General account about the microbes used as biofertilizer

Introduction
Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells
of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants‟ uptake of nutrients by
their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They
accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of
availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. Several
microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the
production of biofertilizers.N2 fixing organism such as Azospirillum, Rhizobium,
Azotobacter, Gluconacetobacter and PO4 solubilizing bacterial genera
Pseudomonas, Bacillus and PO4 mobilizing Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are
presently used as biofertilizers for commercial application .
I. Mass Production of bacterial biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are carrier based preparations containing efficient strain of
nitrogen fixing or phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. Biofertilizers are
formulated usually as carrier based inoculants. The organic carrier materials are
more effective for the preparation of bacterial inoculants. The solid inoculants carry
more number of bacterial cells and support the survival of cells for longer periods
of time.
The mass production of carrier based bacterial biofertilizers involves three stages.
1. Mass culturing of microorganisms in fermentor
2. Processing of carrier material
3. Mixing of broth culture with the carrier and packing

ISOLATION OF ROOT NODULE BACTERIUM Rhizobium FROM ROOT NODULES

Symbiotic associations between Rhizobium – legume plants are the primary

biological contributors of fixed nitrogen in soil based ecosystem and most studied
one also. Symbiotic N2 fixation is dependent upon the infection of the host root by the
appropriate microbial symbiont and the subsequent development of the required
enzymes. Rhizobium is the microsymbiont, which infects the roots of legume and
nodulate. Rhizobium is a common name of the nodulating microsymbiont which
consists of six genera as Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium,
Allorhizobium, Azorhizobium with about 36 species.
Rhizobia are aerobic, gram-negative, non-sporulating rod shaped bacteria
which form specialized structures on roots called "nodules". The size and
morphology of the nodules vary with the plant species. The nodules on clover are
relatively small and round or oval shaped. On the other hand, cowpea, common
bean, and soybeans, the nodules are relatively large, round, and firmly attached to
the root. On alfalfa, peas and vetch, the nodules are usually longer and finger-like.
Mass multiplication
Materials required
 Well developed legume nodule
 Mercuric chloride (0.1%) and Alcohol (70%)
 Forceps, Glass rod , Petri dishes and sterile water blanks
 Congo red yeast extract mannitol agar medium
 Inoculation needle
Procedure
 Uproot the plant and wash the roots gently and thoroughly under running
tap water to remove soil particles
 Remove the nodules along with root portion without damaging it.
 Immerse intact, undamaged nodules for 5 – 10 seconds in 70 % ethanol
 Rinse the nodules in sterile water
 Surface sterilize the nodules by soaking in 0.1% acidified mercuric chloride
or 2.5 – 3.0 % sodium hypochlorite solution for 1 – 2 minutes
 Wash the nodules in 5 - 6 changes of sterile water using sterile forceps
 Crush the sterilized nodules with a blunt ended sterile glass rod in a large drop
of sterile water in a petri dish / test tube
 Using sterile inoculation needle transfer one loopful of nodule suspension and
streak it over the sterile solidified CRYEMA medium already poured in Petri
plate.
 Simultaneously, aliquots of serial dilutions prepared from the nodule
suspension may be used for plating with YEMA either by spread plate method
or pour plate method
 Incubate the plates at 28°C for 3 – 5 days.
 Appearance of circular, raised and white translucent colonies indicates
Rhizobium. Red colored, small colonies are Agrobacterium.
Purification
A loopful of Rhizobium colony is taken in the inoculation needle and streaked
on fresh yeast extract mannitol agar plates for purification. The purified cultures of
Rhizobia are maintained on agar slants of the same medium. After isolation, the
strains are purified and then authenticated.

Actinorhizal symbiosis

The actinorhizal symbioses are mutualistic relationships between the actinomycete

genus Frankia and a number of dicotyledonous plant genera belonging to eight diverse plant families.
Root nodules of actinorhizal plants induced by Frankia are morphologically distinct from legume
nodules which are formed by rhizobia. Frankia is relatively conservative in its interaction with its
host species, despite its broad host range. Four host-specific groups have been described; however, if
one disregards cross-inoculation data from the two promiscuous host genera
(Gymnostoma and Myrica), only three major groups need to be defined. There are two modes of root
infections: root hair infection and intercellular penetration. Frankia has a mycelial growth habit
consisting of two specialized structures: vesicle and sporangium. The vesicle is the multicellular
structure where the enzyme nitrogenase is located. To protect this oxygen-sensitive enzyme, the
vesicle is morphologically modified from vegetative cells. A multilamellar envelope surrounds it to
reduce diffusion of oxygen into the structure. In the sporangium, numerous single-celled
sporangiospores are borne. Frankia strains share sequence similarity of their nitrogenase (nif) genes
with other nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It is also possible that they share some homology in nodulation
(nod) genus with rhizobia. There are variations in effectiveness in N 2 fixation among Frankia strains
within a group. Nodulated with highly effective strains of Frankia, the actinorhizal plants could play
a major role in wood production and soil fertility improvement arising from symbiotic nitrogen
fixation.
ISOLATION OF N 2 FIXING BACTERIA - Azospirillum FROM P ADDY ROOT SAMPLES
Introduction
The bacteria of the genus Azospirillum are gram negative, associative
symbiotic micro aerophilic nitrogen fixing organism . “Dobereiner‟ who first
isolated the organism. The cells of Azospirillum are comma or spiral shaped having
abundant accumulation of poly - hydroxybutyrate (70 %) in its cytoplasm. The
important species of Azospirillum are A. brasilense, A.lipoferum, A.amazonense,
A.halopraeferens and A.irakense.
A. Isolation of Azospirillum
Principle

When root sample containing Azospirillum is introduced into the N free malic acid
medium, Azospirillum starts utilizing malic acid present in the medium as carbon
source which resulted in the colour change from yellowish green to blue colour due to
the change in pH of the medium from acidic to alkaline.
Materials required
 Freshly collected root samples
 80 % ethanol or 0.1% Mercuric chloride
 Sterile water blanks
 N-free malic acid semisolid medium in test tubes
 Sterile forceps and petridishes
N-free semisolid malic acid medium

Trace element solution

Sodium molybdate : 200 mg
Manganous sulphate : 235 mg
Boric acid : 280 mg
Copper sulphate : 8 mg
Zinc sulphate : 24 mg
Distilled water : 200 ml
Procedure
 Prepare semisolid malic acid medium in test tubes in 5 ml quantity and
sterilize 121o C (15 psi) for 15 min.
 Collect fresh root samples from any graminaceous plant
 Wash the roots in tap water to remove the adhering soil particles.
 Using sterilized knife/ blade, cut the roots into small bits of 1-2 cm size.
 Surface sterilize the root bits by immersing them in either 80% ethanol or
0.1% mercuric chloride for 1 min.
 Wash the root bits with sterile distilled water 3-4 times to remove the
excess ethanol or mercuric chloride.
  Using sterile forceps transfer aseptically 2-3 root bits to the test tubes
containing N-free semisolid malic acid medium.
 Incubate the tubes under room temperature 28  2oC for 2-3 days
 Maintain one tube as control without root bits

Observation
 At the end of incubation time observe the tubes for the change of the color of
the medium from yellowish green to blue and for the formation of subsurface
white pellicle.
 Collect the positive tubes and take a loopful of the growth from the pellicle
and streak on the Malate medium in Petri dish; purify and maintain in slants.
Azotobacter : ISOLATION OF N2 FIXING BACTERIA - Azotobacter
FROM SOIL SAMPLES
Azotobacter is the non-symbiotic, free living, aerobic nitrogen fixing
bacterium. In general, cells are gram negative, polymorphic, form cyst and
accumulate poly –hydroxybutyrate (PHB) and produces abundant gum. Inaddition
to N fixation, they secrete plant growth hormones viz, IAA, GA and growth factors viz.,
thiamine, riboflavin etc. and produces some antifungal antibiotics also. Totally six
species are identified based on their pigmentation. Among them, A. chroococcum is
the dominant species found in tropical soils.
A. chroococcum - Produces black pigments (melanin)
A. vinelandii - Produces yellow pigments
A. beijerinckii - Produces green yellow fluorescent pigments
A. insignis - Produces yellow – brown pigments
A. macrocytogenes - Produces pink pigments
A. paspali - Produces pink to green fluorescent pigments
Isolation
Beijerinck was the first to isolate and describe Azotobacter. Azotobacter
cells are not present on the rhizoplane but are abundant in the rhizosphere region.
Lack of organic matter in the soil is a limiting factor for the proliferation of
Azotobacter. They depend on the energy derived from the degradation of plant
residues.
Materials Required
 Organic matter rich soil sample
 Sterile water blanks
 Petri plates
 Waksman No.77 medium
Waksman No.77 Medium
Procedure
1. Weigh one g of sample and put in the 100 ml water blank and mix
thoroughly
2. Shake for 15 min for complete dispersion (10-2 dilution)
3. Transfer one ml of the suspension to 9 ml water blank (10-3 dilution)
4. Transfer 1 ml of appropriate dilutions (10-3 ) to Petri dishes
5. Maintain 2 or 3 replications for each dilution
6. Pour melted and cooled media (just before solidification) of about 15 ml and
mix well by shaking clock wise and anti clock wise for 3 or 4 times and allow
it for complete solidification
 7. Incubate the plates in inverted position at room temperature for 3-4 days for
appearance of Azotobacter colonies.
8. Determine the moisture content of the soil as described earlier.

Results and Observation

Azotobacter produces raised, gummy colonies on agar surface and aged
cultures show yellowish brown/black colouration due to pigment production.
 Azolla and Anabaena azollae association

The free-floating aquatic fern Azolla is small and heterosporic, with a worldwide
distribution in quiet waters (rivers, dams, creeks, etc.) and is considered an invasive
species. This is the only known fern with a permanent symbiotic association with the
heterocystic nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae where the cyanobiont is
transmitted through the Azolla generations without a de novo infection. The cyanobiont
and other bacteria genera inhabit an ovoid cavity in each dorsal lobe of the leaf. The
cyanobiont has a high rate of nitrogen fixation and thus this symbiosis was analyzed
regarding its biofertilization (incorporated in soil or as manure). In addition, due to the
amino acids and protein contents, this fern can also be used as food, and due to the high
ability to uptake heavy metals and other pollutants, it can be used as phytoremediator.
Since this fern is grown in tropical and subtropical zones where most of the countries have
problems regarding the living conditions (health, sanitary, and food, among others) of
people, this fern can be a very useful and cheap tool to cope with the severe problems that
they face.

Anabaena and Nitrogen Fixation

Close examination of an Azolla leaf reveals that it consists of a thick, greenish (or reddish)
dorsal (upper) lobe and a thinner, translucent ventral (lower) lobe emersed in the water. It is
the upper lobe that has an ovoid central cavity, the "living quarters" for filaments of Anabaena.
Probably the easiest way to observe Anabaena is to remove a dorsal leaf lobe and place it on
a clean slide with a drop of water. Then apply a cover slip with sufficient pressure to mash the
leaf fragment. Under 400X magnification the filaments of Anabaena with larger, oval
heterocysts should be visible around the crushed fern leaf. The thick-walled heterocysts often
appear more transparent and have distinctive "polar nodules'' at each end of the cell..
Cyanophycin granules occur in many cyanobacteria and may serve as a nitrogen storage
product.

Nitrogen fixation is a remarkable prokaryotic skill in which inert atmospheric nitrogen gas (N 2)
is combined with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH 3). This vital process along with nitrification
(formation of nitrites and nitrates) and ammonification (formation of ammonia from protein
decay) make nitrogen available to autotrophic plants and ultimately to all members of the
ecosystem. Although Azolla can absorb nitrates from the water, it can also absorb ammonia
secreted by Anabaena within the leaf cavities.

Recent studies have shown that the actual site of nitrogen fixation occurs within the thick -
walled heterocysts. As the heterocyst matures, the photosynthetic membranes (thylakoid
membranes) become contorted or reticulate compared to regular photosynthetic cells
of Anabaena, and they become non-photosynthetic (and do not produce oxygen). This fact is
especially noteworthy because nitrogen fixation requires the essential enzyme nitrogenase, and
the activity of nitrogenase is greatly inhibited by the presence of oxygen.
Azolla and Rice Productivity

Rice is the single most important source of food for people and Azolla plays a very important
role in rice production. For centuries Azolla and its nitrogen-fixing partner, Anabaena, have
been used as "green manure" in China and other Asian countries to fertilize rice paddies and
increase production. Some authorities believe the use of Azolla enabled the Vietnamese to
survive the effects of the American blockade when imported fertilizers did not reach North
Vietnam during the war. According to Wilson Clark (Science 80: Sept./Oct. 1980), the People's
Republic of China has 3.2 million acres of rice paddies planted with Azolla. This provides at
least 100,000 tons of nitrogen fertilizer per year worth more than $50 million annually.
Extensive propagation research is being conducted in China to produce new varieties
of Azolla that will flourish under different climatic and seasonal conditions. According to some
reports, Azolla can increase rice yields as much as 158 percent per year. Rice can be grown
year after year, several crops a year, with little or no decline in productivity; hence no rotation
of crops is necessary.

Mycorrhizal types

Mycorrhizas were traditionally classified into the two types: ectotrophic and endotrophic, a
classification based on the location of the fungal hyphae in relation to the root tissues of the
plant; ecto means outside the root, endo means inside. This classification is now regarded as
too simplistic, and there is now a nomenclature identifying seven mycorrhizal types; however
we will telescope this into four major types with three additional subclasses as follows (click
on on the (blue hyperlinked) names in this text to open a new page giving more information
on all seven types of mycorrhiza):

Endomycorrhizas, in which the fungal structure is almost entirely within the host root,
comprising three major and two minor groupings:

 Arbuscular (AM) endomycorrhizas, which are the commonest mycorrhizas, and first
to evolve; the fungi are members of the Glomeromycota, they are obligate biotrophs,
and they are associated with roots of about 80% of plant species, including many crop
plants. The AM association is endotrophic, and has previously been referred to as
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM). This name has since been dropped in favour
of AM, since not all of the fungi form vesicles but you may still find that other textbooks
refer to ‘VAM’ or ‘VA’ mycorrhizas.

 Ericoid endomycorrhizas are mycorrhizas of Erica (heather), Calluna (ling)

and Vaccinium (bilberry), that is, plants that endure moorlands and similar challenging
environments. Fungi are members of the Ascomycota (an example is Hymenoscyphus
ericae). The plant’s rootlets are covered with a sparse network of hyphae; the fungus
digests polypeptides saprotrophically and passes absorbed nitrogen to the plant host; in
 extremely harsh conditions the mycorrhiza may even provide the host with carbon
sources (by metabolising polysaccharides and proteins for their carbon content). Two
specialised subgroups may be separated out of the ericoid endomycorrhizal group:
o Arbutoid endomycorrhizas , and
o Monotropoid endomycorrhizas (the mycorrhizal association formed by the
achlorophyllous plants of the Montropaceae).
 Orchidaceous endomycorrhizas are similar to ericoid mycorrhizas but their carbon
nutrition even is more dedicated to supporting the host plant as the young orchid
seedling is non-photosynthetic and depends on the fungus partner utilising complex
carbon sources in the soil, and making carbohydrates available to the young orchid. All
orchids are achlorophyllous in the early seedling stages, but usually chlorophyllous as
adults, so in this case the seedling stage orchid can be interpreted as parasitising the
fungus. A characteristic fungus example is the basidiomycete
genus Rhizoctonia (although this is a complex genus which can be divided into several
new genera).

Ectomycorrhizas are the most advanced symbiotic association between higher plants and
fungi, involving about 3% of seed plants including the majority of forest trees. In this
association the plant root system is completely surrounded by a sheath of fungal tissue which
can be more than 100 µm thick, though it is usually up to 50 µm thick. The hyphae penetrate
between the outermost cell layers forming what is called the Hartig net . From this a network
of hyphal elements (hyphae, strands and rhizomorphs) extends out to explore the soil domain
and interface with the fungal tissue of the root. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are mainly
Basidiomycota and include common woodland mushrooms, such
as Amanita spp., Boletus spp. and Tricholoma spp. Ectomycorrhizas can be highly specific (for
example Boletus elegans with larch) and non-specific (for example Amanita muscaria with 20
or more tree species). In the other specificity direction, 40 fungal species are capable of forming
mycorrhizas with pine.

Ectomycorrhizas can link together groups of trees, the submerged mycelium acting as what has
been described as a ‘wood-wide-web’. Ectomycorrhizal fungi depend on the plant host for
carbon sources, most being uncompetitive as saprotrophs. With few exceptions (Tricholoma
fumosum being one), the fungi are unable to utilise cellulose and lignin; but the fungus provides
greatly enhanced mineral ion uptake for the plant and the fungus is able to capture nutrients,
particularly phosphate and ammonium ions, which the root cannot access. Host plants grow
poorly when they lack ectomycorrhizas. This ectomycorrhizal group is reasonably
homogenous, but a subgroup, ectendomycorrhizas, has been appended.

 Ectendomycorrhiza is a purely descriptive name for mycorrhizal roots that exhibit

characteristics of both ectomycorrhizas and endomycorrhizas. Ectendomycorrhizas are
essentially restricted to the plant genera Pinus (pine), Picea (spruce) and, to a lesser
extent, Larix (larch). Ectendomycorrhizas have the same characteristics as
 ectomycorrhizas but show extensive intracellular penetration of the fungal hyphae into
living cells of the host root.

Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhiza ( VAM)

Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi The vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (V AM

Fungi) are a group of symbiotic, endotrophic mycorrhizal fungi found in roots of higher plants.
They are included in the family Endogonaceae of Zygomycetes.

V AM fungus infects a plant root and forms vesicles and arbuscles in the roots cortex and a
permanent mantle of hyphae on the root's surface. V AM fungi infect many crop plants like
rice, maize, potato, soybean, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, tomato, rubber, straw berry, citrus,
avacado, coffee, tea, cacao, peas, apples, papaya and so on (VAM = AMF)

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) facilitate host plants to grow vigorously under stressful
conditions by mediating a series of complex communication events between the plant and the
fungus leading to enhanced photosynthetic rate and other gas exchange-related traits, as well
as increased water uptake. Numerous reports describe improved resistance to a variety of
stresses including drought, salinity, herbivory, temperature, metals, and diseases due to fungal
symbiosis. Nearly 90% of plant species including flowering plants, bryophytes, and ferns can
develop interdependent connections with AMF. AMF form vesicles, arbuscules, and hyphae
in roots, and also spores and hyphae in the rhizosphere. Formation of hyphal network by the
AMF with plant roots significantly enhances the access of roots to a large soil surface area,
causing improvement in plant growth. AMF improve plant nutrition by increasing the
availability as well as translocation of various nutrients. AMF improve the quality of soil by
influencing its structure and texture, and hence plant health. Fungal hyphae can expedite the
decomposition process of soil organic matter. Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi may affect
atmospheric CO2 fixation by host plants, by increasing “sink effect” and movement of photo-
assimilates from the aerial parts to the roots. Keeping in view the importance of AMF and the
research advancements related to their applications in agriculture, the present review focuses
on the role of AMF as bio-fertilizers in the regulation of plant growth and development with
improved nutrient uptake under stressful environments, and the level to which AMF can
enhance plant growth under stressful environments.

Organic farming

Organic farming, agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and
biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover
crops. Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused
by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it
has numerous ecological benefits.
Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces
soil erosion, decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles
animal wastes back into the farm. These benefits are counter balanced by higher food costs for
consumers and generally lower yields. Indeed, yields of organic crops have been found to be
about 25 percent lower overall than conventionally grown crops, although this can vary
considerably depending upon the type of crop. The challenge for future organic agriculture will
be to maintain its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce prices while meeting the
challenges of climate change and an increasing world population.

The concepts of organic agriculture were developed in the early 1900s by Sir Albert
Howard, F.H. King, Rudolf Steiner, and others who believed that the use of
animal manures (often made into compost), cover crops, crop rotation, and biologically based
pest controls resulted in a better farming system.

Organic food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century. Greater environmental
awareness, coupled with concerns over the health impacts of pesticide residues
and consumption of genetically modified (GMO) crops, fostered the growth of the organic
sector. In the United States retail sales increased from $20.39 billion in 2008 to $47.9 billion
in 2019, while sales in Europe reached more than $52 billion (€45 billion) in 2019.

The price of organic food is generally higher than that of conventionally grown food.
Depending on the product, the season, and the vagaries of supply and demand, the price of
organic food can be anywhere from less than 10 percent below to more than 100 percent above
that of conventionally grown produce.

Benefits and drawbacks of organic farming

Since synthetic fertilizers are not used, building and maintaining a rich, living soil through the
addition of organic matter is a priority for organic farmers. Organic matter can be applied
through the application of manure, compost, and animal by-products, such as feather meal or
blood meal. Due to the potential for harbouring human pathogens, the USDA National Organic
Standards mandate that raw manure must be applied no later than 90 or 120 days before
harvest, depending on whether the harvested part of the crop is in contact with the ground.
Composted manure that has been turned 5 times in 15 days and reached temperatures between
55 and 77.2 °C (131 and 171 °F) has no restrictions on application times. Compost adds organic
matter, providing a wide range of nutrients for plants, and adds beneficial microbes to the soil.
Given that these nutrients are mostly in an unmineralized form that cannot be taken up by
plants, soil microbes are needed to break down organic matter and transform nutrients into a
bioavailable “mineralized” state. In comparison, synthetic fertilizers are already in mineralized
form and can be taken up by plants directly.
compost
Farmer managing a compost pile in France. Compost adds rich organic matter and beneficial
microbes to the soil.
© Stephane Bidouze/Fotolia

Understand how crop rotation in organic farming benefits the farmers as well as the
environment and particularly the advantages of growing lentils
A discussion of organic farming and the benefits of growing crops such as lentils.
Displayed by permission of The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
(A Britannica Publishing Partner)See all videos for this article
Soil is maintained by planting and then tilling in cover crops, which help protect the
soil from erosion off-season and provide additional organic matter. The tilling in
of nitrogen-fixing cover crops, such as clover or alfalfa, also adds nitrogen to the soil.
Cover crops are commonly planted before or after the cash crop season or in
conjunction with crop rotation and can also be planted between the rows of some
crops, such as tree fruits. Researchers and growers are working to develop organic
farming “no-till” and reduced-tillage practices in order to further reduce erosion.

Pest control

Organic pesticides are derived from naturally occurring sources. These include living
organisms such as the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, which is used to control
caterpillar pests, or plant derivatives such as pyrethrins (from the dried flower heads
of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) or neem oil (from the seeds of Azadirachta
indica). Mineral-based inorganic pesticides such as sulfur and copper are also
allowed.

In addition to pesticides, organic pest control integrates biological, cultural, and

genetic controls to minimize pest damage. Biological control utilizes the natural
enemies of pests, such as predatory insects (e.g., ladybugs) or parasitoids (e.g.,
certain wasps) to attack insect pests. Pest cycles can be disrupted with cultural
controls, of which crop rotation is the most widely used. Finally, traditional plant
breeding has produced numerous crop varieties that are resistant to specific pests.
The use of such varieties and the planting of genetically diverse crops provide genetic
control against pests and many plant diseases.

Principles of Organic Farming in India

Organic agriculture grows and develops with these principles. These can contribute to
improving organic agriculture for the world.
There are four principles of organic farming are as follow:-
 Principles of Health – The health of the ecosystem, people, and communities.
 The Principles of Ecology – The right balance between ecosystem and environment or
nature.
 Principles of Fairness – Good human relationships and quality of life.
 Principles of Care – The considerations about the environment and environment of the
future.
Types of Organic Farming
Organic farming are two types. Have a look down below on the type of organic farming in
India.
(a) Pure organic farming – In pure organic farming, there is avoiding every unnatural
chemical. In the process of pure farming, fertilizer and pesticides obtain from natural
sources. It is called a pure form of organic farming. Pure organic farming is the best for
high productivity.
(b) Integrated organic farming – Integrated organic farming consists of integrated
nutrients management and integrated pest management.
Advantages of Organic Farming
 Organic farming in India is very economical, it uses no expensive fertilizers, pesticides,
HYV seeds for the plantation of crops. It has no expenses.
 With the use of cheaper and local inputs, a farmer can earn a good return on
investment. This is one of the most important benefits of organic farming in India.
 There is a huge demand for organic products in India and worldwide and can earn more
income through export.
 Organic products are more nutritional, tasty, and good for health to chemical and fertilizer
utilized products.
 Organic farming in India is very environment friendly, it does not use fertilizers and
chemicals.
These are some benefits of Organic Farming, which proves organic farming is profitable
for everyone.

Disadvantages of Organic Farming

 Organic farming in India has fewer choices, and off-season crops are limited.
 Organic agricultural products are low in the early years. Farmers find it difficult to
accommodate mass production.
 The main disadvantage of organic farming is the lack of marketing of the products and
Inadequate infrastructure.

Green Manure

Green undecomposed material used as manure is called green manure. It is obtained in two ways: by
growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown in
wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring is growing in the field plants usually belonging to
leguminous family and incorporating into the soil after sufficient growth. The plants that are grown for
green manure known as green manure crops. The most important green manure crops are
sunnhemp, dhaincha, pillipesara,clusterbeans and Sesbania rostrata.

Biomass production and N accumulation of green manure crops

Crop Age (Days) Dry matter (t/ha) N accumulated

Sesbania aculeata 60 23.2 133
Sunnhemp 60 30.6 134
Cow pea 60 23.2 74
Pillipesara 60 25.0 102
Cluster bean 50 3.2 91
Sesbania rostrata 50 5.0 96

Nutrient content of green manure crops

Nutrient content (%) on air dry basis

Plant Scientific name
N P2O5 K
Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea 2.30 0.50 1.80
Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata 3.50 0.60 1.20
Sesbania Sesbania speciosa 2.71 0.53 2.21
Sesbania rostrata is a stem nodulating green manure crop which is a native of West Africa. As it is a
short-day plant and sensitive to photoperiod, the length of vegetative period is short when sown in
August or September. A mutant (TSR-l) developed by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay is
insensitive to photoperiod, tolerant to salinity and waterlogged condition. Growth and nitrogen fixation
is higher with TSR-l compared to the existing strains.

Advantages

1. Improves soil structure

2. Increases water holding capacity and
3. Decreases soil loss by erosion

Recycling of bio-degradable municipal,

Bio-waste is defined as biodegradable garden and park waste, food and kitchen waste from
households, restaurants, caterers and retail premises, and comparable waste from food
processing plants. It does not include forestry or agricultural residues, manure, sewage
sludge, or other biodegradable waste such as natural textiles, paper or processed wood. It
also excludes those by-products of food production that never become waste.

Research to recycle household biodegradable waste using composting as a technique. Mixtures of organic
materials which are components of biodegradable wastes were recycled by decomposing them under a
controlled environmental condition. The initial moisture content of each of the materials make up the
compost mixture was computed and classified as wet and dry materials, and the average moisture content
for both wet and dry materials was computed. The dry materials were weighed as they were collected and
were found to weigh 18kg with an average moisture content of 34.9% and a chosen moisture goal of 50%.
Other results obtained showed that the weight and average moisture content of wet materials were 64.7kg
and 54.2% respectively. The compost mixture was scaled down to half its quantity for easy turning. With
an optimal environmental condition of moisture content (50%), adequate proportion of both the dry and
wet material to meet the required Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, and an appropriate volume of air in the
pore spaces of the compost pile and microbial decomposition was initiated. At the end of the
decomposition, a stabilized organic matter which can be used as fertilizer supplement by horticulturists,
landscapers, orchardists, Farmers etc, was obtained.

Agricultural and Industrial wastes

Agro-industrial wastes are organic matters which, through clean technology, can be recycled
either by integrated waste utilization or simply returned to the place of their origin, nature.
Sources and problems of agro-industrial wastes are reviewed for seafood products, palm oil and
rubber industries. Agro-industrial wastes can usually be managed to be free of non-natural
material, and so they could be appropriately recycled either by physical or biological means.
Clean technology can be implemented to minimize waste, thereby increasing productivity and
reducing the unit cost of the product. Successful application of clean technology requires full
support from management, and full commitment from the clean technology team. Clean
technology auditing is an effective procedure that includes five steps, namely planning and
organization, pre-assessment, assessment, feasibility study, and implementation. Recycling of
waste is the key activity of clean technology. Wastes can be recycled onsite, off-site or by waste
exchange. Waste exchange participation is strategically important as it employs the integrated
approach of waste minimization. This leads to the concept of the biological industrial complex,
which is a group of factories that share limited resources and recycling of wastes. Biorefinery is
pointed out as the challenge for the future of clean technology, and is a combination of
biological, physical and chemical science which is able to replicate an oil refinery using a
biomass feedstock,
Vermicompost

Vermicomposting is a type of composting in which certain species of earthworms are used to

enhance the process of organic waste conversion and produce a better end-product. It is a
mesophilic process utilizing microorganisms and earthworms. Earthworms feeds the organic waste
materials and passes it through their digestive system and gives out in a granular form (cocoons)
which is known as vermicompost.

Simply speaking, vermicompost is earthworm excrement, called castings, which can improve
biological, chemical, and physical properties of the soil. The chemical secretions in the earthworm’s
digestive tract help break down soil and organic matter, so the castings contain more nutrients
that are immediately available to plants.

Vermicompost Production
A wide range of organic residues, such as straw, husk, leaves, stalks, weeds etc can be converted
into vermicompost. Other potential feedstock for vermicompost production are livestock wastes,
poultry litter, dairy wastes, food processing wastes, organic fraction of MSW, bagasse, digestate
from biogas plants etc. Earthworms consume organic wastes and reduce the volume by 40–60
percent.
Each earthworm weighs about 0.5 to 0.6 gram, eats waste equivalent to its body weight and
produces cast equivalent to about 50 percent of the waste it consumes in a day. The moisture
content of castings ranges between 32 and 66 percent and the pH is around 7. The level of
nutrients in compost depends upon the source of the raw material and the species of earthworm.

There are nearly 3600 types of earthworms which are divided into burrowing and non-burrowing
types. Red earthworm species, like Eisenia foetida, and are most efficient in compost making. The
non-burrowing earthworms eat 10 percent soil and 90 percent organic waste materials; these
convert the organic waste into vermicompost faster than the burrowing earthworms. They can
tolerate temperatures ranging from 0 to 40°C but the regeneration capacity is more at 25 to 30°C
and 40–45 percent moisture level in the pile.
The burrowing types of earthworms come onto the soil surface only at night. These make holes
in the soil up to a depth of 3.5 m and produce 5.6 kg casts by ingesting 90 percent soil and 10
percent organic waste.

The types of vermicomposting depend upon the amount of production and composting
structures. Small-scale vermicomposting is done to meet personal requirements and
farmers/gardeners can harvest 5-10 tons of vermicompost annually. On the other hand, large-
scale vermicomposting is done at commercial scale by recycling large quantities of organic waste
in modern facilities with the production of more than hundreds of tons annually.

Applications of Vermicompost
The worm castings contain higher percentage of both macro and micronutrients than the garden
compost. Apart from other nutrients, a fine worm cast is rich in NPK which are in readily available
form and are released within a month of application. Vermicompost enhances plant growth,
suppresses disease in plants, increases porosity and microbial activity in soil, and improves water
retention and aeration.

Vermicompost also benefits the environment by reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and
decreasing the amount of waste going to landfills. Vermicompost production is trending up
worldwide and it is finding increasing use especially in Western countries, Asia-Pacific and
Southeast Asia.

A relatively new product from vermicomposting is vermicompost tea which is a liquid produced
by extracting organic matter, microorganisms, and nutrients from vermicompost. Unlike
vermicompost and compost, this liquid organic fertilizer may be applied directly to plant foliage,
reportedly to enhance disease suppression. Vermicompost tea also may be applied to the soil as
a supplement between compost applications to increase biological activity.
Vermicompost may be sold in bulk or bagged with a variety of compost and soil blends. Markets
include home improvement centers, nurseries, landscape contractors, greenhouses, garden supply
stores, grocery chains, flower shops, discount houses, and the general public.