166 C H A P T ER 4 : Non-Destructive Testing

FIGURE 4.25 F
Typical setup for tensile
Compression Tension
testing of a concrete
cylinder. Splitting surface
Tensile stress f

Concrete cylinder

F
Loading diagram Stress diagram

The splitting or tensile strength (N/mm2) is then given approximately as:

ft ¼ 2F=pDL (4.1)
where D and L are the diameter and length of the cylinder in mm. The
value of ft is generally assumed to be about 0.1 of the 150 mm cube
strength, or 0.08 of the cylinder strength. If the flexural tensile strength is
required for assessment purposes, this can be found by multiplying the
cylinder strength by 1.5.

4.3 STEEL
4.3.1 Introduction
Structural steel is one of the most common materials used for the
construction of medium to long span bridges of the truss, cable-stayed, and
suspension types. Being a metal, it tends to corrode if left exposed to air and
water, and undergoes a conversion from the metallic to the oxidised state.
The rate of such corrosion varies depending upon the composition of the
metal and its environment. It also suffers from the presence of defects
embodied during manufacture such as voids and inclusions. It can crack at
low temperatures, and fracture due to in-service fatigue.
Surface treatment and attention to detail by bridge engineers are attempts
to control the rate of deterioration but inevitably corrosion will take place.
Non-destructive tests play an important part in detecting both the presence
and the rate of corrosion and are also employed to seek evidence of imper-
fections and section loss. Figure 4.26 illustrates typical defects that can be
detected.
 Steel 167

gas filled pocket FIGURE 4.26

slag inclusion Imperfections in steel.

crack
delamination

4.3.2 Ultrasonic testing

This method of testing concrete has already been described (section 4.2.4).
It can also be used to test steel elements by passing a very high freq-
uency (2–5 MHz) through the metal. The ultrasonic waves that travel
through the metal are reflected back by either a defect or from the far surface
of the member. The degree of reflection produced by a defect depends upon its
shape and size. A void, for example, will reflect almost 100% of the waves,
while a defect-free element will reflect 0% of the waves.
There are two types of probe that can be used: the single crystal or the
twin crystal. In the former, the probe both transmits and receives the waves;
and in the latter, one probe transmits and the other receives. Both can be used
to enter a wave at any angle to the surface of the element. For example, when
a weld is under examination, both types of probe would be used depending
upon the nature of the weld. Typical probe arrangements for butt and fillet-
type welds are shown in Figure 4.27.

R FIGURE 4.27
T
Typical probe
arrangements when
testing welds.

T R
168 C H A P T ER 4 : Non-Destructive Testing

Front Front

scan
crack tip

Back
Back

End on crack

FIGURE 4.28 Use of a low-noise probe.

New developments in ultrasonic testing now make it possible to use

high-power, low-noise compressed wave probe to detect the tips of a crack
‘head-on’ and can sometimes provide information on the crack size
(Figure 4.28).
Ultrasonic diffraction (as opposed to deflection) is now being developed as
what is called a ‘time-of-flight’ technique. This may prove to be a useful way
of determining the location, position, and size of a crack. Another develop-
ment is the ‘Delta-scan’ that uses ultrasonic mode conversion and can also
provide information about head-on cracks (Cartz, 1995).
Ultrasonic technology is probably the most widely developed and used
method of flaw detection at the present time and because of its relative
simplicity will most certainly remain ahead of the field for some time
to come.

4.3.3 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

This method can only detect surface or near surface flaws. It consists of
producing a magnetic field around the area to be tested and then coating the
surface with magnetic powder particles that are either in suspension or
applied as a powder. The surface is well illuminated and then a visible
inspection of the powder is carried out (Halmshaw, 1988).
Flaws give rise to magnetic leakage fields and are best detected when the
magnetic field direction is perpendicular to the direction of the suspected
flaws – in other words, a defect is best revealed if parallel to the direction of
electric current flow. This is shown in Figure 4.29 where in (a) defect B is
easily detectable but defect A will be missed. (If it is possible to remagnetise
in an orthogonal direction, then the converse is true.) There are several ways
of magnetising the area to be investigated (Halmshaw, 1988) and the most
appropriate will depend on the site conditions. The two most common are
the current flow techniques where two contact heads are placed on the
 Steel 169

a b FIGURE 4.29
Flaw detection using
MPI.
A B A
B

Direction of current Direction of current

(Flaw B detectable) (Flaw A detectable)

specimen, which becomes part of the magnetic circuit, or electromagnetic

induction using a coil wrapped around the specimen.
For example, current flow could be used in Figure 4.29(a) with contact
heads at each end, and electromagnetic induction could be used in
Figure 4.29(b) with the coil wrapped around the specimen or element.
Flaws will only be detected when the magnetic flux (which is
perpendicular to the current) is at right angles (or nearly so) to the flaw.
If magnetic ‘ink’ is used, the defects attract the ink, which remains in the
defects when the magnetic field is removed. The defect is then visible as
either lines or spots on the surface. There is no limit to the size or shape of
element, which can be tested provided that a magnetic field can be set up.
Figure 4.30 shows a typical MPI setup on a steel bridge.

4.3.4 Liquid penetration inspection (LPI)

This is a very extensively used method for testing defects that are open to
the surface (Cartz, 1995). The results are heavily dependent on the expe-
rience and skills of the operator, and to that extent they are somewhat
subjective.
The area to be tested, for example, near to a weld, is first cleaned and then
coated with a liquid penetrant containing a coloured dye (usually red) for use
in normal light, or a fluorescent dye for use under UV light. As a result of
capillary action, dye is drawn into any defects on the surface trapped. After
a few minutes, the dye is wiped off and a developer is sprayed over the surface,
which reduces the surface tension and allows the dye in the defect to seep to
the surface thus highlighting the defect. After use, the penetrant should be
cleaned off. The steps are shown in Figure 4.31.
The technique is simple and requires no equipment, but it is limited to
defects that are visible on the surface, and interpretation must be by a person
experienced in the process. This ensures that false LPI indications are
identified and eliminated from the study. If more information is required
170 C H A P T ER 4 : Non-Destructive Testing

FIGURE 4.30
Typical MPI setup on
a bridge (courtesy of
M. Neave).

about flaw depth and width, then it must be supplemented with a UTor MPI
investigation.

4.3.5 Radiography
Radiography is a technique that uses penetrating radiation such as X-rays or
gamma g-rays to obtain an image of a solid or void. Access to both sides of the
element under test is required and images are recorded on film (radiographs)
placed behind the element.

FIGURE 4.31 developer trapped highlighted

undetected
The application of LPI. flaw applied penetrant flaw

1 2 3 4
 Steel 171

The contrast in
a radiograph is controlled
V
largely by the energy of the
I = inclusion
ray, and can be enhanced
by the use of two or more
source
films. No details are
I
possible apart from its size
perpendicular to the
source of the rays. The
basic principle is shown in
V V = void
Figure 4.32. Generally,
defects that are less dense
than the parent metal
FIGURE 4.32 Principle of radiography. appear lighter, and defects
which are more dense
appear darker. The experi-
ence of the operator and engineer in charge plays an important role in the
interpretation of the results.
Radiography is a hazardous technique and due precautions have to be
taken to ensure safety of all personnel involved. It is costly and involves the
use of heavy equipment, and for that reason it is not a popular choice among
bridge engineers. It can be quite useful, however, for examining components
of a bridge that can be temporarily removed (such as bearing plates, trunions,
bolts) and brought into a laboratory environment for examination.

4.3.6 Metal thickness gauges

4.3.6.1 Ultrasonic thickness gauge
This type of instrument is based on the same principles outlined in section
4.3.2. A small emitter and receiver are built into a single probe that is simply
placed onto one face of the structural element and a beam of ultrasound is
transmitted through it and reflected off the back of the element (Figure 4.33).
The time taken is used to calculate the thickness knowing the velocity of the
ultrasound in the material from the formula:

t ¼ n,T=2 (4.2)
where t is the thickness of metal part, T is the transit time, and n is the
velocity of the ultrasound in the material.
It can measure from 1.2 mm to 200 mm, and the thickness is presented
on a digital display. The instrument is very small, lightweight, portable, and
can be used in the field with ease. For reliable, accurate measurements, it is
172 C H A P T ER 4 : Non-Destructive Testing

FIGURE 4.33 a
(a) Principle and (b)
ultrasonic thickness t
gauge (courtesy of
Elcometer Ltd. UK).

Hand held probe

ULTRASONIC AND
DIGITAL DISPLAY
UNIT

important to ensure that the surface of the element is first cleaned and
a couplant applied to ensure that there is a suitable sound path between
transducer and test surface and that there is no air layer. It is best to use thick
oil or grease but water may also be used, in fact almost anything will do as
long as it is liquid.
 Masonry 173

4.3.6.2 Vernier scale

The vernier scale is a well-known traditional device and has the advantage
that the measuring points will settle easily into the deepest pits of
corroding metal thus measuring the thinnest parts of the material. Modern
versions have a digital readout and can measure thicknesses from 1 mm to
50 mm.

4.3.7 Other tests

There are many other well-known tests that can be applied to steel elements
to establish their properties of toughness, hardness, brittleness, elasticity,
ductility, and fatigue limit and these would normally be investigated after the
onset of any visible defect such as cracking or plastic deformation, or in
the event of a bridge failure as part of a diagnostic investigation. Apart from
the hardness test that can be implemented in situ, small coupons of steel
would need to be cut out for laboratory testing.
Chemical analysis is carried out if it is suspected that the steel does
not have the properties assumed in the original design. This will
include measurements of the amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur,
and manganese, each with a different effect on the properties listed
above.
Iffland and Birnstiel (1996) provide a very useful list of NDT methods for
steel giving their applications and limitations together with an exhaustive list
of references.

4.4 MASONRY
Masonry bridges are not usually subject to the problems of corrosion, but
instead can deteriorate by weathering of the exposed masonry, arch ring
separation, deformation of the spandrel walls and parapets, break-up and
settlement of the fill materials, and fracture of the transverse ties.

4.4.1 Hammer tap test

This is the ‘traditional’ way of testing the integrity of masonry arches by
trying to locate separation of the arch rings. It is acoustic in nature and
involves striking the masonry with a hammer and listening to the acoustic
response. A ‘hollow’ sound indicates possible ring separation since the
mechanical sound wave does not travel well through air, and a ‘solid ring’
implies that the integrity of the arch rings is sound. This works well for
174 C H A P T ER 4 : Non-Destructive Testing

separations near to the intrados but does not always detect deeper or multiple
separations.

4.4.2 Coring
If separation is suspected at a particular location, then the same coring
procedures detailed in section 4.2.16 can be applied to the arch ring. The core
will confirm the presence or otherwise of the separation(s) but will not
provide information about its thickness. Compression testing of the core can
be carried out as for concrete (see section 4.2.16.2), which will provide
information about the strength and the quality (class) of the brickwork or
masonry, and (if dry coring is carried out) the extent of water saturation.
Cores can also be taken through the surface to discover the nature and
extent of the layered materials in the ‘fill’. If unbound materials are discov-
ered, then a borehole needs to be sunk to ensure a reasonably undisturbed
sample.

4.4.3 Impulse radar

This method has already been described in section 4.2.11. Not only is it non-
invasive (unlike trial holes and slit trenches), but a large amount of infor-
mation can be gathered in a relatively short space of time with a minimum
interference to traffic and at a relatively low cost.

4.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The wide ranging non-destructive (semi-invasive) tests described in this
chapter are well worth considering when planning a visual inspection. They
can add considerably to the information obtained from the inspection and are
relatively inexpensive. The results of well-chosen tests can help to determine
the quality of the construction materials for assessment purposes. They are
also able to measure the extent of a visible defect, and to reveal the presence
of any hidden defects that might otherwise go undetected and result in
a collapse – witness the ill-fated Ynys-y-Gwas bridge (section 5.2.6 in
Chapter 5).

REFERENCES
Alldred, J. C. (1995). Quantifying losses in cover meter accuracy due to conges-
tion of reinforcement. International Journal of Construction, Maintenance
and Repair, 9(Jan/Feb), 41 47.