Libyan International Medical University

Faculty of Pharmacy

[weight gaining ]
Student Name : Nouralhodah Almukasaby
Student no: 3103
Tutor Name : Khadeja Najeb
Block No.6
Week No.3
Date of Submission : 2021/12/15

Academic Year

1
 2020-2021
*Table of contant*
Inroduction………………………………………………………..3
[1]-Define grading and staging of malignant tumors………………....4
[2]- List grading and staging system……………………………….…4
[3]-Classify autoimmunodisease……………………………………..4
[4]-List autoimmunodisease …………………………………………..5
[5]-Describe mechanism gas chromatography………………………...6
[6]-Discuss the role, mechanism of ADH and role of kidney in water
blance……………………………………………………………………. 6
[7]-Describe glycerol metabolism…..…………………………………6
[8]-Define the position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid……..……6

[9]-List function of -oxidation fatty acid……………………..……..2

[10]-List function of -oxidation fatty acid…………………….……3
[11]-Define and compere between genotype, phenotype…………..…1
[12]-Discuss the role of kidney in the body regulation temperature….9
[13]-Define deffrent names of drugs(generic, brand, and chemical)…9
[14]-Compere between generic name and brand name of drug………10
Summary…………………………………………………….…11
Reference…………………………………………………………12

Table of figure
[1]- Figure1:local and systemic autoimmune disease
[2]- Figure2: glycerol metabolism……………………………………5
[3]- Figure3: the position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid…………..7
[4]- Figure4: -oxidation fatty acid……………………………………………10
[5]- Figure5: -oxidation fatty acid…………………………………………..2
[6]- Figure6: Compere between generic name and brand name of drug………2
Table of Table
[1]- Table1: compere between genotype, phenotype………………………12

2
 Inroduction
This problem to talk about Define grading and staging of malignant tumors and List
grading and staging system and Classify autoimmunodisease and List
autoimmunodisease and Describe mechanism gas chromatography and Discuss the
role, mechanism of ADH and role of kidney in water blance and Describe glycerol
metabolism and Define the position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid and List
function of -oxidation fatty acid and List function of -oxidation fatty acid and
Define and compere between genotype, phenotype and Discuss the role of kidney in
the body regulation temperature and Define deffrent names of drugs(generic, brand,
and chemical) and Compere between generic name and brand name of drug and
finally summary.

3
[1]-Define grading and staging of malignant tumors:
The grading of a cancer attempts to establish some estimate of its aggressiveness or
level of malignancy based on the cytologic differentiation of tumor cells and the
number of mitoses within the tumor.
• Staging of cancers is based on the size of the primary lesion, its extent of spread to
regional lymph nodes, and the presence or absence of metastases. This assessment
usually is based on clinical and radiographic examination (computed tomography and
magnetic resonance imaging) and in some cases surgical exploration(1).(DeLong,
2013)

4
[2]- List grading and staging system:

 X: Grade cannot be assessed (undetermined grade)

 G1: Well differentiated (low grade)
 G2: Moderately differentiated (intermediate grade)
 G3: Poorly differentiated (high grade)
 G4: tumors are so anaplastic that even the recognition of their cell of origin
becomes difficult(2).(Tumor-Grade-Fact-Sheet @ Www.Cancer.Gov, n.d.)(11
@ Www.Slideshare.Net, n.d.)

[3]-Classify autoimmuno disease:

A. Localized (Organ-specific) Autoimmune Diseases
The immune response is directed to a target antigen unique to a single organ or gland
in an organ-specific autoimmune disease, so that the manifestations are largely limited
to that organ.
B. Systemic (or Nonorgan-specific) Autoimmune Disease
In systemic autoimmune diseases, the response is directed toward a broad range of
target antigens and meshces a number of organs and tissues(3).(Kumar, 2016)

[4]-List autoimmunodisease:

(4)
.(Kumar, 2016)
Figure1:local and systemic autoimmune disease

5
[5]-Describe mechanism gas chromatography:
There are two types of GC: gas–solid (adsorption) chromatography and gas–liquid
(partition) chromatography. The more important of the two is gas–liquid
chromatography (GLC), used in the form of a capillary column.
Performing GC Separations
In gas chromatography, the sample is converted to the vapor state (if it is not already a
gas) by injection into a heated port, and the eluent is a gas (the carrier gas). The
stationary phase is generally a nonvolatile liquid or a liquid-like phase supported on
or bonded to a capillary wall or inert solid particles such as diatomaceous earth
(kieselguhr—derived from skeletal remains of microscopic marine single-celled
algae, consisting mainly of silica); the kieselguhr is usually calcined to increase
particle size, creating what is known as firebrick, sold as Chromosorb P or W, for
example. There are a large number of liquid phases available, and it is by changing
the liquid phase, rather than the mobile phase, that different separations are
accomplished. The most important factor in gas chromatography is the selection of
the proper column (stationary phase) for the particular separation to be attempted. The
nature of the liquid or solid phase will determine the exchange equilibrium with the
sample components; and this will depend on the solubility or adsorbability of the
analytes, the polarity of the stationary phase and sample molecules, the degree of
hydrogen bonding, and specific chemical interactions. Most separation protocols have
been developed empirically, however, theoretical approaches as well as suitable
software are now available(5).(Harvey, 2000)

[6]-Discuss the role, mechanism of ADH and role of kidney in water

blance:
Osmoreceptor-ADH Feedback System
the basic components of the osmoreceptor-ADH feedback system for control of
extracellular fluid sodium concentration and osmolarity. When osmolarity (plasma
sodium concentration) increases above normal because of water deficit, for example,
this feedback system operates as follows:

6
 1. An increase in extracellular fluid osmolarity (which in practical terms
means an increase in plasma sodium concentration) causes the special
nerve cells called osmoreceptor cells, located in the anterior
hypothalamus near the supraoptic nuclei, to shrink
2. Shrinkage of the osmoreceptor cells causes them to fire, sending nerve
signals to additional nerve cells in the supraoptic nuclei, which then
relay these signals down the stalk of the pituitary gland to the posterior
pituitary.
3. These action potentials conducted to the posterior pituitary stimulate
the release of ADH, which is stored in secretory granules (or vesicles)
in the nerve endings.
4. ADH enters the blood stream and is transported to the kidneys, where
it increases the water permeability of the late distal tubules, cortical
collecting tubules, and medullary collecting ducts.
5. The increased water permeability in the distal nephron segments
causes increased water reabsorption and excretion of a small volume of
concentrated urine.
Thus, water is conserved in the body while sodium and other solutes continue to be
excreted in the urine. This causes dilution of the solutes in the extracellular fluid,
thereby correcting the initial excessively concentrated extracellular fluid.
The opposite sequence of events occurs when the extracellular fluid becomes too
dilute (hypo-osmotic). For example, with excess water ingestion and a decrease in
extracellular fluid osmolarity, less ADH is formed, the renal tubules decrease their
permeability for water, less water is reabsorbed, and a large volume of dilute urine is
formed. This in turn concentrates the body fluids and returns plasma osmolarity
toward normal.
ADH Increases Water Reabsorption. The most important renal action of ADH is to
increase the water permeability of the distal tubule, collecting tubule, and collecting
duct epithelia. This effect helps the body to conserve water in circumstances such as
dehydration. In the absence of ADH, the permeability of the distal tubules and
collecting ducts to water is low, causing the kidneys to excrete large amounts of dilute

7
urine. Thus, the actions of ADH play a key role in controlling the degree of dilution or
concentration of the urine,
ADH binds to specific V2 receptors in the late distal tubules, collecting tubules, and
collecting ducts, increasing the formation of cyclic AMP and activating protein
kinases (Figure 27-18). This, in turn, stimulates the movement of an intracellular
protein, called aquaporin-2 (AQP-2), to the luminal side of the cell membranes. The
molecules of AQP-2 cluster together and fuse with the cell membrane by exocytosis
to form water channels that permit rapid diffusion of water through the cells. There
are other aquaporins, AQP-3 and AQP-4, in the basolateral side of the cell membrane
that provide a path for water to rapidly exit the cells, although these are not believed
to be regulated by ADH. Chronic increases in ADH levels also increase the formation
of AQP-2 protein in the renal tubular cells by stimulating AQP-2 gene transcription.
When the concentration of ADH decreases, the molecules of AQP-2 are shuttled back
to the cell cytoplasm, thereby removing the water channels from the luminal
membrane and reducing water permeability.
Water loss from the body occurs predominantly through the renal system. A person
produces an average of 1.5 liters (1.6 quarts) of urine per day. Although the volume of
urine varies in response to hydration levels, there is a minimum volume of urine
production required for proper bodily functions. The kidney excretes 100 to 1200
milliosmoles of solutes per day to rid the body of a variety of excess salts and other
water-soluble chemical wastes, most notably creatinine, urea, and uric acid. Failure to
produce the minimum volume of urine means that metabolic wastes cannot be
effectively removed from the body, a situation that can impair organ function. The
minimum level of urine production necessary to maintain normal function is about
0.47 liters (0.5 quarts) per day.

The kidneys also must make adjustments in the event of ingestion of too much fluid.
Diuresis, which is the production of urine in excess of normal levels, begins about 30
minutes after drinking a large quantity of fluid. Diuresis reaches a peak after about 1
hour, and normal urine production is reestablished after about 3 hours.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, controls the amount
of water reabsorbed from the collecting ducts and tubules in the kidney. This

8
hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and is delivered to the posterior
pituitary for storage and release .When the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus detect an increase in the concentration of blood plasma, the
hypothalamus signals the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary into
the blood.
ADH has two major effects. It constricts the arterioles in the peripheral circulation,
which reduces the flow of blood to the extremities and thereby increases the blood
supply to the core of the body. ADH also causes the epithelial cells that line the renal
collecting tubules to move water channel proteins, called aquaporins, from the interior
of the cells to the apical surface, where these proteins are inserted into the cell
membrane (Figure 26.2.3). The result is an increase in the water permeability of these
cells and, thus, a large increase in water passage from the urine through the walls of
the collecting tubules, leading to more reabsorption of water into the bloodstream.
When the blood plasma becomes less concentrated and the level of ADH decreases,
aquaporins are removed from collecting tubule cell membranes, and the passage of
water out of urine and into the blood decreases.
A diuretic is a compound that increases urine output and therefore decreases water
conservation by the body. Diuretics are used to treat hypertension, congestive heart
failure, and fluid retention associated with menstruation. Alcohol acts as a diuretic by
inhibiting the release of ADH. Additionally, caffeine, when consumed in high
concentrations, acts as a diuretic(6).(5fcc83ad5b6da85498c365837006ee204498c05f
@ Open.Oregonstate.Education, n.d.)

[7]-Describe glycerol metabolism:

.(9
(7)

@ Chem.Libretexts.Org, n.d.)

9
Figure2: glycerol metabolism

[8]-Define the position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid:

.
(8)

(F48f6a3250832ad3bb40a9fa8b2cc42571872d65 @ Wasatchfitnessacademy.Com,
n.d.)
Figure3: the position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid

[9]-List function of -oxidation fatty acid:

1 ) α- Oxidation is most suited for the oxidation of phytanic acid, produced from
dietary phytol , a constituent of chlorophyll of plants. . Phytanic acid is a significant
constituent of milk lipids and animal fats.
Normally it is metabolized by an initial α- hydroxylation followed by
dehydrogenation and decarboxylation. . Beta oxidation can not occur initially because
of the presence of 3- methyl groups, but it can proceed after decarboxylation.
. The whole reaction produces three molecules of propionyl co A, three molecules of
Acetyl co A, and one molecule of iso butyryl co A.
2. The hydroxy fatty acids produced as intermediates of this pathway like Cerebronic
acid can be used for the synthesis of cerebrosides and sulfatides
3. Odd chain fatty acids produced upon decarboxylation in this pathway, can be used
for the synthesis of sphingolipids and can also undergo beta oxidation to form
propionyl co A and Acetyl co A. The number of acetyl co A depend upon the chain
length. Propionyl co A is converted to Succinyl co A to gain entry in to TCA cycle for
further oxidation.
4. one carbon is lost in the form of CO2 per cycle.(Fatty-Acid-Oxidation-14804682
@ Www.Slideshare.Net, n.d.)

10
  Alpha – oxidation is defined as the oxidation of fatty acid (methyl group
at beta carbon) with the removal of one carbon unit adjacent to the α-
carbon from the carboxylic end.
 The carbon unit is removed in the form of CO2.
 Alpha oxidation occurs in those fatty acids that have a methyl group (-
CH3) at the beta-carbon, which blocks beta oxidation.
 There is no production of ATP(9).
(C1f18bb3e006c7983851eea8993b988d7021fa2f @ Microbenotes.Com,
n.d.)

(C1f18bb3e006c79838
51eea8993b988d7021fa2f @ Microbenotes.Com, n.d.)
Figure4: -oxidation fatty acid

[10]-List function of -oxidation fatty acid:

1. The microsomal (endoplasmic reticulum, ER) pathway of fatty acid ω-

oxidation represents a minor pathway of overall fatty acid oxidation.

2. In certain pathophysiological states, such as diabetes, chronic alcohol

consumption, and starvation, the ω-oxidation pathway may provide an
effective means for the elimination of toxic levels of free fatty acids.

3. Omega oxidation-Minor mechanism, but becomes important in conditions

of impaired beta oxidation.
location of -oxidation
In vertebrates, the enzymes for ω oxidation are located in the smooth
ER of liver and kidney cells, instead of in the mitochondria as with β-oxidation(10).
(Fatty-Acid-Oxidation-14804682 @ Www.Slideshare.Net, n.d.)

11
 (Fatty-
Acid-Oxidation-14804682 @ Www.Slideshare.Net, n.d.)
Figure5: -oxidation fatty acid

[11]-Define and compere between genotype, phenotype:

Genotype Phenotype
Definition The genetic makeup of Detectable expression of the
an individual. Refers to genotype. An expressed and
the information observable trait. E.g. hair
contained on two alleles color.
in the cell.
Examples DNA, susceptibility to Hair color, eye color, weight,
diseases the ability to roll one's
tongue
Depends upon The hereditary Genotype and the influence
information that was of the environment.
given to an individual
by their parents.
Inheritance Partly inherited by Cannot be inherited.
offspring, as one of the
two alleles is passed on

12
 during reproduction.
Contains All the hereditary Expressed genes only.
information of an
individual, even if those
genes are not expressed.
Can be Genotyping – using a Observation of the
determined by biological assay, such individual. (Outside the
as PCR, to find out body)(11).
what genes are on an
allele. (Inside the body)
(Genotype_vs_Phenotype @ Www.Diffen.Com, n.d.)
Table1: compere between genotype, phenotype

[12]-Discuss the role of kidney in the body regulation temperature:

The body tightly regulates the body temperature through a process called
thermoregulation, in which the body can maintain its temperature within certain
boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. The core
temperature of the body remains steady at around 36.5–37.5 °C (or 97.7–99.5 °F). In
the process of ATP production by cells throughout the body, approximately 60
percent of the energy produced is in the form of heat used to maintain body
temperature. Thermoregulation is an example of negative feedback(12).
(F6a8fe38e71d2b31b3543ebd65c4ee4fe223889c @ Opentextbc.Ca, n.d.)

[13]-Define deffrent names of drugs(generic, brand, and chemical):

Chemical name:
The chemical name describes the atomic or molecular structure of the drug. This
name is normally too complex for a general purpose. Therefore, an official body
assigns a generic name to a drug across the globe.
Generic name:
The generic or scientific name of a particular drug is the term given to the active
ingredient in the medicine that is decided by an expert committee and is understood

13
internationally. Groups of brand names that have similar actions often have similar
sounding generic names. Therefore, different brand names share the generic name
called lexical ambiguity. For instance, Tetracyn, Minocin, Minocycline, Achromycin
are brand names belonging to a group of antibiotic tetracycline.
Brand name
The brand name is selected by manufacturer or distributor of the drug. The name is
often chosen to be memorable for advertising, or to be easier to say or spell the
generic name(13).(M & Ganesan, 2016)

[14]-Compere between generic name and brand name of drug:

. (14)

(D972657b141e2e06c3a1d450a6ac1f6d171d470b @ Www.Facebook.Com, n.d.)

Figure6: Compere between generic name and brand name of drug

14
 Summary

I understood Define grading and staging of malignant tumors and List grading and
staging system and Classify autoimmunodisease and List autoimmunodisease and
Describe mechanism gas chromatography and Discuss the role, mechanism of ADH
and role of kidney in water blance and Describe glycerol metabolism and Define the
position -oxidation and -oxidation of fatty acid and List function of -oxidation
fatty acid and List function of -oxidation fatty acid and Define and compere between
genotype, phenotype and Discuss the role of kidney in the body regulation
temperature and Define deffrent names of drugs(generic, brand, and chemical) and
Compere between generic name and brand name of drug and finally summary.

15
Reference11 @ www.slideshare.net. (n.d.).
https://www.slideshare.net/appyakshay/staging-and-grading-of-
tumors/11?fbclid=IwAR1KO-
ow5YZJHWyzyZk5lfs_NOw8uq9_AT_SFOV-
fVUdrJMkU5hjQv4EsuM
5fcc83ad5b6da85498c365837006ee204498c05f @
open.oregonstate.education. (n.d.).
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/26-2-water-balance/
9 @ chem.libretexts.org. (n.d.).
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Brevard_College/CHE_301_Bioc
hemistry/09%3A_Metabolism_of_Lipids/
9.03%3A_Glycerol_Metabolism
c1f18bb3e006c7983851eea8993b988d7021fa2f @ microbenotes.com.
(n.d.). https://microbenotes.com/alpha-oxidation/
d972657b141e2e06c3a1d450a6ac1f6d171d470b @ www.facebook.com.
(n.d.).
https://www.facebook.com/IAmAPharmacist.Edu/posts/difference-
between-generic-and-brand-name-drugs/845172635891271/
DeLong, L. (2013). Basic pathology. In General and Oral Pathology for
the Dental Hygienist (pp. 29–44). https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.47.1.95-
d
f48f6a3250832ad3bb40a9fa8b2cc42571872d65 @
wasatchfitnessacademy.com. (n.d.).

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 https://wasatchfitnessacademy.com/10-week-nutrition-reboot/reboot-
week-7/
f6a8fe38e71d2b31b3543ebd65c4ee4fe223889c @ opentextbc.ca. (n.d.).
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiologyopenstax/chapter/energy
-and-heat-balance/
fatty-acid-oxidation-14804682 @ www.slideshare.net. (n.d.).
https://www.slideshare.net/namarta28/fatty-acid-oxidation-14804682
Genotype_vs_Phenotype @ www.diffen.com. (n.d.).
https://www.diffen.com/difference/Genotype_vs_Phenotype
Harvey, D. (2000). Modern analytical chemistry. McGraw-Hill.
Kumar, S. (2016). Essentials of Microbiology. In Essentials of
Microbiology. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp/books/12697
M, T., & Ganesan, S. P. G. (2016). Discovery of Drug Brand Names from
the Web. International Journal of Advancements in Technology,
07(04). https://doi.org/10.4172/0976-4860.1000170
Tumor-Grade-Fact-Sheet @ Www.Cancer.Gov. (n.d.).
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/prognosis/tu
mor-grade-fact-sheet

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