Bionomial nomenclature

- It is the system of giving the scientific name of organism in two

names: genus and species e.g. Brassica campestris for mustard where
Brassica is a generic name and campestris is a species name.
Rules of Binomial System of Nomenclature
1. Each living organism has to be given a single scientific name in
two words. First word denotes the generic name and second
word denotes the species name.
2. The generic name should always begin with a capital letter but
the specific name should begin with small letter.
3. The word of genus and species are always taken either from Latin
or Greek language because this language is a dead language
which is not changed in changing period of time.
3. The author name must be written after species name either in full
or in abbreviation form without a comma.
4. The generic name is single word but species name may be single or
compound word
e.g. Hibiscus rosa-sinesis.
6. Generic and species names are written in italics in printed form
or computerized form but they are underlined separately in
hand-written or typed form.
7. The word of genus and species must have 3-12 letters.
8. The names of families and sub-families should be based on generic name
of organisms.
9. A newly identified specimen should be kept as a type of specimen in
public museum.

Binomial system of nomenclature has following advantages:

1. Binomial system of nomenclature is universally accepted.
2. There is no possibility of changing the scientific name organism
in form of spellings because it is always taken from Latin or
Greek language.
 3. The scientific names provide the detailed characters of organisms.
4. A wrong name of organism can be easily corrected.
5. Unknown organism can be easily identified.
6. It makes communication easier for scientists.
7. It provides the economic, religious and social values of organisms.
8.It helps to develop the phyllogenetic and evolutionary trend.
Kingdom- Fungi

The kingdom fungi has following characteristics:

1. Fungi are the large and diverse group of living organisms which are
devoid of chlorophyll.
2. They are non-vascular, non-seeded, non-flowering, multicellular
(except Yeast), eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms.
3. They have saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic mode of nutrition.
They also show saprozoic nutrition i.e. they secret enzymes on
decaying organic matter dissolve on it and absorb through
general body surface.
4. Reserve food material is glycogen or fats.
5. The body of fungi is called mycelium which is made up of no. of
interwoven threads (filaments) called hyphae. Hyphae may be
septate or aseptate.
6. Cell wall is made up of fungal cellulose or chitin.
7. Life cycle of fungi has two phases i.e. vegetative phase and
reproductive phase. In first phase mycelium grows profusely and
rapidly to absorb the nutrients.
8.Reproduction takes place by vegetative, asexual and
methods.
 Mucor
habitat
Mucor is a saprophytic fungus which is found in dead and decaying
organic matters. It is commonly found in dung of horse. So it is called
dung mould.
Structure
The body of Mucor is called mycelium which is white or cottony delicate thread-
like structure. Mycelium consists of number of thread like structures called
hyphae. Hyphae are branched, aseptate and multinucleated structures. Such
type of mycelium is called coenocytic mycelium.
Mycelium consists of submerged (subterranean) or rhizoidal hyphae, prostrate
hyphae, aerial hyphae or sporangiophores.

Aerial hypha

Prostrate hypha

Subterranean hypha

Fig. 2.2.1: Vegetative Mycelium (H.P.)

Reeproduction -it takes place by vegetative asexual and sexual method.

1. Vegetative reproduction: It commonly takes place by the

process of fragmentation. During unfavourable condition, the
mycelium breaks down into number of segments by its decay or
accidentally called fragments. Under favourable conditions, each
fragment later forms a new mycelium independently.
2. Asexual reproduction: It takes place by the formation of
sporangiospores, chlamydospores, gemmae and parthenospores.

Sexual Reproduction: . During the sexual reproduction, two

opposite strains of hyphae (+ve strain and –ve strain) come close
to each other due to by these hyphae and form club shaped
progametangia. Each progametangium develops the septum and
forms gametangium and suspensor. Each gametangium forms a
single non-motile multinucleated coenogamete. The contact wall
present between the opposite strains of gametangia dissolves
and then opposite strains nuclei of coenogametes fuse
(gametangial copulation) to form of highly thick walled diploid
warty zygospore. It has outer spiny thick exosporium and inner
thin and delicate endosporium. Diploid nucleus of zygospore
undergoes meiosis and forms four haploid nuclei of both strains.
Out of four haploid nuclei, only one haploid nucleus is functional
and remaining all nuclei degenerate. The functional haploid
nucleus divides mitotically several times and forms the number
of haploid nuclei.
During favourable condition, the zygospore ruptures. Thes germ
spores are carried out by wind and reach to the moist habitat. Each
germ spore germinates and first forms hypha and then mycelium.
‘

‘
 Yeast Cell wall

Cell membrane
Systematic Nucleus

Position Kingdom Cytoplasm

- Fungi Phylum
Volutin granule
-
Ascomycota Class Reserved food

-
Ascomycetes
Fig. 2.2.5: Yeast cell (under HP)

Habitat
Yeast is a saprophytic fungus which
is commonly found in sugary
medium like juice of sugarcane and
sweet fruits, nector of flowers, etc.

Vegetative Structure
Yeast is a unicellular non-mycelial fungus. Each cell is elliptical or
rounded in shape. Cell wall is the outermost protective covering of
cell which is made up of chitin (fungal cellulose). Cell membrane is
present inner to the cell wall which is made up of lipo-protein.
Granular cytoplasm is present inner to the cell membrane. Different
types of cell organells like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi body, ribosomes, etc. are present in cytoplasm but chloroplast
is absent. Reserved food material is present in the form of glycogen
or fats. Volutin granules are present in cytoplasm. Single well defined
haploid or diploid nucleus is present in each cell. Nucleus is attached
at one end of a large central vacuole. Such type of vacuole is called
nuclear vacuole.
Reproduction
Yeast shows vegetative and sexual methods of reproduction.
1. Vegetative reproduction: Vegetative reproduction takes place
during favourable condition especially in sugary solution when
oxygen is available in plenty. It takes place either by budding or
fission method.
a. Budding (gemmation): It is the most common method of
reproduction in yeast. During the favourable condition, yeast
cell form small outgrowth or bud at its one end which
gradually enlarges. At the same time, the nucleus divides into
two nuclei. One nucleus is present in mother cell and other
nucleus along with some cytoplasm and food is shifted to the
bud from mother cell. Then constriction appears in between
mother cell and bud that separates them by a transverse wall.
Sometimes a chain of temporary buds is formed without
separation of mother cell and bud cell by the process of
budding called pseudomycelium. Cells of the pseudomycelium
later separate and form large number of vegetative cells. The
yeast that budding type of vegetative reproduction is called
budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
Nuclear division Daughter nuclei
Bud Buds

Parental cell
Daughter cells
Parental cell

Pseudomycelium
Fig. 2.2.6: Vegetative reproduction in yeast by budding

a. Fission: During fission, parental yeast

cell elongates and its nucleus divides
 into two same sized Constriction

daughter nuclei by
karyochoresis and later
separate. The transverse
wall develops at the middle
of cell from periphery
towards the centre of cell
till it divides the parental
cell into two daughter cells.
It is common method of Vegetative cell

vegetative reproduction in Fig. 2.2.7: Vegetative reproduction in yeast by fission

Schizosaccharomyces
(fission Yeast).
2. Sexual reproduction: Yeast
can not produce definite sex
organs like antheridium and
archegonium at the time of
sexual reproduction. It takes
place by
the process of conjugation between two opposite strains of cells
or ascospores that acts as gametangia at the end of growing
season when the food supply becomes scanty.
On the basis of type of vevetative cells involved in sexual
reproduction and dominant phase in life cycle (haploid or diploid
phase), Gulliermond (1949) classified life cycle of Yeast into
following three types:
a. Haplobiontic life cycle: It occurs in fission yeast
(Schizosaccharomyces octosporus). In this type of life cycle,
vegetative cell is only haploid and dominant phase in life cycle is
haploid.
During unfavourable condition, two haploid vegetative cells of
 opposite strains come close to each other and behave as
gametangia. They develop short beak like protuberances in
opposite directions. These protuberances elongate and come
in contact. The contact wall between the protuberances
dissolves and forms a conjugation tube.

a. Diplobiontic life cycle: It occurs in helobial yeast

(Saccharomycodes ludwigii). In this type of life cycle,
vegetative cell is only diplod and dominant phase in life cycle
is diploid. During unfavourable condition, the diploid
vegetative cell directly acts as ascus. This diploid vegetative
cell may divide by fission during favourable condition.

c.Haplodiplobiontic life cycle: It occurs in budding yeast

(Saccharomyces cerevisiae). In this type of life cycle, vegetative cell is
both haploid and diploid; and both phases are equally dominant in the
life cycle.
 Budding Budding

Ascospores (N)
+ve vegetative –ve vegetative
cell (N) cell (N)

–ve
+ve

Haploid nuclei

2N

Ascus

Vegetative cell (2N)

Fig. 2.2.10: Haplodiplobiontic type of life cycle in budding yeast

During unfavourable condition, two haploid

vegetative cells of opposite strains come close to
each other and behave as gametangia. They develop
short beak like protuberances in opposite directions.
These protuberances elongate and come in contact.
The contact wall between the protuberances
dissolves and forms a conjugation tube. The nuclei of
opposite strains of gametangia fuse at conjugation
tube and form a diploid zygote. This diploid zygote
directly changes into diploid vegetative cell. During
favourable condition, there is the multiplication of
diploid vegetative cells by the process of budding.
During unfavourable condition, diploid vegetative
 cell directly changes into ascus. The diploid nucleus
of ascus undergoes meiosis and forms four haploid
nuclei. Each haploid nucleus develops its own
cytoplasm and cell membrane and forms ascospore.
So, four ascospores are formed within the ascus.
After maturity, ascospores are released out by
breaking the wall of ascus. Out of four ascospores,
two ascospores later form +ve vegetative cells and
remaining two ascospores later form –ve vegetative
cells. These vegetative cells also multiply by budding
and produce a large number of haploid vegetative
cells.

b.