SUMMARY OF HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

SECTION A: PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND CONCEPTS

 Knowledge is the product of active learning i.e. knowledge and learning are
mutually defined
 Science teachers strive to share their external knowledge with learners
 There is mutual relevance of the history and philosophy of science for one
another
 History and philosophy of science are not complementary, they inter
penetrate and illuminate each other
 “INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF UNIFIED SCIENCE” was written by “Tom
Kuhn”
 Tom Kuhn said history can be viewed as a repository for more than anecdote
and chronology
 “Herbert Feigl” founded the Minnesota center
 Herbert Feigl counseled philosophers of science to take history serious
 History of science w/o philosophy of science is “BLIND”
 Philosophy of science w/o history of science is “EMPTY”
 Aristotle is to DEMONSTRATION as newton is to INDUCTION
 Philosophy of science is EXPLICIT in the work of authors and IMPLICIT to their
scientific practice
 History speaks loudly to its philosophy and in return Philosophy illuminates
history
 Philosophy of science studies Philosophical foundations, implications,
assumptions, natural sciences, social sciences and other sciences.
 Philosophy of science is closely related to epistemology and philosophy of
language.
 Philosophy of science considers the character and development of concepts
and terms, propositions, hypotheses and arguments
 Science draws conclusions from evidence from experimentation, logical
deductions and rational thoughts

DAMI – DAVE
1
 Science is the application of a logical frame of reference to a set of objects of
situations
 Duhem – Quine thesis says that theory can be made compatible with any
empirical observation by addition of ad – hoc hypotheses
 Karl popper accepted Duhem – Quine thesis and lead him to reject naïve
falsification in favor of survival of fittest
 Karl Popper said any hypothesis that does not make testable hypothesis or
prediction is not Science
 W.V Quine developed Confirmation Holism, which states that empirical data
are not sufficient to make a judgment between theories
 Specialists in the philosophy of Science believe it is easy to agree on
observations of Physical phenomena harder for them to agree on
observations of Social or Mental Phenomena
 Empiricism is of the view that knowledge is derived from our Experiences
 Scientific hypothesis are derived and tested via Empirical methods consisting
of observations and experiments
 Observations are Cognitive Acts and involve Perceptions
 A well designed experiment will produce Identical Results when carried out in
an identical fashion
 Observation is not useful and objectivity is lost if the social context of the
observer is a factor in the observation
 Realism is of the view that the universe really is as explained by the scientist
 Instrumentalism holds that our perception, scientific ideas, and theories do
not necessarily reflect the whole world accurately but, are useful instruments
to explain, predict and control our experiences
 Instrumentalism is of the view that empirical method is used to do no more
than show that the theories are consistent with observations
 Constructivism is of the view that all knowledge is constructed in as much as it
is contingent on convention, human perception and social experience
 Constructivism originated in Sociology under the term Social Constructivism
 Analysis is the breaking down of an observation or theory into simpler
concepts to understand it

DAMI – DAVE
2
 It is impossible to describe the motion of a projectile without separating the
force of gravity, angle of projection and initial velocity
 Analysis is as essential in Science as it is to all National Enterprise
 Daniel Dennett invented the term Greedy Reductionism
 An Historical Event might be explained in Sociological or Psychological terms,
which in turn might be described in terms Human Philosophy, Chemistry and
Physics
 Greedy Reductionism describes the assumption that such
reductionism(scenario when an historical event is implied to be nothing after
been reduced to a physical event, and then denying the existence of the
emergent phenomena) was possible
 Daniel Dennett claims that it is not just “BAD SCIENCE”, seeking explanations
which are appealing rather than those used in predicting natural
phenomena……there is no such thing as Philosophy Free Science.
 Daniel Dennett(1995) wrote on Darwin’s dangerous ideas and arguments
against reductionism
 Information Theory can be used to calculate the magnitude of information
loss and is one of the techniques applied to “CHAOS THEORY”
 Newton’s third law states that “For every ACTION there is an opposite and
equal REACTION”
 Inductive Reasoning maintains that if a situation holds in ALL Observed Cases,
the situation holds in ALL Cases
 Deductive Reasoning is the process of moving logically from premise to
conclusion
 Syllogism is a form of reasoning consisting of 2 premises and a Conclusion
 Induction allows on to formulate a General truth from a Specific truth while,
Deduction allows one to formulate Specific truth from a General Truth
 Pseudoscience consists of Astronomy(science of heavenly bodies) and
Astrology(pretended art of foretelling the future event from the stars)
 Falsifiability defined by Karl Popper(1919 - 1920) states that in order to be
useful, a scientific statement(fact, law, theory, principle) must be falsifiable

DAMI – DAVE
3
 Karl Popper described Falsifiability using the observations from a 1963 Essay
on “CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS”
 Confirmations are significant only if they are results of risky predictions
 Good scientific theories include prohibitions...The more a theory Forbids , The
better it is
 A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non – scientific…
IREFUTABILITY IS NOT A VIRTUE OF A THEORY
 Foundationism claims there are some basic statements that require no
justification
 Induction and Falsification are forms of Foundationism , they both rely on
basic statements derived directly from observations
 Observation is a Cognitive act(it relies on our existing understanding or our set
of beliefs
 Coherentism claims that statements cannot be justified by their been part of a
coherent system
 William Ockham (1295-1349) , an influential nominalist, a great logician
whose fame lies solely on the maxim known as Ockham’s razor
 Ockham’s Razor:
 ENTIA NON SUNT MULTIPLICANDA PRAETER NECESSITATEM(entities
must not be multiplied beyond necessity)
 NUMQUAM PONENDA EST PLURALITAS SINE NECESSITATEM(plurality
should not be posited without necessity)
 The acceptance of scientific knowledge as if it were absolutely true and
unquestionable is called Scientism
 Ockham’s Razor was not originally a principle of science, but of theology …
Parsimony comes not from science, but from “the vow of poverty”
SECTION B: RENAISSANCE SCIENCE
 Scientific Renaissance was coined by Marie Boas Hall to designate the early
phase of Scientific Revolution(1450-1630)
 Peter Dear argued for a 2 phase of modern science:
 Scientific Renaissance(15th and 16th century), focused on restoration
of natural knowledge of the ancients
DAMI – DAVE
4
  Scientific Revolution(17th century), focused on the shift of scientists
from recovery to innovation
 During the renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy,
chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing , engineering and anatomy
 The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the fall of
Constantinople(1453)
 Scientific Renaissance is seen by some as Scientific backwardness
 George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike criticized how the renaissance affected
science by its slow progress
 Humanists favor human centered subjects like politics and history rather than
study of natural philosophy or applied mathematics
 Galen’s physiological and anatomical studies and Ptolemy’s geography were
rediscovered in the latter half of the 15th century by a Humanist faith in
classical scholarship
 As a result of the study of ancient texts, botany, zoology, magic, alchemy and
astrology were developed
 Leonardo da Vinci(15th April 1452-2nd may 1519)
 Italian polymath, painter,sculptor,architect, musician, mathematician,
engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist and writer
 Thrown or shot projectiles move in one curved trajectory path, not two
 Metallurgical techniques that allowed him make great sculptures
 Anatomical observations that increased the accuracy of his drawing
 He was the archetype Renaissance man, a man of unquenchable curiosity
and feverishly inventive imagination
 He painted Mona Lisa, the last supper and others
 Nicolaus Copernicus(1473-1543)
 Polyglot, polymath, diplomat, economist, governor, mathematician and
astronomer
 he wrote De revolutionibus, a work that placed the sun at the center of the
universe and the planets in orbits around it
 he created the heliocentric model, which says that the distance of the
planets from the sun bore a direct relationship to the size of their orbits
DAMI – DAVE
5
  he was the initiator of the Scientific revolution
 In 1517 he derived a quantity theory of money, in 1519 he formulated the
Gresham law
 Galileo Galilei
 His most famous was the telescope through which he observed the
heavens and recorded his findings in Sideriusnuncius(starry messenger)
1610
 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus(27th October 1466- 12th July 1536)
 He is also known as Erasmus of Rotterdam
 Dutch renaissance humanist, catholic priest, social critic, teacher and
theologian
 He enjoyed the sobriquet Prince of Humanists, he is also called the
crowning glory of the Christian humanists
 He prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the new testament
 He wrote on free will, the praise of folly, handbook of a Christian knight,
On civility in children, copia and others
 Sir Isaac newton(25th December 1642 – 20th march 1726)
 English physicist, mathematician, natural philosopher, one of the most
influential scientist
 His book philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica(mathematical
principles of natural philosophy) 1687 laid the foundations for classical
mechanics
 His Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation
 He validated the heliocentric model of the cosmos, he also built the first
practical telescope and developed a theory of color
 He formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound and
introduced the notion of Newtonian fluid
 Johannes kepler( 27th December 1571 – 15th November 1630)
 German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer

DAMI – DAVE
6
  He is known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works
Astronomia nova, harmonices mundi and epitome of Copernican
astronomy.
 A mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, an associate
of prince hans Ulrich, assistant to astronomer tycho brahe, imperial
mathematician to emperor Rudolf II
 He invented the improved version of the refracting telescope(keplerian
telescope)

SECTION C: MENDEL AND GENETICS

 Gregor Johann Mendel(20th July 1822-6th January 1884), German speaking
Silesian scientist, central European monk
 He was the founder of the modern science of genetics
 Mendel’s pea plant experiments conducted between 1865 and 1863
established the laws of Mendel inheritance
 he worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: height, pod shape, pod
color, seed shape, seed color, flower position, flower color
 Mendel coined the term recessive and dominant in reference to certain traits
 In the 1890s the invention of better microscopes allowed biologists to discover
the basic facts of cell division and sexual reproduction
 Mendel observed 7 traits:
 Flower color is purple or white
 Flower position is axil or terminal
 Stem length is short or long
 Seed shape is round or wrinkled
 Seed color is yellow or green
 Pod shape is inflated or constricted
 Pod color is yellow or green
 Mendel picked common garden pea plants(pisum sativum) because they can
be easily grown in large numbers and their reproduction can be easily
manipulated

DAMI – DAVE
7
 Pea plants have both male and female reproductive organ, so they can self-
pollinate
 Mendel’s conclusions from his experiments are as follows:
 Inheritance of each trait is determined by units(genes) passed unto
descendants unchanged
 An individual inherits one such unit from each parent for each trait
 A trait might not show up in an individual, but can still be passed on to the
next generation
 Mendel’s observations can be summarized into 2 principles:
 Principle of Segregation(mendel’s first law), for any particular trait, the
pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each
parent on to an offspring, this occurs during the process of sex cell
formation(meiosis)
 Principle of Independent Assortment (Mendel’s second law), different pair
of alleles are passed to offspring independently of each other. Genes for
independently assorted traits are located on different chromosomes
 Principle of segregation, independent assortment, unit inheritance and
dominance were the beginning of our modern science of genetics
 One of Mendel’s major innovations was Pure line(population that breeds true
for a particular trait)
 Genetic terms:
 Phenotype: means “the form that it is shown”, outward physical
appearance of a trait, the f1 generation shows only one parental
phenotype, but possess information to produce both parental phenotype.
The f2 generation produced a 3:1 where the dominant trait is present
three times as often as the recessive trait
 Dominant: allele that expresses itself at expense of alternate allele
 Recessive: allele whose expression is suppressed by the dominant allele,
phenotype that disappears in f1 generation and reappears in f2
generation
 Genes: hereditary determinants
 Allele: one alternative form of a given allelic pair

DAMI – DAVE
8
  Homozygote: individual containing only one allele at the allelic pair
 Heterozygote: individual containing one of each member of gene pair
 Genotype: specific allelic combination for each gene
 Backcross: cross of an F1 hybrid to one of the homozygous parents
 Testcross: cross of any individual to a homozygous recessive parent, used
to determine if the individual is homozygous or heterozygous dominant
 Monohybrid cross: cross between parents that differ at a single gene pair
 Monohybrid: offspring of 2 parents that are homozygous for alternate
alleles of a gene pair
 Dominance: ability of one allele to express itself at the expense of an
alternate allele
 Punnett square helps determine specific genetic ratios
 Mendel’s laws are referred to as LAWS
 Fruit flies reproduce in about 2wks from birth, Bacteria reproduce in 3-5 hrs.

SECTION D: SCIENCE AND ITS HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

 Theory: explanation of some aspect of nature that has been well supported by
observations
 Thomas Kuhn portrays that science includes intellectual, cultural, economic
and political themes outside science
 History of science is the study of the historical development of science and
scientific study including natural and social sciences
 Science is a body of empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about the
natural world
 The recent English word SCIENTIST coined by William Whewell in the 19th
century, previously people investigating nature were called Natural
philosophers
 Scientific revolution (16th and 17th century Europe)
 Charles Darwin is the father of Evolutionary Thoughts
 Darwin had NO KNOWLEDGE of genetics
 Individuals change over time due to environmental influences and these
acquired characteristics are passed on to offspring…. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
DAMI – DAVE
9
 Alfred Russell Wallace developed the theory of natural selection
 Historical sciences like Darwinian evolution and intelligent design[ID] rely on
the principle of UNIFORMITARIANISM which holds that “the present is the
key to the past”, which means that present experiences based knowledge of
cause and effect relationships typically guides the assessment of the
plausibility of proposed causes of past events
 Experience affirms that information routinely arises from the activity of
INTELLIGENT AGENTS
 In our present day experience, we observe that intelligent agents alone
generate systems with high levels of specified complexity such as codes and
languages
 ID is invoked when something is positively KNOWABLE , when we have
positive reasons to understand that intelligence is the best scientific
explanation of a phenomenon
 Materialists wrongly accuse ID proponents of adopting position A[everything
is designed and we should never invoke material causes], while they adopt
position B[nothing is designed and we must always invoke material causes]
 Biological theories have been argued long and hard in socio-political arenas,
Evolution is the binding force of all biological research. Evolution is the
unifying theme

PREHISTORY, BABYLON, EGYPT, GREECE

 In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge were passed from generation to
generation in oral tradition
 Ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic
manner via simple observation
 The Ancient people are considered the First Scientist
 Around 3500BC, the MESPOTAMIAN people began to attempt to record some
observations of the world in numerical data.
 Pythagoras law was recorded as early as the 18th century, with records of
Pythagorean triples dated 1900BC

DAMI – DAVE
10
 Inn Babylonian Astronomy, records of the motion of the stars, planets and the
moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes
 Ancient Egypt made advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
 Egypt was a center of Alchemy for much of the Mediterranean
 The EDWIN SMITH PAPYRUS, is one of the first medical documents still extant
and earliest document to describe and analyze the BRAIN
 The earliest Greek philosophers were known as Pre-Socratics
 The pre-Socratic philosopher THALES is dubbed the FATHER OF SCIENCE , and
the first to postulate non supernatural explanations for natural phenomena
 Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural
philosophy … they also discovered Deductive Reasoning
 Plato founded the platonic academy 387BC whose motto was “let none
unversed in geometry enter here”
 Aristotle introduced Empiricism and foundations of scientific method. He also
produced many biological writings focusing on biological causation and
diversity of life. He classified >540 animal species and dissected >50
 Archimedes used method of exhaustion to approximate the value PI,
Calculated the area under the arc of a parabola, foundations of hydrostatics,
statics
 “Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out
the laws of equilibrium” ….Benjamin Farrington, former professor of classics
at Swansea university
 Astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first person to propose a
heliocentric model of the solar system
 Geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the
earth
 Hipparchus produced first systematic star catalog
 ANTIKYTHERA Mechanism : analog computer for calculating the position of
planets
 Hippocrates and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and
medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic oath for physicians

DAMI – DAVE
11
 Herophilos was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human
body and to describe the nervous system
 Galen performed many audacious operations including brain and eye
surgeries
 In Hellenistic Egypt, mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of
mathematical rigor and introduced the concept of definition, axiom, theorem
and proof
 Theophrastus wrote some descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the
First Taxonomy
 Pliny the Elder 77AD, produced the largest encyclopedia of the natural world
 Evolutionary thought the conception that species change over time , has roots
in antiquity, in the ideas of the ancient Greeks, romans, Chinese and Islamic
science
 Essentialism: belief that every specie has essential characteristics that are
unalterable, developed from Aristotlelianmetaphysics
 19th century, Jean Baptiste proposed his theoey of Transmutations of species,
first fully formed theory evolution
 Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that
two very different species could share a common ancestor
 The theory was based on the idea of natural selection and synthesized a broad
range of evidence from animal husbandry, biogeography, geology, morphology
and embryology

SECTION E: THE AGE OF ALCHEMY

 Alchemy is the art of liberating parts of cosmos from temporal existence and
achieving perfection which, for metals is gold, and for man, longevity, then
immortality and finally redemption
 Alchemy differs from Modern science in its inclusion of hermetic principles
and practices related to mythology, magic, religion, and spirituality
 Alchemy is recognized as a Protoscience that contributed to the development
of modern chemistry and medicine
 Relation to the science of Chemistry
DAMI – DAVE
12
  Robert Boyle is the father of Chemistry
 During the 17th century, practical alchemy started to disappear in favor
of its younger offshoot chemistry, as it was renamed by Robert Boyle
 Relation to Hermeticism
 The heart of alchemy is Spiritual
 Transmutation of lead into gold is analogous for personal transmutation,
purification an perfection ….termed spiritual/esoteric/internal alchemy
 Zoismos of Panopolis highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical
quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul
 Etymology
 Alchemy derived from the old French alquimie, from medieval Latin
alchimia, from Arabic al-kimia
 Chemia from ancient Greek with addition of Arabic definite article al
 Chemia may have been derived from a version of the Egyptian name of
Egypt keme [khmi, black earth], it could have been derived from Greek
chumeia[mixture]

 History of Alchemy:
 Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt: the start of western alchemy can be
traced to Hellenistic Egypt[Alexandria was a Centre of alchemical
knowledge]
 The earliest records of alchemy in the west constituted of elements of
technology, religion, mythology and philosophy
 Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest book on alchemy
 Mary the Jewess in the first non-fictitious western alchemist
 Mythology: Alchemical writers used classical figures from Greek,
roman and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works. The
pantheon of gods related to classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason etc. the
central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes
Trismegitus[thrice great Hermes]
 Technology: the dawn of western alchemy is associated with with
that of metallurgy [3500BC]. Many writings were lost when the

DAMI – DAVE
13
 emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after
suppressing a revolt in Alexandria [292BCE]
 Philosophy: an example of alchemy’s root in Greek philosophy,
originated by Empedocles’ and Aristotle was that all things in the
universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water and
fire. Greco-Roman alchemists preceding zoismos are known only by
Pseudonyms such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus and
Ostanes. middle of 7th century alchemy was an entirely mystical
discipline, it was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its
migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world
 Alchemy in the Islamic world:
 In the 8th century Jabir Ibn Hayyan introduced a new approach to
alchemy based on scientific methodology and controlled
experimentation. He is considered by many to be the father of
Chemistry.
 The discovery that aqua regia [nitric acid + hydrochloric acid] could
dissolve the noblest metal gold
 Jabir’s ultimate goal was Takwin [artificial creation of life]. He analyzed
each Aristotelian elements in terms of four basic qualities hotness,
coldness, dryness and moistness. According to him, 2 of these qualities
were interior and 2 exterior.
 Jabir originated the elemental system in medieval alchemy, consisting
of 7 elements: aether, air, fire, water, earth, sulphur[stone which
burns] and mercury
 Alchemy in Medieval Europe:
 The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe occurred on 11th February
1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester translation of the Arabic
“Book of the Composition of Alchemy
 Saint Anslem (1033-1109) put forth the opinion that faith and
rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian
context.

DAMI – DAVE
14
  Roger Bacon (1214-1294) studied a wide variety of topics including
optics, language, and medicine.
 Dante, Piers the ploughman and Chaucer painted unflattering pictures
of alchemists as thieves and liars
 Nicolas Flamel: well-known alchemist, a good example of Pseud
epigraphy[practice of giving your works the name of someone else
usually more famous]
 Alchemy in the Renaissance and Modern age:
 In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the corpus
hermeticum and the works of plato to Latin
 Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult
Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology and christain cabala
 Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus [Theophrastus bombastus von
hohenheim] pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine
and wrote ‘many have said of alchemy’, that it is for the making of gold
and silver
 Alchemists were contracted by the Elite for practical purposes related
to mining, medical services, and production of chemicals, medicines,
metals and gemstones.
 Decline of European Alchemy:
 The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of
modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative
experimentation and its disdain for ancient wisdom
 Paracelsian alchemy led the development of modern medicine.
 Koch and Pasteur uncovered the workings of the human body, such as
blood circulation and traced diseases to infections with germs
 In the 17th century alchemy and chemistry were used interchangeably ,
in the 18th century, alchemy was considered to be restricted to gold
making
 Robert Boyle pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations.
 Modern science was founded in the 18th and 19th century based on the
revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and Charles Dalton

DAMI – DAVE
15
  In the 19th century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures are
Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock
 Atwood claimed “no modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its
surreptitious claims, has anything in common with Alchemy
 Indian Alchemy:
 The use of mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd-4th century
CE Artha-sastra.
 the goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine
body[Sanskrit divya-deham] and immortality while still
embodied[Sanskrit jivan-mukti]
 Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of
mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god
siva and the menstrual blood of the goddess devi.

DAMI – DAVE
16