Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Waste foundry sand in concrete: A review

Bavita Bhardwaj ⇑, Pardeep Kumar
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Need of use of waste foundry sand

(WFS) in concrete.
 Material properties of WFS.
 WFS shows enhanced mechanical
performance of concrete.
 Durability of concrete enhanced with
incorporation of WFS up to an
optimum level.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concrete is the most extensively used construction material in the world, second to water. Increasing rate
Received 7 May 2017 of urbanization and industrialization has lead to over exploitation of natural resources such as river sand
Received in revised form 28 August 2017 and gravels, which is giving rise to sustainability issues. It has now become imperative to look for alter-
Accepted 1 September 2017
natives of constituent materials of concrete. Waste foundry sand, a by-product of ferrous and non ferrous
metal casting industries is one such promising material which can be used as an alternative to natural
sand in concrete. In last few decades, several studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of
Keywords:
addition of waste foundry sand as partial and complete replacement of regular sand in concrete. It has
Waste foundry sand
Concrete
been found suitable to be used as partial replacement of sand in structural grade concrete. A number
Geopolymer concrete of properties have been reviewed in the current paper, the results observed from the various studies
Strength depict that replacement of foundry sand to a certain extent enhance the durability as well as strength
Permeability properties of the concrete but simultaneously decreases the slump value with the increase of replace-
ment level of waste foundry sand.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
2. Foundry sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
3. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
4. Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
5. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
6. Applications of waste foundry sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
7. Environmental concerns and management options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
8. Waste foundry sand in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

⇑ Corresponding author at: National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Hamirpur 177005, India.
E-mail address: bavita.bhardwaj@gmail.com (B. Bhardwaj).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.010
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
662 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

9. Properties of fresh concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

10. Compressive strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
11. Drying shrinkage and modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
12. Splitting tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
13. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
14. Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
15. Water absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
16. Water permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
17. Carbonation depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
18. Sulphate resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
19. Chloride ion penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
20. Ultrasonic pulse velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
21. Salt scaling resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
22. Freezing and thawing resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
23. Microstructure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
24. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673

1. Introduction ing is also becoming a problem. United States has about 3000 foun-
dries which annually utilizes 100 million tons of sand for its
Concrete, being the most extensively used construction mate- production and about 6–10 million metric tons of waste foundry
rial in the world, is the backbone of all the construction and devel- sand is discarded per year, which goes into landfills [2,3]. With high
opment activities around the world. Each of the primary national average tipping fee of foundry by-products landfilling has
constituent of concrete has an environmental impact, to a different also not remained a feasible option. Indian foundry industry is the
extent. Being used in enormous quantity around the world, it gives third largest casting manufacturer in the world after China and
rise to different sustainability issues. USA. With approximately 5000 foundries and installed capacity of
There is rising concern about over-exploitation of natural sand 15 Million metric tons/annum the annual production of nearly
and gravels, constituents of concrete. The massive use of concrete 9.3 Million Metric tons is reported for 2012–13. The installed capac-
due to boom in urbanization and industrialization has resulted in ity and output could be actually higher than estimate since the sec-
the over-extraction of river sand from the river bed. This has called tor is majorly (around 85%) unorganized that does not reports in
for several harmful consequences, including increased river bed public [4]. Waste produced (WFS) from these foundries is approxi-
depth, lowering of the water table, exposure of bridge substruc- mately 1,710,000 tons (1.71 MT) per annum [5].
tures, major impact on rivers, deltas and coastal and marine In an effort to use the waste foundry sand in large volume,
ecosystems, loss of land through river or coastal erosion and research is being carried out for its possible substantial utilization
decrease in the amount of sediment supply. Furthermore, the sub- as partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete. Also, foundries
sistence of construction industry has been severely affected due to use high quality size-specific silica sands for use in their moulding
the restrictions in the extraction of sand from the river resulting in and casting operations. Usually raw sand is of a higher quality than
rise of the price of sand [1]. Thus, it has become imperative to look the typical bank run or natural sands used in fill construction sites
for alternative to natural river sand. [6]. Therefore, this can be a very competent material for sand
Increasing population and advancements in technology have led replacement.
to increase in waste production. Thus, many researchers and scien-
tists all over the world are finding new ways to reduce these wastes 2. Foundry sand
or as a better alternative to use them as resources with added val-
ues. Since past several decades, various industrial wastes are being Foundry sand is high quality silica sand that is a by-product
studied extensively as a substitute/replacement material for fine from the production of both ferrous and non-ferrous metal casting
aggregate. Substitution of alternative materials in concrete has been
found to improve both the mechanical and durability properties,
100
and this practice can lead to the sustainable concrete development.
Waste foundry sand (WFS) is one such promising material 90
which needs to be studied extensively as substitute of fine aggre- 80
gates in concrete. It is a by-product from the ferrous and non fer- 70
Percent Finer

rous metal casting industries with ferrous foundries producing 60 Khatib et al., 2010
the most sand. It is characteristically sub-angular to round in shape 50 Prabhu et al., 2014
and has high thermal conductivity which makes it suitable for 40 Naik et al., 2012
moulding, casting operations. Moulding sands are recycled and
30 ASTM C33 LL
reused multiple times during casting process. In due course, the
20 ASTM C33 UL
recycled sand degrades to the state that it can no longer be reused
in the casting process. Then, the old sand is dismissed as by- 10
product, and new sand is introduced into the cycle. 0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Metal alloy casting industries only produce several million tons
of by-product in the world and waste foundry sand (WFS) is the Particle Diameter
major by-product. It has been successfully used as a land filling
Fig. 1. Sieve analysis results of WFS with respect to ASTM C33 limits for fine
material since many years, but due to rising disposal costs, land fill- aggregate.
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
industries. It is used for the centuries as a moulding casting mate-
rial because of its high thermal conductivity. For various foundry
operations, raw sand is used and several binders and additives
are added into it to enhance its properties. Based on binder system
used, foundry sand is classified into two categories i.e. clay-bonded
(green) sand and chemically bonded sand. As evident from the
names, clay-bonded or green sand consists of clay as binder
whereas in chemically bonded sand chemicals are used as binders.
Green foundry sand is generally composed of 85–95% silica sand,
4–10% of bentonite clay as binder then 2–10% of carbonaceous
additive, to improve finishing of casting surface. It also contains
traces of oxides such as MgO, K2O, TiO2. Whereas, chemically
bonded sand or chemical foundry sand, consists of 93–99% silica
sand and about 1–3% chemical binder [5]. The silica sand and
chemicals are thoroughly mixed and then a catalyst initiates the
reaction that cures and hardens the mould mass. Most commonly
used chemical binder are- epoxy resins, sodium silicates, furyl
alcohol, phenolic urethanes etc. Presence of carbonaceous addi-
tives imparts black colour to green foundry sand whereas chemical
foundry sand is light in colour. Green foundry sand is preferred for
moulding operations whereas chemical foundry sand is used for
both mould making and core making operations, which require
higher strengths to withstand the heat of molten metal.
3. Physical properties
Foundry sand is sub-angular to round in shape [7]. Alike regular
sand, WFS also mainly consists of silica but its silica content has
been found lower than regular sand. Depending upon the industry
sector from which it originates, type of casting process, type of
additives used for moulding, number of times the sand is recycled
and type and amount of binder used, its physical and chemical
characteristics may vary [8]. About 85–90% of its particles are
smaller than 100 mm. It is principally made up of sand which is evi-
dent from the particle size (0.05–2 mm) of WFS, obtained from 39
foundries, ranging from 76.6% to 100%, with a median of 90.3% [9].
Since it is basically fine aggregate so it can be expected to be used
in many applications as substitute of natural sand [10].
However, WFS is too fine to be used as complete replacement of
regular sand. Fineness modulus of WFS has been found in the range
of 0.9–1.6 compared to 2.3–3.1 for normal sand. As per the particle
size distribution of the foundry sand, the size corresponding to 50%
of passing (d50) was around 33 mm and average diameter of foun-
dry sand particle was observed to be 28.8 mm [11,12]. The grain size
distribution of WFS is very uniform, with approximately 85–95 per-
cent of the material between 0.6 mm and 0.15 mm sieve sizes.
While 5–12 percent of foundry sand can be expected to be smaller
than 0.075 mm [13]. The particle shape is typically sub angular to
round and it does not meet the gradation requirements for fine
aggregates as per ASTM C33 [14]. Hence, only partial replacement
with coarser sand is recommended to meet the standard specifica-
tions of fine aggregate [13]. Fig. 1 shows sieve analysis results of
WFS as reported by various authors [14–16] with respect to ASTM
C33 [17] upper and lower limits (UL and LL) for fine aggregate.
Table 1
Properties of Waste Foundry Sand as reported by different authors.
Authors Naik et al. [19] Guney et al. [20] Siddique et al. [11]
Specific gravity 2.79 2.45 2.61
Density (kg/m3) 1784 – 1638
Fineness modulus 2.32 – 1.78
Water absorption (%) 5 – 1.3
Particles below 75 mm (%) 1.08 24 18
Moisture content (%) – 3.25 – –
Clay lumps and friable particles 0.40 – 0.90
‘–’ Test not performed for the specific property.
663
Reported values of absorption of WFS were found to vary
widely, generally on higher side of normal sand, which can be
attributed to the presence of binders and additives. The specific
gravity of foundry sand has been found to vary from 2.39 to 2.55
[18]. This variability has been attributed to the variability in fines
and additive contents in different samples [13]. Several foundries
still use binders such as clay, sawdust and wood flour for mould-
ing. The presence of these particles reduces the specific density
of the material, and also decreases the density of the concrete by
creating air voids in the concrete. Table 1 shows some physical
properties of WFSs used by different authors [11,14,19–22] for
their research studies.
4. Chemical composition
Depending upon type of metal, type of binder and combustible
used, the chemical composition of waste foundry sand may vary
and it further influences its performance. Sands obtained from a
single foundry, however, may not likely show significant variation
over time; besides, blended sands produced by consortia of foun-
dries often produce sands with consistently same composition.
Waste foundry sand is rich in silica content and is coated with thin
film of burnt carbon, dust and residual binder such as bentonite,
sea coal or chemicals or resins. Due to presence of silica content
it is hydrophilic owing to which it attracts water to its surface
[13]. Generally, silica content of WFS is lower than regular sand
because of the presence of additives [23]. Chemical composition
of WFS as reported by various researchers [16,23–28] is given in
Table 2.
Waste foundry sands from different foundry processing stages
exhibit different physical and chemical properties [29]. XRD anal-
ysis on WFS finer than 75 mm confirmed the presence of quartz
and carbonates (calcite and dolomite) as well as montmorillonite.
Differential thermal analysis performed on two green WFS, col-
lected from same Italian foundry, depicted different amounts of
carbonaceous additive, about 2.8% in WFS from mould disposal
and 5.1% in WFS from aspiration process during mould crush.
The waste foundry sand having more carbon content showed more
water absorption (5.4%) than the other having lesser carbon con-
tent (3.3%).
5. Mechanical properties
Tests conducted on WFS to check its strength and durability
such as low Micro-Deval abrasion [30] and magnesium sulphate
soundness loss (ASTM C88-05)[31] have shown good results, indi-
cating good durability. Abrasion loss was found below 2% whereas;
Magnesium sulphate soundness loss was within 5–15% [32]. Javed
and Lovell [18] reported relatively high soundness loss, which may
be due to the samples of bound sand loss and not a breakdown of
individual sand particles [33]. The angle of shearing resistance or
internal friction angle of WFS has been found comparable to shear-
ing resistance of normal sands i.e. between 33° and 40° [18].
Naik et al. [14] Singh and Siddique [21] Prabhu et al. [22]
1.97 2.18 2.24
1538 1576
1.32 1.89 –
3.20 0.42 1.13
54.90 8 8
0.11 –
– 0.80 –
664 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

Table 2
Chemical Composition of Waste Foundry Sand as reported by different authors.

Constituents American Foudrymen’s society Etxeberria et al. Sahmaran et al. Basar et al. Singh and Siddique Prabhu et al. Thaarrini et al.
[24] [25] [26] [23] [27] [16] [28]
SiO2 87.91 84.90 76.0 81.85 83.8 87.48 83.93
Al2O3 4.70 5.21 4.45 10.41 0.81 4.93 0.021
Fe2O3 0.94 3.32 5.06 1.82 5.39 1.31 0.950
CaO 0.14 0.58 3.56 1.21 1.42 0.22 1.03
MgO 0.30 0.67 1.98 1.97 0.86 0.18 1.77
SO3 0.09 0.29 – 0.84 0.21 0.07 0.057
MnO – 0.08 0.46 – 0.047 – –
TiO2 0.15 0.19 0.17 – 0.22 – –
K2O 0.25 0.97 1.20 0.494 1.14 – –
P2O5 – 0.05 0.04 – – – –
Na2O 0.19 0.50 0.38 0.764 0.87 – –
LOI 5.15 2.87 5.85 6.93 – 5.81 2.19

6. Applications of waste foundry sand
The practice of disposing off WFS in landfills is getting unfavor-
able because of increasing cost of disposal. Furthermore, rising
environmental concerns have made Government to make strict
regulations to keep check on waste disposal from industries and
make them accountable to remediation of wastes. All these issues
can be tackled by reusing and recycling the waste produced. Poten-
tial applications of WFS in Civil Engineering works can be – high-
way embankment filling [33–37]; flowable fills; in road
construction; in soil stabilization and reinforcement [38]; hydrau-
lic barrier or liner [36,39] in cement manufacturing; mortar mak-
ing [40]; pavement blocks, brick blocks [3,10,11,20,25,41–44];
asphalt concrete [44]. Beneficial reuse of WFS span a variety of
applications related to infrastructure engineering and rehabilita-
tion works, e.g., highway embankment construction, ground
improvement etc. The use of WFS in such various applications as
alternative to traditional materials can help multiple ways in con-
serving the conventional materials, reducing cost and reducing
burden on environment, hence benefitting country and
environment.
7. Environmental concerns and management options
Various additives (organic and inorganic) added into foundry
sand, to improve its properties during casting and moulding oper-
ations, are the main source of organic contaminants. However,
from testing it has been reported that these reactive organic com-
pounds are not present in significant amount in WFS [45]. Depend-
ing upon type of metal cast and binder used the pH range of WFS
lies in the range between 4 and 8, which is similar to pH range of
rainwater in the environment which is within 4–9 [46]. Thus, some
foundry sands have been found corrosive to metals [47]. Besides,
presence of phenols in foundry sand raises concerns regarding its
discharge into surface or ground water supplies by leaching
through its stockpiles [13]. However, leachability characteristics
of the entire concrete specimens at different pH conditions repre-
senting variant natural cases indicated that the concrete mixtures
with fungal treated WFS depicted reduction in metal concentration
as compared to the untreated concrete. Furthermore, fungal treat-
ment refined the pores of concrete by forming calcium rich bio-
mineral [7].
After recycling foundry sand several times in various foundry
operations when it is discarded it contains residues of the additives
with dust particles into the waste foundry sand which limits its
further reuse. Some foundries use screening systems and magnetic
separators to segregate particles of different size and separates
reusable sand from waste. The discarded waste foundry sand can
be made free from excess of hazardous contaminants if foundries
carefully monitors their foundry processes and waste sand [45].
Most of the foundry sand is produced by the ferrous foundries
(ductile iron, grey iron, steel) and rest by non ferrous foundries
such as aluminum, brass, copper and bronze. The sands from cop-
per, brass and bronze foundries are normally not reused. Waste
foundry sand is used as feed to kiln in Portland cement manufac-
turing and as substitute to fine aggregate in construction purposes.
Most of the WFS from green sand castings is land-filled and some-
times is used as supplemental cover [18].
Fiore and Zanetti [43] studied reuse and recycling of foundry
sands. After investigating foundry sands of varying sizes they cat-
egorized the residues into 3 categories according to particle size i.e.
below 0.1 mm, between 0.1 and 0.6 mm and above 0.6 mm [43].
They suggested that particles above 0.6 mm which constituted
mainly metallic iron can be reused in the furnaces. Particles
between 0.1 and 0.6 mm after regeneration treatment may be
reused in production of cores. Particles below 0.1 mm up to
0.025 mm were proposed to be recycled as raw material for con-
crete industry, and particles below 0.025 mm could be reused in
green sand moulding processes. It is observed that proposed reuse
and recycling solution is more economical [43].
250
200
Slump ( mm)

containing WFS can be used in the production of concrete with no 150

adverse environmental effects [23].
Guney et al. 2010
The majority of waste moulding sands are categorized as non- 100 Khatib et al. 2010
hazardous waste (that is not corrosive, ignitable, reactive or toxic)
Prabhu et al., 2015
[6]. The washing water of WFS from two different foundry pro-
50
cesses was separated by centrifugation and filtration and then
tested. The Na+concentration was almost double in the washing
0
water of WFS from aspiration process (WFSb) as compared to 0 20 40 60 80 100
WFS from moulding process (WFSa). Whereas, the heavy metals WFS Replacement Level (%)
content was higher (up to 16 times for Al and Zn) in WFSa washing
water than in WFSb [29]. Leachate analysis of concrete prepared Fig. 2. Slump value of concrete mixes at different WFS replacement levels.
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
8. Waste foundry sand in concrete
Several studies have been conducted on the use of WFS as par-
tial and full replacement of fine aggregate in concrete. Although
the sand used in foundries have very high percentage of silica
but due to finer and unimodal particle size, the increase in WFS
content in concrete beyond a certain level leads to negative effects
on concrete. The presence of additives as impurities also causes
negative effects on the properties in fresh state as well as hardened
state of concrete.
9. Properties of fresh concrete
Generally, it is observed that inclusion of WFS increases the
water demand of fresh concrete when added as regular sand
replacement (for the same slump values). Prabhu et al. [22]
reported no significant loss in workability up to 10% substitution
but beyond this substitution level it started affecting the workabil-
ity [22]. This decrease in workability is probably due to the pres-
ence of water absorbing finer particles i.e. clay-type fine
materials, ashes and impurities etc. in WFS, which are responsible
for decreasing the fluidity of the fresh concrete and increasing the
water demand. Increase in water demand further increases the
demand of superplasticizer [20,22,23,48,49].
Khatib et al. [15] replaced fine aggregates in normal concrete by
WFS in variable proportions (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%),
observing a systematic loss in slump value from 200mm to zero
[15]. The slump value at 20%, 40%, 60% was 80%, 50% and 20% of
slump value of control mix (Fig. 2). Aggarwal and Siddique [12]
reported increase in water demand of concrete when WFS and bot-
tom ash (BA) were added to concrete as partial replacement to reg-
ular sand, in equal proportions [12]. Upto 60% replacement was
studied and increase in water content by 4%, 6%, 10%, 16%, 22%
and 36% of the initial value was required to maintain the slump
level of all the mixes constant at 30 mm. Considerable loss in
slump was observed with elapsed time as compared to the control
concrete attributable to the generation of higher surface of hydra-
tion products due to higher fineness of WFA [22].
A delay in initial and final setting times was observed, because
very fine carbon particles existed in WFS and/or there was a loss of
the link between aggregate and cement paste, causing a delay on
cement hydration [48]. Similar trends were shown in case of air
entrained concrete, demand for superplasticizer and air entraining
admixture increased with increase in WFS content [14].
Sahmaran et al. [26] explored the possibility of producing SCC
with fly ash and WFS by replacing Portland cement with fly ash
at different replacement levels [26]. The replacement of fine aggre-
gates with WFS was up to 100% by volume, wherein, they con-
cluded that the SCC mix meets the EFNARC [50] limits and no
visible segregation or bleeding was observed in the SCC mix but
beyond 50% replacement level of WFS the superplasticizer require-
ments were increased to achieve required slump flow etc. [26].
Similar results are shown elsewhere [51,52]. Joy and Mathew
[53] studied effect of WFS on the workability of geopolymer con-
crete made with the addition of GGBS and silica ash and found a
similar trend of decreasing slump value of concrete [53].
10. Compressive strength
Among several tests to check the performance of concrete, com-
pressive strength is of utmost importance. This single test gives an
idea about several characteristics of concrete. Many properties of
concrete are directly correlated to its compressive strength. Know-
ing its compressive strength, one can easily judge the quality of
concrete.
665
Naik et al. [54] studied the effect of partial replacement of fine
aggregate in concrete with clean/new foundry sand and used foun-
dry sand (WFS) in two proportions i.e. 25% and 35% [54]. Compres-
sive strength value of concrete mixes with WFS were found about
23% and 35% lower than control concrete at 28 days of curing,
whereas, strength of concrete mix with new/clean foundry sand
was found almost same as control concrete. Similar results were
reported when a wide spread of mixes with three different types
of sand i.e. foundry sand, fine white sand, blended sand and WFS
were investigated. The compressive strength reduced linearly with
increase in WFS replacement levels. Furthermore, blended sand
mixes also decreased the strength as their content increased [10].
Etxeberria et al. [25] studied concrete containing green foundry
sand (GFS) and chemical foundry sand (CFS) and reported that with
both concretes more adequate strength than control concrete was
obtained at high water-cement ratio [25]. Even after exposure to
high temperatures, higher residual strength was obtained in case
of concrete mixes with CFS and GFS as compared to control
concrete.
Naik et al. [55] evaluated the performance of foundry sand as a
partial replacement (up to 35%) of the fine aggregate for masonry
blocks and paving stones [55]. Masonry blocks made with WFS
passed ASTM requirements for compressive strength, absorption,
and bulk density. Bakis [44] explored the possibility of the reuse
of WFS in asphalt concrete production by partially replacing fine
aggregate with it [44]. The particle size distribution of the mixture
with 10% WFS possibly gives sufficient adherence than the other
mixtures with WFS [20].
Singh and Siddique [21] observed enhancement in strength of
concrete with increase in WFS content replacing natural sand by
different proportions (5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by mass) [21]. Com-
pressive strength of concrete at 28-day increased by 8.25–17%.
Beyond 15% WFS there wasn’t significant increase in strength
which is attributable to increase in surface area of fine particles
which may have led to reduction of water cement gel in matrix
hence led to inadequate binding [21,27,56]. The factors responsible
for strength reduction are the poor workability of the matrix and
the existence of binder (i.e., very fine powder of carbon and clay)
in WFS [6,41,57] which stick to sand particles and prevents
strengthening bond between the cement paste and the aggregate.
Siddique and Kadri [58] reported improvement in strength by the
addition of mineral admixture i.e. Metakaolin (MK) of concrete
containing WFS [58].
Siddique and Sandhu [52] concluded that alike conventional
concrete, the compressive strength of SCC also increased with up
to 15% replacement level of WFS with sand [52]. The results also
indicated higher early age strength gain i.e. at 7 and 28 days, when
compared to the control mix at 15% replacement level of WFS as
fine aggregate.
Kaur et al. [59] added fungal (Aspergillus spp.) (fungal culture at
about 5% (w/v)) treated 20% WFS as sand replacement and
reported 15.6% increase in 28 day compressive strength of concrete
[59]. Incorporation of fungal treated WFS showed improvement in
strength due to plugging of pores within concrete by deposition of
fungal spores or biomineral in pores of cement sand matrix. The
fungal culture (Aspergillus spp.) increased the ability of cement
to react properly with foundry sand and hence increased the for-
mation of C–S–H gel. Kaur et al. [7] showed similar results sup-
ported by XRD analysis exhibiting some extra peaks of calcium
aluminum silicate (gismondine) in the concrete containing fungal
treated WFS (20%) [7]. This confirmed the formation of new phases
of silicates within the matrix of this mortar material, which caused
an improvement in the strength of the material.
Monosi et al. [29] studied two different types of green WFS in
unwashed as well as in washed state [29]. Regardless of different
types and dosages of WFS, its addition decreased the strength at
666
60
55
Compressive Strength, MPa
50
45
40
35
30
25
0 10
Fig. 3. Compressive strengths of concrete mixes at different curing ages [11].
50
28Day Compressive Strength, MPa
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0 20
Fig. 4. 28-Day Compressive strengths of concrete mixes at different WFS replacement levels.
all percentages (0–30%). As commonly observed that low water
cement ratio helps in gaining higher strengths in concrete, but
unlike WFS addition in concrete achieved negligible advantage at
water cement ratio below 0.50. Moreover, low water cement ratio
ascribes negative influences on mortar, confirming the results
reported elsewhere [25].
Salokhe et al. [60] concluded that concrete with WFS from fer-
rous foundries performed better than concrete with non-ferrous
WFS in case of strength gain [60]. Inclusion of both sands gave
dense concretes at 20% replacement. Basar and Aksoy [23] investi-
gated the potential reuse of WFS in ready mix concrete production
by studying five different replacement percentages (0, 10, 20, 30
and 40%) of regular sand by WFS [23]. The concrete having 20%
WFS exhibited almost similar results with the control one along
with similar micro-structural properties and morphological char-
acterization. The concretes produced with WFS were lighter than
the conventional concrete due to lower density of WFS but still
its density was within the range 2000–2600 kg/m3, valid for nor-
mal concrete class.
Siddique et al. [3,61] reported consistent increase in strength of
concrete with WFS, when added up to 30% as sand replacement,
attributing to densification of concrete matrix due to finer WFS
particles and also presence of silica content which would have
helped in the formation of C-S-H gel [3,61]. Similar results of con-
sistent increase in strength at even higher replacement levels i.e.
up to 60% of WFS have been summarized by Pathariya et al. [62]
with maximum strength shown by mix with 60% WFS. Similarly,
Siddique et al. [11] reported strengths of mixes with 30%, 40%
and 50% of WFS higher than control concrete at the curing ages
B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
28D
90D
365D
20 30 40 50 60
Replacement Level, %
Siddique et al.,
2011
Aggarwal and
Siddique, 2014
Prabhu et al.,
2014
Khatib et al.,
2010
40 60 80 100
Replacement Level, %
of 28 days, 90 days and 365 days (Fig. 3) [11]. The rate of strength
gain for normal concrete (with slump near 75 mm) between 7 and
90 days is found as 72% which is characteristic of normal concrete
[63]. The rate of strength gain for all WFS concrete mixes was clo-
ser to control mix at 90 days, whereas, it was found higher at
365 days [11]. The effect of increase in WFS replacement on
28 day strength of concretes as reported by various researchers-
Siddique et al. [11]; Aggarwal and Siddique [12]; Prabhu et al.
[22]; Khatib et al. [15] is shown in Fig. 4.
In another study, the effect of WFS and bottom ash (BA) in equal
quantities as partial replacement of fine aggregates, in various per-
centages (0–60%), on concrete properties was investigated. Con-
crete mix with replacement ratio of 30% (15% waste foundry
sand and 15% bottom ash) performed best among all the other con-
crete mixes of given replacement levels (0–60%) [12]. With
increase in replacement ratio there was improvement in C-S-H
gel formation till 50% replacement signifying comparative densifi-
cation of mixes. However, gel formation was lower in WFS and BA
mixes as compared to control mix but there was reduction in num-
ber of pores, which was evident from SEM micrographs. The inclu-
sion of WFS and BA did not affect the strength negatively as the
strength of the mixes was within limits and the concretes pos-
sessed comparable mechanical properties and greater resistance
to aggressive agents (chemical, physical and environmental).
Prabhu et al. [22] used WFS prior washed four times to remove
ash and clay particles and thereafter sun dried for two days. They
concluded a comparable compressive strength to that of control
concrete by replacing 20% WFS as fine aggregate replacement.
However, a slight decrease was observed at 30% replacement level
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
and beyond that the strength decreased drastically i.e. at 50%
replacement the decrease in strength was up to 23.95% to that of
control concrete [22]. Concrete with adequate strength was achiev-
able even when fine aggregates were fully replaced by WFS with
strength nearly 50% of the strength of control concrete [15,64].
Besides decline in compressive strength with increasing WFS
level it was possible to produce SCC with compressive strength
around 40 MPa at 28 days and 50 MPa at 90 days curing age con-
taining both WFS and fly ash. Authors predicted the possibility of
producing concrete with even higher strength than 40 MPa even
at 100% WFS replacement [26].
Few studies are also available on use of WFS as partial replace-
ment of fine aggregate in GPC. Joy and Mathew [53] studied effect
of replacement of sand with WFS up to 25% on geopolymer con-
crete prepared with silica ash and ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBS) [53]. A decrease in strength (7 day and 28 day) beyond
15% WFS replacement level was observed, however at all replace-
ment levels strength was found superior to control mix (0% WFS)
[53]. Thaarrini et al. [28] studied feasibility of manufacturing
geopolymer concrete using WFS (50%) with Ground Granulated
Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) and Bottom ash (BA) as source materi-
als [28]. Addition of foundry sand, at constant replacement level of
50%, did not affect the strength of geopolymer concrete. Geopoly-
mer concretes paver blocks with strength more than target
strength were successfully produced [28].
It has been observed that the addition of WFS generally
decreases the density of concrete hence its strength. The negative
effects of WFS addition were more evident in concrete with low
water cement ratio. Upto 20% replacement by WFS generally pro-
duced concrete with properties similar to control concrete. Some
investigations have even reported 30% WFS as optimum replace-
ment level. Concrete with adequate strength was obtained even
at full replacement of normal sand by WFS. The addition of fungal
treated sand enhanced the strength gain of concrete by formation
of bio-mineral which led to plugging of pores of cement sand
matrix. The rate of strength gain of WFS concrete was found higher
than conventional concrete at later ages (90–365 days). Special
concretes such as SCC and GPC have also been successfully pro-
duced with WFS meeting standards of strength and workability.
Hence, good quality structural grade concrete can be produced
with WFS as fine aggregate.
11. Drying shrinkage and modulus of elasticity
Total shrinkage is sum total of plastic, chemical, drying shrink-
age, autogenous, thermal and carbonation shrinkage. However,
drying shrinkage is the contracting of a hardened concrete mixture
-150
28 Day Shrinkage in Microstrain
-200
-250
-300
-350
-400
-450
-500
0 20
Replacement level, %
Fig. 5. 28-Day shrinkage value of concrete mixes at different WFS replacement levels [15].
667
due to the loss of capillary water, analogous to hydration of
cement, hence considered important. This is common phenomena
in all Portland cement concretes as they age hence it is very impor-
tant factor which can’t be overlooked as it affects durability, ser-
viceability, long-term reliability, and even structural integrity of
concrete. Ingredients of concrete profoundly influence the shrink-
age of concrete.
Khatib and Ellis [10] investigated a wider spread of mixes with
different types of foundry sand; white fine sand, blended sand and
spent sand and observed increase in shrinkage of concretes as com-
pared to conventional concrete as the level of sand replacement
with foundry sands increased [10]. Khatib et al. [15] replaced fine
aggregates partially and fully with WFS and observed systematic
increase in shrinkage with increase in WFS content (Fig. 5) [15].
At 100% replacement level of regular sand by WFS, shrinkage at
56 days of curing was found to be twice as much as control mix.
The elastic modulus of concrete is a very important mechanical
parameter reflecting the ability of the concrete to deform elasti-
cally. Basar and Aksoy [23] investigated the potential reuse of
WFS in ready mix concrete production by studying five different
replacement percentages (0, 10, 20, 30 and 40%) of regular sand
by WFS [23]. Prabhu et al. [22] reported reduction in the modulus
of elasticity of concrete mixtures with the presence of WFS as par-
tial replacement of natural sand, consistent with the compressive
strength results [22]. Concrete made with new foundry sand at
25% & 35% replacement levels showed similar or higher values of
modulus of elasticity at 28 days curing age [54]. Singh and Sid-
dique [27] reported enhancement in modulus of elasticity by
1.7–6.4% at 28 days of curing age, depending upon the WFS content
(5, 10, 15 and 20% replacement of natural sand by weight) and fur-
ther there was continuous improvement with the increase in cur-
ing age [27]. Irrespective of the curing time, concrete mix with 15%
WFS showed maximum value of modulus of elasticity at all ages.
Similar results were obtained by Siddique et al. [56] on two mixes
(M20 and M30) with different percentage replacement of WFS.
However, concrete with M20 grade gave higher elastic modulus
value than M30 concrete at all percentage replacements of WFS
[56].
Concrete exhibited similar elastic modulus as that of control
concrete mix at 10% replacement of natural sand with WFS [20].
Prewashed WFS showed comparable values of dynamic elastic
modulus of concrete mixes up to 20% replacement level whereas,
a reduction of 12.75% in elastic modulus was observed at 50%
replacement level [22]. Siddique et al. [3] observed secant modulus
for 33% of the maximum value of stress, found it to increase with
increase in WFS replacement level (10%, 20% and 30%) [3]. Modulus
of elasticity of the mixes was found to increase with age and the
Khatib et al.,
2010
40 60 80 100
668 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

40,000

28 Days Modulus of Elasticity, kN/mm2

Prabhu et al.,
2014
35,000
Basar and Aksoy,
2012
30,000 Siddique et al.,
2015 (M30)
Siddique et al.,
25,000
2015 (M20)
Singh and
20,000 Siddique, 2012
Naik et al., 1994
15,000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Replacement level, %

Fig. 6. Modulus of elasticity of concrete with increase in WFS replacement.

increase varied between 5.2% and 12% depending upon age of test- strength of the asphalt concrete mixtures was observed, yielding
ing and replacement level of WFS. values from 1.39 MPa with 0% WFS to 0.94 MPa with 20% WFS.
Shrinkage of WFS mixes was found higher than conventional Siddique et al. [61] investigated the use of WFS as partial
concrete. Modulus of elasticity of concretes with WFS was found replacement of fine aggregate in concrete by 10, 20 and 30% and
similar to strength results. Literature reported the improvement observed consistent increase in split tensile strength than control
in modulus of elasticity of concrete up to a replacement level of concrete by up to 12, 14 and 20% at respective replacement ratio.
30% by WFS Concretes with lower grade showed better effects of Similar observations were made elsewhere [3]. Marginal increase
WFS addition than higher grade concrete. The modulus of elasticity of 3.6–9% in splitting tensile strength was reported with increase
of the concretes with WFS as reported by Naik et al. [49], Singh and in WFS content at 28 days curing age, depending upon level of
Siddique [27], Prabhu et al. [22], Basar and Aksoy [23] and Siddique replacement (10%, 20% and 30%). Guney et al. [20] reported
et al. [56] is shown in Fig. 6. increase in strength up to 10% replacement by WFS then it
decreased further at 15% substitution [20]. Similar results were
reported elsewhere [27,56] which show enhancement in splitting
tensile strength by 3.6–10.4% for concrete replacing natural sand
12. Splitting tensile strength with WFS by different proportions (5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by mass).
Concretes with WFS of M20 grade showed higher values of split-
Another mechanical property to check the quality of the con- ting tensile strength than M30 grade at all WFS percentage levels
crete made with WFS as replacement of sand is the split tensile and at all curing ages [56]. Correspondingly, SCC concrete with
strength. A similar pattern of variation of split tensile strength is 15% WFS content showed higher values of splitting tensile strength
observed as that of compressive strength. Concrete being weak in when studied for replacement level up to 20% [52]. Ferrous WFS
tension and due to its brittle nature, develop cracks when sub- concrete performed slightly better than non-ferrous WFS concrete
jected to tensile forces. with 20% addition gave maximum strength value [60].
The effect of partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete Prabhu et al. [22] found results of concrete mix up to 20%
with clean/new foundry sand and WFS in two proportions i.e. replacement level of WFS (prewashed four then sun dried) compa-
25% and 35% [54] resulted in decrease of splitting tensile strength rable to control mix, however, beyond 20% slight decrease in
with increase in foundry sand content. Similar and consistent strength was observed up to 30% replacement and it further
decrease in split tensile strength of concrete with increase in decreased at higher replacement levels of WFS. A decrease of
WFS replacement level is reported by other authors [23,62]. Bakis 19.32% in tensile strength was observed as compared to control
et al. [44] investigated the possible use of WFS in asphalt concrete mix at 50% replacement level of WFS [22].
[44]. Indirect tensile strength tests were conducted as per AASHTO Siddique et al. [11] observed that mixes with 30%, 40% and 50%
(1989). With increase in percentage of WFS, linear decrease in WFS showed higher strength at 28 days, 90 days, and 365-days.
28 Day Split Tensile Strength, MPa

3 5
28 Day Flexural Strength, MPa

2.8
2.6 4.5
2.4
Prabhu et al., 2014 4
2.2 Prabhu et al., 2014
2 Siddique et al., 2011
1.8 3.5 Aggarwal and
1.6 Aggarwal and Siddique, Siddique, 2014
2014 3
1.4
1.2
1 2.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Replacement level, % Replacement level, %

Fig. 7. 28-day split tensile strength of concrete mixes at different WFS replacement Fig. 8. 28-day flexural strength of concrete mixes at different WFS replacement
levels [11,12,22]. levels [12,22].
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
Whereas mixes with 10%, 20% and 60% WFS showed 11.5%, 4.8%
and 17.30% decrease in strength respectively, in comparison with
the strength of the control mix [11]. An increase in split-tensile
strength values by 24.03%, 19.23%, and 14.42% was observed for
30%, 40% and 50% replacement levels respectively at 28-day curing
age. Aggarwal and Siddique [12] investigated the effect of waste
foundry sand and bottom ash in equal quantities as partial replace-
ment of fine aggregates in various percentages (0–60%), on con-
crete properties [12]. Splitting tensile vary from 0.062 to 0.080;
0.062 to 0.078; 0.061 to 0.076 and 0.052 to 0.075 times the com-
pressive strength, at ages of 7, 28, 90 and 365 days, respectively.
Olutoge et al. [13] concluded that the split tensile strength
increases as the percentages of sand replaced with foundry sand
increases [13]. The split tensile strength increased by 11.91%,
17.44%, 20%, 20.85%, and 25.53% for 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and
100% sand replacement with foundry sand respectively when com-
pared to a conventional concrete mix with natural sand as fine
aggregate. Fig. 7 shows 28-day split tensile strength of concrete
mixes with different WFS replacement levels as reported by vari-
ous researchers.
On inclusion of WFS split tensile strength yield similar trends of
results as that of compressive strength. The split tensile strength
values goes on decreasing as the percentage replacement of WFS
is increasing beyond a specific range of 15–20% except one or
two studies which shows hike in the split tensile strength values
up to 50% replacement level. Whereas diminutive literature is
available that favors the decrement of split tensile strength values
of concrete mix at smaller replacement levels.
13. Flexural strength
Flexural strength is one of the measures of tensile strength of
concrete. It is a measure of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab
to resist failure in bending. Prabhu et al. [22] studied the effect of
addition of WFS from aluminum casting industry on flexural
strength of concretes and obtained the same trend as that of com-
pressive strength with comparable results up to 20% replacement
of fine aggregates with WFS [22]. The rate of strength gain at later
ages was also found lower at substitution level higher than 20%
[22]. An effect of waste foundry sand and bottom ash in equal
quantities as partial replacement of fine aggregate in various per-
centages (0–60%), on various concrete properties was investigated
elsewhere [12]. Alike compressive strength result, flexural strength
of mix with 30% WFS (4.34 MPa) was found comparable to control
mix (4.44 MPa). Fig. 8 shows 28-day flexural strength of concretes
with WFS as reported by some authors.
Very limited studies are available on flexural behavior of con-
crete with WFS as partial replacement to regular sand. However,
the results of flexural strength have been found in good correlation
with compressive strength results.
14. Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance is closely related to the compressive
strength of concrete. The type of aggregate and surface finish or
treatment used has a strong influence on abrasion resistance. Pav-
ing stones with 35% WFS passed the ASTM abrasion requirements
[55]. Naik et al. [14] reported excellent abrasion resistance by con-
crete mixes, containing fly ash, with regular sand replaced by WFS,
up to 47% by weight [14]. Resistance to abrasion improved with
curing age. The results were found similar in case of air-
entrained and non-air-entrained concretes. Singh and Siddique
[27] observed decrease in depth of wear with increase in WFS con-
tent as natural sand replacement which further decreased with
669
increase in curing time [27]. This enhancement in abrasion resis-
tance is attributable to dense matrix due to addition of fine WFS.
15. Water absorption
Salokhe et al. [60] observed no appreciable effect of WFS on
water absorption of concretes [60]. In another study, addition of
WFS to concrete mixtures led to increase in water absorption ratio.
However, the concrete including up to 20% WFS has a water
absorption lower than 6%, which indicates that concrete specimen
having 20% proportion of replaced regular sand (fine aggregate)
with WFS could be considered acceptable [23]. Generally, the
water absorption increases as the WFS in the concrete increases.
An increase in water absorption is associated with a decrease in
compressive strength and UPV [15]. Increase in water absorption
with increasing amounts of WFS indicates rise in volume of pores
[64]. This may be attributable to the unimodal grain size distribu-
tion of WFS which may have led to less optimal compacting and
hence larger volume of pores [64]. Alternatively, decrease in water
absorption (68.8%) and porosity (45.9%) of concrete with the addi-
tion of fungal treated 20% WFS in comparison to the concrete con-
taining untreated WFS was reported by Kaur et al. [59]. Similar
results were shown by Kaur et al. [7]. Fine particles of WFS filled
the pores of concrete, besides, fungal treatment further compacted
the cement sand matrix by formation of bio-mineral which
increased the C-S-H gel formation, hence reduced the porosity [7].
Geopolymer concrete produced by using GGBFS and BA as
source materials and 50% replacement of natural sand by WFS
showed lower absorption values [28]. The water absorption values
of geopolymer concrete mixes at different strength levels (M30,
M35, M40, M50, and M55) were found lower than the limit speci-
fied for good concrete i.e. 3%. All the geopolymer mixes showed
lower rates of absorption and it was also found to decrease with
increase in concrete grade.
16. Water permeability
Permeability of concrete differs from absorption. Permeability
relates to the size of the pores, their distribution and most impor-
tantly their continuity. As a result, permeability is not necessarily
directly related to absorption. It has been related to water cement
(w/c) ratio of concrete. An increase in permeability with increase in
percentage level of WFS was observed with significant increase
beyond 30% replacement level with WFS [22]. The value of perme-
ability coefficient at 180 days of curing age, for mix with 30%
replacement by WFS, was found much lower than the maximum
permeability coefficient value recommended by ACI 301–89. Sid-
dique R. and Kadri El-Hadj [65] studied the effect of replacement
of natural sand with WFS by 20%, in concrete containing up to
15% cement replacement with metakaolin [65]. Addition of WFS
led to decrease in initial surface absorption (ISA) of concrete. Kha-
tib et al. [64] investigated the systematic increase in water absorp-
tion due to capillary action in concrete containing WFS (0%, 30%.
60% and 100%) at all ages of curing i.e. 1, 7, 28 and 90 days [64].
The concrete mixes with 60% and 100% replacement levels of
WFS depicted higher water ingress (about 3 times of 0% WFS) com-
pared with concrete mixes having 0% and 30% replacement levels
of WFS. The water absorption coefficient or rate of initial water
absorption was generally observed to decrease with rise in WFS
content at all ages.
17. Carbonation depth
Carbonation of concrete is one of the critical parameters associ-
ated with the corrosion of steel reinforcements. Generally, there
670 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

exists an increase in carbon ingress with the increase in replace- 1400

ment level of WFS. Increase in carbonation depth was found signif-

Charge passed (Coulombs)

1200
icant beyond WFS 30% [16]. The carbonation depth of 2.70 mm and
5.0 mm was observed in concrete mix at 60% replacement level of 1000
90 Days (Aggarwal
WFS at 90 days and 365 days of curing age respectively, which is and Siddiqui, 2014)
800
far less than the cover of reinforcing steel bars to cause corrosion 365 Days (Aggarwal
[11]. The typical values for coefficient C never exceeded 6 (Table 3) 600 and Siddiqui, 2014)
so the concrete as per table can be adjudged as good concrete [66] 180 Days (Prabhu et
400
The increase in carbonation depth with increase in WFS level was al. 2015)
attributed to poor workability of concrete which resulted in con- 200 365 Days (Prabhu et
tinuous porous system due to poor compactness. Carbonation al. 2015)
0
depth values for concretes with 40% and 50% replacement levels, 0 20 40 60
at 365 days curing age, was found 5.45 mm and 8.41 respectively Replacement Level, %
i.e. closer to cover to reinforcement, which may cause corrosion
[16]. Fig. 9. Variation of charge passed with varying WFS content in concrete mixes with
increasing WFS replacement levels [12,16].

18. Sulphate resistance

Limited studies which were carried out on sulphate resistance
of concrete containing WFS show mixed type of variations in
results about sulphate attack. The SCC prepared with WFS as
replacement (10–20%) to the natural sand show hike in the
strength and greater resistance to sulphate attack after keeping it
in magnesium sulphate solution of 50 g/l for 28 days [52].
Whereas, Prabhu observed a decrease in sulphate resistance of
concrete with the increase in replacement ratio of WFS. A substan-
tial affect on strength properties was observed on concrete mixes
containing more than 30% replacement of WFS. Decrease in sul-
phate resistance with increase in WFS content was attributed to
presence of traces of sulphur (SO3) in the WFS [16]. Thaarrini
et al. [28] formed geopolymer concrete paver blocks of different
grades with fine aggregates substituted by WFS by 50% by weight
[28]. Addition of foundry sand had no negative effect on the resis-
tance of geopolymer concrete against sulphate attack.
19. Chloride ion penetration
A durable concrete is the one that performs satisfactorily under
anticipated exposure condition during its service life span. One of
the main characteristics influencing the durability of concrete is
its permeability to the ingress of chloride. The chloride ion present
in the concrete can have harmful affect on concrete as well as on
the reinforcement. Swelling of concrete due to chloride ion pene-
tration is 2–2.5 times larger than that observed with water
penetration.
Table 3
Typical values of C for quality of concrete [66].
C (mm/yr0.5) Concrete
>9 Poor
9 > C>6 Average
<6 Good
In general, there exists decrease in chloride ingress with the
increase in replacement ratio of WFS. Singh and Siddique [27] con-
cluded that inclusion of WFS decreased the chloride ion penetra-
tion in concrete, which indicates that concrete has become
denser and impermeable [27]. At 28 days, charges passed were
1368, 1250, 1150, 1060 and 1190 C at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%
of WFS. Coulomb value decreased with the increase in WFS content
up to 15% WFS, which indicate that concrete became more dense.
Coulombs charges passed at 91 days are less than those of 28 days,
which indicate that concrete microstructure become denser. All
concrete mixtures had ‘low’ permeability (coulombs between
1000 and 2000) as per ASTM C1202 (Table 4) [67]. Coulomb value
decreased in mix containing 15% replacement of WFS, which indi-
cate a denser concrete production. Finer particles of WFS act as a
good filler material to make a stronger internal structure of con-
crete matrix [52]. Rapid Chloride Permeability test values
decreased with the increase in WFS replacement up to 20% irre-
spective of grade (M20 and M30) of the concrete prepared using
WFS. Both M20 and M30 mixes with WFS came under ‘low’ chlo-
ride ion permeability (1000–2000 C) at 28 days and under ‘very
low’ chloride ion permeability (100–1000 C) at 365 days curing
age [56].
The concrete prepared with the addition of WFS in the presence
of fly ash resulted in better resistance to chloride ions ingress. All
the mixtures showed comparable or better results than the control
concrete mix, with better resistance shown by mixes with up to
20% replacement by WFS [14]. The improved performances of
mixes with WFS and fly ash were attributed to better microstruc-
ture resulting from additional pozzolanic reactions. In other stud-
ies, up to 30% replacement by WFS showed better resistance to
4100
4000
3900
0% WFS
UPV (m/s)

3800
20% WFS
3700
Table 4 40% WFS
Chloride-Ion Penetrability Based on Charge Passed as per ASTM C1202 3600
60% WFS
[67].
3500 80%WFS
ASTM C1202
3400 100%WFS
Charge Passed (coulombs) Chloride Permeability
>4000 High 3300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2000–4000 Moderate
1000–2000 Low
Curing Time (Days)
100–1000 Very Low
<100 Negligible Fig. 10. Variation in USPV velocity of concretes with different values of WFS at
different curing ages [15].
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
chloride penetration than control concrete [11,16]. Cement type,
water to cement ratio, curing condition, and testing age have effect
on chloride permeability of concrete [11]. Aggarwal and Siddique
[12] reported very low RCPT values in all mixes with WFS and
BA as partial replacement [12]. Values as low as 750 C at 90 days
and 500 C at 365 days were observed in the replaced mixes. Varia-
tion of charge passed with variation in WFS level and curing age, as
reported by different authors, is shown in Fig. 9.
20. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is used to check the quality
of concrete also defects within concrete by passing electronic
waves through the concrete. In general, UPV value increases with
the increase in WFS content in concrete mixes as well as with
age. Singh and Siddique [27] reported the electronic wave velocity
value for WFS mixes varying between 4231 m/s and 4284 m/s with
maximum velocity observed for mix with 15% WFS [27]. Moreover,
UPV values for all the mixes fall under the range of good quality
concrete as per BIS 13311 (part 1): 1992 [68] and ASTM C597-
2016 [69]. This increase in UPV value signifies better density,
homogeneity and lack of defects within concrete. Whereas beyond
20% replacement level of WFS, there existed a gradual decrease in
the UPV values, however with the increase in curing age the USPV
values got increased (Fig. 10) [15]. Similarly, UPV values between
3500 and 4500 m/s were observed for the concrete mixes of two
different grade (M20 & M30) prepared with 0–20% WFS. Concretes
of M20 grades with WFS showed better improvement in UPV than
M30 grade of concrete with WFS [56]. Prabhu et al. [22] reported
UPV values of mixes up to 50%WFS greater than 3500 m/s, indicat-
ing good concrete [22]. Similar results were catered with a replace-
ment level of WFS up to 100% having UPV values ranging between
3500 and 4800 m/s at all ages of curing. An increase in WFS leads
to a decrease in UPV and there is sharp increase in UPV between
the ages of 1 day and 7 days of curing for all mixtures [64]. It is
clearly visible that with increase in curing time the density of con-
crete is increasing and with increase in replacement levels the
value decreases.
21. Salt scaling resistance
Naik et al. [14] investigated the effects of replacement of regular
concrete sand by WFS in different proportions (up to 47% by
weight) in air-entrained and non-air-entrained concretes contain-
ing different proportions of fly ash [14]. Salt scaling resistance of
concrete was measured as per ASTM C672 [70]. The salt-scaling
resistance of concrete mixes containing up to 20% WFS was found
comparable to reference mix. However, it decreased dramatically
for concrete mixes with WFS levels of 43% and beyond represent-
ing very low resistance to salt-scaling.
Fig. 11. SEM Micrographs of (a) Rounded WFS (b) Angular WFS [26].
671
22. Freezing and thawing resistance
Naik et al. [14] conducted study to check freeze and thaw resis-
tance of concrete with WFS in different proportions (up to 47% by
weight) with fly ash content, varying in proportions to WFS con-
tent [14]. The test was conducted as per ASTM C666 (Procedure
B) [71]. Upto 20% replacement showed comparable results to con-
trol mix while highest resistance was shown by mix with highest
percentage of WFS and fly ash attributable to enhanced
microstructure due to additional pozzolanic contributions of fly
ash. Similarly, in another study [12], all mixes with WFS and bot-
tom ash in equal proportions, as sand replacement (0–60%),
showed better resistance than reference mix at 90 days curing
age. Mass loss due to scaled-off material was observed between
0.31% and 0.66% at 90 days and between 0.92% and 1.87% at
365 days for all replaced mixes. Furthermore, the visual rating for
mixes, as per ASTM C 672 [70], never exceeded 2 and for most of
the mixes it lied between 0 and 1.
23. Microstructure analysis
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) technique was used by
some researchers for carrying out micro analysis of WFS and con-
crete incorporating it. The SEM micrograph of WFS particles
revealed its sub-angular to round shape (Fig. 11) [26,48].
Calcium-silica-hydrate (C-S-H) gel is the major phase present in
the conventional concrete, which is primarily influenced by the
grain size, type of particles, composition of dispersed phases/
stages, pore structure etc. [12]. Aggarwal and Siddique [12] studied
the SEM micrographs of concrete containing WFS and BA as a par-
tial replacement of fine aggregates up to a replacement level of 60%
on a magnification of 1.5KX [12]. The clear and proper C-S-H gel
spreads all around the reference mix. Inclusion of WFS and BA by
10% (WFS + BA) remarkably decreased the voids in concrete but
C-S-H gel was not spread extensively as in case of reference mix,
owing to lesser quantity of WFS and BA. Enhancement in the
strength up to a replacement level of 50% (WFA + BA) was evident
from the SEM micrographs showing formation of needle like struc-
tures around WFS and BA and comparative even spread of C-S-H
gel thereby obtaining a dense structure. The SEM graphs of mix
with 60% replacement showed disintegrated concrete due to com-
ing out of WFS and BA particles out of the structure, furthermore
lesser and uneven formation of C-S-H gel lead to lower strength
of the concrete mix. Fig. 12 shows the SEM Micrographs of control
mix, 10% replacement level and 60% replacement level respectively
[12].
The scanning electron microscopy images of fungal treated con-
crete with up to 20% WFS as sand replacement depicted the gener-
ation of calcified filaments and bio-mineral by the fungal activity
[72]. The development of bio-mineral clogged up the voids of the
672 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674

Fig. 12. SEM micrograph of (a) Control Mix (b) 10% Replacement of WFS and BA (c) 60% Replacement of WFS and BA [12].

Fig. 13. (a) Untreated WFS Concrete (b) Fungal Treated WFS Concrete [72].

treated concrete, thus, it acted as filler material, thereby enhancing
the water absorption and porosity of the concrete mix. Similar SEM
results were yielded by the researcher in their another study
wherein they developed concrete by replacing 10% and 15% fungal
treated WFS with fine aggregates [7]. The SEM images of untreated
and fungal treated WFS concrete are given in Fig. 13.
24. Conclusions
mance of WFS is still within standard specifications of some British
and American codes, it can be a trusted material for making struc-
tural members. Because of the varied source of generation of the
foundry sand (ferrous and non-ferrous) there still remains possibil-
ity of conducting more tests to make the conclusions more viable
to the researchers and the construction industry and developing
a more sustainable concrete. This paper contains review of various
publications on use of WFS as substitute to natural sand in con-
crete. The conclusions made are as follows:-

Consideration of sustainability in construction practices and
construction materials has become imperative for the survival of
construction industry. Alternatives to conventional construction
materials are being studied worldwide since past few decades.
Waste foundry sand is one such alternative to regular sand, con-
stituent of concrete. However, waste foundry sand is a lower qual-
ity material and has some adverse effects on concrete properties
when used in high or complete replacement to sand, the majority
of research studies showed that, yet it can be used to make struc-
tural concrete as well. A number of studies have been carried out
on utilization of WFS in concrete, wherein, optimum replacement
level is obtained as 30% for most of the properties. Since the perfor-
1. Presence of impurities such as clay, saw dust etc. particles
reduces the specific density of the material, and also
decreases the density of the concrete by creating air voids
in the concrete. Increase in substitution of WFS leads to
decrease in unit weight of concrete.
2. Majority of waste foundry sands are categorized as non-
hazardous waste (that is non-corrosive, ignitable, reactive
or toxic) and have shown good durability.
3. In general, increase in substitution leads to decrease in
workability of concrete attributed to presence of finer parti-
cles of sand and additives. The trend was same in case of
special concretes like SCC and GPC. Beyond 50% replacement
 B. Bhardwaj, P. Kumar / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 661–674
there was drastic increase in water demand of concrete. Self
compacting concretes with 100% replacement with WFS
have also been produced with workability satisfying the
requirement as per European Guidelines for SCC. With
increase in WFS content demand of superplasticizer also
increased.
4. The addition of WFS generally decreases its mechanical
strength. Poor workability lead to pores in concrete and less
paste available for binding which lead to decrease in
strength. Sand from ferrous foundries performed better than
non-ferrous foundries. Upto 20% replacement level, results
comparable to control concrete have been obtained. Some
studies have shown 30% as optimum replacement ratio. Fun-
gal treatment of WFS also resulted in better compact matrix
due to formation of bio-mineral, which plugs the pores and
increases strength.
5. Some studies have shown improvement in microstructure of
concrete up to 50% WFS level. Large C-S-H gel formation was
found up to 30% substitution. Beyond that C-S-H formation
was low but number of pores was reduced, which increased
the strength. Concrete with 100% substitution have shown
strength as nearly 50% of control concrete.
6. Shrinkage rate of WFS mixes was found higher at initial age
of concrete but leveled out to other concretes after 28 days.
Modulus of elasticity of concretes with WFS was found sim-
ilar to compressive strength results. Upto 30% WFS level,
improvements in modulus of elasticity have been reported.
7. Improvement in abrasion resistance of concrete with WFS is
reported attributable to dense matrix due to addition of fine
WFS.
8. Waste foundry sand addition had positive influence on sul-
phate resistance of concrete at up to 30% replacement ratio.
At higher substitution the resistance degraded which is
attributed to traces of SO3 present in WFS. Similarly beyond
30% substitution led to increase in carbonation depth in con-
crete with WFS which is attributed to poor workability
which led to poor compaction.
9. Concretes with WFS as partial to full replacement by WFS
produced concrete with good quality, indicated by USPV
value for up to 100% replacement, lying above 3500 m/s.
10. Chloride ingress decreased with WFS addition up to 30%.
Freezing and thawing resistance and salt scaling resistance
of concretes improves with WFS addition up to 20%. The
presence of fine pozzolanic material like fly ash can further
increase the resistance up to higher replacement levels by
improving the microstructure of concrete.
Future scope
Most of the research available on the use of WFS in concrete is
limited to the mechanical properties of concrete. There is need of
more research on effects of WFS inclusion on durability and
dynamic (fatigue) properties of concrete and also microstructure
of such concretes. Furthermore, the scope of WFS in new-age con-
cretes such as geopolymer concrete needs to be studied
extensively.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper was supported by the
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India. Authors would
like to acknowledge Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), India, for financial support to carry out this research.
673
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