FREQUENCY RESPONSE

• Source frequency: variable

– Over a wide range
– Often plot in log-scale
• Response: output voltage
– Amplitude
– Phase
• How the amplitude varies with frequency
• How the phase varies with frequency
 OBJECTIVES
• Derive driving point functions
• Derive transfer functions
• Plot transfer functions vs frequency
• Analize properties of transfer functions
• Filter networks
 DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS
• Defined for one port network
• Input Impedance: Z=V/I
• Input Admittance: Y=I/V

+ Network
I
V

-
 COMPLEX FREQUENCY
Complex frequency 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

Circuit element V-I model using s

Resistor R 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 → 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼

Inductor L: 𝑉 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼 → 𝑉 = (𝑠𝐿)𝐼

Capacitor : C 𝑉 = 𝐼/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) → 𝑉 = 𝐼/(𝑠𝐶)

 Element
Impedance

1 𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1
𝑍eq = 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + =
𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶

Observations:
1. Zeq is a function expressed in a fraction
2. Numerator : polynomial of s (second order)
3. Denominator: polynomial of s (first order)
 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
• Defined for two or more port network
• We concentrate on two-port networks
• One port is input, the other is output
• 4 functions for H (transfer function):
– Voltage gain: Gv=Vo/Vi 𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑜

– Transimpedance : Z=Vo/Ii + +
Vi Vo
– Current gain: Gi=Io/Ii - -
– Transadmittance: Y=Io/Vi

We concentrate on the “Voltage gain” most of the time for this course.
For example: Determine the voltage
gain for the circuit shown.

Solution:

1/(𝑠𝐶)
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 𝑖

𝑉𝑜 1/(𝑠𝐶) 1
𝐺𝑣 = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠

Observations:
The G is of fraction, N(s)/D(s), format,
N(s) = polynomial of 0-th order of s.
D(s) = Polynomial of first order of s.
 For example: Determine the voltage
gain for the circuit shown.

Solution:

1/(𝑠𝐶)
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 𝑖

𝑉𝑜 1/(𝑠𝐶) 1
𝐺𝑣 = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2

Observations:
The G is of fraction, N(s)/D(s), format,
N(s) = polynomial of 0-th order of s.
D(s) = Polynomial of second order of s.
 For example: Determine the voltage
gain for the circuit shown.

Solution:

𝑠𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 𝑖

𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝐿 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2
𝐺𝑣 = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2

Observations:
The G is of fraction, N(s)/D(s), format,
N(s) = polynomial of 2nd order of s.
D(s) = Polynomial of 2nd order of s.
 Example: Determine the voltage
gain gain for the circuit shown.

Solution:

𝑍2
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑖
𝑍1 = 3 + 0.5𝑠
𝑉𝑜 𝑍2
𝐺𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
100𝑠
= 3
𝑠 + 11𝑠 2 + 180𝑠 + 300

𝑍2 = 𝑅//(𝑠𝐿)//(1/𝑠𝐶)
Observations: 50𝑠
= 2
The G is of fraction, N(s)/D(s), format, 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 50
N(s) = polynomial of 1st order of s.
D(s) = Polynomial of 3rd order of s.
In general: for a circuit that contains R, L, C, and dependent sources, the
transfer function can have the following general form

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 +. . . +𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0

𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑏𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0

𝑁(𝑠) = Polynomial of order 𝑚

𝐷(𝑠) = Polynomial of order 𝑛

Similar form can be expressed for:

Equivalent impedance seen by any independent source
The voltage at any node
The current in any loop

The orders (of the polynomials may differ on the type of functions).
Example: We wish to determine the voltage gain
Vo/Vs as a function of frequency from 0 to 1kHz.

Solution:

𝑉𝑜 𝑅 0.038𝑠
= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 1/(𝑠𝐶) (2.53 × 10−4 )𝑠 2 + 0.038𝑠 + 1

Replace s by 𝑗𝜔

𝑉𝑜 𝑗0.038𝜔
=
𝑉𝑖 (−2.53 × 10−4 )𝜔 2 + 𝑗0.038𝜔 + 1
 𝑉𝑜 𝑗0.038𝜔
=
𝑉𝑖 (−2.53 × 10−4 )𝜔 2 + 𝑗0.038𝜔 + 1

Evaluate Vo (amplitude and phase) for frequency from 0 to 1 kHz, and then
plot the amplitude and the phase vs frequency.
MATLAB SCRIPT FOR PLOTING THE RESPONSE

R=15; C=2.53e-3; L=0.1; % Given conditions

freq=[0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4 12 24 48 100 200 400 1000]; % f-samples
w = 2*pi*freq; % Angular freq.
s=1i*w; % s = jw
%
RC=R*C; LC=L*C;
Gv = (s*RC)./(LC*s.^2+s*RC+1); % Calculate the voltage gain.
Gamp = abs(Gv);
Gphs = angle(Gv)*180/pi;

figure('color',[1 1 1]);
ha=loglog(freq, Gamp,'r'); grid; % Amplitude response
set(ha,'LineWidth',2);
xlabel('f (Hz)'); ylabel('Amplitude of Gv');

figure('color',[1 1 1]);
hp=semilogx(freq, Gphs,'r'); grid; % Phase response
set(hp,'LineWidth',2);
xlabel('f (Hz)'); ylabel('Phase of Gv');
An amplifier equivalent circuit

From input loop: From output loop:

𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑜 )
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑠 𝑉𝑜 = 1000𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑜 + 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑜 )

The voltage gain (Vo/Vs) can be derived as

𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖𝑛 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑜 ) 𝑅𝑖𝑛

𝐺= = × = 1000
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑜 + 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑜 ) 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 1/(𝑠𝐶𝑖𝑛 )
1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑠
= 1000
1 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐶𝑜 𝑠 1 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑠
 1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝐺= 1000
1 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐶𝑜 𝑠 1 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑠

Using the following values:

The voltage gain is

𝑠 40,000𝜋
𝐺= 1000
𝑠 + 100𝜋 𝑠 + 40,000𝜋
 POLES AND ZEROS
We have mentioned that the network function (voltages, 𝑁(𝑠)
currents, impedances) can be expressed as a fraction of two 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐷(𝑠)
polynomials as:

Each polynomial can also be factorized into the products of m (or n) factors,
such that

𝐾0 𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 ••• 𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 ••• 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛

𝑧𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, . . . , 𝑚, are the zeros of H(s), i.e., 𝐻(𝑧𝑖 ) = 0

if 𝑧𝑖 is complex, then 𝑧𝑖∗ is also a zero of H(s).
𝑝𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, . . . , 𝑛, are the poles of H(s), i.e., 𝐻(𝑝𝑖 ) = ∞
if 𝑝𝑖 is complex, then 𝑝𝑖∗ is also a pole of H(s).
 Frequency response using a Bode plot

Bode plot: Amplitude in dB

Phase in deg
Frequency (horizontal axis): log10

The advantage of this technique is that rather than plotting the characteristic
point by point, we can employ straight-line approximations to obtain the
characteristic very efficiently

Consider an example

𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 4 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝑀 𝜔 = 20 log10 | 𝐻|

= 12 + 10 log10 1 + (0.1𝜔)2
𝑀 = 12 + 10 log10 1 + (0.1𝜔)2

Exact

𝑀1 = 12

Approximate

𝑀2 = 20 log10 ( 0.1𝜔)
𝑀 = 12 + 10 log10 1 + (0.1𝜔)2

20 log10 ( 0.1𝜔), when 0.1𝜔 >> 1

20 dB / Decade
Increase by 20 dB for 10 times increase in 𝜔

10 log10 ( 1 + (0.1𝜔)2 ) → 0
when 0.1𝜔 << 1

Transition at 0.1𝜔 = 1
or 𝜔 = 10
Another example: 1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
1 + 𝑗0.05𝜔
𝑀 𝜔 = 20 log10 | 𝐻| = −10 log10 1 + (0.05𝜔)2

𝑀2 = −20 log10 ( 0.05𝜔)

-20dB/Decade

Approximate
Exact
 𝑀 = −10 log10 1 + (0.05𝜔)2

−20 log10 ( 0.05𝜔), when 0.05𝜔 >> 1

2
−10 log10 ( 1 + (0.05𝜔) ) → 0 −20 dB / Decade
when 0.05𝜔 << 1 Decrease by 20 dB for 10 times increase in 𝜔

Transition at 0.05𝜔 = 1
or 𝜔 = 20 rad/s
Generally

The complex frequency response H(s) may contain the prouct of the following
factors

Constant: 𝐾0
Zero/Pole at the origin: 𝑗𝜔 ±𝑁
First order zero/pole: (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏)
Second order zero/pole: 1 + 2𝜁(𝑗𝜔𝜏) + (𝑗𝜔𝜏)2

Since
log10 ( 𝐴𝐵) = log10 𝐴 + log10 𝐵
log10 ( 𝐶/𝐷) = log10 𝐶 − log10 𝐷

The overall Bode plot will be the algebraic summation of each

factors (+ for constant and zeros, and – for poles).
 Consant
𝐾0 → 20 log10 | 𝐾0 | for all frequency

Zeros or poles at the origin (Slop +20N for zeros and -20N for poles)
±𝑁
𝑗𝜔 → ± 20𝑁 log10 | 𝜔| for all frequency
cross 0 dB at 𝜔 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

Zeros at other places ( 0 and then 20dB/Decade)

0, if 𝜔𝜏 << 1
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏 → ቊ
20 log10 ( 𝜔𝜏), if 𝜔𝜏 >> 1

Poles at other places (0 and then -20dB/Decade)

1 0, if 𝜔𝜏 << 1
→ ቊ
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏 −20 log10 ( 𝜔𝜏), if 𝜔𝜏 >> 1
 For damping ratio >1 or =1, a quadratic factor can be factored into two
first order zeros/poles. This has been considered above. We will
consider the case for damping ratio < 1 below.

Quadratic zero: 0 then +40dB/Decade.

(At transition, the behavior depends on the dampling ratio).

0, if 𝜔𝜏 << 1
1 + 2𝜁(𝑗𝜔𝜏) + (𝑗𝜔𝜏)2 → ቊ
40 log10 ( 𝜔𝜏), if 𝜔𝜏 >> 1

Quadratic pole: 0 then -40dB/Decade.

(At transition, the behavior depends on the dampling ratio).

1 0, if 𝜔𝜏 << 1
→ ቊ
1 + 2𝜁(𝑗𝜔𝜏) + (𝑗𝜔𝜏)2 −40 log10 ( 𝜔𝜏), if 𝜔𝜏 >> 1
Example
10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔

This transfer function has the following factors

1. A constant 10,
2. A first order zero (frequency transition 10 rad/s),
3. A first order pole (with frequency transition 1 rad/s)
4. A first order pole (with frequency transtion 50 rad/s)

We will scketch the Bode plot for frequency from 0.1 (rad/s) to 1000 (rad/s).

First we draw 3 transion vertical lines at 1, 10, and 50, rad/s, respectively.
 10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔

20

-20

-40
1 10 50
 10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔

20
Constant 10

-20 1
1 + 𝑗𝜔

-40
1 10 50
 10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔

20
Constant 10

1
-20 1 1 + 𝑗0.01𝜔
1 + 𝑗𝜔

-40
1 10 50
 10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
SOLID RED: SUM = 20log10|Gv|

20
Constant 10

1
-20 1 1 + 𝑗0.01𝜔
1 + 𝑗𝜔

-40
1 10 50
 10 1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
𝐺𝑣 =
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔 1 + 𝑗𝜔
1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔
SOLID RED: SUM = 20log10|Gv|

20
Constant 10

1
1 1 + 𝑗0.01𝜔
-20
1 + 𝑗𝜔

-40
1 10 50
Summary:

1. Express the function in standard form (or set frequency to 0 to identify the
constant).
2. Identify the transition frequency and the slope for each zero and/or pole. The
transition frequencies divides the frequency axis into sections.
3. Plot Bode plot section by section (starting from lower frequency), perform
algebraic summation during transition.
Examle: Approximately plot the Bode 104 2 + 𝑗𝜔
plot of the following transfer function 𝐻 𝜔 =
10 + 𝑗𝜔 100 + 𝑗𝜔

Solution
We first convert function into the standard form so as
to identify the constant.
20 1 + 𝑗0.5𝜔
𝐻 𝜔 =
1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔 1 + 𝑗0.01𝜔

Constant: 20
+20dB/Decade at 𝜔 = 2
−20dB/Decade at 𝜔 = 10
−20dB/Decade at 𝜔 = 100
Compare with exact plot
 RESONANT CIRCUITS
• RLC Serial Resonant Circuit
• RLC Parallel Resonant Circuit

• Important parameters
– Resonant frequency
– Bandwidth
– Quality factor
Serial Resonant Circuits

1 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿 −
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
1
Resonant occurs at frequency 𝜔𝑜 =
𝐿𝐶

𝜔𝑜 Is called the resonant frequency.

1
𝜔𝑜 𝐿 =
At the resonant frequency, the impedances of L and that of C will 𝜔𝑜 𝐶
cancel and the input impedance will be real and equal to R: 𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝜔0
=𝑅
An important parameter for a resonant circuit is the quality factor Q
For RLC serial resonant citcuit, it is given by
𝜔𝑜 𝐿 Peak Energy Storage
𝑄= By Definition: 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑜
𝑅 Average Power Dissipation

𝑉1
At the resonant frequency, 𝐼=
𝑅
The loop current is
|𝑉1 |
The amplitude of voltage on the inductor: |𝑉𝐿 | = |𝜔𝑜 𝐿𝐼| = 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 = 𝑄|𝑉1 |
𝑅

Note: if 𝑄 > 1 then |𝑉𝐿 | > |𝑉1 | (Resonant voltage rise in L)

Amplitude of voltage on the inductor: |𝐼|

|𝑉𝐶 | = = 𝑄|𝑉1 |
𝜔𝑜 𝐶

Note: if 𝑄 > 1 then |𝑉𝐶 | > |𝑉1 | (Resonant voltage rise in C)

𝜔0
Bandwidth Δ𝜔 = 𝐵 =
𝑄
Example: calculate the resonant
frequency, the quality factor, and the
amplitudes of voltages on L and C at the
resonant frequency.

Solution:
1 1
𝜔𝑜 = =
𝐿𝐶 10−5 × 0.025
= 2000 rad/s

The quality factor is

𝜔𝑜 𝐿 2000 × 0.025
𝑄= = = 25
𝑅 2

The amplitudes of voltages on L

and C are, respectively,
|𝑉𝐿 | = 25 × 10 = 250 V
|𝑉𝐶 | = 250 V
Note: [at resonant frequency] instantaneously, the
voltages on L and C will not reach maximum at the
same time (the two voltages are out of phase by
180 degrees, when one is max, the other is min).
For the example in the previous page: set R=20 Ohms

VR vs frequency VL vs frequency
Bandwidth, energy storage, and power dissipation

Observations from the VR or VL plot, the voltage gain reaches the peak
value at the resonant frequency (f0).
When frequency is reduced from f0: the gain reduces.
When frequency is increased from f0: the gain reduces.

Bandwidth: The frequency range when gain reduces from peak (at f0) to
70.7% of the peak.

Δ𝑓 =
𝑓𝐻
− 𝑓𝐿
 C and L are energy storage elements. Energy stored in capacitor and the inductor

1 2 1 2 1
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝐸𝐿 = 𝐿𝐼 = 𝑉 2
2 2 2𝜔 2 𝐿 𝐿

At resonant frequency, 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑄𝑉1

1
1 𝐸𝐿 = 2 2
𝐸𝐶 = 𝐶𝑄 2 𝑉12 2 𝑄 𝑉1
2𝜔0 𝐿
2

Are the two equal?

The resistor R is the power consumption device. The average power dissipated on R is

𝑉𝑅2
𝑃=
2𝑅

At resonant frequency, 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉1

𝑉12
𝑃=
2𝑅
Parallel resonant circuit
 𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐶 1 𝑉𝑆
=1−( + )=1− ( + 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑆 )
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝐿
1
= 1 − 𝑍𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)
𝑗𝜔𝐿

One can show quite easily that 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑅

𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔 2 𝑅𝐿𝐶

Substituting for this quantity and simplifying gives the current transfer function for the parallel
RLC circuit to be
𝐼𝑅 1
=
𝐼 𝑅
1+𝑗 (𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)
𝜔𝐿
At the resonant freuqency, it can be
shown that

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅

𝑉𝑠
|𝐼𝐿 | = = 𝑄𝐼𝑅
𝜔0 𝐿

Note: IL and IC are equal in

magnitude and out of phase (so that
they cancel each other at the
|𝐼𝐶 | = 𝑉𝑆 𝜔0 𝐶 = 𝑄𝐼𝑅 resonant frequency.
 As with the series RLC circuit, this current transfer function for the parallel RLC circuit has a
band-pass behavior. However, we can observe from this transfer function that the maximum
value (=1) occurs when 𝐼𝑅 1
𝜔𝑂2 𝐿𝐶 = 1 =
𝐼 1 + 𝑅2 (𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)2 Τ(𝜔𝐿)2

1
or 𝜔𝑂 = rad/s
𝐿𝐶

This is the resonant radian frequency for a parallel RLC circuit. (memorize)

This resonant frequency is exactly the same as that for the series RLC circuit.
One can show that the Q for the parallel RLC circuit is given as
Stored Energy
𝑄 = 𝜔𝑂 𝑅𝐶 Using 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑟
Power Dissipation

Points to Ponder:
•For a given RC, which has a larger Q: the series or parallel RLC circuit?
•Is the Q of the parallel RLC circuit always larger than the series RLC circuit?
 Lecture-Lab #7
Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

The frequency response of a sample parallel-resonant circuit

Δ𝑓 = 𝑓𝐴 − 𝑓𝐵 ≈ 2013 − 1986 = 27 ⇒ Δ𝜔 ≈ 170 From spice output

1
Δ𝜔 = = 200 From theory
𝑅𝐶
 Filter Networks
Filters are designed to allow signal of certain frequency to pass and stop all other
frequencies.

There are mainly 4 types:

1. Low pass: allow low frequency signal to pass and reject those of high frequency.
2. High pass: pass high freq components and reject low frequency components.
3. Band pass: Pass signal whose frequency are within a certain band and reject all
others.
4. Band reject: Reject signal with frequencies in a certain band and pass all others.

Passive filters contains R, L, and C only: |Voltage gain| is not greater than unity at
any frequency

Active filters: contains R, C, L, and amplifiers (such as OpAmp): its voltage gain can
be greater than 1.
 LOW PASS FILTER
1. A simple example: R-C circuit.
2. Capacitor has high impedance at
low frequencies (open at DC)
3. It has low impedance at high
frequencies (short at infinite f)

𝑉𝑜 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝐺𝑣 (𝜔) = = = 1
𝑉1 𝑅 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏

Amplitude response Phase response

1
|𝐺𝑣 (𝜔)| = ∠𝐺𝑣 = − tan−1 𝜔𝜏
1+ (𝜔𝜏)2
Amplitude response

1
|𝐺𝑣 (𝜔)| =
1 + (𝜔𝜏)2

Plot for 𝜏 = 0.0016 s

Phase response

∠𝐺𝑣 = − tan−1 𝜔𝜏
Half-power frequency (3dB frequency or roll-off frequency)

1
|𝐺𝑣 (𝜔)| =
1 + (𝜔𝜏)2

When 𝜔 → 0: |𝐺𝑣 | → 1 (max)

1 1
When 𝜔 = : |𝐺𝑣 | = (0.707 of max)
𝜏 2

1 1
𝜔𝑜 = = Is the half-power (angular) frequency.
𝜏 𝑅𝐶
High-Pass Filter

At low frequencies: C has high impedance

Low gain
At high frequencies: C has low impedance
Gain → 1

Gain function:

𝑉𝑜 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝐺𝑣 (𝜔) = = =
𝑉1 𝑅 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑗𝜔𝜏
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏
 𝑉𝑜 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝐺𝑣 (𝜔) = = =
𝑉1 𝑅 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑗𝜔𝜏
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏

Amplitude response
𝜔𝜏
|𝐺𝑣 (𝜔)| =
1 + (𝜔𝜏)2
1 1
3dB Freq: 𝜔𝑜 = =
𝜏 𝑅𝐶

Plot for 𝜏 = 0.0016 s

Phase response

∠𝐺𝑣 = 90𝑜 − tan−1 𝜔𝜏

 Band-Pass Filter
How it works
1. Very low frequency: C has high
impedance (low gain)
2. Very high frequency: L has high
impedance (low gain).
3. Near resonant frequency: high gain.

Transfer function
𝑅 𝑅
𝐺𝑣 = =
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿 − 1/(𝜔𝐶)

Amplitude response 1
𝑀𝑣 =
2
𝜔𝐿 1
1+ −
𝑅 𝜔𝑅𝐶
 1
𝑀𝑣 =
2
𝜔𝐿 1
1+ −
𝑅 𝜔𝑅𝐶

1
𝜔𝑜 =
Frequency of maximum amplitude (center frequency) 𝐿𝐶

Consider this term:

When 𝜔 varies from 0 to 𝜔o : it is negative and increasing
𝜔𝐿 1
− [It will be "−1" at the lower cut−off frequency]
𝑅 𝜔𝑅𝐶
When 𝜔 = 𝜔o : it is 0 (Center frequency)
When 𝜔 varies 𝜔o to ∞: it is positive and increasing
[It will be " + 1" at the higher cut−off frequency]

At the lower cut-off frequency: At the higher cut-off frequency:

𝜔LO 𝐿 1 𝜔HI 𝐿 1
− = −1 − =1
𝑅 𝑅𝐶𝜔LO 𝑅 𝑅𝐶𝜔HI

2 2
1 𝐿 𝑅 1 𝐿 𝑅
𝜔LO = + 4𝜔02 − 𝜔HI = + 4𝜔02 +
2 𝑅 𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿
 2 2
1 𝐿 𝑅 1 𝐿 𝑅
𝜔LO = + 4𝜔02 − 𝜔HI = + 4𝜔02 +
2 𝑅 𝐿 2 𝑅 𝐿

It can by seen that the bandwidth (High-Low) is

𝑅
BW = 𝜔HI − 𝜔LO =
𝐿
Band rejection filter
(Also called band-stop or Notch filter)

𝑉𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1, when 𝜔 → 0

= → ቐ0, when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 (Band stop)
𝑉1 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶)
1, when 𝜔 → ∞
The band-rejection filter can also be
implemented using this circuit.

How it works:
The equivalent impedance of
the parallel L – C circuit is

𝑗𝜔𝐿/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 𝑗𝜔𝐿
= → ∞ (Equivalent open circuit)
𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

Voltage transfer function: Vo/Vin

𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑞 1 − 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑞
= =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + (𝑗𝜔𝐿)//[1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶)] 1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿

Amplitude response:
𝑉𝑅 1 1, when 𝜔 → 0
= → ቐ0, when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 (Band stop)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 2
𝜔𝐿/𝑅𝑒𝑞 1, when 𝜔 → ∞
1+
1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶
Type of filter varies depending on where to take the output:

If the output is VL: it is high pass

If the output is VC: it is low pass
If the output is VR: it is bandpass

𝑉𝐿 𝑗𝜔𝐿 0, when 𝜔 → 0
= →ቊ
𝑉𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1, when 𝜔 → ∞ (High−pass)

𝑉𝐶 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 1, when 𝜔 → 0 (Low−pass)

= →ቊ
𝑉𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶) 0, when 𝜔 → ∞

𝑉𝑅 𝑅 0, when 𝜔 → 0
= → ቐ1, when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 (Band pass)
𝑉𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 1/(𝑗𝜔𝐶)
0, when 𝜔 → ∞
 ACTIVE FILTERS WITH OP-AMP
• Low pass
• High Pass
• Band pass
Review of OpAmp

OpAmp Properties
1. Very high open loop gain A.
2. Nearly zero input current (or Nearly infinitly high input impedance).
3. Virtual short (for the two input terminals).

For inverting connection (above)

𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
= −
Voltage Gain 𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
For non-inverting connection (above)
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐹
Voltage Gain =1+
𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝐼
 ACTIVE FILTERS WITH OP-AMP
• Low pass
– Connect a passive (such RC) low pass filter with a
non-inverting connected OpAmp
• High pass
– Connect a passive high pass filter with a non-
inverting connected OpAmp
• Band pass
– Connect the low pass and high pass filters (from
the above implementations.
 Active High-Pass Filter

Consider the active filter shown in the figure:

By voltage division, we can compute

the voltage at terminal B as:
𝑅1
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑂 (1)

Again using voltage division, the voltage at terminal A is:

𝑅3 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉 (2)
𝑅3 +
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3 𝑖
𝑗𝜔𝐶3

But with a functioning operational amplifier with feedback: 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵

Therefore, equating (1) and (2) gives

𝑅1 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3 𝑖
𝑉𝑂 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3
𝐺≡ =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶3 𝑅3
or
(3)

If we now define a new constant GO as the gain at very high frequency,

then from (3), as 𝜔 → ∞

𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝐺 𝐺𝑂 = =1+ (4)
𝜔→∞ 𝑅1 𝑅1
With this definition of Go, then (3) can be written as

𝐺𝑂 𝐺𝑂
𝐺 𝜔 ≡ = 𝜔3
1 1−𝑗
1+ 𝜔 (5)
𝑗𝜔𝑅3 𝐶3
1
𝜔3 ≡
where 𝑅3 𝐶3 is the cut-off (or break) frequency.

HIGH PASS
Discussion 𝐺𝑂
𝐺 𝜔 = 𝜔3
1−𝑗
𝐴𝑠 𝜔 → 0, ⥂ 𝐺 → 0 𝜔
𝐴𝑠 𝜔 → ∞, 𝐺 → 𝐺𝑂 ≠ 0
These two characteristics are those of a high-pass filter.

•We can also identify the high-pass behavior directly from the original circuit.
•The capacitor C3 blocks DC signals while at very high frequencies the
impedance of C3 is very small.
1 𝐺𝑂
𝑓3 = , 𝐺 =
•At the break frequency 2𝜋𝑅3 𝐶3 2

•Since there is a single pole in (5), this is a first-order high pass filter.
Active Low-Pass Filter
See Fig. below. It can be shown using an analysis similar to that used above for
the high-pass filter that
𝑉𝑂 𝐺𝑂
𝐺(𝜔) ≡ =
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑗 𝜔 (6)
𝜔2

where G0 is given in (4) and

1
𝜔2 ≡
𝑅2 𝐶2

We can observe from (6) that:

𝐴𝑠 𝜔 → 0, ⥂ 𝐺 → 𝐺𝑂
𝐴𝑠 𝜔 → ∞, 𝐺 → 0

This is what we would expect from a low-pass filter.

Active Low-Pass Filter
𝑉 𝐺𝑂 1
Gain function for a high-pass filter that 𝐺(𝜔) ≡ 𝑂 = 𝜔2 ≡
𝑅2 𝐶2
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑗 𝜔
𝜔2

LOW PASS
Active Band-Pass Filter
• The last filter you will consider is constructed by connecting the output of the
low-pass filter to the input of the high-pass filter as shown in Figure below.
The gain function can then be written as

• By doing this, you will construct an active, second-order bandpass filter. You
will measure the gain of this filter versus frequency as you did for the
previous two filters.

𝑅2 𝑅5
𝐺10 𝐺20 𝐺10 = 1 + , 𝐺20 = 1 +
𝑅3 𝑅6
𝐺(𝜔) = 𝜔 × 𝜔2 1 1
1+𝑗 1 + 𝑗 𝜔1 = , 𝜔2 =
𝜔1 𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅4 𝐶2
Example: Active Band-Pass Filter

1 1
Choose: 𝑓2 = 8𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝜔2 = = 𝐶2 =
𝑅2 𝐶2 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑅2
1
𝑓3 = 7.5𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝜔3 = ⇒ 𝐶3
𝑅3 𝐶3
1
=
2𝜋𝑓3 𝑅3
𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 50𝑘Ω
𝑅1 //𝑅𝑓 = 50𝑘Ω

Therefore, choose 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑓 = 100 kΩ

From these choices, we find that: C2= 397.9 pF

C3 = 424.4 pF
𝑅𝑓
𝐺𝑂 = 1 + =2
𝑅1
Low Pass Filter

Peak: G=2 or 20*log10(2)=6.02 (dB-V)

3-dB frequency: 8.08 kHz
High Pass Filter

Peak: G=2 or 20*log10(2)=6.02 (dB-V)

3-dB frequency: 7.50 kHz
Band Pass Filter

𝜔𝑝
𝑄=
Δ𝜔
𝑓𝑝
=
Δ𝑓

7.7
≈
18.6 − 3.3
≈ 0.5