in so many ways like showing hiya.
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STRENGTH: To share oneself with the other as a fellow human
person is basically what makes a human person. Every Filipino
believes in social work so that if one really knows how to
makipagkapwa-tao to the poor and needy, then one has to
become like them or better yet should take actions in order to
elevate them from their status so that they could truly be “tao” or
humans. Licuanan strongly believes that pakikipagkapwa-tao
should be part of every Moral Recovery Program as this can build
people — the Filipino Nation.
WEAKNESS: The 4P’s is a concrete example of pakikipagkapwa-
tao as it aims to provide financial support to poor Filipinos so that
they to experience the benefits being enjoyed by their kapwa
Filipinos. But this can be abused, and does not really help. Many
complain about some members who misuse money for their vices,
and who are not qualified.
4. HIYA. The literal meaning of hiya is shame or embarrassment so

when people say: “Mahiya ka naman” it means “you should also
feel shame” or “be embarrassed.” It could also be translated as a
feeling of lowliness, meekness, inhibition, modesty, and fear of
losing face or damaging reputation. It is the skill of controlling or
restraining one’s selfish desires or interest and doing it for the sake
of the kapwa-tao (fellow human) or utang na loob.
STRENGTH: Hiya as fear of losing face is very helpful to

Filipinos because it can promote morality. People who have
hiya are good because they are afraid to do bad things that
may damage not only their reputation but also their family. So
when one does something it is like the family is also the one
doing it because it is the family who suffers if it has bad effects.
Some judges who do not want to lose their “face” because of
the possibility of partial judgment usually inhibit in a case of a
friend or relative. Filipinos normally nahihiya to lose their
dignity and honor which is symbolized by “face.”
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WEAKNESS: Too much of hiya, can be having little confidence.
This can be detrimental to the person especially if it is not
necessary or could only deprive him of better opportunities.
Fear of losing face can sometimes be so trivial. It may lead to
an inferiority complex just like what normally happens to some
who choose to deprive themselves of their rights and do not
fight for what is right because of overthinking that what they
are doing are nakakahiya . Some people can easily take
advantage of this and the more that this is encouraged when
people do not assert their rights because they are nahihiya .
5. KAGANDAHANG-LOOB. The literal meaning of loob is inside,

which is also translated as will. Kagandahang-loob can be
translated as beauty-of-will, purity mind and heart, goodness,
kindness, magnanimity, and generosity. It is actually the wellspring
of the other Filipino values like hiya and pakikipagkapwa-tao. It is
proving the beauty inside. This acquired and nurtured skill of
sharing the beauty within only expresses goodness, and necessarily
reflects outside values such as utang na loob and lakas ng loob.
STRENGTH: Having a pure heart and mind, one is surely a good
person. The mother who will do everything to protect and save her
children is the best example to demonstrate one who has
magandang-loob or magandang kalooban. As wise people usually
say “no man can put a good man down.” One who has beauty of
will is always good no matter what bad things happen. It is
unthinkable that something bad can come out of it.
WEAKNESS: Similarly, with the other Filipino values, this can be
abused. Some do not deserve to be treated with kagandahang-
loob. People who intentionally killed innocent lives do not deserve
expressions of kagandahang-loob such as special treatment but a
deserved punishment. Applying kagandahang-loob does not have
to be always fine and acceptable. Giving justice or fair punishment
can be very undesirable but could truly reflect kagandahang-loob.
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6. UTANG NA LOOB. The literal translation of loob is inside, which is
also interpreted as will. The meaning then of utang na loob is debt-
of-will, the debt of one’s inner self, indebtedness, the debt of
gratitude, and reciprocity. Utang na loob is a proof of one’s
kagandahan ng loob. Being indebted or pagtananaw ng utang ng
loob is the skill of willful response to other’s kagandahan ng loob.
STRENGTH: Pagtanaw ng utang na loob or being indebted is

always admirable because it shows how much one is grateful to
what one owes and to whom one has owed. As a self-imposed
obligation, one does not have to be told to pay one’s credit
because one pays back on time what he borrowed or honors his
commitment in the contract. This strengthens harmonious
relationships because people become both trusting and
trustworthy. This also restrain one from doing bad to whom one
owes. People often say to those who do badly despite the good
thing done to them: “Wala kang utang na loob.” This means that
the offender is so blind to recognize that he owes to his victims
and do not know how to pay back.
WEAKNESS: This can be used sometimes by manipulative and

criminals to blackmail people. Some leaders do special favors and
even give money to invest utang na loob into the hearts and minds
of their constituents. During the election, they remind them: “may
utang na loob ka sa akin ha.” The people may also feel obliged that
they have utang na loob to these leaders and should vote for them.
This indebtedness can be sometimes misused and abused.
7. LAKAS NG LOOB O BAHALA NA. The literal translation of lakas

ng loob is the strength of the inside and bahala na is ‘let it be’. They
are used interchangeably to mean courage. Bahala na is claimed
to have originated from Bathala na which means let God take his
course so that it is considered as the skill of having the courage to
face uncertainty. Lakas ng loob or bahala na is Filipino’s essential
skill to do pagkamaasikaso sa bisita.
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STRENGTH: Filipinos often proudly express that lakas ng loob is
their only remaining weapon and advantage in worst situations.
They may lose everything but not with lakas ng loob that keeps
them survive and move on. They often sigh with the invocation of
“Bahala na!” to express how much they believe in God so that they
entrust everything to Him. As they entrust everything to God, they
do everything depending solely on their human capacity. “Bahala
na!” exemplifies the lakas ng loob of every Filipino
WEAKNESS: When one said: “Bahala na!” some foreign researchers

and observers thought it to be a fatalism or resignation. It had been
considered a negative Filipino trait until Filipino thinkers defended
it to be an expression of moral principle — moral courage. One
who says this must have lakas ng loob or courage and
determination to do everything to either reach his goals or
destination. A Filipino is willing to die or do self-sacrifice even if
he is unsure of the future. He is not afraid of uncertainties because
his strength inside can be identified as Bathala or God who
certainly answers everything.
8. PAGKAMAASIKASO. The literal translation of asikaso is the

attention given to the other so that pagkamaasikaso is being
mindful or taking care of the other, attending to other’s needs, and
entertain well the other. It is often called Filipino hospitality which
is the ability to be warm, caring, friendly, welcoming, and
accommodating to others. As a proof of kagandahang loob at lakas
ng loob, this is also a necessary skill to be able to show paggalang
sa nakatatanda, and pagmamahal sa pamilya.
STRENGTH: Filipina women are sought for all around the world
because of their being pagkamaasikaso. It is not just being
hospitable but treating the other just like a family member. Some
researchers have even dubbed Filipino nurses the ambassadors of
globalizing tender and OFWs as the greatest domestic helpers.
These only reflect how Filipinos asikasuhin their family as well as
those they consider as their family.
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WEAKNESS: But others see this trait negatively because it only
makes Filipinos prone to being abused or maltreated. Many elder
Westerners are suspected to have married Filipinas not primarily as
a wife but as helpers and workers. If there are other options to
better lives, Filipinos surely need not go abroad as nurses and
domestic helpers. They are prouder and safer to stay with or serve
their families and fellow Filipinos but see no better choices.
9. PAGGALANG SA NAKATATANDA. The literal translation of this is
respect to elders. This is not just a good idea for the Filipinos but
should be shown into concrete actions such as putting the elder’s
hand to the forehead (pagmamano), using po, opo, ate, kuya,
nanay, tatay, lolo, lola, tita and tito in communicating with others,
following the will of parents, sacrificing seats for the elders and
being courteous to them. This could be considered as a
manifestation of the other Filipino values especially pagmamahal
sa pamilya so that one treats the others or elders just like the way
one treats and loves his family.
STRENGTH: This has long been a very practical value because it

has sustained Filipino families and institutions. Paggalang sa
nakatatanda ensured that children take good care of their parents
and old relatives. Philippines need not spend millions to build
homes for the aged because the elders are already cared for by
their family members. Respect for elders is not just an ideal thing
because it is a daily activity because of its multiple expressions.
WEAKNESS: However, because of the many cases of abuse of the

elders, people begin to become selective — respect only the
respectable elders. This is precisely because some elders do not
even know how to respect and have done the worst things that do
not deserve respect. Being an elder seem no longer presupposes
moral authority and maturity. Besides, institutions and other
factors that thought individualism and weakened family ties also
offered alternatives other than just respecting elders.
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10. PAGMAMAHAL SA PAMILYA. The literal translation of this is love
for the family. It is doing everything for the love of family. In
choosing between family and other things, family is always the
right priority and in choosing between right and wrong the family
determines what is right. Morality is shaped and dictated by the
family. To do what the family deem is right because one loves the
family is the moral principle.
STRENGTH: The Filipinos have enshrined the family as the basic

foundation of the Philippines in the constitution and many
institutions. To love ones’ family is actually what can lead to
patriotism and better service for the country. Logically speaking,
anything good that happens to a family also happens to the nation.
It has been observed that many Filipino OFWs excel in other
countries precisely because they are inspired to work hard for their
families. They could not also miss a chance to help them in any way
they can like sending balik-bayan boxes. One cannot fathom how
many OFW Filipina mothers have to leave their children and teach
foreign children only to give their family a bright future.
WEAKNESS: Too much favor because of love by OFWs can be

abused. There have been many cases of OFWs and some
foreigners who sincerely loved Filipinos and showered gifts but
only to be cheated and abused. The love of family is not a
guarantee of moral behavior that is why it must be a love that is
also balanced with reason. Other members of the family can be
too dependent and just use that love to take advantage of the
others. The love of family should ensure also the freedom and
welfare of the other. Likewise, everything gradually changed as
many Filipinos adopted the Western culture. The family is slowly
weakening as the moral authority and love of the family is
continuously confronted by the problems of same-sex marriage,
drug addiction, and terrorism.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I1.c: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

a. View a short video clip that introduces the “Filipino Way.” Through
the video, identify and analyze crucial Filipino qualities that
represent their moral identity amidst their moral experiences.
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b. Student Activity: Class discussion on the Filipino core values: (1)

pakikiramdam, (2) pakikisama, (3) pakikipagkapwa-tao, (4) hiya,
(5) kagandahang-loob, (6) utang na loob, (7) lakas ng loob o bahala
na, (8)pagkamaasikaso, (9) paggalang sa nakatatanda, and (10)
pagmamahal sa pamilya and their effect to one’s moral identity.
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ic.1: FILIPINO QUALITIES AND PROBLEMS

a. At the end of this section, you submit an essay wherein you narrate
a personal experience, analyze how problems were rooted in
Filipino qualities, and, from hindsight, recommended how you
would have done things differently.
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Note: Use the essay rubrics in the previous assessment.
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART Ic.2: CORE VALUES: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

a. The Filipino core values: (1) pakikiramdam, (2) pakikisama, (3)
pakikipagkapwa-tao, (4) hiya, (5) kagandahang-loob, (6) utang na
loob, (7) lakas ng loob o bahala na, (8)pagkamaasikaso, (9)
paggalang sa nakatatanda, and (10) pagmamahal sa pamilya are
distributed to each of you for an essay writing. Each core value is
argued upon as both strength and weakness depending on a moral
experience. Discuss how can its strength lead to the development
of moral identity and weakness be changed for the better.
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UNIVERSAL VALUES
2.a
VALUES AND ETHICS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Identify important values in your life.
b. Explain how values relate with ethics.

c. Appreciate the role of values in the formation of moral
character
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Values toward Moral Character
Values is the plural (used also as singular) of value which means
worth, price, cost, and significance. These are treasured by someone or
an organization generally about life but specifically about personal or
organizational goals. They are often emotionally charged because
they are the foundation of one’s worth as a person and worth
defending. They are basically what one ought to defend in times of
conflict between persons, organizations, and societies.
The most basic values of a person are learned early in
childhood from the family, friends, neighborhood, school, mass media,
environment and other factors within society. These are shared, and
reinforced as they become part of the person’s moral character.
Personal values which become the moral character usually remain but
organizational and societal values often change.
In organizations or institutions, values are formally related to
end, or vision. An organizational vision must be based on and should
consistently spouse its core values. These core values are consciously
pursued or upheld by members as being worthwhile.
If an organization’s values are shared by all members, those
values become every member’s character. As the members try to
achieve their organization’s vision, they will use the organization’s
values as bases and instruments to make decisions, assess behaviors,
implement rules and choose from among alternatives.
Values and Ethics
Values are anything that has worth, importance, goodness,
beauty, and desirability. They determine what one judges as right
(good) or wrong (bad). Some values that are shared by all cultures are
truthfulness and prohibition against murder. Whereas, Ethics is doing
or behaving either right or wrong based on one’s values. It could be
doing the values themselves.
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Values are too broad but could be considered as an essential
part of Ethics just as Ethics can also be considered as a type of values.
To further elaborate this, values can be classified as follows:
1. Material Values. These values refer to anything physical that
one gives so much importance such as money, food, clothing,
shelter, tools, computer, and cellphone. These do not have
anything to do with ethics but coexist with people and could
be instrumental to living ethically.
2. Concept Values. These values refer to ideas that one gives so
much worth such as education, health, nation, leadership,
research, marriage, beauty, and spirituality. These may
represent corresponding material objects as their symbols and
could also be meant to achieve higher values in life.
3. Moral or Ethical Values.
These are ultimate and
transcendent values
precisely because they are
closely associated with the
goals of life. These are divided into two—ideal (perfect ideas)
and instructional or propositional (Proposition is a statement
or assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion). Ideal
values are universal ideas essentially important to achieving a
good life but could also be the highest values or ultimate goals
of Ethics and life. They can be considered as the various names
for GOOD. Examples of ideal values are honesty, integrity,
prudence, justice, love, service, honor, and courage.
Instructional values are specific premier rules and instrumental
to achieve the ideal values. Examples of instructional or
specific values are: “Be honest always because it is the best
policy;” “Love your neighbors as you love yourself;” “Honor
your father and mother;” “Serve selflessly.” This is why values
are said to be the standards by which people either as
individuals or groups decide what is good or bad and right
and wrong.
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Moral or
ethical values could be
the ethical principles
that regulate a
person’s day-to-day
behaviors. They are
ideal or objective
standards in
themselves. Values are
intrinsically ethical
because they deal with
what ought to be.
They express instructions or rules on how one becomes ultimately
good or right. They are the basis of moral judgments about what is
good, right, correct, worthwhile, desirable, valuable, beautiful, proper,
and important.
Whereas, Ethics is the critical analysis of the moral frameworks
and values systems, which are the basis of moral actions. According to
MacKinnon and Fiala (2015): “Ethics is a critical enterprise in which we
will examine various ethical views and types of reasoning from a critical
or evaluative standpoint to help us come to a better understanding of
our own values and the values of others.”
Ethics evaluate good or right values from bad or wrong values.
Not all values are worth living at all times and in all situations because
some values are or become irrelevant and irrational. Through Ethics,
one can critically arrive at decisions and actions that truly express one’s
values that are good or right.
In ethics, values can conflict with each other in which one has
to choose in favor of one value more than the others. Values is the
bedrock of ethics as one chooses based on values. But Ethics is the
application of values wherein one’s action becomes the concrete
manifestation or reflection of the generally accepted values. Thus, to
behave ethically is to behave in a manner that is consistent with what
is commonly valued.
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Every society or culture has its standards (values) of what is
morally right (valuable) or wrong (invaluable) for all its members. This
points to the value of the common good in all societies. To attain
common good, "should" must be considered always in how people
interact and behave toward one another in groups, organizations, and
societies. The value of the common good makes Ethics possible.
Organizations have their code of ethics, which is an
enumeration of right behaviors one must follow. The ethical code of
the Philippine Military Academy: "We, the cadets do not lie, cheat, steal,
nor tolerate among us those who do so," is a clear expression of
abhorring what is wrong and valuing of honesty and integrity.
The ideal value of selfless service whose instructional value or
moral principle is “to put the welfare of the Nation and the
accomplishment of the assigned mission before individual welfare” can
also be an ethical code. All members then of any organization with
values such as selfless service must ethically resist the temptation to
pursue self-interest, personal gain or advantage, and self-enrichment
for the sake of the common good.
Values may
be organized into
a hierarchy from
which one
prioritizes values
that determine
one’s moral
decision or choice
of moral behavior.
Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs can also
be called a hierarchy of values. But as a hierarchy of values, it can be
reorganized depending on one’s priority. Material values are basically
at the lowest level because they are too particular while moral values
should be at the highest level because they are ideal.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I2.a: MORAL CHARACTER: VALUES AND ETHICS

a. Students Activity: Discuss some understandings on how values and
ethics can be contributory elements to one’s moral character.
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b. Individual Work: Through graphics, show the circularity of

relationship of individual acts and moral character

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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I2.a.1: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

a. At the end of the class, hold group discussion and presentation,
analyzing the lives of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler.
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I2.a.2: VALUES AND ETHICS

a. Identify important values in your life and explain how this relate
with ethics and development of your moral character.
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UNIVERSAL VALUES
2.b
UNIVERSAL VALUES
IS NECESSARY
FOR HUMAN SURVIVAL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Explain the concept of universal values.
b. Recognize the existence of universal values.
c. Discuss the significance of universal values for human

survival in the society.
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Universal Values
The claim of cultural relativism that there are no culture-
independent standards of right and wrong is untenable because the
existence of universal values is more noticeable and practical. Universal
values are those that are commonly shared by different societies or
cultures all around the world.
Despite the differences in both Western and Eastern cultures,
values that can be classified as personal, human, social, cultural,
aesthetic, spiritual are commonly held. Values of family, freedom,
respect, honesty, education, love, and justice are universally
maintained or practiced in all societies.
Rachel (1993) claimed that cultures do not differ nearly as much
as they appear. His example: Examining two cultures — a) believing
that eating a cow is right, and b) believing that eating a cow is wrong.
The second culture could be a poor culture when even there is not
enough food but still, the cows are not being touched. It appears that
this has different values than the first culture. But it is proper to ask
why they could not eat the cow because they believe that after death
the souls of the humans inhabit the bodies of animals especially cows.
A cow then can have one’s grandma’s soul. This now shows that the
difference is in the belief systems not in the values. Both cultures agree
that they cannot eat their grandma but disagree that the cow is
grandma.
Many factors work together to produce the culture or customs
of a society. Values are just one of them. The differences in customs
may be attributed to other aspects so that there should be less
disagreement about values than there appears to be.
According to Rachel (1993), culture has some values in
common. His example: among the Eskimos, infanticide (killing of an
infant) does not signal a fundamentally different attitude toward
children. Instead, it is a recognition that drastic measures are
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sometimes needed for the family’s survival. It is not the first option
because adoption is common. Killing is the only last resort. The values
of the infant’s life and family survival are just the same as any other
society. It is just that other forces of events push them to choose those
that they do not want to do.
Rachel (1993) believes that some values must be more or less
universal. They are the standard that must be followed. If a society
does not value truth-telling, then anyone can presume that when one
speaks he cannot be presumed to be telling the truth or can be telling
a lie. Communication could be difficult or not be possible. Any cultural
group that continues to exist follows the standard values because not
following them could lead to its extinction though with exemptions.
Specifically, moral values are universal values necessarily
accepted by the members of a society which are also shared and
practiced by others around the world. They are the basic rules or
principles of good behavior established to maintain harmony in the
universe and attain desired benefits for the majority.
Moral values direct behaviors. Moral values such as honesty,
integrity, and respect, instill and enhance relationships. Knowing these
moral values or right actions help shape one’s moral character.
Universal Values for Human Survival
It is undeniable that universal values are highly necessary for
human survival. Universal values as moral principles help people grow
every day with honesty, dignity, respect, integrity, and responsibility.
Living moral principles create a better world and future of right decisions
and actions.
There are some moral rules that all societies must have in
common because those rules are necessary for society to exist. For
example: Do not lie and do not murder are moral rules in all viable
cultures. There may be legitimate exemptions but in the larger
background, they remain abhorrent. Not every moral rule can vary
from culture to culture.
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If the moral rule, “people ought to value or respect life” is not
universal, then there will surely be more numbers of murder, conflict, war,
extrajudicial killing, and suicide. Everything can lead to human extinction
because simple conflicts, misunderstandings, and rivalry may easily resort to
eliminating each other.
Human persons need to be kind and compassionate to each
other to survive. These moral values teach the ability to understand
other humans regardless of race and nationality, which is a sign of an
advanced culture and development.
As an essential part of ethics, values are essential to our survival
as the human race. This is why religions, families, institutions, cultures,
and societies have continuously change dynamically.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan (2003) justifies universal values in
his excerpt speech “On Global Ethics” below:
The values of peace, freedom, social progress, equal rights and human
dignity, enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations and in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, are no less valid today than when, over half a
century ago, those documents were drafted by representatives of many
different nations and cultures….
The values of our founders are still not fully realized. Alas, far from it. But
they are much more broadly accepted today than they were a few decades
ago. The Universal Declaration, in particular, has been accepted in legal
systems across the world, and has become a point of reference for people
who long for human rights in every country. The world has improved, and the
United Nations has made an important contribution.
But universal values are also more acutely needed, in this age of
globalization, than ever before. Every society needs to be bound together by
common values, so that its members know what to expect of each other, and
have some shared principles by which to manage their differences without
resorting to violence.
That is true of local communities and of national communities. Today, as
globalization brings us all closer together, and our lives are affected almost
instantly by things that people say and do on the far side of the world, we also
feel the need to live as a global community. And we can do so only if we have
global values to bind us together.
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We have seen what disastrous consequences such particularist value

systems can have: ethnic cleansing, genocide, terrorism, and the spread of
fear, hatred and discrimination….
In the face of such a challenge, we can reassert universal values only if
we are prepared to think rigorously what we mean by them, and how we can
act on them. That means we must also be clear about what they are not. And
one thing that should be clear is that the validity of universal values does not
depend on their being universally obeyed or applied. Ethical codes are
always the expression of an ideal and an aspiration, a standard by which
moral failings can be judged rather than a prescription for ensuring that they
never occur….
Also, our universal values require us to recognize the human
characteristics, both good and bad, that we have in common with all our fellow
human beings, and to show the same respect for human dignity and sensitivity
in people of other communities that we expect them to show for ours.
That means we should always be prepared to let other people define their
own identity, and not insist on classifying them, however well-meaningly, by
our own criteria. If we believe sincerely in individual rights, we must recognize
that an individual’s sense of identity is almost always bound up with the sense
of belonging to one or more groups –- sometimes concentric, sometimes
intersecting.
Therefore, the rights of an individual include the right to empathize, and
to express solidarity, with others who share this or that aspect of that
individual’s identity….
The function of universal values is not to eliminate all such differences,
but rather to help us manage them with mutual respect, and without resorting
to mutual destruction.
Tolerance and dialogue are essential, because without them there is no
peaceful exchange of ideas, and no way to arrive at agreed solutions allowing
different societies to evolve in their own way….
Values are not there to serve philosophers or theologians, but to help
people live their lives and organize their societies. So, at the international
level, we need mechanisms of cooperation strong enough to insist on
universal values, but flexible enough to help people realize those values in
ways that they can actually apply in their specific circumstances.
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In the end history will judge us, not by what we say but by what we
do. Those who preach certain values loudest – such as the values of
freedom, the rule of law, and equality before the law – have a special
obligation to live by those values in their own lives and their own societies,
and to apply them to those they consider their enemies as well as their friends.
You don’t need to be tolerant of those who share your opinions, or whose
behavior you approve. It is when we are angry that we most need to apply
our proclaimed principles of humility and mutual respect.
Nor should we ever be satisfied with things as they are. The state of the
world does not allow that.
In our own case, at the United Nations, we are sometimes tempted to
proclaim our self-evident utility and relevance to the world, and to blame our
Member States for not making better use of such a valuable institution. But
that is not enough.
We need to do everything we can to improve the United Nations –- that
is, to make it more useful to the world’s peoples, in whose name it was
founded, and more exemplary in applying the universal values that all its
members claim to accept.
That means that we need to be more effective in many aspects of our
work, and especially in what we do to promote and protect human rights.
Human rights and universal values are almost synonymous – so long as
we understand that rights do not exist in a vacuum. They entail a
corresponding set of obligations, and obligations are only meaningful where
there is the capacity to carry them out. “Ought implies can.”
So what is my answer to the provocative question that I took as my
title? Do we still have universal values? Yes, we do, but we should not take
them for granted.
They need to be carefully thought through.
They need to be defended.
They need to be strengthened.
And we need to find within ourselves the will to live by the values we
proclaim – in our private lives, in our local and national societies, and in the
world.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I2.b: UNIVERSAL VALUES FOR HUMAN SURVIVAL

a. Students Activity: You choose three situations from media ethics
— end-of-life involving a dying patient, fake news and payment of
facilitation. Discuss how universal values are needed for human
survival.
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I2.b: UPHOLDING AND NOT UPHOLDING VALUES

a. Write exercise on two scenarios highlighting (a) respect for human
life, and (b) truth-telling. Discuss the possible results of upholding
or not upholding the two values.
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b. Discuss the significance of universal values for human survival in

the society.
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THE MORAL AGENT:

DEVELOPING VIRTUE
AS HABIT
3.a
MORAL CHARACTER
DEVELOPMENT:
CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS
THAT BUILD CHARACTER
AND ACTS THAT EMANATE
FROM CHARACTER
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Recall defining moments in their moral formation.
b. Explain the relationship between individual acts and
character.
c. Discuss how circular relation of acts build character
and acts emanate from character.
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Formation of Moral Character
Since the beginning of human civilizations, human beings and
their ethics or morality have not only been shaped by culture but also
have constantly been making efforts to form their culture and moral
formation. They have reflected upon universal values as essential
bases or ends or culture and necessary for human survival and moral
formation or development.
Philosophers like Plato (in Apology, Phaedo), Aristotle (in the
Nicomachean Ethics), and Confucius (in Analects) proposed moral
development of universal values or human habits that ultimately
become the moral character. Aristotle thought gave a more detailed
account of character development.
CHARACTER is derived
A moral character (or personality),
from the Greek word
similar to culture, is the composite of the
charaktêr that refers
moral qualities one has that uniquely to a mark impressed
distinguishes one from others. Moral upon a coin.
qualities are universal values of traits or
dispositions on how individuals act or express themselves.
Having two, three, some, or most of them is what differentiates
one from the others though they are all universal human potentials.
One may also develop them easily and early while the others, hardly
and later. So there is no universal moral character of all human persons.
One possesses a distinct moral character; every person is unique.
Culture as the main cultivator of moral character may also be
restructured or redesigned to achieve a good moral character.
Aristotle calls it habituation (familiarization or conditioning). He
proposed that virtues such as honesty and courage be “habitualized”
to form a good moral character. Currently, it could be considered as
schooling, training, and formation of people in an organization, school,
institution, or formation house. It is the moral responsibility of humans
to develop their moral character. They could not blame their culture.
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Individual Acts and Moral Character
Neither an individual act nor individual acts together do not
define a person but a moral character does. This is because the moral
character is not just a combination of just individual behaviors; it is the
sum of chosen good behaviors which are excellently practiced for a
while and have become naturally, instantly, relevantly, and effectively
responsive to moral situations.
Psychologist Lawrence Pervin (definitions.net) defines moral
character as "a disposition to express behavior in consistent patterns
of functions across a range of situations." Likewise, Marie I. George
refers to a moral character as the “sum of one’s moral habits and
dispositions.”
Dispositions are generally defined as the natural characteristics,
which an object uniquely possesses such that water has the
dispositions of liquidity and solidity just as a knife has the dispositions,
of sharpness and hardness. A dog has no disposition to be honest to
his master just as humans have no disposition to eat their babies.
Examples of human dispositions are the virtues of integrity, courage,
loyalty, honesty, humility, and respect.
Human dispositions are either natural or potential
(conditioned) actions that one develops in a created structure or
culture so that they become natural and are excellently done in any
similar situation. These are either virtues (good/positive habits) or vices
(bad/negative habits) that emphasize one’s distinctiveness or unique
moral character.
Circular Relation: Acts and Character
Individual acts, in one way or the other, build moral character.
Just as one is shaped by culture, the individual acts influenced by and
committed in one’s culture gradually shape one’s character. But
simultaneously, character forms different actions that may ultimately
become either good or bad habits. Thus, there is a circular relation of
acts and character just like culture and moral behavior that ultimately
makes a well-rounded person.
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The Filipinos are characterized to
be simple, kind, strong, humble, and
honest because of their unique culture
that has long been shaping their
character. Through their cultural
traditions and practices that were
passed down from generation to
generation, each of their families
ensured that their children inherit the
same identity or character of the ancient
Filipinos. But after being schooled
mostly in Catholic schools, they have
changed some of their negative cultural
practices, e.g. arranged marriage, and
character, e.g. shy.
Nevertheless, humans did not passively interact with culture.
They have constantly and actively participated in the culture so that
ultimately they have learned that they can change or develop their
culture. They have become agents of change. They have discovered the
power of their actions that practically can change everything including
culture which is so much bigger than them. By this, they have
discovered that while their action can change their character and vice
versa, they may also change others’ characters and actions.
Great thinkers like the ancient Greeks have established
institutions and schools to formally teach ideal actions such as courage
and integrity to students who will eventually become leaders. They
have believed that if these good actions or virtues become the moral
character of their students, then they will ensure the survival of their
society. Truly, the Greek’s development of moral character has been
being copied by many nations continuously up to this very moment.
The circular relation of acts and character that has just been
shown in history holds true in schools established by their own creative
actions. Same as before, after the schools aimed at transferring the
desired character (sum of core values or virtues) that are fully realized
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in the students, the new professionals should be accustomed to
helping spread the school’s ideal “character.” It is now the personal
responsibility of the school’s alumni to ensure that everything they do
emanate from their character that truly reflects the schools’ ideals.
People, through their moral behaviors, create material culture
such as school buildings, churches, business establishments, public
utilities as symbols of their moral values, beliefs, and ideas. Yet once
these objects are established (become culture) they can influence
moral behaviors that soon develop again into a desired culture.
Moral development does not stop after graduation or happens
only in school. It continues as one lives his profession outside school.
Significantly, every act ought to come from his moral character and
continuously influences lifetime moral development. This ultimately
shows a very clear endless circular relationship between individual acts
and moral character.
Moral development is a ceaseless process of human flourishing
in which one habitually practices one’s moral character in all situations
to produce different material and non-material products. Like a spring
from which comes out an incessant supply of water, moral
development ensures an eternal human flourishing that is passed on
from one generation to another.
Living a moral character, one should endure the difficulties of
learning and constant practice of the virtues. This is so that one may
truly make just decisions and actions that inspire others to be the same
and gradually changes societies into communities of virtuous or
flourishing people.
Finally, in the circular relation of acts and character, the circle
aptly symbolizes perfection or eternity whereby one must constantly
struggle in achieving one’s perfect character. This is choosing every
right act and making sure that such perfect character always yields
right or virtuous actions. The circular movement ensures a dynamic
process towards human perfection.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I3.a: MORAL FORMATION AND CHARACTER

a. Students Activity: Recall and discuss the defining moments in your
moral formation that lead to your moral character.
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I3.a: INDIVIDUAL ACTS AND CHARACTER

a. Explain the relationship between individual acts and character.
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b. Discuss how circular relation of acts build character and acts

emanate from character.
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MORAL AGENT:
DEVELOPING VIRTUE
AS HABIT
3.b
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Identify and articulate each stage of moral
development.
b. Explain how to get to the highest level, conscience-
based moral decisions.
c. Check your personal growth, and three other cases
against the stages of development.
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Moral Development
Ethical/Moral Framework
Moral development can be It is a set of codes that
considered as a moral framework or guides human behavior.
theory that distinguishes good from bad What is good or right and
or right from wrong based on one’s bad or wrong is based on
growth or maturity. Moral responsibility an ethical or a moral
has long been distinguished depending framework.
on one’s level of moral development.
Adults are expected to be more morally responsible than children.
There are theories on moral development, the growth or
improvement in the knowledge of right and wrong behavior. These are
toward moral maturity. Moral ethical maturity is the highest level of
understanding the impacts, conflicts, and solutions involved in one’s
interactions with oneself, others, and the environment. Stephen (2000)
defines moral or ethical maturity as prudence development.
Pollock (2010) classifies the moral development theories into
three: biological, learning, and developmental theories.
1. Biological Theories: These propose that people commit good or
bad acts because of biological predispositions or predetermines.
Human behaviors are evidence of traits that are selected for species
survival in their evolution. An example of this is Gilligan’s research
on empathy and caring morality.
2. Learning Theories: These argue that behavior is based on the
rewards received in our past. Individuals actively participate in
adapting (modeling) and interpreting the rewards (reinforcement)
of their environment. Bandura’s learning theory belongs here.
3. Developmental Theories: These propose that individuals mature
physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Morality comes only at an
advanced stage of emotional and social development and is linked
to cognitive development. Kohlberg, for example, specifies several
moral stages in the development of one’s morality.
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Lawrence Kohlberg developed a six-stage moral development
theory similar to Jean Piaget’s theories of moral development in
children and adolescents. But his study is more complex and focused
on American boys. Kohlberg’s theory has three levels: 1) Pre-
Conventional Morality; 2) Conventional Morality, and; 3) Post-
Conventional morality with two stages in each level (6 stages).
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Morality is typically found in children between the ages of 4 and
10 years old. It is something external which the big people say
to them that they must do.
Obedience and Punishment Orientation
A behavior is good if it follows the rules and bad if it breaks the
rule that leads to punishment. In this stage, children
1 unquestioningly obey a fixed set of rules handed down by
powerful authorities because not obeying them corresponds
punishment.
Self-Interest and Exchange
A behavior is good if it gets a reward that is personally
2 meaningful and bad if it gets none. This stage is about
“instrumental purpose and exchange” in which children follow
rules simply out of reward or self-interest.
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
Morality, is generally reached between ages 13 and above,
though some individuals never move beyond this level. It is
making moral decisions as full-fledged member-of-society.
Conformity and Good Interpersonal Relationship
A good behavior is having good motives and interpersonal
feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others
3 while bad behavior is having none of them. It should “maintain
mutual relations, approval of others, and the golden rule.” This
stage is best in two-person relationships with family or friends
because one can make a real effort to get to know other's
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feelings and needs in order to help others, behave in "good"
ways, evaluate acts according to motives, consider
circumstances, judge intentions and develop own ideas on
morality.
Maintaining Law and Social Order
Good behavior is obeying laws, respecting authority, and
performing one's duties for social order while bad behavior is
4 doing their opposites that lead to social disorder. Moral
decisions are based on doing one’s duty and societal
expectations or perspectives. Anything that harms others or
violates a law is wrong since it destabilizes a society.
LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
Morality, is generally reached between ages 10 and 13, though
some individuals never move beyond this level. It is concerned
with the principles and values that make a good society.
Social Contract and Individual Rights

This is about “morality of contract, of individual rights, and of
democratically accepted law” in which individuals value the will
of the majority and society’s well-being. But "morality" and
5 "rights" take some priority over particular laws as social
perspective and mode of reasoning should be considered.
Despite human need and law conflicts, it is better to simply
follow the law.
Universal Principles or Ethics

In this stage, individuals do what they think is right, even if it is
in conflict with the law. They act according to their internalized
standards of morality because there is a need to (a) protect
6 certain individual rights and (b) settle disputes through
democratic processes. A universal principle of justice impartially
consider the claims of all parties, respecting basic dignity of all
people.
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Application of Kohlberg’s Moral Development in Heinz Dilemma
Heinz Dilemma
A woman was on her deathbed. There was one drug that the doctors
thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but
the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce.
He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the
drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is
half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked
him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” Should Heinz
break into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or
why not?
Kohlberg's theory of moral development holds that what the
participant offers as justification is more significant than what he or she
thinks Heinz should do. Some of the many examples of possible
arguments that belong to the six stages are shown below:
P OBEDIENCE
R
Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will be
E
imprisoned, which will mean that he is a bad person.
-
1 Or
C
Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth
O
$200 and not much as what the druggist wanted. He had
N
even offered to pay for it and wasn’t stealing anything else.
V
E SELF-INTEREST
N Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be happier
T if he saves his wife, even if he will have to be imprisoned.
I Or
2
O Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an
N awful place, and he would more likely languish in jail than
A over his wife's death.
L
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CONFORMITY
Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it;
C he wants to be a good husband.
O 3 Or
N Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad, and
V he is not a criminal. He has to try everything he can without
E breaking the law. He cannot be blamed.
N
LAW AND SOCIAL ORDER
T
I Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law
O prohibits stealing; it is illegal.
N Or
4
A Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the
L prescribed punishment for the crime as well as pay what he
owed to the druggist. Criminals cannot just run around
without regard for the law; actions have consequences.
P SOCIAL CONTRACT
O Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a
S right to choose life, regardless of the law.
T 5 Or
- Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist
C has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it
O does not make his actions right.
N
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES OR ETHICS
V
E Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human
N life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of
T another person.
I 6
Or
O Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may
N badly need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are
A equally significant.
L
However, not everyone adheres to Kohlberg’s theory because

it is based only on unmarried male respondents aged 10 to 16.
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Getting to the Highest Level of Conscience-Based Moral Decisions
Getting to the highest level of conscience-based moral decision
is arriving at the sixth level of Kohlberg’s moral development, which is
the universal principles or ethics. At this level, one is expected to
completely separate from any personal opinion or the will of the
majority. One has to have an internal system of morality which is often
called conscience.
Etymologically, “conscience” is derived from the Latin word con
and scientia, meaning “with knowledge.” This could be considered as
the repository of the universal principles or ethics, which renders
impartial justice to all concerned parties in a moral issue or decision.
Thomas Aquinas and many Christians believed that persons

should follow their conscience because it is the voice of reason while
Butler argued that conscience comes from intuition. Emmanuel Levinas
saw conscience as the minds’ resistance from selfishness even that
which is factual and logical.
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Some non-Christians and Christians often consider conscience
as the “inner voice of God” or the moral law authored by God.
Conscience is an intrinsic law, which sometimes conflict with external
positive or human-made laws. One reason is that it may not necessarily
be a product of a rational deduction because it can be influenced by
the indoctrination of one's religion, family, and culture.
But in Kohlberg's last stage of his theory of moral development,
people act on based on their conscience, that is, what they think is right
with confidence and conviction. Their conscience is indeed a decision-
maker. They developed an internal system or a moral framework of
standards specifically the six stages. Such systems conflict with the
positive laws and other external systems but they represent one’s
reason or conscience so they should be followed.
While there is intrinsic conscience or an inherent valuing of
one’s rights, and it may conflict with others’ rights, there is a need to
settle disputes democratically.
The positive laws which could be considered as the “external or
social conscience” and the embodiment of universal principles of
justice for all parties are needed sometimes when the conscience is
clouded with prejudice, fear, error, doubt, laxness, and ignorance. The
external or social conscience represented by stages 3 to 5 is an
important element in the enlightenment process for individual
conscience to make a final moral decision.
Conscience is the real self that realizes human full potentials by
using one’s experiences and social interactions. To minimize mistakes
in moral decision-making, the conscience must make comparisons
with other choices so one can choose the better or greater.
Kohlberg believed that the individual would have to follow his
six stages in sequence through moral development in social
interactions. Educating and cultivating conscience so that it becomes
true, verified, and corrected is then necessary because it can be
erroneous, doubtful, lax, and fearful. It is the only way to get the
highest level of conscience-based moral decision because it should
always serve the moral truth.
138
Universal ethical principles are important and are applicable in
everyone’s daily life. Telling the truth is a valued universal principle
even if there is no law explicitly commanding everyone to obey. This
principle has become more profound and meaningful during the time
of the Covid19 pandemic as anything done against it endangered and
even claim the lives of many health workers and patients.
People should to tell the truth. But there may be circumstances
that need to be considered. Decision-makers are asked to imagine
what would they have done if they were given the same circumstances.
Will they still tell the truth given those circumstances?
A person should act precisely because an action is right in
principle and not for any other reason. “I will tell the truth because this
gives everyone a chance to live and I wish to respect that others right
to know the truth.” If it is a right, to tell the truth, then it is also a
responsibility to face the means of doing it and its consequences.
Seventh Stage: Transcendental Morality or Cosmic Orientation
Some people may have operated on the sixth stage in their
moral reasoning. But Kohlberg found that it was very difficult for them
and rarely do they actually reach stage six. They seemed to have
degenerated in moral life.
Kohlberg was
challenged to develop The stage of “moral
the last or seventh principles” begins with
stage of development,
the Transcendental despair or meaninglessness,
Morality or Cosmic especially when people begin
Orientation. This stage
to see their lives as finite
links religion and moral
reasoning. But this from a more infinite
remained theoretical perspective.
since he had difficulty
finding research
participants even at stage six.
139
According to him, moral principles are given religious
significance. This stage begins with despair or meaninglessness,
especially when people begin to see their lives as finite from a more
infinite perspective. From the universe that is lawful, knowable, and
evolving, they can know the ultimate principle of the universe which is
sometimes called nature and sometimes God.
From despair, it proceeds to the ultimate principle of agape
that goes beyond all other principles. Kohlberg called it an “ethic of
responsible universal love, service, or sacrifice or an ethic of
supererogation.”
Kohlberg thought that everyone should progress in the seven
stages and should not miss any of them. Being in each of these stages
may allow one to see his mistakes in moral reasoning that will
eventually make him aspire for the next stage. Nevertheless, if one sees
a stage to be too rigid and disappointing, one can still proceed with
another stage as it is more adequate for better moral development.
\
140
ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I3.b: CHART OF MY LIFE’S JOURNEY

a. Student Activity: Draw a chart of your life’s journey using Manila
paper or Power Point to show emerging moments in your lives and
where they are now in your moral development.
b. Group Discussion: Identify stages in a chosen story of your life

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
141
>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I3.b.1: SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

a. What are the six states of moral development? Briefly explain each
stage.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
b. Group presentation: Three causes/stories featuring moral agents
at different stages. Groups identify the stages of the agents in each
of the three cases and justify their answer.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
142
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART I3.b.2: MORAL AGENTS AT DIFFERENT STAGES

c. Think about your behavior as a young child. How did you decide if
something was right or wrong, or good or bad? Did you follow
what your parents did? Did you copy the behavior of your friends?
At one time or another, you probably did both. When you were
able to decide for yourself what was right and what was wrong? Do
you currently base your decisions on societal or cultural laws? For
example, is it wrong to steal because the law says it is wrong? Do
you ever feel that the morally correct decision conflicts with the
law? Let's say that your mother is dying and needs a specific
medicine to be cured. That medicine costs thousands of dollars
that you and your mother do not have. Would it be okay to steal
the medicine to save her life?
(Universal values, https://www.lifepersona.com)
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
T O T A L
143
ENHANCEMENT
WatchMojo.com. (2016). Top 10 Agonizing Decisions in Movies.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3B-UiMKXvs
KIS KIS - keep it short (2018). Short film about an impossible choice |
Dilemma - by Boris Paval Conen. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=fShGv2fD4wA
BarrHealthDisparity (2016). Culture and Behavior. https://www. youtube.

com/watch?v=uMsd2oCi4nQ
Gregory B. Sadler (2019). James Rachels | Universal Values in Differing

Cultures | Philosophy Core Concepts. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=jRcPrcesZpU
McCombs School of Business. (2018). Ethics Defined: Moral Agent.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qthEZ2zSPWU
Habits - A Closer Look (Aquinas 101). (2020). https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=auhGxevtnQo
5 Minutes Life Skills (2018). How to build a good character? https://www.

youtube.com/watch?v=ZKQicLhak4c
Transform Your Thinking. (2020). How to Build Strong Moral Character

(animated video). https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=
IoHETQNZxY4
Chloe Newton (2018). Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Mulan.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pZh7J1c9uE8
Sprouts. (2019). Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bounwXLkme4
RebelMangoTv. (2012). Heinz Dilemma - Kohlberg's stages of Moral

Development (Interactive Animation). https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=5czp9S4u26M
144

Moral Agent: Ethics: Flourishing Life

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ETHICS: FLOURISHING LIFE

This part addresses the following questions:

1. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

3. THE MORAL AGENT:

b. Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture.

c. Discuss how culture affects moral behavior

Culture Shaping Moral Behavior

Moral Behavior Shaping Culture

PART I1.a: CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR

a. Individual Work: Discuss how your community influences your

b. Individual Work: Recall the most important influences of culture

STATE 1 PRINCIPLE. EXPLAIN, AND ELABORATE THRU APPLICATION.

PART Ia.1: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN CULTURE

PART Ia.2: CULTURE AND MORALITY

a. Individual Work. Considering the essay rubrics in the early page,

1. Relation between culture and morality

2. Difference between nature culture and nurture culture

3. How culture affects personal and moral behaviors

4. How moral behaviors shape culture

b. Appreciate the differences of cultures.

c. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural

Moral and Cultural Relativism

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Relativism

a. Different societies have different moral codes. (PREMISE)

b. Therefore, there are no universal or moral truths that hold

STRENGTH: This means that only customs of different societies

WEAKNESS: This, for Rachel, is an unsound argument since

2. No Morally Inferior Societies

3. Standards of our Society

a. The moral code of a society determines what is right or

a. Supposing a code of an ethnic tribe in Saudi Arabia that

STRENGTH: The idea

6. Keeping an Open Mind

According to MacKinnon and Fiala (2015), “cultural relativism is

PART I1.a: CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR

c. Individual Work: Discuss how your community influences your

STATE 1 PRINCIPLE. EXPLAIN, AND ELABORATE THRU APPLICATION.

PART Ia.1: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN CULTURE

PART Ia.2: CULTURE AND MORALITY

b. Individual Work. Considering the essay rubrics in the early page,

1. Relation between culture and morality

2. Difference between nature culture and nurture culture

3. How culture affects personal and moral behaviors

5. How moral behaviors shape culture

ASIAN AND FILIPINO

1. PAKIKIRAMDAM. The literal translation of pakiramdam is feeling.

STRENGTH: This can start, maintain and end with smooth

3. PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO. It is literally ‘sharing oneself as a fellow

4. HIYA. The literal meaning of hiya is shame or embarrassment so

STRENGTH: Hiya as fear of losing face is very helpful to

5. KAGANDAHANG-LOOB. The literal meaning of loob is inside,

STRENGTH: Pagtanaw ng utang na loob or being indebted is

WEAKNESS: This can be used sometimes by manipulative and

7. LAKAS NG LOOB O BAHALA NA. The literal translation of lakas

WEAKNESS: When one said: “Bahala na!” some foreign researchers

8. PAGKAMAASIKASO. The literal translation of asikaso is the

STRENGTH: This has long been a very practical value because it

WEAKNESS: However, because of the many cases of abuse of the

STRENGTH: The Filipinos have enshrined the family as the basic

WEAKNESS: Too much favor because of love by OFWs can be

PART I1.c: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

b. Student Activity: Class discussion on the Filipino core values: (1)