SCF01

Electronic Scanned Array Design
SCF01
John S. Williams
The Aerospace Corporation (retired)
johnswilliams@ieee.org
Slide 1
of 255
Course Objectives
j
• Provide a basic understanding of ESA design principles,

history and applications
– Presentation will focus on antenna hardware
– Radar antennas are the focus of this presentation
• Communications and receive antennas differ only
y in details
– ESA functionality enables or enhances radar modes but radar
modes will not be addressed in any detail
Slide 2
SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design
of 255
Abstract
Design Principles and Approaches
General design principles off aperture antennas are applied to the specific
G f case off ESA
S
design. System applications set the framework for requirements allocation and flowdown.
Antenna Architectures and Functional Partitioning
The advantages and disadvantages of ESA and reflector antennas as well as ESA feeds for
reflectors are compared and contrasted. Common ESA design issues are described, including
array partitioning and subarrays, lattice tradeoffs, feed design, causes and mitigation of
sidelobes beam steering approaches and techniques for beam shaping
sidelobes, shaping. Numerical examples
using Matlab illustrate performance of specific designs.
Practical Design Considerations
ESA performance is constrained by the selection and limitations of specific components
components.
Objectives of size, weight, power, thermal dissipation, performance and cost drive tradeoffs
among radiating elements, T/R modules, monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs),
microwave distribution and packaging.
Proposed and Operational Examples
Recent radar satellite designs will be assessed to illustrate actual performance and design
tradeoffs. Current L-band system
y p
proposals
p contrast different design
g approaches.
pp
Slide 3
of 255
Antennas
• One of the most important determinants of microwave system

(radar, communications, other) performance
• Requirements are determined by system performance allocation and
flow down
flow-down
• Attributes include:
– Beam width, shape and sidelobes
• Uniform illumination sidelobes -13
13 dB (rectangular aperture) or -17
17 dB (circular
aperture) are too high for most purposes
– Instantaneous and tunable bandwidth
– Size
• SAR (square) vs GMTI (rectangular) Aspect Ratios
• Deployment
– Thermal Dissipation
– Weight
g
– Cost
• Thermal dissipation and power consumption will restrict system duty
factor
Slide 4
of 255
Electronically
y Scanned Array
y ((ESA))
• An ESA combines multiple elements with phase or time

delays to form a beam in a specified direction
– In contrast to a mechanically steered antenna physically rotates
an antenna to point a beam in a specified direction
• Phase or time delayy is required
q to scan the beam
• Gain control is required for beam shaping
• ESA
ESA’s
s commonly include amplifiers
– overcome distribution and control loss
– Replace transmitter power amplifier (TWTA)
Slide 5
of 255
Reflector Antenna Radar Block Diagram
Exciter Transmitter
mbal
Frequency
F
Gim
Duplexer
Antenna
Data request Control & Timing Processor

Reference
Radar data Signal Processor Receiver

Receiver
Protection
Power Supply ESA incorporates functions

shown in dashed box Slide 6
of 255
Electronically Scanned Array Radar Block
Diagram
TRM
Power & Logic Distributiion

Exciter
Manifold((s)
TRM
TRM
TRM
Beamfforming M
Frequency
F TRM
Data request Control & Timing Processor B TRM
Reference e TRM
a TRM
m TRM
TRM
Radar data Signal Processor Receiver(s)
TRM
Power Supply ESA incorporates functions

shown in dashed box Slide 7
of 255
ESA Benefits
• Multiple beams
• Instantaneous beam steering (agile beam)
– Reduces slew and settle time
• Mainlobe shaping, sidelobe control and nulling for clutter and interference
mitigation
• Multiple phase centers for MTI & multi-channel SAR
– Enables angle of arrival measurement
– Additional degrees of freedom for clutter and interference mitigation
• Multiple concurrent radar modes.
• Lower loss between amplifiers and free space
• Inherent redundancy (multiple elements)
– Graceful degradation
• Electronic Attack (EA) with very high Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
• Stealth
– Better match to free space – much less reflection/reradiation
• Antenna surface deformation (deliberate or accidental) may be compensated
• Space combining (low loss) of solid state power amplifiers
Slide 8
of 255
ESA Performance Improvement
p
26 -3 dB • Multiple Azimuth Beam

24 – Improved SAR resolution
22 • Multiple
M lti l El
Elevation
ti B Beam
20 – Improved stripmap area
Range ((km)
18 ate
rate
← Boresight
16 – SCORE (SCan On
Receive)
14
12
Sensor altitude is 10.0 km
10 Range to horizon is 357.3 km
Boresight range is 20.0 km
8 Grazing angle = 30.0°
-10 -5 0 5 10
Cross Range
g ((km))
Slide 9
of 255
Technology
gy Environment
• ESAs have recently become very prevalent for the sole

reason that they have become much more affordable
(they were always known to offer significant benefits but
were unaffordable)
• T/R modules are a small fraction of radar system cost
and a very small fraction of system cost
Slide 10
of 255
Aperture Design
Slide 11
of 255
Antenna Function
• Antenna objective is to create a current/voltage

distribution which creates a specified beam pattern or
v/v.
v/v
– Omni directional radio signals of little use (except for
broadcasting)
• Difficult to arrange in general
– Arrays permit a sampled representation of current/voltage
permitting
i i almost
l any d
desired
i d arrangement
• Two design approaches – analysis and synthesis
Slide 12
of 255
Basic Aperture
p Shapes
p
• Square
q aperture
p • Round aperture
– 4 by 8 wavelengths – 3 wavelengths radius
– First sidelobe is -13.2 dB – First sidelobe at -17.8 dB
– 3 dB beamwidth = ± 0.866 λ/D – 3 dB beamwidth = ± 1.03 λ/D
– first null at ± λ/D – first null at ± 1.22 λ/D
From Balanis
“Antenna
Antenna Theory”
Theory
Chapter 11
Slide 13
of 255
Analysis Regions
(exact to approximate)
Fresnel or Fraunhofer
Near Field Transition or Far Field
Region Region Region
ntenna
An
Nominal
Beamwidth
2 2 2 2 2
D D D D 2D
For λ = 3cm and 0
16λ 4λ 2λ λ λ
D = 1 meter 2m 8m 17m 33m 67m
208m
D = 10 meter 1,667m 3,333m 6,667m
833m
Illustration from Lynch (© SciTech Publishing, Inc),
Slide 14
of 255
Regions
g
E
Evanescent
t N
Near Fi
Field
ld F Field
Far Fi ld
Fresnel Fraunhofer
Near limit 0 3λ 2D²/λ
2D /λ
Far limit 3λ 2D²/λ ∞
Power decay R-n 1 R-1
E and H No Yes Yes
orthogonal
Z0 = 377 Ω No Yes Yes
• Laser Pointer
• Ȝ = 630 nm, D = 1 mm => farfield at 3 meters
Slide 15
of 255
Another Visualization
4λ
Slide 16
3λ Electronic Scanned Array Design
SCF01 2D²/λ of 255
General Concepts
p
• Linearity
Li it andd superposition
iti
• Reciprocity (Lorenz)
– System behavior is independent of direction of energy transfer, ie antenna
pattern is
i the
h same ffor transmit
i and
d receive
i
• Antenna pattern is the Fourier transform of aperture illumination
– Discrete (sampled) vs continuous
– The sample interval is the element spacing
– λ/2 element spacing assures no grating lobes
(Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem)
– Resolution
R l ti lilimit
it (R
(Rayleigh
l i h criteria)
it i )
– Round vs square
• Projected aperture (cosine θ dependence)
– Wheeler - Pozar
• Polarization and principal planes
• Radar
ada Range
a ge Equation
quat o
Slide 17
of 255
Resolution
• Range
R measurementt is
i di
directly
tl related
l t d tto b
bandwidth
d idth
– Wide bandwidth waveform (eg chirp) required
• Angle measurement is directly related to antenna (aperture)
size
– Can generate “synthetic” apertures larger than physical antenna
size by exploiting own platform motion
• Angular resolution (Rayleigh criterion)
– Coherent or non-coherent
– Deconvolution of PSF allows higher (super) resolution subject to
S/N
– Consider two point sources (sinx/x) separated by small distance, fit
sinx’/x’
i ’/ ’ andd ttake
k diff
difference, llook
k att Pd/Pf
Pd/Pfa
– Elements spaced closer than Ȝ/2 potentially provide better
resolution
Slide 18
of 255
Projected
j Aperture
p
• Projected aperture is the apparent angular extent of the

aperture as viewed from a specified direction
• Antenna
A t gain
i is
i proportional
ti l tto projected
j t d aperture
t
• Harold A. Wheeler derived this relationship in an early
paper
Broadside
θ=30 θ=60 θ=90 Slide 19
θ=0 SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design
of 255
Radar Range
g Equation
q
• Radar range determined by antenna size (area), transmit

power, receive noise figure and bandwidth
Pt G2 62 <
SN R =
(4:)3 kTe BF LR4
Pt = transmit power
G = antenna gain
λ = wavelength
l th
σ = target cross section
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = system temperature
B = system bandwidth
F = system noise figure
L = system losses
R = range to target
Slide 20
of 255
Friis Transmission Equation
q
• Ratio of power received to power transmitted

– Describes one-way radio links
– Assumes antennas are aligned
– Factor in parenthesis is free space loss
3 42
Pr 6
= Gt Gr
Pt 4: R
Pr = received power
Pt = transmitted power
Gt = transmit antenna gain
Gr = receive antenna g
gain
Slide 21
of 255
Noise Equivalent
q Sigma
g Zero
3 43
4: r 2Lsin3i kB T B
NESZ(<0 ) =
6 P Gt Gr c=pd 2prop 2sys
σ0 is
i th
the b
backscattering
k tt i cross-section
ti
P = (peak) transmitted power
Gt and Gr are the transmit and receive antenna gains
c = speed of light
ʏPD = Pulse width
λ = Radar wavelength
r i=
i Range
kB = Boltzman constant
B = Bandwidth
θi = Incidence angle
η’s (<1) are the propagation and system losses.
Slide 22
of 255
SAR Design
g Optimization
p
• For a system limited by thermal noise, we can:

• Reduce system losses and noise figure (hard to do)
• D
Decrease d
data
t swath
th (t
(take
k coverage hit)
• Increase transmit power
• Increase pulse duration (may cause pulse timing issues)
• Decrease pulse bandwidth (for resolved targets)
• Increase PRF (may cause range ambiguity problems)
• View target from more favorable angle
• Increase antenna area ((expensive,
p , mayy lessen coverage)
g )
• Decrease slant range (may compromise mission
performance)
Slide 23
of 255
ESA Design Approach
Slide 24
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Approach
pp
• A
Arrays representt samples
l off ideal
id l aperture
t ill
illumination
i ti
function
– Sampling theorems apply
– Undersampling ⇔ grating lobes
– Oversampling associated with “super directivity”
• Arrays discussion assumes isotropic radiators
– Array patterns are two-sided, element pattern is source of single-
sided pattern
• Element
El t effects
ff t generally
ll do
d nott affect
ff t overallll pattern
tt
– Mutual coupling tends to narrow beams
– Can create nulls ((scan blindness)) in unexpected
p directions
• Analysis
• Synthesis
Slide 25
of 255
Discrete Representation
p
• For a continuous illumination function f(x), the resulting

beam pattern as a function of u (= sin θ) is
Z +1
`
F (u) = f (x) expjux dx
2 !1
• If we sample
l the
th illumination
ill i ti ffunction
ti att equall iintervals
t l
Δx where ` =(M-1)* Δx and f(m) = am, then
M
X !1
F (u) = am expjkum"x
m=1
A M ∞ and
• As Δ 0 th
d Δx the sum bbecomes th
the iintegral.
t l
• In practice M > 10 is a fairly good approximation
Slide 26
of 255
Array
y Concepts
p
• Array factor and Element Pattern

• Array partitioning and sub-arrays
– Phase shift
– Time Delay
– Digital domain
• Grating and quantization lobes
– Sparse array
• Amplitude and phase control for beam pointing and
shaping,
p g notablyy for sidelobe control
Slide 27
of 255
Real and Synthetic

y Beam Forming
g
• Real beamforming uses samples collected at one point

in time
– Limited by number of elements/receivers
• Synthetic beamforming uses samples collected over a
time span
– Allows computation of multiple-beams, conceptually equal to
number of pixels in scene
Slide 28
of 255
Arrays
y in Time ((Synthetic)
y )
• Near field Scanner

• Displaced Phase Center
• SAR ⇔ array
• Removes mutual coupling from consideration
• Adds requirement for time coherence
Slide 29
of 255
Antenna Conventions
• Radiated fields
f have an exp{j(ω·t-k·r)}
{( )} dependence which is
consistently omitted. It does not contribute to pattern
calculations and is a constant factor in all calculations.
– ω is angular frequency
• Equal to 2πf
– k is “wavenumber”
“ ” ((spatial ffrequency))
• Equal to 2 π /λ
• Gain computed relative to an “isotropic”
isotropic antenna which
radiates equally in all directions (4· π steradians).
– This is one of the few antennas which is impossible (unrealizable)
d tto the
due th transverse
t nature
t off the
th EM wave
• Directivity is pattern of lossless antenna
Gain is directivity times efficiency (1 – loss)
Slide 30
of 255
Lattice Attributes
• Rectangular lattice and square aperture leads to a

separable array pattern
– Numerically equivalent to produce to two linear arrays at right
angles
• Triangular
g lattices slightly
g y more complicated
p
Slide 31
of 255
Beam Pattern Analysis
Slide 32
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Generalized array (and coordinate
system)
• Plus Z direction is normal to the array face

f
• Theta (θ) is measured relative to the +Z axis
• Phi ((ϕ)) iis measured
d iin th
the X
X-Y
Y plane
l relative
l ti tto th
the X axis
i
• Array is represented by the lattice of circles in the X-Y plane
Plus Z
30
240 210
270 180
60
300 150
330 120
90 90
Plus X Plus Y Slide 33
30 60
of 255
General Case
• C
Consider
id a collection
ll ti off
Z radiating elements located
at (xi, yi, zi) and an observer
Y
P (X,
( Y, Z))
located at (x,y,z)
• Each radiating element is
(X1 , Y1 , Z1)
R0 represented by a square
3
• The radiated field at the
observer’s location is the
r1 `1
?
s m of the fields of each of
sum
X the radiating elements as
ri seen at the same location
• This formulation used to
analyze cases at end of
presentation
After Mailloux Figure 1.5
Slide 34
of 255
Element Contribution
• Each element i generates the field
Ei ((r,, 3, ?) = fi (3, ?) exp(

p(!jjkRi )/
)/Ri
• Where k = 2: / 6
• Using the identity Ri = R ! r̂ " ri
• We can rewrite the second term as

exp(!jkRi ) exp(!jkR)
= exp(+jkri " r̂)
Ri R ! r̂ " ri
Slide 35
of 255
Fraunhofer Approximation
pp
• F distances
For di llarge compared
d to the
h array size,
i iie R > r̂ " ri
exp(!jkRi ) exp(!jkR)
= exp(+jkr
p(+j i " r̂))
Ri R
• So that
exp(!jkR)
Ei (r, 3 , ?) = fi (3, ?) exp(+jkri " r̂)
R
• Adding a complex weight ai to each element, the resulting antenna

pattern is
p
exp(!jkR) X
E(r) = ai fi (3, ?) exp( jkri " r̂)
R
i
Slide 36
of 255
Identical Elements
• It is customary to assume that each element has the

same pattern so the element pattern may be taken out of
the sum
exp(!jkR) X
( ) = f((3, ?)
E(r) ai exp(
p( jjkri " r̂))
R
i
• This formulation partitions the antenna pattern into

– Element factor
– Space factor
– Array
y factor
Slide 37
of 255
Assumptions
p
• Th
The formulation
f l ti is
i quite
it generall exceptt the
th following
f ll i
assumptions (which are more or less true)
• Far field assumption
p R > rr̂ " ri
– It is generally considered that R 6 2l2 /6 is sufficient; this is

termed the Fraunhofer region
termed•the•Fraunhofer•region
Antenna•pattern•is•the•product•of•an•array•factor•and•an•
element•factor
– Th
The•array•factor•is•entirely•determined•by•the•geometric•position•of•
f t i ti l d t i d b th ti iti f
the•radiating•elements
– Identical•element•patterns•(which•is•violated•for•elements•near•the•
edges•of•the•array•due•to•mutual•coupling•effects)
d f th d t t l li ff t )
– The•element•factor•variation•mostly•affects•large•steering•angles•
and•far•out•sidelobes
Slide 38
of 255
Pattern Separability
p y
• Assume that
A h the
h radiating
di i elements
l are arranged
d iin a rectangular
l
grid in the X-Y plane such that
ri = rmn = m"x x x̂ + n"y yŷ
m = 0, '1 ' 2 ' 3 . . . n = 0, '1 ' 2 ' 3 . . .
rr̂ = xu
x̂u + yv
ŷv + z
ẑ cos 3
u = sin 3 cos ? v = sin 3 sin ?
• Then
ri " r̂ = m"x u + n"y v
exp(!jkR) X
E(r) = f(3, ?) amn exp ( jk (m"x u + n"y v))
R
i
Slide 39
of 255
Pattern Decomposition
p
• If we further assume that the complex element weight ai

may be decomposed into x and y components
amn = am an
• A
Andd th
the ttotal
t l array ffactor
t isi the
th product
d t off separate
t array
factors in x and y
exp(!jkR) X X
E(r) = f(3, ?) am exp ( jk (m"x u)) an exp ( jk (n"y v))
R m n
Slide 40
of 255
Pattern Multiplication
p
• The overall beam pattern is the product of the element

pattern and the array pattern
• Array
A Factor
F t is i Discrete
Di t F
Fourier
i Transform
T f off Aperture
A t
Weights (ai)
– Sampling theorem
– Element spacing
Slide 41
of 255
16 Element Array
y = 4 x 4 Element Array
y
20
16 element linear array
0.5 λ element spacing
10 0° steering angle
Antenna Gain (dB)
-10
10
-20
-30
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
A l
Angle
Slide 42
of 255
1-D Beam Formation (boresight)
( g )
• Start with N elements equally spaced in a line

– am represents the element factor
M
X !1
AF = am e jkm"x sin 3 cos ?
m=00
m
• Assume the am are equal and define A = k"x sin 3 cos ?

• Then
Th the
h summation i hhas a closed
l d fform as ffollows
ll
M !1 ! "M
X ! jA "m 1 ! e jA
AF = a e =
m=0
1 ! e jA
Slide 43
of 255
Maximum Gain
• The maximum value of AF is M and occurs whenever the

denominator is zero.
- -
sin[M
[ A /2]
/ ] jMA/2 - sin[M
[ A /
/2]
] -
AF = e |AF | = -- -
sin(A /2) sin(A /2) -
sin(A/2) = 0 A/2 = n:
A = 2n: , n = 0, '1, . . .
Slide 44
of 255
Selected Boresight
g Case (M=10)
( )
10 10
8
λ = 3 cm 8
λ = 3 cm
6 6
4 4
2 2
AF
AF
0 0
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
Δ x= 1 cm Δ x= 1 cm
-8 Δ x= 2 cm -8 Δ x= 2 cm
Δ x= 3 cm Δ x= 3 cm
-10 -10
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
θ u (sin θ)
3 4 3 4
22n: n6
• Maxima occur at 3 = arcsin = arcsin
k "x "x
Slide 45
of 255
1-D Beam Formation (steered)

( )
• To steer the beam, we apply a linear phase (only) slope

in the element weights
am = e!jmk
j k "x sin
i 3s cos ?s
= e!jmA
j As
As = k "x sin 3s cos ?s
M
X !1
m=0
M
X !1
AF = e jkm"x(sin 3 cos ?!sin 3s cos ?s )
m=00
m
Phase only (steering Spoiling, nulls, Sidelobes as-is)
Slide 46
of 255
Scanned Array
y Factor
• Which reduces to
M
X !1
AF = e jm(A!As )
m=0
sin [M (A ! As )/2] jM(A!As )/2

AF = e
sin [(A ! As )/
)/2]]
- -
- sin[M (A ! As )/2] -
|AF | = -- -
sin[(A ! As )/2] -
Slide 47
of 255
Selected Steered ((30°)) Case ((M=10))
10 10
λ = 3 cm
8
λ = 3 cm 8
6 4
2
4
AF
2 -2
-4
AF
0 -6
Δ x= 1 cm
-8 Δ x= 2 cm
-2
2
Δ x= 3 cm
-10
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-4 u (sin θ)
-6
Δ x= 1 cm
-8 Δ x= 2 cm
Δ x= 3 cm
-10
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
3 4 3 4
22n: n6
• Maxima occur at 3 = arcsin = arcsin
k "x "x
g lobe for ǻx = 3 cm
• Grating
Slide 48
of 255
Some Linear Arrays
y
Eight Element
Single Element Three Element Eight Element Phase Shift
Σ Σ
1 0
1.2 1 0 1 0
3 element linear array 8 element linear array 8 element linear array
0.5 λ element spacing 0.5 λ element spacing 0.5 λ element spacing
0° steering angle 0° steering angle 30° steering angle
1 0.8 -1.9
1 element linear array 0.8 -1.9 0.8 -1.9
lit d (dB))
lit d (dB)
lit d (dB)
0.8
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.6 -4.4
0.6 -4.4 0.6 -4.4
0.6
0.4 -8.0
0.4 -8.0 0.4 -8.0
0.4
A
A
A
0.2 -14.0
0.2 -14.0 0.2 -14.0
0.2
0 -99
0 0 -99 -90
0 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 0 -99
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90
0 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90
0 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Angle Angle Angle Angle
Slide 49
of 255
More Elements Provide Better Performance
16 El
Element 32 Element 64 Element
20 20 20
16 element linear array 32 element linear array 64 element linear array
0.5 λ element spacing 0.5 λ element spacing 0.5 λ element spacing Beamwidth = 1.4°
0° steering angle 0° steering angle Beamwidth = 3.0° 0° steering angle
10 10 10
Beamwidth = 6.3°
B)
B)
B)
ntenna Gain (dB
ntenna Gain (dB
ntenna Gain (dB
0 0 0
-10 -10 -10

An
An
An
-20 -20 -20
-30 -30 -30

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Angle Angle Angle
• Gain improves - proportional to number of elements (array length)

• Beamwidth improves - inversely proportional to number of elements
(
(array llength)
th)
• Sidelobe magnitude is unchanged
• At X band (3 cm) and λ/2 spacing
X-band spacing, array lengths are about ¼
¼, ½
½,
and 1 meter respectively
Slide 50
of 255
Linear Phased Array
y Example
p
• Circles represent radiation from individual elements,

which start at different times (or phases)
Broadside Equal Phase Front
30° Scanned Beam
Radiating Elements
$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§
Phase Shifters or 7 Δφ 6 Δφ 5 Δφ 4 Δφ 3 Δφ 2 Δφ 1 Δφ 0 Δφ
Δτ = 50 psec
Time Delay Units 7 Δτ 6 Δτ 5 Δτ 4 Δτ 3 Δτ 2 Δτ 1 Δτ 0 Δτ
Feed Network
ent Spacing =3.0 cm

Wavelength = 3.0 cm Antenna Input
Slide 51
of 255
Limitations on Beam Formation
• ESAs which use phase shifters for steering have an

additional design constraint relating aperture size and
instantaneous bandwidth because of beam squint
– Time delay units have no inherent frequency limitation
• Element spacing of one-half
one half wavelength provides full
hemisphere steering without grating lobes
– Between one-half and one wavelength spacing provides limited
steering volume without grating lobes
– One wavelength or greater spacing results in grating lobe(s) at
all steering angles (including mechanical boresight)
Slide 52
of 255
Beam steering: phase shift versus time
delay
• Th
The beam
b off an ESA is
i steered
t d preferably
f bl b by applying
l i a
progressive time delay, Δτ, constant over frequency,
across the antennas of the array. y
• Invariance of time delay with frequency is the primary
characteristic of a true time delay (TTD) phase shifter or
a time
ti delay
d l unit it (TDU)
(TDU).
• Usage of TTD phase shifters avoids beam squinting or
frequency steering
steering.
• The steering angle, θ, is expressed as a function of the
phase shift p
p progression,
g β, which is a function of the
β
frequency and the progressive time delay, Δτ, which is
invariant with frequency:
Slide 53
of 255
Phase Shifters cause Beam to Steer

with Frequency
• Phase shift at each element

element, n
n·2·π·d/λ,
2 d/λ is dependent on
frequency
• As the frequency changes, the beam moves and eventually
moves offff the
th target
t t
• Bandwidth limitation for phase-only scanning is
"f K"6
=
f L " sin(3)
• K is a factor approximately equal to one
• For L = 1 meter, λ = 3 cm and θ = 30°

the resulting fractional bandwidth is
6%
Slide 54
of 255
Time Delay
y Steering
g
• Required maximum time delay is equal to antenna length

times sine of the scan angle
– Minimum time delay set by quantization requirements
• Number
N b off titime d
delays
l iis equall tto number
b off elements
l t
– Number of elements proportional to antenna length
– Element spacing between 0.5 and 1.0 wavelengths
• Use cables to provide time delay
– Have to make up cable loss with additional gain
• Total
o a length
e g o of required
equ ed cab
cables
es is
soorder
de oof
(L2 " sin azimuth " H 2 " sin elevation)/62 = (Area2 " sin azimuth " sin elevation)/62
• Total cable mass ((and volume)) limits array

y size
Slide 55
of 255
Linear Phase Array with Time Delay –

Steered
• Proper time delay (50

picoseconds) between
Broadside
adjacent elements
• Generates beam in
30° Scanned Beam
desired direction (30°))
desired•direction•(30
Radiating•Elements
$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§
Phase•Shifters
7•Δφ 6•Δφ 5•Δφ 4•Δφ 3•Δφ 2•Δφ 1•Δφ 0•Δφ Δφ•=•180°
(modulo•2π)••
Feed Network
Feed•Network
Element•Spacing•=3.0•cm
Wavelength•=•3.0•cm Antenna•Input
Slide 56
of 255
Linear Phase Array with Phase Shifters
– Unsteered
• With no phase shift

between elements
Broadside No phase shift
• Beam
B is
i bbroadside
d id
• Pattern null at 30°
30° Scanned Beam
Radiating Elements
$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§
Phase Shifters or 7 Δφ 6 Δφ 5 Δφ 4 Δφ 3 Δφ 2 Δφ 1 Δφ 0 Δφ
Δφ = 0°
Time Delay Units 7 Δτ 6 Δτ 5 Δτ 4 Δτ 3 Δτ 2 Δτ 1 Δτ 0 Δτ
Feed Network
Element Spacing =3.0 cm

Slide 57
of 255
Linear Phase Array with Phase Shifters

– Steered
• Proper phase shift

(180°) between
Broadside
adjacent elements
• Generates beam in
30° Scanned Beam
desired direction (30°)
(30 )
Radiating Elements
$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§
Phase Shifters
7 Δφ 6 Δφ 5 Δφ 4 Δφ 3 Δφ 2 Δφ 1 Δφ 0 Δφ Δφ = 180°
(modulo 2π)
Feed Network
Element Spacing =3.0 cm

Slide 58
of 255
Wideband capabilities
p
• Antenna selection determines waveform selection

• Beamforming for wideband
– Slope/Step Chirp Waveforms
– Amplitude/Frequency/Linear Frequency Modulation (chirp)
• Can spin phase shifters on transmit
transmit, limits swath width if
used on receive
• Stretch = dechirp or deramp
Slide 59
of 255
Grating Lobes and

Thinned Arrays
y
Slide 60
of 255
Grating Lobes and Thinned (sparse)
Arrays
• A thinned
thi d array may b
be d
defined
fi d as an array with
ith element
l t spacing
i >
λ
– Resulting in grating lobes at all beam positions
– Grating
G ti lobes
l b d degrade
d performance
f b
by ttransmitting
itti power iin unwanted
t d
directions/receiving noise and signals from unwanted directions
– Restricts addressable field of regard
– Reduces cost and complexity
– Also reduces electronic field of regard
– ESA Fed reflector is a variant of this technique
• Must mitigate (suppress) grating lobes to have a useable system
– Element pattern is primary technique
• Lattice spacing determines presence or absence as well as location
off grating
ti lobes
l b
• Radiating element must efficiently illuminate desired beam directions
and suppress radiation in undesired beam directions
Slide 61
of 255
Grating
g Lobes
• Grating
G ti lobes i θp
l b occur att sin θ = sin
i θ0 + p·λ/d
λ/d where
h
– θP = grating lobe direction
– θ0 = beam direction
– λ = wavelength
– d = element spacing
– p = ±(1,2,3,
(1 2 3 …))
• Beam directions θ arcsin(λ/d-1) are free of grating
lobes
– If λ/d 1 (ie d λ) then all beam steering directions experience
grating lobes
– Ultimate limit on beam scanning is θp = - θ o (equal and
opposite)
• sin θ0 = p·λ/(2·d)
Slide 62
of 255
Grating Lobes in u-v Space
(Rectangular Lattice)
2
λ = 3.0 cm
ΔX = 2.3 cm
(-2,1) (-1,1) (0,1) (1,1) (2,1)
ΔY = 2.0 cm
1
os φ)
V (sin θ⋅co
0 (-2,0) (-1,0) (1,0) (2,0)
-1
(-2,-1) (-1,-1) (0,-1) (1,-1) (2,-1)
-2
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
U (sin θ⋅sin φ) Slide 63
of 255
Grating Lobes in u-v Space

(Triangular Lattice)
2
λ = 3.0 cm
ΔX = 2.3 cm
(-2,1) (0,1)
ΔY = 2.0 cm
1
(-1,1) (1,1)
os φ)
V (sin θ⋅co
0 (-2,0)
(-1,0) (1,0)
-1
(-2,-1) (0,-1)
-2
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
of 255
Scan Volume Comparison
p
2
λ = 3.0 cm Rectangular Case
ΔX = 2.3 cm Triangular Case
ΔY = 2.0 cm Visible Space
1
os φ)
V (sin θ⋅co
-1
Rectangular Scan volume = 0.86 Steradians

Triangular Scan volume = 1.02 Steradians
Triangular lattice has 19.2% greater scan volume
-2
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
of 255
Element Spacing > λ/2

Grating Lobes
g
90
Grating Lobe Onset (θ1)
Grating Lobe Direction = Beam Direction (θ2)
75
θ1 = asin(λ/Δx -1)
n (degrees)
θ2 = asin(λ/2Δx)
60
m Direction
45
← 41.8°
30
Beam
19.5° →
15
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
Element Center Spacing (in wavelengths)
Slide 66
of 255
Element Spacing > λ/2 Grating
Lobes
• Dipole
Di l array oriented
i t d normall tto plane
l off picture
i t
• Dipoles have uniform element pattern in plane of picture leading to pairs of mainlobes
• For element spacing of λ/2, grating lobes appear only at 90° beam direction
8 elements, 0.5 λ apart
360° delta phase
0° beam direction
Slide 67
SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design of 255
Element Spacing > λ/2 Grating

Lobes
• Dipole
Di l array oriented
i t d normall tto plane
l off picture
i t
• Dipoles have uniform element pattern in plane of picture leading to pairs of mainlobes
• For element spacing of 0.75· λ, grating lobes appear only at > 19.5° beam direction
8 elements, 0.75 λ apart
360° delta phase
0° beam direction
Slide 68
SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design of 255
Techniques for Grating Lobe
Suppression
• Restricted radiating element pattern will avoid feeding

the grating lobes
– This is almost always the case because elements larger than a
wavelength become directional
• Overlapped
pp subarrays y
• Introduce uncorrelated errors
– Redistributes•grating•lobe•radiation•so•that•the•peaks•are•
g g
reduced•although•the•total•power•is•unaffected
Slide 69
of 255
Second Part
Slide 70
of 255
Beam Pattern Synthesis
Slide 71
of 255
Optimization
p
• Sidelobe Disadvantages
– Reduce gain in beam direction
– Introduce target
target-like
like artifacts
– Introduce additional background (noise)
• Main beam shaping
Slide 72
of 255
Amplitude Weighting (Taper) for Side
Lobe Control
• Adjust gain at each element to optimize performance

• Sidelobes may be reduced by reducing the power near
th edge
the d off th
the array
– Reduces effective size of aperture and broadens beam
• Non-uniform
Non uniform weighting in transmit is problematic
– Element amplifiers operate near saturation
– Reduces total radiated power
– Reduces aperture efficiency (area utilization)
• Aperture
p efficiency
y
P
( m |am |)2
AT E = P
M m |am |2
Slide 73
of 255
Schelkunoff Representation
p
• Schelkunoff assessed the excitation polynomial

M
X !1
AF = am e jm(A
j (A!As )
m=0
A = k"x sin 3 , As = k "x sin 3s
z = e j(A!As )
M
X !1 M
Y !1
m
AF = am z = aM (z ! zm )
m=00 m=00
Slide 74
of 255
Single
g Beam
• Consider
C id ththe uniform
if ill
illumination
i ti case
AF = z M + z M !1 + z M !2 + ... + z 2 + z + 1
XM M
Y !1
m
AF = z = (z ! zm )
m=0 m=0
whose roots are:
M
zm = e(2m!M ):/M M even, m = 1 : M, m 6=
M +2 1
zm = e(2m!M !1):/M M odd,
dd m = 1 : M,
M m 6=
2
• One missing root with value of one.
• Insert
I t missing
i i roott
– Mainbeam disappears – only sidelobes left
! "
( ! 1) z M + z M !1 + z M !2 + ... + z 2 + z + 1
AF = (z
AF = z M +1 ! 1 Slide 75
of 255
Addition of Missing
g Root
Uniform Method Uniform Method
12 Imaginary
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
Unit Circle
M = 11 M = 11
10 Δx = 1.5 cm Δx = 1.5 cm Roots
Beam Space
8 Half Power
Beamwidth = 9.2°
olts)
AF (vo
6 Real
0 Aperture Taper Efficiency = 100.0%

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Aperture Taper Efficiency = 0.00 dB
u (sin θ)
12 Imaginary
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
Unit Circle
M = 12 M = 12
10 Δx = 1.5 cm Δx = 1.5 cm Roots
Beam Space
8
AF (volts))
6 Real
0 Aperture Taper Efficiency = 16.7%

Slide 76
-1 -0.5 0 SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design
0.5 1
u (sin θ)
Aperture Taper Efficiency = -7.78 dB of 255
Schelkunoff Theorems
• Theorem I:
Every linear array with commensurable separations between the
elements can be represented by a polynomial and every
polynomial can be interpreted as a linear array.
• Theorem II:
There exists a linear array with a space factor equal to the
product of the space factors of any two linear arrays.
• Theorem
Th III:
III
The space factor of a linear array of n apparent elements is the
product of the space factors of (n-1)
(n 1) virtual couplets with their
null points at the zeros of √Φ: t1, t2, … tn-1
Slide 77
of 255
Observations
• Si
Since A is
i real,
l z has
h unit
it magnitude,
it d and
d allll roots
t mustt
also have unit magnitude.
• For 0° 3 180°, A varies by 2k"x
k"
• Roots may fall inside or outside of this range
corresponding to nulls in real space or outside real
space
• Nulls
N ll alternate
l with
i h peaks
k ((sidelobes).
id l b ) Th The peak
k value
l iis
smaller when nulls are closer. Grouping the nulls away
from the main beam direction reduces the sidelobes
while broadening the peak.
Slide 78
of 255
Sidelobe Control
• Binomial weighting
– No sidelobes
– Only practical for small number of elements
• Dolph-Chebyshev weighting
– Smallest beamwidth at first null for specified sidelobe level
– All sidelobes are equal
– Only practical for small number of elements
• Taylor /Bayliss weighting
– Specify maximum sidelobe level and rate of falloff
Slide 79
of 255
Analytic
y Techniques
q
• U
Uniform
if Weighting
W i hti
• Sidelobe Control
– Binomial weighting
• No sidelobes
• Only practical for small number of elements
– Dolph
Dolph-Chebyshev
Chebyshev weighting
• Smallest beamwidth at first null for specified sidelobe level
• All sidelobes are equal
• Only practical for small number of elements
– Taylor /Bayliss weighting
• Specify maximum sidelobe level and rate of falloff
• Beam shaping
– Fourier Synthesis
– Woodward-Lawson
Slide 80
of 255
Uniform Weighting
g g (unweighted)
( g )
• Simplest
• Default condition for transmit
• Highest gain
Slide 81
of 255
Uniform Example
p (M=11)
( )

0 Imaginary •
Half Power
λ•=•3•cm λ•=•3•cm
-5 Beamwidth = 9.2° Unit•Circle
M•=•11 M•=•11
Δx•=•1.5•cm Δx•=•1.5•cm Roots
-10 Beam•Space
-15
-20
B)
AF•(dB
-25 •Real
-30
-35
-40
-45 Sidelobe•at•-15°
Sidelobe•is•-13•dB
-50 • Aperture•Taper•Efficiency•=•100.0%
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Aperture•Taper•Efficiency•=•0.00•dB
θ
Uniform•Method
1 Root real imaginary magnitude angle
λ•=•3•cm
09
0.9
M•=•11 1 0
0.841
841 + 0.541i
0 541i | 1.000
1 000 32.7°
32 7°
0.8 Δx•=•1.5•cm
2 0.841 + -0.541i | 1.000 -32.7°
0.7
3 0.415 + 0.910i | 1.000 65.5°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 0.415 + -0.910i | 1.000 -65.5°

0.4 5 -0.959 + 0.282ii | 1.000 163.6°
0.3
6 -0.959 + -0.282i | 1.000 -163.6°
0.2
7 -0.655 + 0.756i | 1.000 130.9°
0.1 Aperture•Taper•Efficiency•=•100.0%
Aperture•Taper•Efficiency•=•0.00•dB
0
8 -0.655 + -0.756i | 1.000 -130.9°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element•Number 9 -0.142 + 0.990i | 1.000 98.2°

10 -0.142 + -0.990i | 1.000 -98.2°
Slide 82
of 255
Triangular
g Weighting
g g
• Zero at edges, unity in center, linear in-between

• Special case of binomial (for three element array)
• Array pattern is square of linear array pattern
– Autocorrelation of aperture weights
Slide 83
of 255
Triangular
g Example
p (M=11)
( )
Triangular
g Method Triangular
g Method
0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
-5 Beamwidth = 12.3° Unit Circle
M = 11 M = 11
Δx = 1.5 cm Δx = 1.5 cm Roots
-10 Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40
-45 Sidelobe at -29°

Sidelobe is -25 dB
-50 Aperture Taper Efficiency = 80.7%
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Aperture Taper Efficiency = -0.93 dB
θ
Triangular Method
λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 0
0.500
500 + 0.866i
0 866i | 1.000
1 000 60.0°
60 0°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
2 0.500 + -0.866i | 1.000 -60.0°
0.7
3 0.500 + 0.866i | 1.000 60.0°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 0.500 + -0.866i | 1.000 -60.0°

0.4 5 -1.000 + 0.000ii | 1.000 180.0°
0.3
6 -1.000 + 0.000i | 1.000 180.0°
0.2
7 -0.500 + 0.866i | 1.000 120.0°
0.1 Aperture Taper Efficiency = 80.7%
0
8 -0.500 + -0.866i | 1.000 -120.0°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 -0.500 + 0.866i | 1.000 120.0°

10 -0.500 + -0.866i | 1.000 -120.0°
Slide 84
of 255
Binomial Weighting
g g
• Positioning all of the nulls at the edge of the scan

volume, ie A=0 so that zm=1 for all m creates a beam
pattern with no sidelobes
sidelobes. This is termed the binomial
array.
• Illumination factor goes to zero at the edge of the array
• First proposed by John Stone Stone in United States
Patents
a e s 1,643,323
,6 3,3 3 a and
d 1,715,433
, 5, 33
Slide 85
of 255
Binomial Example
p (M=11)
( )
Binomial Method Binomial Method

0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
M = 11 M = 11
-10 Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -326 dB
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
Binomial Method
λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 -1.046
1 046 + 0.000i
0 000i | 1.046
1 046 180.0°
180 0°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
2 -1.038 + 0.027i | 1.038 178.5°
0.7
3 -1.038 + -0.027i | 1.038 -178.5°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 -1.015 + 0.044i | 1.016 177.5°

0.4 5 -1.015 + -0.044i
i | 1.016 -177.5°
0.3
6 -0.986 + 0.045i | 0.987 177.4°
0.2
7 -0.986 + -0.045i | 0.987 -177.4°
0
8 -0.962 + 0.028i | 0.963 178.4°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 -0.962 + -0.028i | 0.963 -178.4°

10 -0.953 + 0.000i | 0.953 180.0°
Slide 86
of 255
Dolph-Chebyshev
p y
• Provides the narrowest beamwidth (at first null) for

specified sidelobe level or lowest sidelobe level for
specified beamwidth
• This technique matches the roots of a Chebyshev
polynomial with the roots of the aperture illumination
function.
Slide 87
of 255
Chebyshev
y Polynomials
y
2
m= 1
m= 2
1 m= 3
m= 4
m= 5
Tm
0 m= 6
m= 7
-1 m= 8
m= 9
m = 10
-2
2
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
x
Tm (x) = cos(m cos!1 x) |x| 5 1

Tm (x) ( cosh!1 x)) x > 1
( ) = cosh(m
Tm (x) = (!1)m cosh(m cosh!1 x) x < !1
Slide 88
of 255
Aperture
p Weight
g Derivation
M
X !1
m=00
(M ! 1)/ 2
X
AF (3) = exp (jk0 (M + 1)/2 "x sin
i 3) (jk0 m"x sin
amexp(jk i 3)
! (M ! 1)/ 2
(M ! 1)/ 2
X
AF (3) = amexp(jk0 m"x sin 3)
! (M ! 1)/ 2
(M ! 1)/ 2
X
AF (3) = a0 + amcos(2m cos!1 x)
1
Slide 89
of 255
Result
• For M odd
M
X 3 4
Ai
am = TM !1 c cos cos ((mAi )
i=1
2
• For M even
M
X 3 4 33 4 4
Ai 1
am = TM !1 c cos cos m! Ai
i=1
2 2
• c is a function of the sidelobe ratio R

3 4
cosh!1 (R)
c = cosh
M !1
Slide 90
of 255
Dolph-Chebyshev
p y Example
p ((M=11))
Chebychev
y Method Chebychev
y Method
0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
M = 11 M = 11
R = 20 dB R = 20 dB Roots
-10 Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -20 dB
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
Chebychev Method
λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 0
0.786
786 + 0.618i
0 618i | 1.000
1 000 38.2°
38 2°
0.8 R = 20 dB
2 0.454 + 0.891i | 1.000 63.0°
0.7
3 -0.085 + 0.996i | 1.000 94.8°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 -0.623 + 0.783i | 1.000 128.5°

0.4 5 -0.955 + 0.296ii | 1.000 162.8°
0.3
6 -0.955 + -0.296i | 1.000 -162.8°
0.2
7 -0.623 + -0.783i | 1.000 -128.5°
0
8 0.786 + -0.618i | 1.000 -38.2°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 0.454 + -0.891i | 1.000 -63.0°

10 -0.085 + -0.996i | 1.000 -94.8°
Slide 91
of 255
Taylor
y Weighting
g g
• Taylor modified the Dolph-Chebyshev, retaining the near

sidelobe structure (and polynomial zeros) and modifying
the far sidelobe structure (and polynomial zeros) to use
the zeros of the sinx/x function which has lower far
sidelobes.
• The transition between the two functions is based on two
parameters σ and n-bar where σ is the scale factor for
the Dolph-Chebyshev function and n-bar is the number
of Dolph-Chebyshev equal sidelobes. .
Slide 92
of 255
Taylor
y Example
p ((M=11))
Taylor
y Method Taylor
y Method
0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
M = 11 M = 11
R = 20 dB R = 20 dB Roots
-10 n-bar = 5 n-bar = 5 Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -20 dB
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
Taylor Method
λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 -0.959
0 959 + 0.282i
0 282i | 1.000
1 000 163.6°
163 6°
0.8 R = 20 dB
n-bar = 5 2 -0.959 + -0.282i | 1.000 -163.6°
0.7
3 -0.630 + 0.777i | 1.000 129.0°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 -0.630 + -0.777i | 1.000 -129.0°

0.4 5 -0.090 + 0.996ii | 1.000 95.2°
0.3
6 -0.090 + -0.996i | 1.000 -95.2°
0.2
7 0.785 + 0.619i | 1.000 38.3°
0
8 0.785 + -0.619i | 1.000 -38.3°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 0.451 + 0.893i | 1.000 63.2°

10 0.451 + -0.893i | 1.000 -63.2°
Slide 93
of 255
Beam Shaping
p g / Spoiling
p g
• Previous methods developed for sidelobe control

• Following methods deal with main beam
• General problem is to form a shaped beam
– Broad beams in azimuth direction desired for SAR
– Cosecant beams useful
sef l for air ssurveillance
r eillance radars where
here range
varies with elevation angle
Slide 94
of 255
Fourier Synthesis
y Technique
q
• Since the beam shape is the Fourier transform of the

illumination function, take the inverse Fourier transform
of the beam shape to obtain the required illumination
function
– However,, this produces
p an illumination function infinite in extent
– Possible to truncate the computed illumination function but that
produces ripples in the beam shape
Slide 95
of 255
Fourier Transform Synthesis

y
• T
Transform
f desired
d i db beamshape
h iinto
t aperture
t plane,
l yielding
i ldi
excitation coefficients for an infinite area
Z x)
6/(2d
dx
an = F (u) exp!j(2:/6)undx du
6
!6/(2dx )
• For rectangular beamshape, resulting excitation is a sinc

function
• Synthesize beam shape based on finite limits
• Ripple is termed Gibbs phenomena
• Aperture needs to be long enough to encompass several
zeros of the sinc in order to produce an approximately
rectangular beam
– Efficiency
c e cy su
suffers
es
Slide 96
of 255
Fourier Transform – First Null
Fourier Method Fourier Method

0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm Beamwidth = 13.6°
= 3 cm Unit Circle
-5 M = 14 M = 14 Roots
Δx = 1.5 cm Δx = 1.5 cm Synthesized Beam
-10
Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -22 dB
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ Root real imaginary magnitude angle
1 2.624 + -0.000i | 2.624 -0.0°
Fourier Method 2 0.657 + 0.754i | 1.000 48.9°
1
λ = 3 cm 3 0.260 + 0.966i | 1.000 74.9°
09
0.9
M = 14 4 -0.196 + 0.981i | 1.000 101.3°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
5 -0.610 + 0.793i | 1.000 127.6°
0.7 6 -0.897 + 0.441i | 1.000 153.8°
Exccitation
0.6 7 -1.000 + -0.000i | 1.000 -180.0°

0.5 8 -0.897 + -0.441i | 1.000 -153.8°
0.4
9 -0
0.610
610 + -0
0.793i
793i | 1.000
1 000 -127
127.6
6°
10 -0.196 + -0.981i | 1.000 -101.3°
0.3
11 0.260 + -0.966i | 1.000 -74.9°
0.2
12 0.657 + -0.754i | 1.000 -48.9°
0.1 Aperture Taper Efficiency = 67.3% 13 0.381 + 0.000i | 0.381 0.0°
0
0 5 10 15
Element Number
Slide 97
of 255
Fourier Transform – Second Null
Fourier Method Root real imaginary magnitude angle

0
Half Power
-5
1 3.098 + -0.000i | 3.098 -0.0°
M = 25
Δx = 1.5 cm 2 1.332 + 0.000i | 1.332 0.0°
-10
3 0.758 + 0.653i | 1.000 40.7°
-15
4 0.573 + 0.820i | 1.000 55.1°
-20
B)
5 0.346 + 0.938i | 1.000 69.8°

AF (dB
-25
6 0.095 + 0.995i | 1.000 84.6°
-30
7 -0.162 + 0.987i | 1.000 99.3°
-35 8 -0.407 + 0.913i | 1.000 114.0°
-40 9 -0.625 + 0.780i | 1.000 128.7°
-45 Sidelobe at -15° 10 -0.803 + 0.597i | 1.000 143.4°
Sidelobe is -23 dB
-50 11 -0.927 + 0.374i | 1.000 158.0°
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ 12 -0.992 + 0.127i | 1.000 172.7°

13 -0.992 + -0.127i | 1.000 -172.7°
14 -0.927 + -0.374i | 1.000 -158.0°
Fourier Method
1 15 -0.803 + -0.597i | 1.000 -143.4°
λ = 3 cm
0.9
M = 25 16 -0.625 + -0.780i | 1.000 -128.7°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm 17 -0.407 + -0.913i | 1.000 -114.0°
0.7 18 -0.162 + -0.987i | 1.000 -99.3°
19 0.095 + -0.995i | 1.000 -84.6°
Excittation
0.6
0.5
20 0.346 + -0.938i | 1.000 -69.8°
0.4
21 0.573 + -0.820i | 1.000 -55.1°
0.3
22 0.758 + -0.653i | 1.000 -40.7°
23 0.751 + 0.000i | 0.751 0.0°
0.2
24 0.323 + -0.000i | 0.323 -0.0°
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Element Number
Slide 98
of 255
Fourier Transform – Third Null
Root real imaginary magnitude angle
Fourier Method 1 5.722 + 0.000i | 5.722 0.0°
0
Half Power
2 1.196 + -0.234i | 1.219 -11.1°
λ = 3 cm Beamwidth = 17.8° 3 1.196 + 0.234i | 1.219 11.1°
-5 M = 36
Δx = 1.5 cm 4 0.792 + -0.611i | 1.000 -37.7°
-10 5 0.676 + -0.737i | 1.000 -47.5°
-15
6 0.536 + -0.844i | 1.000 -57.6°
7 0.378 + -0.926i | 1.000 -67.8°
-20 8 0.208 + -0.978i | 1.000 -78.0°
B)
AF (dB
-25
9 0.031 + -1.000i | 1.000 -88.2°
10 -0.147 + -0.989i | 1.000 -98.4°
-30 11 -0.320 + -0.947i | 1.000 -108.7°
12 -0.483 + -0.876i | 1.000 -118.9°
-35
13 -0.630 + -0.776i | 1.000 -129.1°
-40 14 -0.758 + -0.653i | 1.000 -139.3°
15 -0.861 + -0.508i | 1.000 -149.5°
Sidelobe is -23 dB 16 -0.938
0 938 + -0.348i
0 348i | 1
1.000
000 -159.6°
159 6°
-50 17 -0.984 + -0.177i | 1.000 -169.8°
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
18 -1.000 + 0.000i | 1.000 180.0°
θ 19 -0.984 + 0.177i | 1.000 169.8°
20 -0.938 + 0.348i | 1.000 159.6°
21 -0.861 + 0.508i | 1.000 149.5°
Fourier Method 22 -0.758 + 0.653i | 1.000 139.3°
1
23
3 -0.630
0.630 + 0.
0.776i
6 | 1.000
.000 129.1°
9.
λ = 3 cm
0.9 24 -0.483 + 0.876i | 1.000 118.9°
M = 36
25 -0.320 + 0.947i | 1.000 108.7°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
26 -0.147 + 0.989i | 1.000 98.4°
0.7 27 0.031 + 1.000i | 1.000 88.2°
28 0.208 + 0.978i | 1.000 78.0°
Excittation
0.6
29 0.378 + 0.926i | 1.000 67.8°
0.5 30 0.536 + 0.844i | 1.000 57.6°
31 0.676 + 0.737i | 1.000 47.5°
0.4
32 0.792 + 0.611i | 1.000 37.7°
0.3 33 0.805 + -0.158i | 0.820 -11.1°
34 0.805 + 0.158i | 0.820 11.1°
0.2 35 0.175 + 0.000i | 0.175 0.0°
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Element Number
Slide 99
of 255
Woodward-Lawson Synthesis
y
• Starts with basis functions for beam shape based on a

finite aperture
• Basis
B i ffunctions
ti are uniformly
if l weighted
i ht d b
beams steered
t d att
increments of 2π/M with the result that nulls coincide
• This allows a direct computation of weights to
approximate any desired beam shape
– Technique modified by Elliot in 1968
Slide 100
of 255
Combine Beams 5, 6 and 7
Woodward Method
12
λ = 3 cm
10 M = 11
Δx = 1.5
1 5 cm
Half Power
8 Beamwidth = 27.7°
6
AF (voltss)
4
A
-2
-4
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
u (sin θ)
Slide 101
of 255
Woodward-Lawson Example
p
Woodward Method Woodward Method

0 Imaginary
Half Power Beam -5
λ = 3 cm Unit Circle
-5 Beam -4
M = 11 M = 11 Roots
Beam -3
Δx = 1.5 cm Beam -2
Δx = 1.5 cm Synthesized Beam
-10
Beam -1 Beam Space
Beam 0
-15
Beam 1
Beam 2
-20
B)
Beam 3
AF (dB
Beam 4
-25 Beam 5 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -15 dB
-50
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Woodward Method
λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 1.785
1 785 + 0.000i
0 000i | 1.785
1 785 0.0°
0 0°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
2 -0.959 + 0.282i | 1.000 163.6°
0.7
3 -0.959 + -0.282i | 1.000 -163.6°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 -0.655 + 0.756i | 1.000 130.9°

0.4 5 -0.655 + -0.756i
i | 1.000 -130.9°
0.3
6 -0.142 + 0.990i | 1.000 98.2°
0.2
7 -0.142 + -0.990i | 1.000 -98.2°
0.1 Woodward-Larson Efficiency = 69.8%
Woodward-Larson Efficiency = -1.56 dB
0
8 0.415 + 0.910i | 1.000 65.5°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 0.415 + -0.910i | 1.000 -65.5°

10 0.560 + 0.000i | 0.560 0.0°
Slide 102
of 255
Quadratic Beam Spoiling
p g
• Not a synthesis technique

• Apply systematic phase error at each element
Slide 103
of 255
Additional Phase Term
Quadratic Phase Method

160
λ = 3 cm
140 M = 11
Δx = 1.5
1 5 cm
Angle (degrees)
120
100
80
Phase A
60
40
20
Aperture Taper Efficiency = 100.0%
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number
Slide 104
of 255
Quadratic Phase Example
p
Quadratic Phase Method Quadratic Phase Method

0 Imaginary
Half Power
λ = 3 cm λ = 3 cm
M = 11 M = 11
-10 Beam Space
-15
-20
B)
AF (dB
-25 Real
-30
-35
-40

Sidelobe is -6 dB
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
Quadratic Phase Method

λ = 3 cm
09
0.9
M = 11 1 1
1.231
231 + 0.482i
0 482i | 1.322
1 322 21.4°
21 4°
0.8 Δx = 1.5 cm
2 0.556 + 1.052i | 1.190 62.1°
0.7
3 -0.138 + 1.099i | 1.107 97.2°
Exccitation
0.6
0.5 4 -0.686 + 0.801i | 1.055 130.6°

0.4 5 -0.975 + 0.288ii | 1.017 163.6°
0.3
6 -0.943 + -0.278i | 0.984 -163.6°
0.2
7 -0.617 + -0.720i | 0.948 -130.6°
0
8 -0.113 + -0.896i | 0.903 -97.2°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Element Number 9 0.392 + -0.743i | 0.840 -62.1°

10 0.704 + -0.276i | 0.756 -21.4°
Slide 105
of 255
Beam Shape Comparisons

11 Element* Linear Array
Method
h d Beamwidth
id h Efficiency
ffi i First
i Sidelobe
Sid l b
Uniform 9.2° 100% -13 dB
Triangular 12 3°
12.3 80 7%
80.7% -25
25 dB
Binomial 19.1° 51.6% None
Dolph-Chebyshev 10.1° 96.4% -20 dB
Taylor (n-bar=5) 10.1° 96.3% -20 dB
Fourier Reconstruction to First Null 13.6° 67.3% -22 dB
Fourier Reconstruction to Second 16.9° 52.5% -23 dB
Null
Fourier Reconstruction to Third Null 17.8° 43.5% -23 dB
Woodward-Larson 27.7° 69.8% -15 dB
Quadratic Phase (maximum 150°) 26.7° 100% -6 dB
* Fourier Reconstructions Required 14, 25, and 36 elements respectively
Slide 106
of 255
Summary
y
• The effect of taper is similar for transmit and receive and

is captures in η, the aperture taper efficiency
– The effect may be described as a reduction in effective area of
the aperture with the provision that the sidelobes improve, rather
than degrade with the smaller effective area
– The beamwidth broadens however commensurate with the
reduced area
• Note that the examples given are one dimensional
arrays
– The taper
p efficiencyy must be squared
q to represent
p a two
dimensional array
Slide 107
of 255
Subarray partitioning and

recombination
• It is
i frequently
f tl convenient
i t to
t form
f a large
l array as an array off
smaller arrays (subarrays)
– Think of replacing the element (pattern) with a subarray (pattern)
– In the boresight (nonsteered) case the two are indistinguishable
• Thinned arrays may be constructed using non-steered
subarrays connected to a fewer number of tr modules
– The non-steered subarray will have nulls matching the grating lobes
of the array factor of the thinned array on boresight
– The grating lobes will reappear as soon as the beam is steered off
boresight
• Subarrays may be phase steered and combined using time
d l tto achieve
delay hi wider
id iinstantaneous
t t b
bandwidth
d idth
– The steered subarray will keep its nulls (approximately) aligned with
the grating lobes of the array factor of the thinned array
Slide 108
of 255
Array
y of Arrays
y
• Some arrays are formed from a collection of smaller

arrays, termed subarrays
– This is a cost/complexity based design decision
– The performance may be assessed by using the subarray
pattern as the element pattern in the analysis
– The array will have a lattice spacing >> λ/2 which would
ordinarily create excessive sidelobes
– The concept of pattern multiplication applies and the nulls in the
element pattern tend to coincide with the grating lobes of the
array
Slide 109
of 255
Beamforming
g (feed
( networks))
• Series
S i F Fed
d
– Path length to different elements is different introducing a frequency
dependent phase shift with the result that the beam direction will
change
h with
ith ffrequency
• Corporate
– More complicated
p but equal
q p
path lengths
g to all elements eliminates
beam steering with frequency
• Butler Matrix
– NxN inputs and output are combined and recombined to introduce
phase shifts which provide multiple simultaneous orthogonal beams
– Iridium uses this technique
• Blass
Bl M
Matrix
ti
– NxM inputs and output are combined and recombined to introduce
path length differences which provide multiple simultaneous beams
Slide 110
of 255
Tolerances and Errors
• Examples drawn in Matlab with ~ 16 decimal digits of

precision
• Real
R lh hardware
d accuracy iis ~11%
• Need to assess effect of errors on theoretical
performance
– Array flatness
– Electrical length of multiple paths requires calibration and
possibly recalibration
– Gain and Phase control errors and quantization
– Deployment to final configuration
Slide 111
of 255
Random Phase and Amplitude

p Errors
• The antenna designer can readily compute by means of

standard synthesis methods the aperture excitation
necessary for a desired radiation pattern
pattern. However
However,
when he constructs his antenna and measures its
performance he finds that his experimental
p p p
pattern only
y
approximates the theoretical one.
– John Ruze 1951
Slide 112
of 255
Error Analysis
y by
y Ruze
• S
Separate t actual
t l field
fi ld excitations
it ti into
i t ideal
id l fifield
ld excitation
it ti and
d
error field excitation
• If errors are uncorrelated then the p power from each excitation
are additive
– Error term raises the noise floor
• Correlated errors are introduced by quantization
– Error term introduces additional peaks (sidelobes) in the pattern
• For relativelyy small errors, the expected
p rms error İ is
7 2 + /2
702 = "
where Δ is the amplitude error (relative) and δ is the phase

error (radians)
Slide 113
of 255
Reflector Applications
Slide 114
of 255
Types of Reflector Systems
(Optical Analogs)
Pi
Primary S
Secondary
d
Near Field Cassegrainian Parabolic Parabolic
Confocal Cassegrainian Parabolic Hyperbolic
Gregorian Parabolic Ellipsoidal
Ritchey-Chrétien Hyperbolic Hyperbolic
• All are “perfect”

perfect on axis, different aberrations off axis
• Design trades include
– Focal plane
p
– Feed position (at or off focal point)
– On-axis or offset feed
Slide 115
of 255
ESA Fed Reflector
• C
Combines
bi some off th
the b
benefits
fit ((and
d some off th
the
disadvantages) of ESAs and reflectors
• ESA feeds are useful with both cylindrical (1 dimensional
curvature) and parabolic reflectors (2 dimensional
curvature)
• Basic trade-off is to exchange electronic field of regard
(EFOR) for fewer t/r modules
– Analogous to thinned array
– Reduces cost by substituting mechanical structure (reflector) for
electronics
• Approach used by Thuraya communications satellite,
selected for DESDynI, used in radio telescopes (receive
only)
Slide 116
of 255
Beam Steered ((Switched)) Reflector
• Select
S l t feed
f d tto determine
d t i pointing
i ti didirection
ti
– Used by Israeli TecSAR system
– Only one element contributes power to each beam direction
Parabolic reflector
Focal Plane
Feed
Feed
Slide 117
of 255
ESA Fed Reflector

(Phased Array Fed Reflector)
• ESA feed
f d blocks
bl k some off ththe b
beam reflected
fl t d off
ff the
th reflector
fl t
• Feed at focal plan uses only one element per beam
• Move feed off focal plane so that multiple elements contribute to beam
• Problem using all elements for all beams (efficiency) illuminating the entire reflector
Parabolic reflector
Focal Plane
ESA
E
Slide 118
of 255
When is an ESA Fed Reflector useful
• Expensive T/R modules

– Cost (1000 P watt modules) < Cost (100,000 P/100 watt
modules)
– 1000 x $2,000 = $2 million
– 100,000 x $200 = $20 million
• Small Electronic Field of View is all that is required
– Electronic steering limited to about 10% so addressable volume
li i d to about
limited b 1%
• Still need to dissipate the same amount of heat since
module efficiencies are comparable
Slide 119
of 255
ESA Fed Reflector Design

g Challenges
g
• Efficient use of resources

– Either ESA Feed or Reflector is oversized
• Sidelobes
Sid l b d due tto aperture
t bl
blockage
k
• Beam quality degrades with scan
• El t i fifield
Electronic ld off regardd iis quite
it smallll relative
l ti tto ESA
• Thermal problems are exacerbated (unless power is
limited)
Slide 120
of 255
Geometrical Interpretation
p
• Unfold the reflector system and

the similarity to a thinned array
is obvious
• Comparing a ESA fed reflector
to a fully populated phased
array is the wrong comparison
• Take the TR cells in the ESA
f d and
feed d spreadd th
them outt tto the
th
same area as the primary
reflector
• Then the electronic scan
capabilities are similar and the
costs differ only by the cost of
the structure and cabling
• H
However, th
the electronic
l t i scan
capability of the thinned array is
superior as it is not limited by
g
vignettingg or g
geometric distortion
Slide 121
of 255
Grating
g Lobe Limit of Unfolded System
y
• Assume feed element spacing is λ/2

• Fitzgerald’s reflector system has magnification factor of 4
• Analogous thinned array has element spacing 4•λ/2 = 2λ
• Maximum scan angle is
– sin θo = p·λ/(2·d) (ref slide 57)
or
– sin θo = 1 λ/(2 2λ) = ¼
1·λ/(2·
• So θo= 14° (considerably better (2-3X) than limit
imposed
p by
y vignetting)
g g)
Slide 122
of 255
PART THREE
Slide 123
of 255
Practical Design
g
• Theory in Matlab with high precision and no errors

• Need to approximate ideal components
• Electronics advances have made this possible
Slide 124
of 255
ESA Challenges
g
• Constituent Parts
– Radiating Elements (mutual coupling)
– TR Modules
– Beam Control
– Microwave Distribution and PWBs
• Thermal Control (Active / passive)
• Integration
eg a o a and
d Test
es
• Technology Base
• Cost
Slide 125
of 255
Radiating Elements
Slide 126
of 255
Element types
yp for arrays
y
• Primary
Pi ffunction
ti isi tto radiate
di t allll applied
li d power
– Element match (return loss Γ or S11 is critical metric)
• Current arrays use
– Patch elements
– Dipole elements
– Notch elements
– Slotted waveguides
– Horns (for widely spaced arrays)
• Element behavior changes when the element is installed
in an array with adjacent elements due to mutual
coupling
– Some power coupled into adjacent elements and reradiated
Slide 127
of 255
Mutual Coupling
p g Effects
• Reduces element Q (broader bandwidth)

– Coupled dipole arrays offer very good performance
• Creates
C t unexpected
t d modes
d ((scan bli
blindness)
d )
– Coupled power can negate drive power
• No general analytic solutions
• Array size determines approach
– Very small arrays may be modeled numerically
– Infinite arrays may be modeled using periodic boundary
conditions
Slide 128
of 255
Radiating
g Element Requirement
q
• Wide angle radiation pattern

• Low cost
• Readily arrayed
• Compatibility with feed and t/r modules
Slide 129
of 255
Efficiency
y
• Mutual•coupling
• If•the•transmit•power•is•not•radiated•or•receive•power•is•
not•absorbed•by•the•antenna
t b b d b th t
• Then•it•is•scattered•back•to•the•source
• The•radiator•scattering•parameter•S11•quantifies•this•
Th di t tt i t S11 tifi thi
reflection
Slide 130
of 255
Radiating Element – Open Waveguide
or Horn
• Open waveguide (sometimes
with a tapered horn section) is
a good radiator but not often
used in arrays y because it is
physically large and
accordingly hard to arrange in
a tight lattice
• It is
i also
l ttoo heavy
h for
f airborne
ib
and space applications
• It has utility in thinned arrays • 8.2 – 12.4 GHz
where its directivity will help • λ = 3.6 – 2.4 cm
control grating lobes
• 15° beamwidth
• Element spacing is ~1.5λ
– part of the solution is the • Gain 17.4 – 20.3 dB
element gain which is small at • a=6.15 cm
the grating lobe location • b=4.25 cm
• cc=3.15
3.15 cm
Slide 131
of 255
Horn feeds
• SAR-Lupe
– Single feed horn – no
electronic scanning
• TecSAR
– Eight
g t feed
eed horns
o s at focus
ocus o
of
reflector
– Scan by switching feed
Figure 4 from Sharav, et al (© IEEE)

Slide 132
of 255
Slotted Waveguide
g
• W
Waveguideid iis very llow lloss and
d can b
be iintegrated
t t d with
ith a
radiating element
– Slots in waveguide allow RF to escape
– Size and orientation of slot can be tailored for desired properties
• Corporate Fed
– No phase variation with frequency to limit bandwidth
• Series feed
– Feed from one end introduces frequency scanning of beam
• Center feed
– Two back-to-back center feeds maintain boresight
g p pointing
g until
beams diverge
– Used by RadarSat and Terra-SAR X
Slide 133
of 255
Radiating Element – Slotted

Waveguide
• Slotted waveguides are

readily combined with
waveguide based
corporate feed to provide
low-loss RF distribution to
100’s of radiating slots
• Very wide band
• But not electronically
scanned
Slide 134
of 255
Approach
pp
• Slots are duals of dipoles

• Easy to machine at high precision
• Polarization depends on slot orientation
• Feed is integral to waveguide
– Slots separated by one wavelength (or alternating slots at one-
half wavelength ) create broadside beam
– Frequency scanning is inherent
– May be centerfed to avoid frequency scanning but beamwidth
increases away from nominal frequency
• Waveguide is low loss, light weight and inexpensive
– Very popular for non-scanning arrays
Slide 135
of 255
Dual Polarized Approach for TerraSAR-

X
• Non inclined narrow wall slots in one
Non-inclined
waveguide generate the horizontal
polarisation. The slots have to
extend into the neighbouring broad
walls of the waveguide to be
resonant. The edge slots in the
narrow wall need to be excited with
a pair of wires inside the waveguide
and not by slot tilt in order for
minimum cross polarisation
generation.
• Offset broad wall slots in the second
waveguide generate the vertical
polarisation. In order to minimise the
waveguide width using longitudinal,
broad wall slots, ridge loading is
used Both of the above slot types
used.
exhibit pure polarisation generation
and high isolation between the ports
within a subarray.
Slide 136
of 255
Return Loss Bandwidth
• VSWR < 1.5 or ~ -15

15 dB S11
– Horizontal polarization bandwidth > 120 MHz
– Vertical polarization bandwidth > 400 MHz
Figure 2 from Derneryd et al (© IEEE)

Slide 137
of 255
TerraSAR-X Next Generation
• European Patent
EP2100348
• Serpentine
S ti iinner
conductor alters
propagation velocity so
that slots are excited in
phase
• Propagation modes are
not dispersive which
broadens bandwidth
Slide 138
of 255
Return Loss Much Improved
• VSWR < 1.5 or ~ -15 dB

S11
• Horizontal
H i t l polarization
l i ti
bandwidth > 650 MHz
• Vertical polarization
bandwidth > 700 MHz
Slide 139
of 255
Radiating Element is Key to

Performance
• Impedance match, power transfer

• Radiation resistance, scattering
• Surface waves
• Load impedance
• Single element
• Adjacent element (function of separation)
• Scattering in receive
• Q (quality factor) – energy storage
Slide 140
of 255
Radiating
g Element – Dipole
p (1)
( )
• Infinitesimal dipole has a cosine theta

beam pattern – however infinitesimal
dipoles are very inefficient
• Quarter wave dipoles have a more
complicated beam pattern (not much
different from a cosine theta pattern) –
Vertical polarization – complete azimuth coverage and are very efficient
90
120 60
Maximum gain is 1.647 or 2.2 dB
1.5
150 30
1
0.5
180 0
210 330
240 300
270
Three dimensional pattern (gain) representation Pattern cut through vertical plane Slide 141
of 255
Coupled
p Dipole
p Arrays
y
• Wideband Phased Array

Antenna and Associated
Methods
– US Patent 6,512,487
(2003)
• This array approximates
ideal current sheet
– Potentially very broad band
and well matched
Slide 142
of 255
Radiating
g Element – Flared notch
• Fl
Flared
d notch
t hh
has th
the b
bestt
performance for airborne
applications
– Very wide band
– Near perfect aperture match
• Difficult arises in fabrication
and assembly
– Radiator stands off the array
face
– Right angle interconnect
from t/r module to radiating
element
• Use only where benefits
warrant added cost
Slide 143
of 255
SKA Alternative
• Crossed flared notch

elements provide dual
polarization for up to 10:1
bandwidth
• Scan performance is ±45±45°
• Radiating element match
iss good
Slide 144
of 255
Patches
• Used by
– Iridium
– JPL L L-band
band designs
– Cosmo-Skymed
– SEOSAR/PAZ
• Well suited to integration with array
Slide 145
of 255
Radiating
g Element – Patch ((1))
• Patch•radiating•elements•offer•
good•balance•of•cost•and•
db l f t d
performance
• Planar•configuration•lends•
itself to large areas
itself•to•large•areas
• Possible•to•mount•electronic•
components•on•the•back•for•
higher level integration
higher•level•integration
Illustrations•from•Byström•(©•Ericsson•Microwave•Systems) Slide 146
of 255
Radiating
E-plane H-plane
• These plots present S11 (return loss) as a function of scan angle
• S11 is a measure of power reflected back to the source
– This power is not radiated
• The radiating
g element is has little intrinsic loss
– Allows computation of scan patterns on next page
Illustrations from Byström (© Ericsson Microwave Systems) Slide 147
of 255
Radiating
E-Plane Scan H Pl
H-Plane Scan
S
0.00
0.00
(1.00)
(1.00)
(2.00)
Gain
(2.00) (3.00)
(4.00)
Gain
1.00
(3.00)
1.25
(5.00) 1.50
1.75
(4 00)
(4.00) 2 00
2.00
1.00 (6.00)
(60) (40) (20) 0 20 40 60
1.25 Scan Angle
(5.00) 1.50
1.75
2.00
(6.00)
((60)) ((40)) ((20)) 0 20 40 60
Scan Angle
• Element has good predicted performance across octave bandwidth

• Need to do sensitivity analysis to material properties and manufacturing
tolerances
• Very important to validate predictions with test articles
Slide 148
of 255
T/R Modules
Slide 149
of 255
Transmit/Receive Modules
• T/R modules provide distributed gain and phase control,

typically at each radiating element
– They provide the flexibility enabling the attractive performance of
the ESA
• The cost of T/R modules has been the most important
p
restriction on their wide use
y
• Since the 1990’s, costs have declined precipitously
leading to the vast increase in ESA applications
– Primarily because of commercial demand for MMICs, ASICs, etc
Slide 150
of 255
Two Types of Transmit / Receive
Modules
T/R module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
T/RT/R module
module
module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/R
T/RT/R
modulemodule
old
T/RT/R module
module
manifoldd
manifo
module
T/R module
manifold
T/RT/R
module
module
manifold
T/RT/R
module
module
anifold
T/R
T/RT/R
modulemodule
T/RT/R module
module
module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
module
ma
m
T/RT/R
module
dmodule
l
T/R
T/RT/R
modulemodule
T/RT/R module
module
module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/RT/R
module
module
T/R module
T/RT/R
module
T/RT/R module
module
dmodule
l
T/R
T/RT/R
modulemodule
T/RT/R module
module
module
T/R module
T/R module
Slide 151
• Brick • Tile (or Panel)
of 255
Northrop-Grumman’s History of TR
Modules
Illustration from R. Hendrix (© IEEE)

Slide 152
of 255
Hughes T/R Module from
High Density Microwave Packaging (HDMP) Program
Illustration from George Stimson (© SciTech Publishing, Inc)

Slide 153
of 255
Raytheon
y T/R Module for THAAD
Left image and upper right image from Kopp (© IEEE)

Lower right image © Raytheon Slide 154
of 255
Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMIC)
Are a Fundamental Enabler for T/R Modules
• MMIC
MMICs are a ffundamental
d t l enabler
bl off t/
t/r modules
d l and dhhence
ESAs
• At X-band,, GaAs is the semiconductor material of choice.
Processing geometries are 0.25μ (micrometers) or less.
Facility capitalization is very expensive so the price of these
components includes significant amortization
amortization, making their
price very sensitive to volume.
• With the advent of cell phones, production volume picked up
nicely.
nicel
• Most t/r modules are made by system houses and most of
these utilize in-house foundries. The systemy houses regard
g
these capabilities as competitive discriminators and highly
proprietary; accordingly they do not sell outside.
Slide 155
of 255
M/A-Com Commercial Chip Set for T/R

Modules
• The M/A-Com foundry in

Roanoke, VA is one of the
few independent sources
of chips for t/r modules.
• Their chip set provides
good performance.
Image © MA-Com
Slide 156
of 255
Example of Module Efficiency (M/A-
Com chip set)
• Using typical current consumption from manufacturer’s

specification
Duty Ave
Part Type Part Number IDD (A) Voltage Power Factor Power
LNA MA01503D 0.19 5 0.95 90% 0.855
CLC MA03503D 0.325 5 1.625 100% 1.625
Driver MAAPGM0034 0.2 10 2 10% 0.2
PA MA08509D 3.9 10 39 10% 3.9
Total 6.58
10 watts peak power, 10% transmit duty RF Out 1
Efficiencyy 15%
Important omissions:
DC-DC converter efficiency
Slide 157
PA Drain switch voltage dropElectronic Scanned Array Design
SCF01
of 255
MMIC Die Sizes
Description Part Number Length Width Height Area

mm mm mm mm2
LNA MA01503D 4.58 3.08 0.125 14.11
Gain/Phase MA03503D 5.98 3.97 0.075 23.76

C t l
Control
PA Amp MA08509D 4.58 4.58 0.075 20.98
Di
Driver A
Amp MAAPGM0034 2 48
2.48 1 58
1.58 0 075
0.075 3 92
3.92
62.76
Slide 158
of 255
Phase Shifters & Time Delay
y Units
• Switched • Analog
– Switched lines (TDU) – Ferrite phase shifters
– Reflection • U
Usedd iin older
ld systems
t
– Loaded line designed before
– Hi-Lo p
pass filters microwave integrated
• Lowest cost, better in circuit revolution
most performance
aspects
– Cannot handle high power
Slide 159
of 255
Time Delay Units
• Coaxial cable is an obvious choice

– 1000 feet is 31 pounds and $48.00
– Loss is 1 dB per 10 foot
• For L= 1 meter, H=1 meter,
azimuth and elevation = 60° and
λ= 3 cm
• We need 272 meters of cable or
about 900 feet for two-dimensional
time delay steering
• Printed circuits are better
(L2 " sin azimuth " H 2 " sin elevation)/62 = (Area2 " sin azimuth " sin elevation)/62
Slide 160
of 255
TELA TDU Module
Slide 161
of 255
High-pass
g p / Low pass
p Phase Shifter
• Garver was one off the

G th first
fi t to
t notice
ti that
th t high-pass
hi h andd llow-pass filters
filt h
had
d diff
differentt
phase shifts that maintained a constant difference for an appreciable bandwidth.
• At microwave frequencies the lumped-element values are both realizable and small
and very importantly compatible with MMIC devices and processing
Pi and Tee are equivalent and may be selected

according to whichever is more convenient
Presentation follows Robert V. Garver’s 1972 paper

Slide 162
of 255
Tee Filter Analysis
y
• ABCD formulation for cascaded lumped elements

5 6 5 65 6
V1 A B V2
=
I1 C D I2
• The representation for a Tee filter is one series, one

shunt and one series component
- - - -
-A B - - 1 ! BN XN j(2XN ! BN X 2 ) -
- - - N -
-C D - = - jBN 1 ! BN XN -
N
Slide 163
of 255
Transmission Characteristic
• Accordingly the transmission term (S21) is

2
S21 =
A+B +C +D
• Or
2
S21 =
2 ((1 ! BN XN ) + j ((BN + 2XN ! Bn XN 2 )
• And the transmission phase characteristic is

5 26
BN + 2X N ! BN X N
? = tan!1 !
2 (1 ! BN XN )
Slide 164
of 255
High
g Pass Filter Analysis
y
• The high pass filter exchanges the series and shunt

circuit elements and provides an equal phase shift with
the opposite sign
• The net phase shift difference between the two circuit
paths is
5 26
B N + 2X N ! BN X N
"?? = 2 tan!1 !
2 (1 ! BN XN )
Slide 165
of 255
Input
p and Output
p Matching
g
• Each
E h circuit
i it iis matched
t h d if
q
|S21 | = 1 |S11 | = 1 ! |S21 |2
• Under these conditions

3 4
2 XN "?
BN = XN = tan
XN 2 + 1 4
• However, an exact match is possible at only one

frequency
• Frequency variation of insertion phase and match is not
extreme enabling octave bandwidths
Slide 166
of 255
Impedance
p Match Conditions
Low Pass Tee filter

2.0
11.25
22.5
eactance ((Xn)
30
45
1.0
60
90
120
Normalized Series Re
150
0.5 180
0.2
0.1
ρ=1.1 ρ=1.0 ρ=1.1
- 0.5 - 1.0 - 2.0 - 5.0 -10.0
Normalized Shunt Reactance (Bn)
Slide 167
of 255
Insertion Loss
Phase Shifter Loss

0
11.25
-0.1 22.5
45
-0.2 90
180
-0.3
-0
0.4
4
|S 21| (dB)
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-1
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
ω / ω0
Slide 168
of 255
Phase Shifter Return Loss
Phase Shifter Match

0
11.25
22.5
-5
45
90
-10 180
-15
|S 11| (dB)
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
ω / ω0
Slide 169
of 255
Phase Accuracy
y over Frequency
q y
Frequency Dependence of Phase Shift

Return Loss
11.25
-20 dB
-25 dB
-30 dB
-30 dB
-25 dB
-20 dB
22.5
180 45
90
180
90
Phase Shiftt (°)
45
P
22.5
11.25
Diamonds represent 2° error
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
ω / ω0
Slide 170
of 255
Benefits and Limitations
• High-pass / Low-pass phase shifters are widely used

because of their combination of performance and
simplicity
– Easily fabricated and integrated in MMIC process
• Two sources of bandwidth limitation
– Beam squint
– Phase shifter error
– Limitation is acceptable for most applications
Slide 171
of 255
Packaging
g g
• Tight lattice spacing results in component packaging

challenges
• Brick
B i k style
t l modules
d l provide
id greatest
t t volume
l and
d some
integration challenges
• Tile style modules are preferred and achievable
Slide 172
of 255
Georgia
g Tech 64-Element Antenna
• Liquid Crystal Polymer

substrate
• Patch
P t h radiating
di ti elements
l t
• SiGe BiCMOS T/R
modules
– 7 dB gain
– 3-bit
3 bit phase shifter
– 500 MHz bandwidth
– Noise figure ~2.5 dB
Slide 173
of 255
7-21 GHz Dual-Polarized Array

y
Slide 174
of 255
Thermal Dissipation Constrains
Designs
• ESAs generate a lot

ESA l off heat
h
• Ground based ESAs eventually must transfer heat into air
– Problem in the desert
• Airborne ESAs are liquid cooled with tight temperature control
– Lots of chilled airflow
• Spaceborne ESAs must radiate heat, directly or transferred to
dedicated thermal radiators
– Direct radiation is far simpler, lighter and more reliability but imposes
limit on RF power density
• High operating temperatures shorten component lifetime, reduce
amplifier gain,
gain increase noise figure
Slide 175
of 255
Technology Base and Cost
Slide 176
of 255
DARPA and Military Manufacturing Technology
Programs Initiated the Technology Base
• DARPA - Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC)

– Industry teams
• DARPA - Microwave
Mi Monolithic
M lithi IIntegrated
t t d Ci
Circuit
it
(MMIC)
– Industry teams
• USAF - T/R Module Manufacturing Technology (1989-
1992)
99 )
– Westinghouse-Texas Instruments Team
– Hughes Aircraft Company
Slide 177
of 255
Consumer Products Provided Final

Cost Reductions
• Personal Computers, Mobile Phones and Wireless

Networking dwarfed government investment starting in
the 1990’s
1990 s
Slide 178
of 255
AESA Suppliers
pp
• US
• Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems (formerly Westinghouse)
• Raytheon Systems (formerly Raytheon, Texas Instruments and Hughes)
• Harris / Texas Instruments
• Lockheed Martin (formerly Martin (formerly General Electric (formerly
General Electric and RCA)))
• ITT-Gilfillan
ITT Gilfillan
• Europe
• EADS
• A
Astrium
ti (L-band
(L b d space modules)
d l )
• EADS Deutschland GmbH, Ulm (SMTR used in TerraSAR-X & CAESAR)
• Defense and Security (MEADS modules)
• Thales
• Aerospace Division (Elancourt and Crawley) RBE2 AESA for RAFALE
• Thales Alenia Space Italia (for Cosmo-Skymed)
• ALCATEL ESPACE,, Toulouse,, FRANCE(( ENVISAT and Radarsat))
Slide 179
of 255
Gallium Arsenide
• US
• All of the above plus
• M/A-Com
M/A Com (acquired by Cobham plc Dorset
Dorset, England in
September 2008)
• TriQuint (formerly Texas Instruments)
• Europe
• United Monolithic Semiconductors (UMS), a Franco-German
enterprise
i owned dbby EADS and d Th
Thales
l
• e2v (formerly English Electric Valve)
• Asian
• Offshore (Win Semiconductor, …)
Slide 180
of 255
T/R module cost has been reduced by
orders of magnitude since 1980
• Actual numbers are very hard to determine being

proprietary, competition sensitive and occasionally
embarrassing
Slide 181
of 255
Congressional
g Budget
g Office Opinion
p
P
Parametric
t i Cost
C t off GaAs
G A MMICs
MMIC Si off a T/R Module
Size M d l
• Chipset on described on slides 175-177 totals 63 mm2

• GaAs prices have declined because of WiFi & Mobile
Phones
Slide 182
of 255
Naval Air Warfare Center BAA Goal
• Broad
B dAAgency A Announcementt ffor Manufacturing
M f t i Research
R h andd
Development of X-Band Active Electronically Scanned Array
Transmit/Receive Modules N68936-96-R-0282 dated July 15, 1996
• “The thrust of this effort is to create design and manufacturing innovations
to achieve per element module cost of $300 after the first 20,000 modules
production”
– Contract N68936-97-C-0013 for $3,554,246 awarded to Hughes Aircraft
Company November 22, 1996
– Contract N68936-97-C-0017 for $4,498,223 awarded to Raytheon Electronic
Systems December 17
17, 1996
Slide 183
of 255
ESA Fed reflectors conceived as a solution

to the high cost of T/R Modules
• IIn 1982,
1982 Robert
R b Mailloux
M ill analyzed
l d ESA ffed
d reflectors
fl ((which
hi h h
he
called hybrid antennas) in The Handbook of Antenna Design
– “Hybrid
y antennas would be unnecessaryy if phased
p arrays
y could be
made very inexpensively. If the system designers’ dream of a low-cost
array with thousands of little elements, each costing a few dollars and
controlled by some central processor had happened or would soon
happen, there would be little need to expend much time or effort in the
development of hybrid antennas.”
Includes not just
•T/R
T/R module function
But also
•Frequency synthesizer
•Receiver
•User Interface
•Power Supply
Mailloux, R. J., “Hybrid Antennas,” Ch. 5 in The Handbook of Antenna Design, Vol. 1, A. W.
Rudge, Milne, Olver, Knight, eds., Peter Peregrinus, London, 1982. Slide 184
of 255
USA Prices
• Feb 16, 2007 – Raytheon has been awarded a $212$ million

contract by the Missile Defense Agency for the manufacture,
delivery and integration support of one Terminal High Altitude
Area Defense radar, also called the AN/TPY-2 radar.
– Radar contains 25,344 modules – puts a ceiling of $8,365 for each
module
d l price
i (if everything
thi else
l was provided
id d att no cost)
t)
Clearly,
y, T/R module cost is < $1,000
$ , each
Slide 185
of 255
European
p Prices
• Within the framework of the MEADS design and

development programme, EADS Defense & Security
Defence Electronics had been awarded a contract worth
about €120 million for the production of approx. 40,000
T/R modules and associated electronic components
p
(€3,000 each)
– First 5,000 modules delivered in 2008
Slide 186
of 255
PART FOUR
Slide 187
of 255
ESA Examples
Slide 188
of 255
Airborne ESA Systems
y
Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/APG 77

AN/APG-77 F 22 Raptor
F-22
Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 F-16E/F Block 60 Fighting Falcon
Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 F-35 Joint Strike Fighter
Northrop Grumman Multi-role AESA Boeing Wedgetail (AEW&C)
Northrop Grumman APY-9 E-2D Advanced Hawkeye
y
Raytheon AN/APG-63(V)2
( ) F-15C Eagleg
Raytheon AN/APG-79 F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
Raytheon AN/APQ-181 B-2 Spirit bomber
European GTDAR (GEC-Thomson-
DASA Airborne Radar) consortium, now AMSAR (Airborne Multirole Solid State
y
BAE Systems, Thales, and EADS Active Arrayy Radar ) Eurofighter
g and Rafale fighter
g Radar
Captor-E CAESAR (CAPTOR Active
Electronically Scanning Array Radar) Eurofighter Typhoon
RBE2-AA (Radar à Balayage
Thales Electronique 2)
SELEX Sensors and Airborne Systems
S.p.A. created by the merger of the
avionics businesses of Finmeccanica Seaspray 7000E
and part of BAE Systems Vixen 500E for helicopters
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation J/APG-1 Mitsubishi F-2 fighter
Ericsson Erieye AEW&C and NORA AESA JAS 39 Gripen
Phazotron-NIIR Zhuk-AE (FGA-29 / FGA-35 ) MiG-35
Tikhomirov NIIP Epaulet-A (or Epolet-A)
Elta EL/M-2083 aerostat-mounted air search radar
Elta EL/M-2052 for fighters
Elt
Elta EL/M 2075
EL/M-2075 radar
d ffor th
the IAI Phalcon
Ph l AEW&C system
t
Slide 189
of 255
Ground and Naval ESA Systems

y
lif i radar,
multi-function d primary
i sensor off
Thales APAR Dutch De Zeven Provinciën and German
Sachsen class frigates
SELEX Sensors and Airborne Systems
S.p.A. created by the merger of the EMPAR (European Multifunction Phased
avionics businesses of Finmeccanica Array Radar)
and part of BAE Systems
EL/M-2080 Green Pine ground-based
Elta
early warning AESA radar
EL/M-2248 MF-STAR multifunction naval
Elta
radar
U.S.
U S DD(X)
DD(X), CG(X) andd CVN
CVN-21
21 next-
Raytheon AN/SPY-3
generation surface vessels
U.S. National Missile Defense X-Band
Raytheon
Radar (XBR)
MEADS International (MI), MBDA Italia,
Lenkflugkörpersysteme (LFK) in Multifunction Fire Control Radar (MFCR)
Germany and Lockheed Martin
Lockheed Martin Space Systems
THAAD system fire control radar
Company (Raytheon)
Insyte multi-function radar for UK. Type
BAE SAMPSON
45 destroyers
Mi bi hi El
Mitsubishi Electric
i CCorporation
i (M(Melco)
l ) FCS 3
FCS-3
OPS-24 (The world's first Naval Active
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
Electronically Scanned Array radar)
FPS-5 Japanese ground-based next
generation Missile Defense Radar
CEA Technologies CEAFAR Naval Phased Array
Slide 190
of 255
Most Radio Telescopes
p are Reflectors
Lovell Telescope is the third largest steerable radio telescope in the world
© Credit: Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester
Arecibo is 305 meters diameter (73,000 m2) spherical dish (fixed position)
Photo courtesy of the NAIC - Arecibo Observatory, a facility of the NSF
Proposed Square Kilometer Array (SKA) will be some form of ESA

Photo © Copyright CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation)
Haystack is 37 meters diameter (1,075 m2) (re-positionable) Slide 191
© MIT SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design
of 255
THAAD
F
Frequency Xb d
X-band
Array size (m2) 9.2
T/R Modules 25 344
25,344
Subarrays (Tx/Rx) 72/72
Scan (Az/El) 53°/53°
Mechanical El 10° - 60°
Slide 192
of 255
Slide 193
of 255
Airborne Fighter Aircraft have

Transitioned to Active ESA
• F-15 Example
• 18 F-15C aircraft retrofitted

with ESA radar entered
service in 2000
• E
Enhanced
h d performance
f
and improved
maintainability
Images © Boeing Corporation
Slide 194
of 255
ESAs in Space
Slide 195
of 255
Iridium Communications Satellite
• 66 satellite
t llit constellation
t ll ti
– 5 May 1997 to
7 Mayy 1998 (72)
( )
• Altitude 781 km
• Inclination 86.4°
• Frequency 1.62 GHz
• Antenna boresight 50°
f
from nadir
di
• Antenna size 0.86m x
Iridium Prototype
yp Installed at Smithsonian Museum 1 88 m
1.88
– 106 patch radiators
• 8 x 16 Butler Matrix Feed
Slide 196
of 255
Iridium Beams in U-V Space
p
Slide 197
of 255
Iridium Beams on Globe
Slide 198
of 255
Iridium Beam on Globe (detail)
( )
Slide 199
of 255
Iridium Beams p
projected
j to Ground
Slide 200
of 255
Some Radars On-Orbit
S ti l – C-band
Sentinel Cb d T
TerraSAR-X
SAR X – Germany
G X-band
Xb d
© European Space Agency © Astrium GmbH
RadarSat-2 – Canada C-band Cosmo-SkyMed – Italy X-band Slide 201

© Canadian Space AgencySCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design© Finmeccanica
of 255
On-orbit and Planned Radar Satellites

1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
USA SeaSAT / SIR / SRTM L/C/X bands

Japan JERS-1, ALOS, ALOS-2 L-band
Argentina SAOCOM L-band
USA-India NISAR L/S-band
Germany-Japan TanDEM-L (2023) L-band
UK NovaSAR S-band
Time Now
w
Commercial Urthecast S/X-band

Canada RadarSat-1,2 / RCM C-band
European Space Agency ERS-1,2 / EnviSat / Sentinel C-band
Germany-military SAR-Lupe / SARah X-band
Germany-civilian TerraSAR-X, TanDEM-X, TerraSAR-NG, HRWS (2022) X-band
Italyy Cosmo-Skymed,
y CSG X-band
Israel TecSAR reflector X-band
India RISAT-2 / RISAT-1 planar array X/C bands
Korea Kompsat-5,
p 6 ESA
S X-band
Spain PAZ X-band
Slide 202
of 255
Some Private Enterprise
p Plans
• Iceye
– Constellation of six microsatellites with Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) imaging with first launch end of 2017
– Build own satellites
• UrtheCast
– Plan eight SAR satellite constellation launched in 2019 and 2020
– Supplier is Surrey Satellite dual band (X and L) based on
N
NovaSAR
SAR
• XpressSAR
– Constellation of four satellites planned to launch beginning in
2020
– Satellite supplier unnamed
Slide 203
of 255
Comparative Radar Satellite

Performance
60 P⋅G2=130 (dBW)
P⋅G=70 (dBW)
P⋅G2=120 (dBW)
50 P⋅G2=110 (dBW) SAR-Lupe TecSAR COSMO-SkyMed

RADARSAT
ENVISATTerraSAR-X
mum Gain (dB)
P⋅G=60 (dBW) ERS Sentinel

P⋅G2=100 (dBW) DESDynI
40 P⋅G2=90 (dBW) S C/
SIR-C/L
JERS-1 ALOS-2
ALOS
SEASAT
SIR-B
SIR-A
P⋅G=50 (dBW)
2
P⋅G =80 (dBW)
30 P⋅G2=70 ((dBW))
Maxim
P⋅G=40 (dBW)
P⋅G2=60 (dBW)
20 P⋅G2=50 (dBW)
P⋅G=30 (dBW)
P⋅G2=40 (dBW)
100 W 1000 W
10
10 20 30
Average Transmit Power (dBW)
Slide 204
of 255
Satellite ESAs Optimized
p for SAR
# of Azimuth Elevation
Satellite Modules Dx (Ȝ) Dy (Ȝ) Limit Limit
ALOS 80 9.42 0.61 3.0° 54°
ALOS-2 180 4.19 0.68 6.8° 47°
RADARSAT 512 16.56 0.83 1.7° 37°
Envisat 320 17.77 0.72 1.6° 44°
Sentinel 280H/280V 15.83 0.74 1.8° 43°
Cosmo-Skymed
Cosmo Skymed 1280 9 17
9.17 0 70
0.70 3 1°
3.1 45°
45
Cosmo NG 2560
TerraSAR-X 384 12.81 0.75 2.2° 42°
TerraSAR-NG 1,280 9.17 0.7 3.1° 45°
• Az and El computed to exclude grating lobe

Slide 205
of 255
ESA RF Power Densities
• COSMO-SkyMed
COSMO Sk M d andd SEOSAR/PAZ uses a patcht h radiator;
di t th the other
th
satellites use waveguide which may have better thermal dissipation
properties
Satellite Band (RF) Watts per m2

ALOS/PALSAR L-band 5
ALOS-2 L-band 12
RADARSAT C-band 13
ENVISAT Cb d
C-band 25
Copernicus (Sentinel) C-band 50
y
COSMO-SkyMed X-band 90
SEOSAR/PAZ X-band 117
TerraSAR-X X-band 129
Slide 206
of 255
L/C/X Band Antenna(s)
( )
Slide 207
Images courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech
of 255
TerraSAR-X
Dual polarized slotted waveguide

radiator and module assembly
Spacecraft structure showing

location of 12 antenna panels
Module assembly including polarization

switching and FPGA controller
One of 12 antenna panels composed of

32 T/R module/radiator assemblies
Slide 208
Images © IEEE SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design
6.3 watt (38 dBm) SMTR modules
of 255
TerraSAR-X NG
• U
Under
d study
t d
• Wider Bandwidth
– 600 MHz (WRC 2007)
– -1.2 GHz (WRC 2016)
• New Radiating
g Element
– European Patent EP2100348
– Serpentine inner conductor
alters propagation velocity so
that slots are excited in
phase
– Propagation modes are not
dispersive which broadens
bandwidth
Slide 209
of 255
Italy
y - COSMO-SkyMed
y
• X-band
X b d
• ESA Design
• 5 7m x 1.4m
5.7m 1 4m array
• 1,900 kg
• ~5 kW peak transmit
• 1,280 TR modules
manufactured by Thales
Alenia Space Italia
• Incorporates true time delay
– Up to 15 wavelengths
• Growth option to five phase
centers (channels) for MTI
Images © e-GEOS S.p.A.

Slide 210
of 255
COSMO-Skymed
y Satellite Radar
• Four satellite constellation

– 8 June 2007 to
5 November 2010
• Altitude 619.6 km
• Inclination 97.86°
• Frequency 9.6 GHz
• Antenna boresight
g 34° from
nadir
• Antenna size 5.7 m x 1.4 m
– 15,360 patch radiators (240x64)
• Pulsewidth up to 100 μs
• Duty Cycle Tx up to 30%
• PRF up to 4.5 kHz
Artist's rendition of a COSMO-SkyMed • Beam steering
(image credit: ASI)
– Elevation ±20°
– Azimuth ±2°
• Beamwidth
– Azimuth 0.3°
– Elevation Slide 211
SCF01 Electronic Scanned Array Design 1.7° to 6°
of 255
Antenna Beams in U-V Space

p
Slide 212
of 255
Antenna Beams on Globe
Slide 213
of 255
Antenna Beams on Globe (detail)

( )
Slide 214
of 255
Antenna Beams Projected to Ground
Slide 215
of 255
L-Band Trade Study
Slide 216
of 255
L-band Systems
y
• History
– Shuttle (JPL)
– JERS 1 (JAXA)
JERS-1
– ALOS (JAXA)
– ALOS-2 (JAXA)
( )
– SAOCOM (CONAE)
• Planned/Proposed Systems
– DESDynI NISAR (JPL+ISRO)
– TerraSAR-L
T SAR L (DLR/JAXA)
Slide 217
of 255
Geometric Relationships
p
h θlook
• Angles and lengths easily
ρ θincident
computed with
trigonometric identities
re
re
;2 = re2 + ((re + h))2 ! 2re ((re + h)) cos((,)

sin(,) sin(3look ) sin(: ! 3incident)
= =
; re re + h
Slide 218
of 255
L-band Arrays
y
10.0
6.5
2.9
9
0.9
9
ALOS-2 TanDEM-L Feed
10.0 13.5
3.5
3.5
SAOCOM DESDyni ESA
Slide 219
of 255
System
y Performance
ALOS-2 SAOCOM DESDynI DESDynI NISAR TanDEM-L
Altitude 628 km 620 km 761 km 761 km 740 km 745 km

15 m 12 m 15 m
Antenna Size 2.9 x 9.9 m 3.5 x 10 m 3.5 x 15 m
diameter diameter diameter
Transmit
5 kW 3.9 kW 3.2 kW 3.2 kW 3.0 kW 10.9 kW
Power
-24 ~ -28 -24 ~ -28
NESZ (spec) -35 dB < -20 dB -20 ~ -25 dB
dB dB
Resolution 1 ~ 100m 10~ 100m 3m ~ 100m 3 ~ 10m 1 ~ 10 m
Incidence
8° to 70° 20° to 50° 30° to 50° 30° to 50° 34° to 48°
Angle
Swath Width 350 km 320 km 350 km 350 km > 200 km 350 km
±30° elevation ±25° elevation ±9° elevation ±8° elevation
Electronic Scan
±3.5° azimuth ±40° azimuth no azimuth scan ±2° azimuth
Slide 220
of 255
Antenna Characteristics
ALOS-2 SAOCOM DesDYNI DesDYNI NISAR TanDEM-L
Array Size 2.9 x 9.9m 3.5 x 10.0m 3.5 x 15.0 m 0.5 x 4.0 m 0.5 x 1.5 m 1.0 x 4.6 m
Reflector Diameter 15 m 12 m 15 m
Number of Modules 180 140 1,600 64 24 192
Number of Phase
18 20 20 32 12 32
C t
Centers (El)
Phase Center
0.63 lambda 0.74 lambda 0.68 lambda 0.52 lambda 0.52 lambda 0.60 lambda
Spacing (El)
Number of Phase
10 7 80 2 2 6
Centers (Az)
Phase Center
4.32 lambda 6.07 lambda 0.60 lambda 1.05 lambda 1.05 lambda 0.68 lambda
Spacing (Az)
T/R Module Power 34 Watts 28 Watts 2 50 Watts 125 Watts 56.6 Watts
Peak Transmit Power 6.1 kW 3.9 kW 3.2 kW 3.2 kW 3.0 kW 10.9 kW
EIRP (PG) 66 dBW 75 dBW 76 dBW 66 dBW 68 dBW 71 dBW
PG2 114 dBW 114 dBW 116 dBW 97 dBW 100 dBW 100 dBW
Slide 221
of 255
Advanced Land Observing Satellite

DAICHI (ALOS)
"DAICHI"
• ALOS-2
– L-band
– ESA design
– 9.9m x 2.9m
– 2,120
, kg
g
– 5 kW peak transmit power
– 180 TR modules
– 5.2kW (EOL) power system
Image © JAXA | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
Slide 222
of 255
ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite)
PALSAR (Phased Array Synthetic Aperture Radar)
PALSAR Electrical Model PALSAR-2 Flight Model

Images © JAXA | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
Slide 223
of 255
ALOS-2 PALSAR Array

y
Array Width = 9.90 meters

Array Height = 2.90 meters
Array Area = 25.84 square meters
Wavelength = 0.229 meters
Number of Elements = 1080
2
Areal Gain (4⋅π⋅A/λ ) = 37.9 dBi
Delta X = 0
0.165
165 meters (6
(6.50
50 inches)
Delta Y = 0.145 meters (5.71 inches)
Number of elements = 1080
Triangular angle = 60.4
60 4 degrees
Colors denote subarrays
Slide 224
of 255
Used Uniform Element Factor
10
Maximum Gain = 7.6
-10
10
Gain (dB)
-20
-30
-40 Phi=0°
Phi=45°
Phi=90°
cos
-50
-90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
θ (°)
• Aperture equal to lattice size

• Compare to slide 13 of this presentation
Slide 225
of 255
Antenna Pattern
Boresight and Steered
Slide 226
of 255
Azimuth Cut
Steered in Azimuth
40
→ ← 3 dB Beamwidth = 6.1°
30
20
Gain (dB)
10
-10 Array Factor

Subarray Factor
Maximum Gain = 36.4 Array Factor Grating Lobes
θ = 5.0°,φ = 0.0° Subarray Factor Nuls
-20
-90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Azimuth (degrees) Slide 227
of 255
Elevation Cut
Steered in Elevation
40
30
20
Gain (dB)
10
-10
Maximum Gain = 36.7 Array Factor

θ = 40.0°,φ = 90.0° Subarray Factor
-20
-90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Elevation (degrees) Slide 228
of 255
ESA Beamwidth Fairly Constant with
Scan
7 7
Azimuth Beamwidth Azimuth Beamwidth
Elevation Beamwidth Elevation Beamwidth
6 6
5 5
Beamwidth (°)
Beamwidth (°)
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 10 20 30 40
A i th S
Azimuth Scan (°) El
Elevation
ti S Scan (°)
• Elevation and Azimuth beamwidth change with cos-1 θ
Slide 229
of 255
ALOS-2 Gain as a Function of Scan
40
Azimuth Scan
Elevation Scan
cos θ
39
38
Gain (dB)
37
36
35
0 10 20 30 40
Scan Angle (°)
Slide 230
of 255
Beam Laydown
y
• Elevation scan covers nadir to 20°grazing (70° incidence) angle

• Individual beam includes Doppler of ±2.5
±2 5 kHz
Slide 231
of 255
Additional Features
• Split aperture to form two beams on receive

• Reduce aperture width from five to three panels to
b d b
broaden beam iin azimuth
i th
Slide 232
of 255
OFFSET REFLECTOR
Slide 233
of 255
Radar Satellite Geometry

y & Timing
g
Radar
600 Radar altitude = 619
619.66 km
500 -3 dB swath from 421 km to 440 km
Altittude (km)
-15 dB swath from 396 km to 467 km

400 20 19
18 17 Pulse repetition frequency = 3.00 kHz
300 16 15 Transmit pulse width = 33 μ sec
14 13
200 12 11 Transmit duty cycle = 10%
10 9 Time = 10,000 μ sec
100 Ho
rizo 8 7
20°25° 38° n 6 5
0 50°
60° 4 3
0
261
204
43 0
500
63 6
87 7
10 0 0
8
1 50 0
Ground offset Distance (km)
200
0
2 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0
20
4
27 0
Angle of Arrrival (°)
15
10
5 -15 dB
0 -3 dB
-15 dB
-5
-10
-15
-20
20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Time of Arrival (μ seconds)
TanDEM-L
Diameter 15m
Focal length 13 5 m
13.5
Offset (elevation) 9m
Azimuth elements 6
Elevation elements 32 (or 40)
Azimuth Spacing 0.6 ʄ
Elevation spacing 0.6816 ʄ
Elevation Scan Approximately ±8°

Slide 235
of 255
TanDEM-L Feed Designs

g
5.2 6.5
0.9
0.9
• Standard feed for 7 meter • Enhanced feed shape p

resolution designed to capture
• Performance degrades at >80% of received power
near andd ffar range • Shape
Sh correspondsd tto off-
ff
• Supports three azimuth axis aberration of
channels parabolic reflector
p
Slide 236
of 255
Deformation, Ecosystem Structure and
Dynamics of Ice DESDyni (JPL)
• A dedicated U.S. InSAR and LIDAR mission optimized

for studying hazards and global environmental change.
• L-band
L b d synthetic
th ti aperture
t radar
d (SAR) system
t
– Operated as a repeat-pass interferometer (InSAR)
– Multiple polarization: single
single, dual
dual, or fully polarimetric
– Strip-map or scanSAR (SCORE) modes with a viewable swath
of 340 km
– 35 m ground resolution
– Two sub-bands separated by 70 MHz for ionospheric correction
Slide 237
of 255
DESDyni Reflector Concept
Resource Reflector
fl
Instrument Mass 600 kg
Instrument Power 1600 watts
Dimensions 15 meter diameter
~4 x 0.5 meter feed
Images courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech desdyni.jpl.nasa.gov/files/DESDynI_RadarDes&PerfV4a.pdf

Slide 238
of 255
Feed Structure Also Contains Electronics and
Thermal Management System
Next Generation Geodetic Imaging

g g with Interferometric SAR: Toward InSAR Everywhere,
y , All the Time
Paul A. Rosen, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
UNAVCO Workshop, Boulder, Colorado, March 10, 2010
Slide 239
of 255
DESDynI
y Model
Slide 240
of 255
DESDynI
y Model Parameters
• R
Reflector
fl t diameter
di t 15 meter t projected
j t d iin b
beam di
direction
ti
(actual reflector is elliptical)
• Focal Length is 10 meters
• Array feed of 24 conical horns, distributed on 2.2 meter
centers at focal pplane p position with 40 degree
g taper
p
angle and 12 dB taper
– Feed design would be optimized for Efficiency/Spillover during
detailed design
• No struts or other obstructions which tend to raise
sidelobes
• Used Ticra Grasp software (full version)
– These cases can run on student version if each feed element is
separately analyzed (24 cases) and results summed
Slide 241
of 255
Feed Pattern Over-illuminates

Reflector
Spillover
1
Relative Power
Spill Over (dB)
0.95
0.9
0 85
0.85
0.8
0.75
07
0.7
0.65
0 5 10 15 20 25
Slide 242
SCF01 Electronic Scanned
Element Array Design
Number of 255
Individual Beam Patterns Elevation Cut
Array Feed Element 12 Far-field Principal Plane Cuts
50
0.1
0.6
6
Elevation Cut Individual Feed
40 Azimuth Cut →
→←←
30
20
10
-10
-20
-30
-40 1.0° 3 dB beamwidth Effective Array Width (λ/θ) = 12.2 meters

1 0 3 dB b
1.0° beamheight
h i h Effective
Eff i Array
A Height
H i h ((λ/θ)
/ ) = 12
12.2
2 meters
-50
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Slide 243
of 255
Transmit Beam Comprises Sum of 24

Feeds
Combined Feeds Elevation Plane Cut
50
→ ← Individual Feed Summation
40
30
20
10
-10
10
-20 Effective Array Width (λ/θ) = 13.6 meters

13 9 3 dB b
13.9° beamheight
h i h Eff i Array
Effective A Height
H i h ((λ/θ)
/ )=00.9
9 meters
-30
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Slide 244
of 255
24 Element Sum
Principal Plane Cuts
Combined Feeds Principal Plane Cuts
50
Elevation Cut → →← ← Individual Feed Summation
Azimuth Cut
40
30
20
10
-10
10
-20 0.9° 3 dB beamwidth Effective Array Width (λ/θ) = 13.6 meters

13 9 3 dB b
13.9° beamheight
h i h Eff i Array
Effective A Height
H i h ((λ/θ)
/ )=00.9
9 meters
-30
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Slide 245
of 255
Beam Width Variation

Reflector vs ESA
Individual Beam Size
6
Beamwidth
Beamwidth
Azimuth Reflector
Azimuth
Beamwidth
Beamwidth
Elevation Elevation
Reflector
Beamwidth Azimuth ALOS-2
5
Beamwidth Elevation ALOS-2
4
dB size (°)
3
3-d
0
-40 -10 -30 -20 -5 -10 0 10 5 20 30 10 40
Slide 246
SCF01 Electronic
ScanScanned Array Design
Angle (°) of 255
Reflector Beam Gain Variation
Array Feed Elements Far-field Pattern Contour Elemental Beam Gain
0.3 46
15° 42 dB
39 dB
0.2 36 dB 44
10° 33 dB
30 dB
0.1 55° 42
Gain (dB)
0 0° 40
V
-5°
5
-0.1 38
-10° 36.5
36.5
Individual Feed Patterns
-0.2 36
20141215Job_03
offset_reflector_array
-15°
-15°
15° -10°
10° -5°
5° 0° 5° 10° 15°
34
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 5 10 15 20 25
U Element Number
• Beam broadening and gain reduction are directly related
Slide 247
of 255
Equivalent
q Aperture
p Sizes for Reflector
Array Feed Element 24 Reflector Current Contour
-3 dB width = 8.7 meters -34 dB
6 -3 dB height = 8.0 meters -38 dB
-41 dB
-46
46 dB
4
2
-31.2
Y (m)
-2
-4
Feed 24
20141215Job_03
-6 offset_reflector_array
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 Slide 248
SCF01 Electronic
X (m) Scanned Array Design of 255
Currents in Reflector
Array Feed Total Contour
-3 dB width = 8.5 meters -13 dB
6 -3 dB height = 3.5 meters -17 dB
-20 dB
-25
25 dB
4 -30 dB
2
Y (m)
0
-10.3
-2
-4
Individual Feed
-6 20141215Job_03
offset reflector array
offset_reflector_array
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 Slide 249
SCF01 Electronic
X (m) Scanned Array Design of 255
L-band Summary
y
• Array size
– Array height of 4 meters matches Tx requirement well
– Array height of > 4 meters advantageous for Rx
– Array length of ~ 10 meters compatible with azimuth resolution of
~ 3 - 10 meters
• Scan Capability
– Elevation beam agility required for good area coverage
(S
(SweepSAR/SCORE,
SAR/SCORE ScanSAR,
S SAR etc))
– Azimuth beam agility enables additional modes (TOPSAR)
– Beam agility required for spotlight modes
– Reflectors have limited azimuth steering
Slide 250
of 255
Feeds
• Feed for reflector needs beam shaping to for acceptable

efficiency in both Rx and Tx
• Array
A feeds
f d have
h considerably
id bl hi higher
h power ddensity
it th
than
ESAs complicating cooling
• Large number of TRM’s
TRM s in ESA provides degrees
degrees-of-
of
freedom necessary for advanced beam control
Slide 251
of 255
Launch Constraints
• Reflector antennas are more amenable to folding

required for launch
– Provide higher gain in receive
• ESA antennas up to 3.5 x 10 meters have been
designed for folding
Slide 252
of 255
References
• Ph
Phased
d Array
A Antenna
A t Handbook,
H db k Second
S d Edition
Editi by
b R Robert
b t JJ. M
Mailloux,
ill 508 pages, A
Artech
t h
House, 2nd edition (March 31, 2005) (originally published in 1994)
• “Electronically scanned array” in Synthesis Lecture on Antennas, R. J. Mailloux, Morgan &
Claypool
y Publishers, 2007.
• Radar Handbook, Third Edition by Merrill Skolnik, 1328 pages, McGraw-Hill Professional, 3rd
edition (January 22, 2008) (originally published 1970)
– Chapter 12 Reflector Antennas by Michael Cooley and Daniel Davis
– Chapter 13 Phased Array Radar Antennas by Joe Frank and John D. Richards
• Antenna Theory Analysis and Design by Constantine Balanis, 790 pages, Harper & Row 1982
• Practical Phased Array Antenna Systems (Artech House Antenna Library) (Paperback) by Eli
Brookner 320 pages Artech House (December 1
Brookner, 1, 1991)
• Phased Array Antennas (Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering) (Hardcover) by R.
C. Hansen (Author) 504 pages Wiley-Interscience (January 19, 1998) (originally published in
1966)
• Introduction to Airborne Radar by George W. Stimson, 584 pages, SciTech Publishing, 2nd Edition
(January 1, 1998) (originally published in 1983)
• Electronically Scanned Arrays MATLAB® Modeling and Simulation by Arik D. Brown, 224 pages,
CRC Press,
Press (May 3,
3 2012)
• Antenna Arrays: A Computational Approach by Randy L. Haupt, 534 pages, Wiley-IEEE Press
(April 12, 2010) Slide 253
of 255
Web Based References
• EW and Radar Handbook

– https://ewhdbks.mugu.navy.mil/home.htm
• Dr.
D D David
id C
C. JJenn llecture
t slides
lid and
dMMatLab
tL b code
d
– http://www.nps.navy.mil/Faculty/jenn/
• Jet Propulsion Laboratories
– http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/
• Microwave 101
– http://www.microwaves101.com/index.cfm
• Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas – Sophocles J.
Orfanidis
– http://www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa
Slide 254
of 255
Thank you for your attention
Slide 255
of 255

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Electronic Scanned Array Design

• Provide a basic understanding of ESA design principles,

• One of the most important determinants of microwave system

• An ESA combines multiple elements with phase or time

Reflector Antenna Radar Block Diagram

Data request Control & Timing Processor

Radar data Signal Processor Receiver

Power Supply ESA incorporates functions

Power & Logic Distributiion

Power Supply ESA incorporates functions

26 -3 dB • Multiple Azimuth Beam

• ESAs have recently become very prevalent for the sole

• Antenna objective is to create a current/voltage

D = 1 meter 2m 8m 17m 33m 67m

• Projected aperture is the apparent angular extent of the

• Radar range determined by antenna size (area), transmit

• Ratio of power received to power transmitted

• For a system limited by thermal noise, we can:

ESA Design Approach

• For a continuous illumination function f(x), the resulting

• Array factor and Element Pattern

Real and Synthetic

• Real beamforming uses samples collected at one point

• Near field Scanner

• Rectangular lattice and square aperture leads to a

Beam Pattern Analysis

• Plus Z direction is normal to the array face

• Each element i generates the field

Ei ((r,, 3, ?) = fi (3, ?) exp(

• Using the identity Ri = R ! r̂ " ri

• We can rewrite the second term as

• Adding a complex weight ai to each element, the resulting antenna

• It is customary to assume that each element has the

• This formulation partitions the antenna pattern into

– It is generally considered that R 6 2l2 /6 is sufficient; this is

ri " r̂ = m"x u + n"y v

• If we further assume that the complex element weight ai

• The overall beam pattern is the product of the element

• Start with N elements equally spaced in a line

• Assume the am are equal and define A = k"x sin 3 cos ?

• The maximum value of AF is M and occurs whenever the

1-D Beam Formation (steered)

• To steer the beam, we apply a linear phase (only) slope

As = k "x sin 3s cos ?s

sin [M (A ! As )/2] jM(A!As )/2

Selected Steered ((30°)) Case ((M=10))

More Elements Provide Better Performance

ntenna Gain (dB

ntenna Gain (dB

-10 -10 -10

-20 -20 -20

-30 -30 -30

• Gain improves - proportional to number of elements (array length)

• Circles represent radiation from individual elements,

30° Scanned Beam

$  LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§

ent Spacing =3.0 cm

Limitations on Beam Formation

• ESAs which use phase shifters for steering have an

Phase Shifters cause Beam to Steer

• Phase shift at each element

• K is a factor approximately equal to one

• For L = 1 meter, λ = 3 cm and θ = 30°

• Required maximum time delay is equal to antenna length

$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§

$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§

$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§

$ LQ§ $ LQ§ $ LQ§

Element Spacing > λ/2 Grating