0 3 4 15

Opcode Address

(a) Instruction format

0 1 15
S Magnitude

(b) Integer format

Program Counter (PC) = Address of instruction

Instruction Register (IR) = Instruction being executed
Accumulator (AC) = Temporary storage

(c) Internal CPU registers

0001 = Load AC from Memory

0010 = Store AC to Memory
0101 = Add to AC from Memory

(d) Partial list of opcodes

Figure 3.4 Characteristics of a Hypothetical Machine

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 Memory CPU Registers Memory CPU Registers
300 1 9 4 0 3 0 0 PC 300 1 9 4 0 3 0 1 PC
301 5 9 4 1 AC 301 5 9 4 1 0 0 0 3 AC
302 2 9 4 1 1 9 4 0 IR 302 2 9 4 1 1 9 4 0 IR
• •
• •
940 0 0 0 3 940 0 0 0 3
941 0 0 0 2 941 0 0 0 2
Step 1 Step 2
Memory CPU Registers Memory CPU Registers
300 1 9 4 0 3 0 1 PC 300 1 9 4 0 3 0 2 PC
301 5 9 4 1 0 0 0 3 AC 301 5 9 4 1 0 0 0 5 AC
302 2 9 4 1 5 9 4 1 IR 302 2 9 4 1 5 9 4 1 IR
• •
• •
940 0 0 0 3 940 0 0 0 3 3+2=5
941 0 0 0 2 941 0 0 0 2
Step 3 Step 4
Memory CPU Registers Memory CPU Registers
300 1 9 4 0 3 0 2 PC 300 1 9 4 0 3 0 3 PC
301 5 9 4 1 0 0 0 5 AC 301 5 9 4 1 0 0 0 5 AC
302 2 9 4 1 2 9 4 1 IR 302 2 9 4 1 2 9 4 1 IR
• •
• •
940 0 0 0 3 940 0 0 0 3
941 0 0 0 2 941 0 0 0 5
Step 5 Step 6

Figure 3.5 Example of Program Execution

(contents of memory and registers in hexadecimal)
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 Instruction Operand Operand
fetch fetch store

Multiple Multiple
operands results

Instruction Instruction Operand Operand

Data
address operation address address
Operation
calculation decoding calculation calculation

Return for string

Instruction complete, or vector data
fetch next instruction

Figure 3.6 Instruction Cycle State Diagram

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Program Generated by some condition that occurs as a result of an instruction
execution, such as arithmetic overflow, division by zero, attempt to
execute an illegal machine instruction, or reference outside a user's
allowed memory space.
Timer Generated by a timer within the processor. This allows the operating
system to perform certain functions on a regular basis.
I/O Generated by an I/O controller, to signal normal completion of an
operation, request service from the processor, or to signal a variety of
error conditions.
Hardware failure Generated by a failure such as power failure or memory parity error.

Table 3.1

Classes of Interrupts

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 User I/O User I/O User I/O
Program Program Program Program Program Program

1 4 1 4 1 4

I/O I/O I/O

Command Command Command
WRITE WRITE WRITE
5
2a
END
2 2

Interrupt Interrupt
2b Handler Handler

WRITE WRITE 5 WRITE 5

END END
3a

3 3

3b

WRITE WRITE WRITE

(a) No interrupts (b) Interrupts; short I/O wait (c) Interrupts; long I/O wait

= interrupt occurs during course of execution of user program

Figure 3.7 Program Flow of Control Without and With Interrupts

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 User Program Interrupt Handler

i
Interrupt
occurs here i+1

Figure 3.8 Transfer of Control via Interrupts

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 Fetch Cycle Execute Cycle Interrupt Cycle

Interrupts
Disabled
Check for
Fetch Next Execute
START Interrupt;
Instruction Instruction Interrupts Process Interrupt
Enabled

HALT

Figure 3.9 Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

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 Time

1 1

4 4
I/O operation
I/O operation;
processor waits 2a concurrent with
processor executing

5 5

2b
2
4
I/O operation
4 3a concurrent with
processor executing
I/O operation;
processor waits 5

5 3b

(b) With interrupts

3

(a) Without interrupts

Figure 3.10 Program Timing: Short I/O Wait

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 Time

1 1

4 4

I/O operation; 2 I/O operation

processor waits concurrent with
processor executing;
then processor
waits
5

5
2
4
4
3 I/O operation
concurrent with
I/O operation; processor executing;
processor waits then processor
waits

5
5

3 (b) With interrupts

(a) Without interrupts

Figure 3.11 Program Timing: Long I/O Wait

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 Instruction Operand Operand
fetch fetch store

Multiple Multiple
operands results

Instruction Instruction Operand Operand

Data Interrupt
address operation address address Interrupt
Operation check
calculation decoding calculation calculation

No
Instruction complete, Return for string interrupt
fetch next instruction or vector data

Figure 3.12 Instruction Cycle State Diagram, With Interrupts

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