FCFVA Lecture #1: General Modeling Principles and Mass Conservation

FCFVA Lecture #1 : General modeling principles and mass
conservation
C. Corre*
*ECL - LMFA
6 octobre 2021
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C. Corre (ECL - LMFA) FCVFA : Lecture #1 6 octobre 2021 1 / 66
Derivation of conservation laws
Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

model needed to describe a flowing fluid
can be based on a microscopic or macroscopic approach
microscopic approach : analysis of the behavior of each molecule or parcels of
molecule in the fluid
macroscopic approach : defines an averaged behaviour for the molecules enclosed
in a given elementary volume, referred as a fluid particle
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discrete microscopic approach = kinetic theory
macroscopic approach = continuum mechanics
question : when should each approach be used ?
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consider air at normal temperature (T = 298.15 K) and pressure (p = 1 atm)
conditions
number of molecules in a small cube with 10−3 mm edge length ≈ 2.7 × 107
corresponding mean free path λ ≈ 9.7 × 10−5 mm
⇒ enough molecules in this small volume for the fluid to be considered a
continuous medium
⇒ local properties can be determined from statistical averages over the number
of molecules without having to follow the motion and collision of the molecules
continuum mechanics theory = well adapted framework for dealing with
numerous flows
⇒ will be systematically and exclusively throughout this course.
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consider the atmosphere at an altitude of 130 km (thermosphere layer of the
Earth atmosphere)
less than one molecule in the aforementioned small cube of edge length 10−3 mm
mean free path λ ≈ 10 m
⇒ for space applications in the upper atmosphere, fluid can hardly be
considered as a continuous medium
⇒ kinetic theory is required.
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kinetic framework : flow analysis performed at the molecular level through the
Boltzmann equations
non-dimensional number characterizing the relevance of a continuous medium
description or else of a kinetic description = Knudsen number defined as :
λ
Kn =
L
with λ = mean free path, L = characteristic length for the flow application
under study (e.g. total length of a space shuttle)
molecular regime corresponds to large values of the Knudsen number (large
meaning Kn = O(1) or Kn >> 1)
for this range of Knudsen number, molecular description (hence gas kinetic
theory) is required.
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other important domains of application exist, for which the continuous medium
modeling theory is not valid and must be replaced with a gas-kinetics type
description
micro-fluidics : flow applications taking place with a characteristic length L for
the flow domain which becomes of the order of magnitude of the mean free path
λ or even smaller than λ ⇒ Kn = O(1) or Kn > 1
turbomolecular pump or more generally applications linked to vacuum, where
very low pressures are encountered ⇒ rarefied gas flows.
reversely, viscous regime or continuous medium regime corresponds to small or
very small values of the Knudsen number
only small Knudsen number flows will be considered throughout the course
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Local flow properties
Density
continuous medium description of the fluid ⇒ it is possible to define macroscopic
quantities as averaged molecular properties on a volume of characteristic length
d which is both large with respect to the (microscopic) molecular mean free path
λ and small with respect to the (macroscopic) characteristic length of the flow
(for instance the radius of a nozzle, the chord of an airfoil) :
λ << d << L
the macroscopic density of the fluid is defined as :

P
α mα δm
ρ= =
δV δV
where the elementary fluid mass δm is the sum of the mass mα of each molecule
in the elementary volume δV
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Local flow properties
Velocity
~ defined as :
macroscopic fluid velocity U
P
~ = α mα ~
uα
U
δm
where ~
uα = velocity of molecule α
note again that d (thus δV ) is such that the very large number of molecules
present in the elementary volume δV ensures the above averaged quantities are
well defined or meaningful
macroscopic quantities, density ρ and velocity U ~ , depend on the position vector
~x and the time t ⇒ flowfields : ρ(~ ~ (~
x, t), U x, t).
description of how the flow fulfills key physical principles (mass, momentum,
energy conservation) ⇒ conservation laws = partial differential equations
(PDEs) on the flowfields, governing the flow evolution
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Material point, material domain and fluid particle

material point = point in the flow domain which moves with the local velocity of
the fluid
position ~x(t) of a material point at time t such that :
d~
x ~ (~
=U x, t)
dt
the material point ”moves with the fluid”
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material domain = fluid domain (or volume) entirely made of material points
since, by definition, material points move with the flowing fluid, the material
domain also moves with the fluid
the material domain always contains the same material points
⇒ useful property exploited next to ease the derivation of physical models
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we will also consider a general fluid volume, D(t), with surface S(t) moving with
~ , distinct from the fluid velocity field U
the arbitrary velocity field W ~
note also ~n denotes the outward-pointing unit normal vector to the surface S(t)
Figure – General fluid volume.
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throughout the course, Dm (t) = material domain, such that by definition its
~
surface Sm (t) is moving with the velocity flowfield U
for some applications, a fixed domain D0 , with surface S0 at rest, will also be
considered.
special case of material domain = fluid particle = elementary material domain,
or material domain of infinitesimal dimension d
a fluid particle is associated to a material point P , typically the ”center” or
barycenter of the fluid particle
difference between material point and fluid particle : a fluid particle is not a
point but a (small) volume on which the macroscopic quantities can be
statistically defined
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C. Corre (ECL - LMFA)
Figure – Fluid particle.
FCVFA : Lecture #1 6 octobre 2021 13 / 66

macroscopic density and velocity associated to a fluid particle take typically the
~ at the material point ~
value of ρ and U xP , that is ρ(~ ~ (~
xP , t) and U xP , t)
as will be seen later, the fluid particle can also be deformed in the fluid motion -
which is meaningless for a material point
a material domain can also be considered as made of a large number of fluid
particles - always the same particles throughout the fluid motion since fluid
particles are moving with the fluid
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the mass of fluid contained in the volume D(t) at time t is given by :
ZZZ
M (t) = ρ(~
x, t) dV
D(t)
or with simplified notation :

Z
M (t) = ρ(~
x, t) dV
D(t)
considering thta notations D(t) and dV make it clear we are dealing with a
volume integral
elementary mass δm of a fluid particle of elementary volume δV such that :
δm = ρ(~
xP , t) δV = ρ(~
x, t) δV
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Flow description : streamlines and pathlines

useful concepts for describing and analyzing the fluid motion are streamlines and
trajectories or pathlines of the fluid particles
streamlines are defined at a given time t
a streamline is a line in the flow such that the tangent vector at each point ~ x of
~ (~
this line is aligned / parallel / colinear with the local velocity vector U x, t)
Figure – Streamline.
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a streamline is therefore such that, at a given time t, the vector product between
~ (~
the local velocity vector U x, t) and the local tangent vector d~
x is zero :
~ (~
U x = ~0
x, t) × d~
examples of streamline calculation are proposed in the lecture notes at the end
of Chapter 1
at this early stage of the course, the velocity field is provided and the
corresponding streamlines must be identified
in practice, finding the velocity field is the first problem to solve (we will see
later how) and identifying and plotting the streamlines corresponds to a (useful)
post-processing step
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trajectory of a fluid particle (or a material point) defined by expressing the fact
the velocity vector U~ (~x, t) is the velocity of the fluid particle or the velocity of
the material point at all time :
d~
x ~ (~
=U x, t)
dt
trajectories or pathlines depend on the whole flow history, while streamlines are
flow snapshots at a given time
in the general case, trajectories and streamlines are different
in the particular case of a steady flow (no variation of the flowfields in time),
streamlines and trajectories coincide
fluid particles or material points move along the streamlines in a steady flow.
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Modelling strategy : general principles

3 fundamental physical principles will be applied to a well-selected volume of fluid
also called a control volume :
A) mass conservation. The time variation of the mass of fluid contained in a
given volume is equal to the mass flux of fluid through the surface of the control
volume.
B) momentum conservation. The time variation of the momentum contained
in a given fluid volume is equal to the sum of the forces applied to this volume
(second Newton’s law or fundamental principle of dynamics) and the momentum
flux through the surface of the control volume.
C) energy conservation. The time variation of the energy contained in a
given fluid volume is governed by the first principle of thermodynamics.
The physical principles A, B and C are applied to a well selected volume of fluid and
turned into a set of mathematical equations (PDEs).
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Selection of a fluid volume

lignes de courant
de l’écoulement
(a)
surface de contrôle surface de contrôle
volume de contrôle fixe V volume de contrôle en mouvement

avec le fluide V(t)
(b) (c)
volume élémentaire en mouvement

volume élémentaire fixe en espace dV avec le fluide
(d) (e)
Figure – Various fluid domains in use when deriving the governing equations of a fluid flow.
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let us consider a general flow visualized through its streamlines
let us picture a volume enclosing a finite region of the flow
this control volume V or D is limited by a closed surface S (also denoted ∂D or
∂V to make it clear this surface is enclosing the corresponding control volume),
also called control surface
the fluid can freely enter and leave the volume V or D through the surface S
this general volume D and its surface S correspond to the previously introduced
fluid domain D(t) with surface S(t) moving with the arbitrary velocity field
W~ (~
x, t)
sometimes in this course, the notation Da (t) and Sa (t) will be used to underline
~ of the control surface is arbitrary
the fact the velocity W
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if the finite control volume is fixed, the moving fluid enters and leaves V through
the surface S
using previously introduced notations, we will refer to such a fixed volume and
its surface as, respectively, D0 and S0
~ = ~0
obviously the velocity of the surface S0 is W
a particularly interesting choice of control volume is the previously defined
material domain, Dm (t), of control surface Sm (t) moving with the fluid at the
~ (~x, t) = U
velocity W ~ (~x, t)
since the material domain moves with the fluid and always contains the same
fluid particles, there is no mass flux through Sm (t)
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applying the key physical principles A, B and C to a finite control volume, be it
D0 , Dm (t) ou Da (t), will allow us to derive the global or integral form of the
equations governing the fluid flow
such an integral or global form proves especially useful for flow analysis when
the detailed (local) description of the flowfield is not accessible
alternatively, an infinitesimal or elementary fluid element can be selected,
namely a fluid particle if it moves with the fluid or else a fixed elementary fluid
element through which the fluid is flowing
applying the key physical principles A, B and C to such an infinitesimal fluid
element yields the local or differential form of the fluid flow governing equations
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the global form of the conservation laws can be deduced from the local form by
integrating the local form on a finite size fluid volume
reversely, the local form can also be deduced from the global form as will be
next explained
in the present course, we will favor a presentation starting with the global
formulation, deducing then the local formulation, because we think such an
approach is more ”efficient” than the somewhat tedious differential formulation
on an elementary control volume
we will also favor the use of a material domain when deriving this global form
but we will also detail how the governing equations extend to a general /
arbitrary control volume Da (t)
before deriving the mass conservation equation, let us review 2 supplementary
useful tools : the material derivative and the transport or Reynolds theorem
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Concept of material derivative

let us consider a fluid particle (small volume moving with the fliuid which can be
identified to a point in space from a macroscopic viewpoint)
this fluid particle moves in a space described using a Cartesian system of
coordinates (O;~i, ~j, ~k)
y
position 1
O x
i
k
position 2
Figure – Fluid particle moving with the fluid flow.
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the velocity of the fluid particle is the fluid velocity, written in this referential as :
~ = Ux~i + Uy~j + Uz ~k
U
with Ux = Ux (x, y, z, t) = Ux (~
x, t) and similarly for Uy and Uz .
the following alternative notations will also be used :
~ = U1~e1 + U2~e2 + U3~e3
U
with an obvious correspondance between the basis of unit vectors (~i, ~j, ~k) and
the basis of unit vectors (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) as well as between the coordinates (x, y, z)
and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and the velocity components Ux , Uy , Uz and U1 , U2 , U3
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throughout the course Einstein notation on repeated indices will be adopted
this notation states that when an index is repeated it implies a summation is
performed on this index
for instance, the expansion of the velocity vector on the basis (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) can be
shortly expressed as :
3
X
~ = U1~e1 + U2~e2 + U3~e3 =
U Uk ~ek = Uk ~ek
k=1
this notation is extensively used in fluid mechanics but also in general mechanics
and physics
note that if the flow takes place in a two-dimensional (2D) space , the
summation is implicitely from k = 1 to k = 2 only
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let us consider a scalar fluid quantity ϕ(~
x, t) attached to a fluid particle, for
instance ϕ = ρ
let us compute the variation of ϕ in the motion of the fluid particle
doing so, we must take into account the fact ϕ depends on time t and on the
position of the fluid particle ~
x which varies with time t (~x = ~
x(t))
the total variation of ϕ(x(t), y(t), z(t), t) can be therefore written as :
dϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ dx ∂ϕ dy ∂ϕ dz
= + + + (1)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
dϕ
the instantaneous variation of ϕ in the motion of the fluid, , is called the
dt
material derivative of ϕ
it is the variation of the quantity ϕ attached to a fluid particle when following
the motion of the fluid particle , that is is the fluid motion
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let us introduce the vector operator ∇~ (nabla or nabla vector) :
∂
 
 ∂x 
 
 
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ 
~ ≡
∇ ~i + ~j + ~k =   (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂y 
 
 
∂
 
∂z
~ is also denoted the
when applied to a scalar quantity ϕ(x, y, z), the vector ∇ϕ
gradient of ϕ and computed as :
∂ϕ
 
 ∂x 
 
 
 ∂ϕ 
~ ~
grad(ϕ) = ∇ϕ =   
 ∂y 

 
∂ϕ
 
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∂z

using the alternative notations (x1 , x2 , x3 ) for the system of coordinates (and
correspondingly (U1 , U2 , U3 ) for the velocity components), the gradient of ϕ is
such that :  ∂ϕ 
 ∂x1 
 
 
 ∂ϕ 
~ =
∇ϕ 
 ∂x2 
 
 
∂ϕ
 
∂x3
formula (1) expressing the material derivative operator can be recast into the
form :
dϕ ∂ϕ ~ · ∇ϕ
~
= + U (3)
dt
|{z} ∂t
|{z} | {z }
material derivative local derivative convective derivative
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A physical quantity associated to a fluid particle varies when passing through a point
~
x in the flow domain because :
at this given point, the physical quantity can display a time variation, expressed
∂
by the local partial derivative
∂t
the fluid particle is moving towards another point in the flow domain where the
studied physical quantity will undergo a change of value, this change of value
being expressed by the convective derivative U ~ ·∇~
D D
the material derivative is also sometimes denoted or to emphasize the
Dt Dt
specific nature of this differentiation following the motion of the fluid :
D ∂ ~ ·∇
~
= +U
Dt ∂t
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Concept of material derivative : example of application

by definition, the acceleration of a fluid particle is the time variation of the fluid
particle velocity that is the material derivative of the velocity vector U~
let us denote ~γ the acceleration vector of the fluid particle. It satisfies :
~
DU
~γ =
Dt
or, expressing the equality of each component of the vectors :

DUi ∂ ~ ·∇~ Ui
γi = = +U
Dt ∂t
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Concept of material derivative : example of application

developing the expression of the convective derivative yields :
DUi ∂Ui ~ · ∇U
~ i
γi = = +U
Dt ∂t

∂Ui ∂Ui ∂Ui ∂Ui
= + U1 + U2 + U3
∂t ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂Ui ∂Ui
= + Uj
∂t ∂xj
where the Einstein notation on repeated indices has been used to express the
convective derivative in a compact way.
in vector notation, we can write :
~
∂U
~γ = + U~ ·∇
~ U ~
∂t
~ ·∇
where the (scalar) operator U ~ is successively applied to each component of
the velocity vector.
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Reynolds transport theorem : motivation

before reviewing the content of this important theorem, let us emphasize the
need for such a tool
as previously announced, the governing equations of the fluid flow will be
obtained by applying physical principles of conservation (mass, momentum,
energy) to a well-chosen fluid domain
let us assume the selected fluid domain is a (finite size) material domain Dm (t)
the mass of fluid contained in this domain is given, by definition of the density,
by : Z
M (t) = ρ(~x, t) dV
Dm (t)
since the material domain Dm (t) is always made of the same fluid particles,
there is no new fluid particles entering Dm (t) through the surface Sm (t) during
the motion of the material domain and no fluid particles leaving the material
domain during its motion
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consequently, at all times, Dm (t) is made of the same set of fluid particles so
that the principle of mass conservation allows to conclude the mass M (t) of the
fluid contained in the material domain Dm (t) remains constant, that is :
dM
=0
dt
or, since the variation of the mass is computed following the motion of the fluid :
DM
=0
Dt
the definition of the previously introduced material derivative cannot be readily
DM
applied to the explicit calculation of as M is not a simple scalar quantity
Dt
but the volume integral of a scalar quantity
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at this stage, we know mass conservation can be expressed as :
Z
D
ρ(~
x, t) dV = 0 (4)
Dt Dm (t)
but we do not know yet how to compute explicitly such a material derivative of
a volume integral
the so-called transport theorem or Reynolds transport theorem provides such an
explicit expression
the lecture notes detail the derivation of this theorem, which will be directly
presented and exploited in this presentation.
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Reynolds transport theorem

The transport theorem (due to Reynolds) can be stated as follows :
the time variation of the integral of a scalar quantity ϕ on the material domain
Vm (t) is equal to the sum of the integral on the material domain Vm (t) of the
variation of ϕ with respect to time and of the flux of ϕ through the surface
Sm (t) enclosing the volume Vm (t)
or else, put into a mathematical formula and going back to the notation Dm (t)
instead of Vm (t) for the material domain, the transport theorem reads :
Z Z Z
d ∂ϕ(~
x, t) ~ · ~ndS
ϕ(~x, t)dV = dV + ϕ(~
x, t) U (5)
dt Dm (t) Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t)
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Reynolds transport theorem : various formulations

a version of the transport theorem can be similarly derived for an arbitrary
control volume Da (t) whose surface Sa (t) moves with the arbitrary velocity field
~ (~
W x, t) :
Z Z Z
d ∂ϕ(~
x, t) ~ · ~ndS
ϕ(~x, t)dV = dV + ϕ(~
x, t) W (6)
dt Da (t) Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
it can be immediately checked this general formula (6) gives back (5) when the
arbitrary volume Da (t) becomes a material volume such that W ~ =U ~
besides, in the particular case of a fixed control volume (W ~ = ~0), the transport
theorem reduces to the obvious relationship :
Z Z
d ∂ϕ(~
x, t)
ϕ(~x, t)dV = dV (7)
dt D0 D0 ∂t
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the transport theorem can also be expressed using volume integrals only
indeed, the flux or surface integral present in (6) can be turned into a volume
integral using the so-called Green-Ostrogradsky or divergence or else
flux-divergence theorem which takes the following general form
let ϕ(~
x, t) be a scalar field and let ~a(~
x, t)) be a vector field
both ϕ and ~a are defined in a volume V (t) and on the closed surface S(t) of this
volume, with ~n the outward-pointing unit normal vector to S(t)
the flux-divergence theorem states the following identity :
Z Z
ϕ ~a · ~n dS = ~ · (ϕ ~a) dV
∇ (8)
S(t) V (t)
~ · (ϕ ~a) is the divergence of the vector ϕ ~a

the scalar quantity ∇
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the divergence of a vector ~a, with coordinates (a1 , a2 , a3 )T in a Cartesian frame
(Ox1 x2 x3 ) is computed as follows :
~ · ~a = div(~a) = ∂a1 + ∂a2 + ∂a3 = ∂ai

∇
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xi
where the Einstein notation is used, meaning the last expression involves a
summation on the repeated index i
the divergence of the vector ϕ ~a is computed in a straightforward way as :
~ · (ϕ~a) = div(ϕ~a) = ∂(ϕa1 ) + ∂(ϕa2 ) + ∂(ϕa3 ) = ∂(ϕai )

∇
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xi
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applying formula (8) with ~a = W ~ , ϕ = ϕ(~ x, t) and S(t) = Sa (t) yields the
following alternative form of the transport theorem :
Z Z Z
d ∂ϕ ~ · (ϕ W
~ )dV
ϕ(~x, t) dV = dV + ∇
dt Va (t) Va (t) ∂t Va (t)
or
Z Z
d ∂ϕ ~ ~ ) dV
ϕ(~
x, t) dV = + ∇ · (ϕ W (9)
dt Va (t) Va (t) ∂t
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Reynolds transport theorem : extension to the vector case

the relationship (5) or (6) has been derived for a scalar field ϕ
tet us assume we wish to compute the time variation of the volume integral of a
vector quantity over an arbitrary fluid domain Da (t) :
Z
d ~b(~
x, t) dV
dt Va (t)
the transport theorem is easily extended to this vector case by developing the
vector ~b on the vector basis associated with the reference frame
assuming a Cartesian reference frame, with ~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 the constant unit vectors
associated with each axis (x1 , x2 ; x3 ) of the reference frame, ~b can be expanded
as :
~b(~x, t) = b1 (~
x, t) ~e1 + b2 (~
x, t) ~e2 + b3 (~
x, t) ~e3 = bj ~ej
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Reynolds transport theorem : extension to the vector case

therefore, it is possible to write :
Z Z
d ~b(~x, t) dV = d bj ~ej dV
dt Va (t) dt Va (t) !
Z
d
= bj dV ~ej
dt Va (t)
Z Z !
∂bj ~ · ~n dS ~ej
= dV + bj W
∂t
Z Va (t) Sa (t)
Z
∂(bj ~ej ) ~ · ~n dS
= dV + (bj ~ej ) W
Va (t) ∂t Sa (t)
hence the vector formulation of the transport theorem :
∂~b
Z Z Z
d ~b(~x, t) dV = ~b (W
~ · ~n) dS
dV + (10)
dt Va (t) Va (t) ∂t Sa (t)
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First application of the transport theorem
Incompressible flow
an incompressible flow is such the volume of a material domain does not vary in
time
If the material domain is an elementary one, it is a fluid particle so that it can
also be stated the volume of a fluid particle remains constant in an
incompressible flow
let us consider a material domain Dm (t) ; the volume of this domain is computed
as : Z
dV = 0
Dm (t)
⇒ the flow is incompressible if the time variation of this volume remains zero :
Z
d
dV = 0
dt Dm (t)
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Incompressible flow
this relationship can be turned into a more interesting expression by using the
transport theorem (5) in the particular case where ϕ ≡ 1, which yields :
Z Z
d ~ · ~n dS = 0
dV = U
dt Dm (t) Sm (t)
using now the flux-divergence theorem (8) the surface integral is turned into the
volume integral : Z
∇~ ·U
~ dV = 0
Dm (t)
since this relationship holds for any material domain Dm (t), it means the
integrated quantity is actually identically zero, so that :
~ ·U
∇ ~ =0 (11)
condition (11) expresses the incompressibility of a flow

incompressibility is a property of the flow and not a property of the fluid
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Incompressible flow
some fluids, water for instance, are often encountered in practical applications
where they flow in an incompressible regime (their velocity field satisfies (11)
however this does not make water an incompressible fluid !
it is sufficient to witness a water-jet cutting process to be convinced water can
also flow in a highly compressible regime (see Fig. 6)
Figure – Example of a compressible flow of water encountered in a water-jet cutting process.

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Incompressible flow
Further comments
the time variation of the volume Vm (t) of the material domain Dm (t) is such
that : Z
dVm (t) ~ ·U
~ dV
= ∇
dt Dm (t)
if Dm (t) is now selected as an elementary (infinitesimal) volume, namely the

~ ·U
volume δV (t) of a fluid particle, the quantity ∇ ~ can be supposed almost
constant on such a small volume
⇒ the right-hand-side (RHS) of the above formula can be approximated as :
Z
dδV (t) ~ ·U
~) ~ ·U
~ )δV (t)
= (∇ dV = (∇
dt Dm (t)
the relative variation of the volume of a fluid particle is therefore equal to the
~ :
divergence of the velocity field U
1 dδV (t) ~ ·U
~
=∇ (12)
δV (t) dt
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Incompressible flow
Further comments
~ ·U
if ∇ ~ = div(U~ ) ≥ 0, the volume of the fluid particle increases, corresponding
to a local expansion of the fluid
~ ·U
if ∇ ~ ≤ 0, the volume of the fluid particle decreases : the fluid displays a local
compression
~ ·U
if ∇ ~ = 0 the volume of the fluid particle displays no relative variation
throughout the motion of the particle : the flow is thus incompressible
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Mass conservation
Global form using a material domain

let us remember how (4) has been established
the mass conservation principle is applied to a (finite) material domain or
volume Dm (t)
since this material volume is always made of the same fluid particles or material
points, the mass of fluid contained in the material volume does not vary in time
or when the material volume moves with the flow
the elementary mass of an elementary volume element of Dm (t) (this is a fluid
particle) is given, by definition of the fluid density ρ, by the expression :
dm = ρdV
49 / 66
Mass conservation

the total mass of fluid contained in the material volume Dm (t) is therefore given
by : Z
M (t) = ρ(~x, t) dV
Dm (t)
the variation of M when Dm (t) moves with the fluid is equal to 0 hence :
Z
d
( ρ(~
x, t) dV ) = 0 (13)
dt Dm (t)
50 / 66
Mass conservation

equation (13) expresses the mass conservation principle but we would like to
turn it into a more explicit form involving integrals of flow quantities and no
longer the time derivative or material derivative of a volume integral
using the transport theorem (5) with ϕ = ρ, the global or integral form of the
mass conservation equation is readily obtained :
Z Z
∂ρ ~ · ~n dS = 0
dV + ρU (14)
Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t)
51 / 66
Mass conservation
Local or differential form

the local form of the mass conservation equation could be obtained by applying
the mass conservation principle A) to an elementary control volume (the volume
of a fluid particle)
here the local form of the mass conservation equation will be deduced from the
global form (14)
let us consider the global form (14) of the mass conservation equation :
Z Z
∂ρ ~ · ~n dS = 0
dV + ρU
Dm (t) ∂t Sm (t)
when the density ρ is continuous in the volume Dm (t) the flux-divergence

theorem (8) can be applied to transform the surface integral (flux) into a volume
integral (of a divergence) :
Z Z
~ · ~n dS =
ρU ∇~ · (ρU
~ ) dV
Sm (t) Dm (t)
52 / 66
Mass conservation

note that assuming ρ continuous on Dm (t) means in particular no shockwave
exists within the volume Dm (t)
the local form is strictly valid in continuous flow regions while the global form
can accommodate the existence of shockwaves inside the control volume Dm (t)
the above integral equation can be recast as :
Z
∂ρ ~ ~ )] dV = 0
[ + ∇ · (ρU
Dm (t) ∂t
since the integral is zero for any material volume Dm (t), this simplies the
integrated quantity is in fact identically zero so that it is possible to write :
∂ρ ~ ~) = 0
+ ∇ · (ρU (15)
∂t
where it is reminded that, in Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of the

momentum vector ρU ~ is given by :
~ ) = ∂(ρU1 ) + ∂(ρU2 ) + ∂(ρU3 ) = ∂(ρUi )

~ · (ρU
∇
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xi
53 / 66
Mass conservation

equation (15) is the conservative differential form of the equation expressing the
local mass conservation in the flow
this equation is also called the continuity equation
~ , (15) can also be
using Einstein’s notation to express the divergence of ρU
written as :
∂ρ ∂(ρUi )
+ =0 (16)
∂t ∂xi
54 / 66
Mass conservation

an equation or a conservation law is said to be in conservative form when it is of
the type :
∂ϕ ~ ~
+ ∇ · F (ϕ) = 0 (17)
∂t
where ϕ is the conserved quantity and F ~ is a flux vector
if this local form is integrated on a volume Da (t) and if the flux-divergence
theorem is used to turn the volume integral of the flux divergence into a surface
integral on Sa (t), the following integral form is obtained for the conservation
law : Z Z
∂φ ~ (ϕ) · ~n dS = 0
dV + F
Da ∂t Sa
55 / 66
Mass conservation

in the case of a fixed volume D0 , the integral equation takes the form :
Z Z
d ~ (ϕ) · ~n dS = 0
φ dV + F
dt D0 S0
which expresses that the time variation of the total quantity of ϕ contained in
the volume D0 is equal to the flux balance (incoming flux, outgoing flux)
through the surface S0
56 / 66
Mass conservation

we will present next an alternative non-conservative form of the continuity
equation, which is physically equivalent to the conservative form
using the conservative rather than the non-conservative form is a question which
arises in particular when dealing with the numerical solution of conservation laws
to establish this alternative local formulation of the mass conservation equation,
let us start from the continuity equation (15) and let us use the vector identity :
~ · (ρU
∇ ~ ) = ρ∇
~ ·U
~ +U
~ · ∇ρ
~ (18)
57 / 66
Mass conservation

using (18), the continuity equation can be expressed as :
∂ρ ~ ·U
~ +U
~ · ∇ρ
~ =0
+ ρ∇
∂t
or else, identifying the material derivative of the density :
Dρ ~ ·U
~ =0
+ ρ∇ (19)
Dt
equation (19) is the non-conservative differential form of the mass conservation

equation
the ”non-conservative” qualifying adjective does not imply that equation (19)
does not express a (mass) conservation principle
it is used to emphasize the fact the equation is not in the form (17) and cannnot
be immediately or directly interpreted in terms of flux balance
58 / 66
Mass conservation
Case of an incompressible flow

~ ·U
since an incompressible flow is such that ∇ ~ = 0, the non-conservative local
form of the mass conservation equation (19) reduces in that case to :
Dρ
=0
Dt
the density ρ of a fluid particle is therefore conserved - remains constant - along
the path or trajectory of this fluid particle when the flow is incompressible
in other words, an incompressible flow is such that the density is constant along
the pathlines
59 / 66
Mass conservation

a flow is said to be homogeneous if there is a flow configuration such that the
density of the fluid particles is the same for all fluid particles
in that case, since ρ remains constant during the motion of the fluid particle and
since ρ had a unique value for some flow configuration (for instance when the
fluid is at rest)
⇒ ρ remains constant everywhere in the flow
an incompressible and homogeneous flow is therefore a flow in which
ρ(~
x, t) = ρ = constant
60 / 66
Mass conservation

typical configuration of an incompressible and homogeneous flow =
incompressible flow around an airfoil such
Figure – Incompressible flow past an airfoil NACA 64A015. Flow visualization made
by Werlé (ONERA, 1974), Fig. 23 taken from Van Dyke’s book An album of fluid
motion, The Parabolic Press (1982).
61 / 66
Mass conservation

the flow can be considered homogeneous in the far-field domain upstream of the
airfoil : ρ = ρ∞ = constant since the variation of density with altitude can be
neglected when considering vertical length scales of the order of magnitude of
the airfoil chord
if the flow is also incompressible, the same value ρ∞ of the density will be
conserved along each trajectory of fluid particle so that eventually it can be
stated that ρ = ρ∞ everywehre in the flow (constant density flow
62 / 66
Mass conservation

since many flows are both incompressible and homogeneous, a confusion exists
sometimes between an incompressible flow and a constant-density flow
one must keep in mind many flows can be actually incompressible but with
variable density, because they are not homogeneous
a typical example can be found in the oceanography context
large-scale oceanic flows can be considered as incompressible but they take place
with a variable density because the stratification of the ocean (ρ depends on the
ocean depth z) makes the flow inhomogeneous
63 / 66
Mass conservation
Global mass conservation for an arbitrary control volume

let us consider an arbitrary fluid volume Da (t) whose surface Sa (t) moves with
~ (~
the arbitrary velocity field W x, t)
the physical principle A) of mass conservation is expressed in that case by
writing that the time variation of the total mass of the fluid contained in Da (t)
is equal to the fluid mass flux through the bounding surface Sa (t) :
Z Z
d ~ −W
~ ) · ~n dS
ρ dV = − ρ(U (20)
dt Da (t) Sa (t)
the velocity involved in the mass flux is the relative velocity between the fluid
and the surface Sa (t)
if the fluid volume is a material volume (Da = Dm , W ~ =U ~ ) this relative
velocity is zero and there is no mass flux entering nor leaving the control volume
the minus sign comes from the orientation of the outward-pointing unit normal
~n to the surface Sa (t)
64 / 66
Mass conservation

if some fluid is entering the control volume the scalar product of the relative
~ −W
velocity U ~ with the outward-pointing normal vector ~n is negative, that is
(U~ −W~ ) · ~n < 0 ⇒ increase of the mass of fluid in Da (t)
~ −W
reversely, if some fluid is leaving the control volume, (U ~ ) · ~n > 0 and this
contributes to a decrease of the mass of fluid in Da (t)
the general expression (20) holds of course for a fixed control volume, in which
~ = ~0 so that :
case W Z Z
d ~ · ~n dS
ρ dV = − ρU (21)
dt D0 S0
~ =U
when the arbitrary fluid domain is a material domain, W ~ so that (20)
reduces to (13)
65 / 66
Mass conservation

the general form (6) of the transport theorem can be applied to (20) so that the
left-hand-side (LHS) of (20) can be expressed as :
Z Z Z
d ∂ρ ~ · ~ndS
ρ dV = dV + ρW
dt Da (t) Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
replacing the LHS in (20) with the above expression yields :

Z Z Z Z
d ∂ρ ~ · ~ndS = − ~ −W
~ ) · ~n dS
ρ dV = dV + ρW ρ(U
dt Da (t) Da (t) ∂t Sa (t) Sa (t)
after an immediate simplification, the general integral form of the mass

conservation equation is obtained :
Z Z
∂ρ ~ · ~n dS = 0
dV + ρU (22)
Da (t) ∂t Sa (t)
global form (14) obtained for a material domain also valid for an arbitrary fluid
domain
66 / 66

FCFVA Lecture #1: General Modeling Principles and Mass Conservation

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FCFVA Lecture #1: General Modeling Principles and Mass Conservation

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FCFVA Lecture #1 : General modeling principles and mass

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

Concept of continuous medium : kinetic theory vs contiuum mechanics

the macroscopic density of the fluid is defined as :

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

the material point ”moves with the fluid”

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

Figure – General fluid volume.

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

Material point, material domain and fluid particle

or with simplified notation :

Flow description : streamlines and pathlines

Flow description : streamlines and pathlines

Flow description : streamlines and pathlines

Modelling strategy : general principles

Selection of a fluid volume

surface de contrôle surface de contrôle

volume de contrôle fixe V volume de contrôle en mouvement

volume élémentaire en mouvement

Selection of a fluid volume

Selection of a fluid volume

Selection of a fluid volume

Selection of a fluid volume

Concept of material derivative

Figure – Fluid particle moving with the fluid flow.

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative

Concept of material derivative : example of application

Concept of material derivative : example of application

Reynolds transport theorem : motivation

Reynolds transport theorem : motivation

Reynolds transport theorem : motivation

Reynolds transport theorem

Reynolds transport theorem : various formulations

Reynolds transport theorem : various formulations

~ · (ϕ ~a) is the divergence of the vector ϕ ~a

Reynolds transport theorem : various formulations

~ · ~a = div(~a) = ∂a1 + ∂a2 + ∂a3 = ∂ai

~ · (ϕ~a) = div(ϕ~a) = ∂(ϕa1 ) + ∂(ϕa2 ) + ∂(ϕa3 ) = ∂(ϕai )

Reynolds transport theorem : various formulations

Reynolds transport theorem : extension to the vector case

Reynolds transport theorem : extension to the vector case

hence the vector formulation of the transport theorem :

condition (11) expresses the incompressibility of a flow

Figure – Example of a compressible flow of water encountered in a water-jet cutting process.

if Dm (t) is now selected as an elementary (infinitesimal) volume, namely the

Global form using a material domain

Global form using a material domain

Global form using a material domain

Local or differential form

when the density ρ is continuous in the volume Dm (t) the flux-divergence

Local or differential form