Topic A: Kinematics

CONTENT
1. Velocity and acceleration
1.1 One-dimensional motion of a particle
1.2 Constant-acceleration formulae
1.3 Two- and three-dimensional motion
1.4 Variable acceleration

2. Two-dimensional motion under gravity (“projectile motion”)

2.1 Components
2.2 Trajectory and range
2.3 Projectile motion over non-horizontal ground

3. Motion in polar coordinates

3.1 Plane polar coordinates
3.2 Velocity and acceleration in polar coordinates
3.3 Special case: circular motion
3.4 Special case: central force
 KINEMATICS vs DYNAMICS

Kinematics is about what motion takes place ... not what causes it:
• displacement x, velocity v, acceleration a
• only involves physical dimensions L (length), T (time) only

Dynamics is about how motion is caused:

• translation brought about by force F acting on mass 𝑚
• rotation brought about by torque T acting on moment of inertia 𝐼
• involves physical dimensions M (mass), L (length), T (time)
 VELOCITY
d𝑥
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement: 𝑣=
d𝑡
𝑥
If 𝑣 is constant, 𝑣= or 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡
𝑡
In one dimension:
• velocity is the gradient of a displacement-time graph
• displacement is the area under a velocity-time graph
x v

x
t t
t1 t2

In three dimensions, displacement and velocity are vectors

 ACCELERATION
d𝑣
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: 𝑎=
d𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
If 𝑎 is constant, 𝑎= or 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡

In one dimension:
• acceleration is the gradient of a velocity-time graph
v

In three dimensions, velocity and acceleration are vectors

 EXAMPLE

The displacement (in suitable units) of a particle is given, for

time 𝑡 > 0, by
𝑥 = 5𝑡e−𝑡
Find:
(a) the velocity and acceleration of the particle as a function of
time;
(b) the maximum distance from the origin;
(c) the maximum speed.
The displacement (in suitable units) of a particle is given, for time 𝑡 > 0, by
𝑥 = 5𝑡 e−𝑡
Find:
(a) the velocity and acceleration of the particle as a function of time;

𝑥 = 5𝑡e−𝑡

d𝑥
𝑣≡ = 5(e−𝑡 − 𝑡e−𝑡 ) = 5(1 − 𝑡)e−𝑡
d𝑡

d𝑣
𝑎≡ = 5 (−1)e−𝑡 − (1 − 𝑡)e−𝑡 = 5(𝑡 − 2)e−𝑡
d𝑡
(b) the maximum distance from the origin; 𝑥 = 5𝑡e−𝑡
d𝑥
𝑣≡ = 5(1 − 𝑡)e−𝑡
d𝑡
d𝑣
𝑎≡ = 5(𝑡 − 2)e−𝑡
d𝑡

The maximum distance from the origin occurs when either ...
d𝑥 Τd𝑡 = 0
... or at the ends of the interval.

d𝑥 Τd𝑡 = 0 when 𝑡 = 1 𝑥 = 5e−1

At 𝑡 = 0: 𝑥=0
As 𝑡 → ∞: 𝑥→0

Maximum distance from the origin is 5e−1 (i.e. 5/e)

(c) the maximum speed. 𝑥 = 5𝑡e−𝑡
d𝑥
𝑣≡ = 5(1 − 𝑡)e−𝑡
d𝑡
d𝑣
𝑎≡ = 5(𝑡 − 2)e−𝑡
d𝑡

The maximum speed (magnitude of velocity) from the origin occurs when either ...
d𝑣Τd𝑡 = 0
... or at the ends of the interval.

d𝑣Τd𝑡 = 0 when 𝑡 = 2 𝑣 = −5e−2

𝑣 = 5e−2

At 𝑡 = 0: 𝑣=5
As 𝑡 → ∞: 𝑣→0

Maximum speed is 5.
 EXAMPLE
The velocity-time graph for a particle which starts from rest at the origin is given
below.

Find:
(a) the maximum magnitude of acceleration;
(b) the greatest displacement from the origin during the time shown;
(c) the final displacement from the origin at the end of the time shown;
(d) the total distance travelled.
v(m/s)
3

t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1

-2

-3
Find:
(a) the maximum magnitude of acceleration;

Maximum magnitude of acceleration is 2

v(m/s)
3 1/3

2
1
-2
1

t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1

-2

-3
Find:
(b) the greatest displacement from the origin during the time shown;
+2 + 7.5 + 2.25 = 11.75 m

(c) the final displacement from the origin at the end of the time shown;
+2 + 7.5 + 2.25 − 2.25 = 9.5 m

(d) the total distance travelled.

+2 + 7.5 + 2.25 + 2.25 = 14 m

v(m/s)
3

1
7.5
2 2.25
t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2.25
-1

-2

-3
ALTERNATIVE EXPRESSIONS FOR ACCELERATION

d𝑣
𝑎≡
d𝑡
d𝑣 d𝑥
= ×
d𝑥 d𝑡
d𝑣
= ×𝑣
d𝑥

d𝑣 d2 𝑥
𝑎= = 2 independent variable 𝑡
d𝑡 d𝑡
d𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 independent variable 𝑥
d𝑥
 EXAMPLE

The velocity 𝑣 and position 𝑥 of a particle are related by

1 2
1 2
𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐸
2 2
where 𝑚, 𝑘 and 𝐸 are constants.

(a) Find the acceleration as a function of 𝑥.

(b) Suggest a situation where such an equation may arise.

The velocity 𝑣 and position 𝑥 of a particle are related by
1 2 1
𝑚𝑣 + 2 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝐸
2
where 𝑚, 𝑘 and 𝐸 are constants.
(a) Find the acceleration as a function of 𝑥.
(b) Suggest a situation where such an equation may arise.

1 1 2 d𝑣
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = constant 𝑎=𝑣
2 2 d𝑥

1 d𝑣 1
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝑥: 𝑚 × 2𝑣 + 𝑘 × 2𝑥 = 0
2 d𝑥 2

d𝑣
𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
d𝑥

d𝑣 𝑘
𝑎≡𝑣 =− 𝑥
d𝑥 𝑚

𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
Occurs for a mass/spring system
 CONSTANT-ACCELERATION FORMULAE
d𝑣
Definition of acceleration: =𝑎
d𝑡

Integrate w.r.t. 𝑡: 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

1 2
Integrate w.r.t. 𝑡: 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
1
Eliminate 𝑎: 𝑥 = (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
2

Eliminate 𝑡: 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑥
 EXAMPLE

A stone is thrown upwards with speed 25 m s–1. 2 seconds later a

second stone is thrown upwards with speed 35 m s–1.

At what height do the stones collide, and is the first stone rising or
descending when they do so?
A stone is thrown upwards with speed 25 m s–1. 2 seconds later a second stone is thrown
upwards with speed 35 m s–1.

At what height do the stones collide, and is the first stone rising or descending when they do
so? x
g = 9.81 m s-2
For each stone: 𝑎 = −𝑔 = −9.81 m s −2
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡′ + 𝑎𝑡′ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡′
2
𝑡′ is its time of travel
Stone 1: 𝑥1 = 25𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2
2
Stone 2: 𝑥2 = 35(𝑡 − 2) − 4.905 𝑡 − 2

Collision: 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 at the same 𝑡

25𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2 = 35(𝑡 − 2) − 4.905 𝑡 − 2 2

25𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2 = 35𝑡 − 70 − 4.905(𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 4)

0 = 29.62𝑡 − 89.62
𝑡 = 3.026 s
𝑥1 = 25𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2 = 30.74 m 𝑣1 = 25 − 9.81𝑡 = −4.685 m s−1
(descending)
 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
Displacement x, velocity v, acceleration a are vectors
dx dv
v= a=
d𝑡 d𝑡
dv
Definition of acceleration: =a
d𝑡

Integrate w.r.t. 𝑡: v = u + a𝑡
1 2
Integrate w.r.t. 𝑡: x = u𝑡 + a𝑡
2
1
Eliminate a: x = (u + v)𝑡
2
Eliminate 𝑡: v − u = a𝑡
2x
v+u=
𝑡
2x
(v − u) • (v + u) = a𝑡 • 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2a • x
𝑡
 VARIABLE ACCELERATION

If acceleration is not constant:

‒ you must not use the constant-acceleration formulae(!);
‒ you can integrate

d𝑥
𝑣=
d𝑡

d𝑣 d𝑣
𝑎= or 𝑎=𝑣
d𝑡 d𝑥

If you are only interested in start and end states, not the whole of
the motion, it may be easier to use energy (Topic C).
 EXAMPLE
(a) The hammer of a pile driver imparts an impulse 4500 N s to a stationary
pile of mass 𝑚 = 1500 kg. What is the initial speed of the pile?

(b) The pile is subject to its weight (𝑚𝑔) and an opposing resistive force of
magnitude
𝑚𝑔 + 30000𝑥𝑣
in newtons, where 𝑥 is the vertical distance driven into the ground in m
and 𝑣 is its velocity in m s–1. Write a mathematical expression for its
equation of motion.

(c) How far is the pile driven into the ground on this single strike?

hammer

pile

x
(a) The hammer of a pile driver imparts an impulse 4500 N s to a stationary pile of mass
𝑚 = 1500 kg. What is the initial speed of the pile?

hammer

Impulse = change of momentum

pile
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣0 − 0

𝐼 4500
𝑣0 = = = 3.0 m s −1 x
𝑚 1500
(b) The pile is subject to its weight (𝑚𝑔) and an opposing resistive force of magnitude
𝑚𝑔 + 30000𝑥𝑣
in newtons, where 𝑥 is the vertical distance driven into the ground in m and 𝑣 is its
velocity in m s–1. Write a mathematical expression for its equation of motion.

force = mass  acceleration 𝑚𝑔 + 30000𝑥𝑣

d𝑣
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 + 30000𝑥𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣
d𝑥
pile
d𝑣
−30000𝑥𝑣 = 1500𝑣
d𝑥
x
𝑚𝑔
(c) How far is the pile driven into the ground on this single strike?

d𝑣
−30000𝑥𝑣 = 1500𝑣
d𝑥
d𝑣
= −20𝑥 𝑣 = −10𝑥 2 + 𝐶 𝑣 = 3 when 𝑥 = 0
d𝑥

d𝑣 = −20𝑥 d𝑥

0 𝑋
𝑣 = 0 when 𝑥 = 𝑋
න d𝑣 = − න 20𝑥 d𝑥
3 0 𝑣 = 3 when 𝑥 = 0

0 𝑋
𝑣 3 = − 10𝑥 2 0

−3 = −10𝑋 2

3
𝑋= = 0.5477 m
10
 EXAMPLE
When dropped vertically into water, a lighter-than-water object experiences:
• a net buoyancy force 𝑚𝑤𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 upwards; mw g

x, v Cv 2
• a drag force, magnitude 𝐶𝑣 2 and direction opposing motion.

mg

Here, 𝑚 and 𝑚𝑤 are, respectively, the masses of the object and the water that it
displaces, 𝑣 is the magnitude of velocity and 𝐶 is a constant.

An object of mass 2 kg and net buoyancy 4 N hits the water at 4 m s −1 . The

constant 𝐶 has a value of 0.25 N s 2 m−2 .

(a) Write an equation of motion (using numerical values, in kg-m-s units) for the
downward velocity 𝑣 of the object after it has entered the water.

(b) Find the time taken to reach maximum depth.

(c) Find the maximum depth which it attains.

An object of mass 2 kg and net buoyancy 4 N hits the water at 4 m s −1 . The constant
𝐶 = 0.25 N s 2 m−2 .

(a) Write an equation of motion (using numerical values, in kg-m-s units) for the
downward velocity 𝑣 of the object after it has entered the water.

mw g

x, v Cv 2
force = mass  acceleration

− 𝑚𝑤 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐶𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑎 mg
net buoyancy force

−4 − 0.25𝑣 2 = 2𝑎

−8𝑎 = 16 + 𝑣 2
(b) Find the time taken to reach maximum depth. mw g

x, v Cv 2
d𝑣
−8𝑎 = 16 + 𝑣2 𝑎=
d𝑡

d𝑣
−8 = 𝑣 2 + 16 mg
d𝑡

d𝑣
−8 = d𝑡
𝑣 2 + 16

0
d𝑣 𝑇 𝑣=4 when 𝑡=0
−8 න 2 = න d𝑡
4 𝑣 + 16 0 𝑣=0 when 𝑡=𝑇

4 𝑋
d𝑣 d𝑥 1 −1
𝑋
8න 2 =𝑇 න 2 2 = 𝑎 tan
0 𝑣 + 16 0 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑎

1 4 π
𝑇 = 8 × tan−1 = 2 tan−1 (1) = 2× = 1.571 s
4 4 4
(c) Find the maximum depth which it attains. mw g

x, v Cv 2
d𝑣
−8𝑎 = 16 + 𝑣2 𝑎=𝑣
d𝑥

d𝑣
−8𝑣 = 𝑣 2 + 16 mg
d𝑥

𝑣
−8 d𝑣 = d𝑥
𝑣 2 + 16

𝑣0 𝑋 𝑣=4 when 𝑥=0

−8 න 2 d𝑣 = න d𝑥
4 𝑣 + 16 0 𝑣=0 when 𝑥=𝑋

4
𝑣
8න 2 d𝑣 = 𝑋
0 𝑣 + 16
4
2𝑣
4න d𝑣 = 𝑋
0 𝑣 2 + 16

4 32
𝑋 = 4 ln(𝑣 2 + 16) 0 = 4 ln 32 − ln 16 = 4 ln = 4 ln 2
16
= 2.773 m
 PROJECTILE MOTION
2-dimensional, constant-acceleration motion under gravity

Apply
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 y
1 g
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
separately in each direction x

Acceleration: 𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔

Velocity: 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡
1 2
Displacement: 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2

Initial velocity: 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 V0

V0 sin 
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 
V0 cos 
 EXAMPLE

A small box starts from rest and slides 6 m down a frictionless chute
angled at 30° to the horizontal. At the end of the chute it drops onto
a conveyer belt passing 3 m below.

Where, and at what speed, does it hit the conveyer belt?

A small box starts from rest and slides 6 m down a frictionless chute angled at 30° to the
horizontal. At the end of the chute it drops onto a conveyer belt passing 3 m below.

Where, and at what speed, does it hit the conveyer belt?

Stage 1: linear motion along the chute

mg 6m
𝑚𝑔 sin 30° = 𝑚𝑎 30o O
x
1 3m
𝑎 = 𝑔 sin 30° = 𝑔 y
2

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠

1
𝑣= 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 = 0 + 2 × × 9.81 × 6 = 7.672 m s −1
2
A small box starts from rest and slides 6 m down a frictionless chute angled at 30° to the
horizontal. At the end of the chute it drops onto a conveyer belt passing 3 m below.

Where, and at what speed, does it hit the conveyer belt?

R
Stage 2: projectile motion under gravity
𝑢𝑥 = 7.672 cos 30° = 6.644 m s−1
mg 6m
𝑢𝑦 = 7.672 sin 30° = 3.836 m s−1 30o O
x
3m
y
𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔 = 9.81 m s −2

1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2

3 = 3.836𝑡 + 4.905𝑡 2

4.905𝑡 2 + 3.836𝑡 − 3 = 0

−3.836 + 3.8362 − 4 × 4.905 × (−3) = 0.4833 s

𝑡=
2 × 4.905
A small box starts from rest and slides 6 m down a frictionless chute angled at 30° to the
horizontal. At the end of the chute it drops onto a conveyer belt passing 3 m below.

Where, and at what speed, does it hit the conveyer belt?

𝑢𝑥 = 6.644 m s−1 𝑢𝑦 = 3.836 m s −1 R

𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑦 = 9.81 m s −2

𝑡 = 0.4833 s mg 6m
30o O
x
3m
Distance: y

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = 6.644 × 0.4833 = 3.211 m

Velocity:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 = 6.644 m s−1
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 8.577 m s−1

𝑣= 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 10.85 m s−1

 TRAJECTORY (y as function of x)
𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 𝑡=
𝑢𝑥
1 2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2

𝑢𝑦 1 𝑥2
𝑦= 𝑥− 𝑔 2 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 2 parabolic:
𝑢𝑥 2 𝑢𝑥

In terms of initial speed and direction:

1 𝑥2 V0
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − 𝑔 V0 sin 
2 (𝑣0 cos 𝜃)2 
V0 cos 
TRAVEL TIME AND RANGE (over horizontal ground)
1 2 1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑡(𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡)
2 2

2𝑢𝑦 2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 V0

V0 sin 
Travel time: 𝑡= 𝑡=
𝑔 𝑔 
V0 cos 

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡

2𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 2𝑣02 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑣02

Range: 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= sin 2𝜃
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Maximum travel time when 𝜃 = 90° (vertical)

Maximum range when 𝜃 = 45°

 EXAMPLE
A fire hose sends a stream of water at 70° to the horizontal from a
height of 1 m above the ground to enter an upper-storey window 5 m
above the ground at a horizontal distance of 15 m.

(a) By approximating the jet as a frictionless stream of particles,

estimate the speed of the water emerging from the nozzle of the
fire hose.

(b) If the nozzle of the fire hose has diameter 60 mm, estimate the
volume of water in the air between hose and window at any
instant.

5m
o
70
1m

15 m
A fire hose sends a stream of water at 70° to the horizontal from a height of 1 m above the
ground to enter an upper-storey window 5 m above the ground at a horizontal distance of 15 m.

(a) By approximating the jet as a frictionless stream of particles, estimate the speed of the
water emerging from the nozzle of the fire hose.

Origin O at the nozzle, 𝑥 horizontal and 𝑦 positive upward.

𝑦 = 4 m when 𝑥 = 15 m
5m
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 70° 𝑎𝑥 = 0 70o
1m
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 70° 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 = −9.81 m s −2
15 m

Trajectory:
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑣0 cos 70°)𝑡
1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 = (𝑣0 sin 70°)𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2
2
Eliminate 𝑡:
2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin70°) × − 4.905 ×
𝑣0 cos 70° 𝑣0 cos 70°
41.93 2
𝑦 = 2.747𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑣02
(a) By approximating the jet as a frictionless stream of particles, estimate the speed of the
water emerging from the nozzle of the fire hose.

41.93 2
𝑦 = 2.747𝑥 − 𝑥 5m
𝑣02 o
70
1m

15 m

𝑦 = 4 m when 𝑥 = 15 m

9434
4 = 41.21 − 2
𝑣0

𝑣0 = 15.92 m s −1
(b) If the nozzle of the fire hose has diameter 60 mm, estimate the volume of water in the
air between hose and window at any instant.

𝑣0 = 15.92 m s −1 5m
o
70
𝐷 = 0.06 m 1m

15 m

Volume of water in the air = amount of water released during time of travel (nozzle to wall)
= 𝑄𝑡

𝐷2
Volume flow rate: 𝑄 = 𝑣0 𝐴 = 𝑣0 π = 0.04501 m3 s−1
4

𝑥 𝑥
Time of travel: 𝑡= = = 2.755 s
𝑢𝑥 𝑣0 cos 70°

volume = 𝑄𝑡 = 0.1240 m3
 RANGE ON NON-HORIZONTAL GROUND

Intersect the trajectory ...

1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − 𝑔
2 (𝑣0 cos 𝜃)2

... with the equation for the ground surface:

𝑦 = 𝑦ground (𝑥൯

g
Provided the ground is still planar, you could V0
y'
also use components parallel and perpendicular
to the slope. − x'

O 
 EXAMPLE

A particle is fired at elevation angle 𝜃. Find its slopewise range

along a plane at 𝛽 degrees to the horizontal (where 𝛽 < 𝜃):

(a) by intersecting the particle trajectory with the equation of the

plane;
(b) by resolving parallel and perpendicular to the plane.

  x
 POLAR COORDINATES (r, θ)

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
y
r

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝜃= tan−1
𝑦 O x
𝑥
 EXAMPLE

(a) Convert the cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) = (– 2,1) to

polar coordinates.

(b) Convert the polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) = (5,5π/3) to

cartesian coordinates.
(a) Convert the cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) = (– 2,1) to polar coordinates.

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
𝑟= −2 2 + 12 = 5

1
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −26.57° or 153.43°
−2

Here, 153.43° (2.68 rad)

(b) Convert the polar coordinates (𝑟, θ) = (5,5π/3) to cartesian coordinates.

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

5π 5
𝑥 = 5 cos =
3 2

5π 5 3
𝑦 = 5 sin =−
3 2
 i
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
r


IN CARTESIAN OR POLAR COORDINATES
O
j
e
er
i
r r

O  
O
Cartesiane  Polar
er
𝑥 𝑟
Position: 𝑦 r 𝜃

O x = 𝑥i + 𝑦j x = 𝑟e𝑟

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟ሶ
Velocity:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑦ሶ 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥ሷ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2
Acceleration:
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑦ሷ 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ
 POLAR COORDINATES: BASIS VECTORS

i
r

O 

e
e𝑟 = cos 𝜃 i + sin 𝜃 j er

e𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 i + cos 𝜃 j r

O 
 POLAR COORDINATES:
RATE OF CHANGE OF BASIS VECTORS
e𝑟 = cos 𝜃 i + sin 𝜃 j e𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 i + cos 𝜃 j

d d d𝜃 j
e𝑟 = ( cos 𝜃 i + sin 𝜃 j) ×
dt d𝜃 dt
d𝜃 i
= ( −sin 𝜃 i + cos 𝜃 j) r
dt
= e𝜃 𝜃ሶ O 

e
d er
ሶ 𝜃
e𝑟 = 𝜃e
dt r
d 
ሶ 𝑟
e𝜃 = − 𝜃e O
dt
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
IN POLAR COORDINATES e er

Position: x = 𝑟e𝑟 r

O 

v vr
dx de𝑟
Velocity: v≡ = 𝑟e
ሶ 𝑟+𝑟
d𝑡 d𝑡
r
= 𝑟e ሶ 𝜃
ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃e


dv de𝑟 de a ar
Acceleration: a≡ = 𝑟e
ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑟ሶ ሷ 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜃ሶ 𝜃
+ (𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃)e
d𝑡 d𝑡 d𝑡
= 𝑟e ሶ 𝜃 + (𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃)e
ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑟ሶ 𝜃e ሷ 𝜃 − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 e𝑟
r

= (𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 )e𝑟 + (2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃)e

ሷ 𝜃

 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
IN POLAR COORDINATES

v vr
Velocity
radial: 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟ሶ r

transverse: 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ 

Acceleration a ar

radial: 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2
r
transverse: 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ

 EXAMPLE
A slider moves radially outward from the origin at a rate
d𝑟/d𝑡 = 0.2 m s–1 on an arm rotating at angular velocity
30 rpm.

Find the velocity and acceleration vectors, and their

magnitudes, as a function of time.

0.2 m/s

30 rpm
A slider moves radially outward from the origin at a rate d𝑟/d𝑡 = 0.2 m s–1 on an arm rotating
at angular velocity 30 rpm.

Find the velocity and acceleration vectors, and their magnitudes, as a function of time.
𝒓, 𝜽 and their time derivatives are known ... find velocity and acceleration

0.2 m/s
Velocity:
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟ሶ = 0.2
𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ = 0.2π𝑡
30 rpm

𝑣= 𝑣𝑟2 + 𝑣𝜃2 = 0.2 1 + π2 𝑡 2

𝑟ሷ = 0
𝑟ሶ = 0.2
𝑟 = 0.2𝑡 Acceleration:
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 = −0.2π2 𝑡
rev 2π rad
𝜃ሶ = 30 = 30 × = π rad s −1 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ = 0.4π
min 60 s
𝑎= 𝑎𝑟2 + 𝑎𝜃2 = 0.2π π2 𝑡 2 + 4
𝜃ሷ = 0
 EXAMPLE
A warship travels parallel to the coast at constant speed v, passing
a closest distance d from a radar station.

Find the values of 𝑟, 𝑟,ሶ 𝑟,ሷ 𝜃,ሶ 𝜃ሷ (as functions of 𝑣 and 𝑑) when:
(a) 𝜃 = 0°;
(b) 𝜃 = 45° (π/4 radians).

warship
r
radar 
station d
A warship travels parallel to the coast at constant speed v, passing a closest distance d from a
radar station. v

warship
Find the values of 𝑟, 𝑟,ሶ 𝑟,ሷ 𝜃,ሶ 𝜃ሷ (as functions of 𝑣 and 𝑑) ... r
radar 
station d

Velocity and acceleration are known ... find the time derivatives of 𝒓 and 𝜽
𝑑
position: 𝑟=
cos 𝜃

velocity: 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟ሶ 𝑟ሶ = 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃

𝑣𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑣
𝑣𝜃 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ 𝜃ሶ = = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 × = cos2 𝜃
𝑟 𝑑 𝑑

2
𝑑 𝑣 cos2 𝜃 𝑣2
acceleration: 𝑎𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃 ሶ2 𝑟ሷ = 0 + 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 = = cos3 𝜃
cos 𝜃 𝑑 𝑑

2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ 𝑣 cos2 𝜃 cos 𝜃

𝑎θ = 0 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ 𝜃ሷ = − = −2 × 𝑣 sin 𝜃 × ×
𝑟 𝑑 𝑑
2
𝑣
= −2 2 sin 𝜃 cos3 𝜃
𝑑
Find the values of 𝑟, 𝑟,ሶ 𝑟,ሷ 𝜃,ሶ 𝜃ሷ (as functions of 𝑣 and 𝑑) ... v
(a) 𝜃 = 0°;
(b) 𝜃 = 45° (π/4 radians). warship
r
radar 
station d

𝜃=0 𝜃 = π/4
sin 𝜃 = 0, cos 𝜃 = 1 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 1/√2

𝑑
𝑟= 𝑑 𝑑√2
cos 𝜃
1
𝑟ሶ = 𝑣 sin 𝜃 0 𝑣
√2
𝑣2 𝑣2 1 𝑣2
𝑟ሷ = cos 3 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑 2 2𝑑

𝑣 𝑣 1𝑣
𝜃ሶ = cos2 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑 2𝑑
𝑣2 1 𝑣2
𝜃ሷ = −2 2 sin 𝜃 cos3 𝜃 0 −
2 𝑑2
𝑑
 EXAMPLE

In a particular centrifugal pump, fluid particles move outward

with radial velocity
2
𝑟ሶ =
𝑟
where 𝑟 is radius in m and the units of time are seconds. The
rotating element (“impeller”) has radius 0.25 m and is rotating at
1400 rpm.

Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration of a fluid

particle as it leaves the impeller.
In a particular centrifugal pump, fluid particles move outward with radial velocity
2
𝑟ሶ =
𝑟
where 𝑟 is radius in m and the units of time are seconds. The rotating element (“impeller”) has
radius 0.25 m and is rotating at 1400 rpm.

Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle as it leaves the impeller.
2 d d −1
d𝑟 −2
2 4
Given: 𝑟ሶ = 𝑟ሷ = (2𝑟 ) −1 = (2𝑟 ) × = −2𝑟 × =− 3
𝑟 d𝑡 d𝑟 d𝑡 𝑟 𝑟
rev 2π rad 140
𝜃ሶ = 1400 = 1400 × = π rad s−1 𝜃ሷ = 0
min 60 s 3

When leaving the impeller: 𝑟 = 0.25 m 𝑟ሶ = 8 m s−1 𝑟ሷ = −256 m s −2

𝜃ሶ = 146.6 rad s −1 𝜃ሷ = 0

Velocity: 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑟ሶ = 8 m s −1 Acceleration: 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟ሷ − 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 = −5629 m s −2

𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ = 36.65 m s−1 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ = 2346 m s −2

𝑣= 𝑣𝑟2 + 𝑣𝜃2 = 37.51 m s−1 𝑎= 𝑎𝑟2 + 𝑎𝜃2 = 6098 m s −2

 SPECIAL CASE (i): MOTION IN A CIRCLE
r = constant angular velocity 𝜃ሶ → ω
angular acceleration 𝜃ሷ → α

v
Velocity
𝑣𝑟 = 0
r
𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟𝜔
O


Acceleration dv
dt
2
𝑣
𝑎𝑟 = −𝑟𝜔2 = −
𝑟 v2
r
d𝑣 r
𝑎𝜃 = 𝑟𝛼 =
d𝑡
O
 EXAMPLE

The radius of curvature of the rail track on the branch line to Rose
Hill Marple Station is 225 m. The carriages of the trains which ply
this route have length 15.5 m and mass 24 tonnes.

If these trains take the bend at 50 kph, estimate the sideways force
per metre of track that they exert on the rails.
The radius of curvature of the rail track on the branch line to Rose Hill Marple Station, is
225 m. The carriages of the trains which ply this route have length 15.5 m and mass 24
tonnes.

If these trains take the bend at 50 kph, estimate the sideways force per metre of track that
they exert on the rails.

Method:
• find (centripetal) acceleration from speed and radius
km 1000 m
𝑣 = 50 = 50 × = 13.89 m s−1
h 60 × 60 s
𝑣2 13.892
𝑎= = = 0.8575 m s−2
𝑟 225

• find force from mass  acceleration

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 24000 × 0.8575 = 20580 N

• find force per metre by dividing by carriage length

𝐹 20580
𝑓= = = 1328 N m−1
𝐿 15.5
 SPECIAL CASE (ii): CENTRAL FORCE
Alternative form for transverse acceleration: 𝑎𝜃 = 2𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟𝜃ሷ
1
= (2𝑟𝑟ሶ 𝜃ሶ + 𝑟 2 𝜃)
ሷ
𝑟
1d 2
= ሶ
(𝑟 𝜃)
𝑟 d𝑡

Central force  𝑎𝜃 = 0
1d 2
 ሶ =0
(𝑟 𝜃)
𝑟 d𝑡

 𝑟 2 𝜃ሶ = constant

• Angular momentum, 𝑚𝑣𝜃 × 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑟𝜃ሶ × 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃ሶ is constant d

r

1
• Rate of sweeping out area, 𝑟 2 𝜃,ሶ is constant d𝐴 = 12𝑟 2 d𝜃
2