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062 Rice LocalPlasDef IUTAM76
062 Rice LocalPlasDef IUTAM76
James R. Rice
Division of Engineering
Brown University
Providence~ Rhode Island t U.S.A.
207
208 J.R. RICE
when cleavage is precluded, such materials fail highly localized deformation within which voids
by the nucleation of holes from the brittle are indeed coalescing. But conditions are high-
cracking or decohering of inclusions, with sub- ly nonuniform across their specimens and it is
sequent plastic growth to coalescence of the difficult to determine whether a Berg-like lo-
cavities thus created. Cox and Low [9] show in calization, due to softening through porosity
their fig. 16a a magnified section of a plasti- increase, has occurred or whether localization
cally deformed high-strength AISI-4340 steel of plastic flow has caused the extensive void
near its point of rupture. Cavities have formed growth. Certainly, the final rupture surface is
around some brittle inclusions and have enlarged made up of a "void sheet", but this alone is not
with the plastic deformation. One might then indicative of the process leading to it.
assume that rupture will entail the large plas-
tic growth of these holes until the remaining Further examples of localization instabilities
ligaments between them neck to zero thickness, are provided by the formation of narrow necked
for many such cases have been observed (e.g., zones in ductile metal sheets deformed, at least
McClintock [10]). But instead the hole growth prior to localization, in plane stress. Judged
process in the Cox and Low specimen has been as 3-D problems, these are distinctly different
terminated by the formation of a band of local- from the other cases cited and involve "geomet-
ized shearing extending between the largecavi- ric" as opposed to "material" instability. How-
ties. Hithin the band. a number of very much ever, to the extent that such ductile sheets are
smaller cavities have formed and grown toward modelled as 2-D continua, the problem of local-
coalescence. One cannot say whether these small- ization may be treated through identical mathe~
er rupture cavities first began to form, and matical steps and is well considered within the
this led to localization, or whether t~e plastic same general framework.
flow first localized and nucleated the small
cavities. But certainly, there is no detectable Geological materials are rich also in examples
evidence of the nucleation of the smaller cavi- of localization. For slope stability failures
ties at points outside the shear band. of overconsolidated clays and clay shales, it is
a common observation that deformations concen-
IndeeQ, such localizations seem to be crucial in trate in a narrow shear zone, perhaps only a few
setting the limits to achievable -fracture duc- mm across, on which large downslope mass move-
tility. For·example, in sharply pre-cracked ments take place. Laboratory deformation of
ductile solids, the onset of crack growth is ex- such clays reveal a corresponding concentration
pected to occur when the crack has been suffi- of deformation (e.g., Hvorslev [18]. fig. 28),
ciently·opened at its tip so that the zone of which seems to fit the concept of bifurcation
large plastic strain extends over an adequate into a localized mode. Field occurrences may,
size, by comparison to the spacings of void nu- however, involve strongly non-uniform conditions
cleation sites, to grow a representative void to with a crack-like mechanism for propagation of
coalescence with the crack tip (Rice and Johnson the shear band (Palmer and Rice [19]) after its
[11]). In studies by Green and Knott [12] on initiation at a site of local strain concentra-
steels and Hahn and Rosenfield [13] on aluminum tion. Rowe [20] shows localizations within sand
alloys, it is shown that the predictiQns of such sp~cimens (his figs. l5b,c), deformed in the
a model are often well followed experimentally, tftriaxial" apparatus under axially' symmetric
but that there are also cases in which the frac- compression. The effect of end conditions is
ture ductility is strikingly less than predicted; evident in that an arrangement intended to. pro-
these cases seem to involv~ the termination of vide shear-free ends of the specimen leads to a
the hole-joining process by strong localizations significantly larger strain at localization than
of the type revealed by Cox and Low. for an, effectively, fixed end-piece specimen.
Also, it is evident' that there is no necessary
At a more macroscopic level, Tanaka and Spretnak association of localization with the "ideally
[14] subjected round bars of a high strength plastic ll state, for the localizations occur when
steel to large torsional strains and observed the material is well beyond that state and in
localizations which, they suggest. corresponded the strain-softening range (significantly nega-
to the achievement ot" an "ideally plastic" state tive slope of the load~deformation diagram). In~
of stationary shear stress with ongoing deforma- deed the tensile fracture tests on metal speci-
tion. Also, Berg [15J suggests the possibility mens by Bluhm and Morrissey [17] were done in a
of macroscopic localization in void-containing stiff testing apparatus so that a strongly nega-
ductile materials, when the hardening of the tive load-deformation slope could be accommodated
solid matrix surrounding the voids, in an incre- without instability, and these suggest too that
ment of deformation, is outweighed by the soft- a strain-softening state (in terms of true
ening due to porosity increase through incremen- stress) may well have prevailed, at the onset of
tal void growth. The range of situations to macroscopic rupture through hole coalescence at
which this model applies remains uncertain. the center of.the necked region.
Studies of ductile rupture-in-progress in the
necks of Cu tensile specimens, nominally said to Finally, natural rock specimens tested under
fail through void growth and coalescence, by compressive principal stresses also show exam-
Rogers [16] (his figs. 6,7,8,10) and Bluhm and ples of localization, usually referred to as
Morrissey [17] (their fig. 42) reveal zones of "faulting lt • Wawersik and Brace [21] study the
THE LOCALIZATION OF PLASTIC DEFO~tATION 209
post-"failure Tl behavior of specimens through a centration and thereby traverses the material at
stiff testing apparatus, with provision for rap1d nominal deformation ~onditions that are well re~
unloading, and show (e.g., their plates 4a,b for moved from those ·for localization. This is, of
a Frederick diabase) examples of localization. course, the way in which a Griffith flaw can
Here the inelastic deformation arises from fric-:- cause a crack to traverse a
body at average
tional sliding on closed microcracks' and pro~ stresses that are well below the strength level
sive enlargement of the microcrack network for an unflawed solid (although stresses at or
through local fissuring; the final macroscopic near that level would be achieved locally at the
fault links a large number of such microcracks, propagating crack tip).
~lthough their individual directions of growth
do not coincid~ with that of the final fault. Such cra~k-like propagation processes do not in-
This case, like that of granular materials, is validate the present approach to -localization,
interesting because the Coulomb frictional na- but do require that it be generalized, in a way
ture of the yieiding means that plastic normality that is not yet fully clear, to encompass the
will not apply (Mandel[4]) and this has interest- highly non-uniform conditions prevailing near
ing consequences ·for localization instabilities. the tip of the crack-like zone. An elementary
approach is to assume that once local deforma-
1.2. Mechanisms of localization tions reach conditions for localization, the con-
_The work to follow explores a particular ap- stitutive relations for continuum~like deforma-
proach to explanation of the localization of de- tion are suspended in favor of a relation between
formation, viewing the process as an instability tractions and relative displacements of the sur-
that can be predicted in terms of the pre-local- faces of the zone of localization (presumed thi~.
ization constitutive relations of the material. This approach is embodied in the Palmer and Rice
The material is modelled as rate-independent and [19] model for shear band propagation in overcon-
critical conditions are sought at which its con- soli dated clay soils: for very small initial
stitutive relations allow a bifurcation from ho- flaws (or faults) the strength as so predicted
mogeneous or smoothly varying deformation into a approaches that for the unflawed body, whereas
highly concentrated shear band mode, or, perhaps for large flaws the response tends to become in~
in'stead, at which the accelerated growth, with dependent of the strength for the unflawed body,
ongoing deformation, of some initially small and is expressible instead in terms of flaw size
non-uniformity of material properties can occur and parameters of the tractionvs. separation-
in such a manner that the same sort of shear displacement relation (specifically~ in terms of
band is the end result. the net work of separation) for the localized
material.
Of course, not all localization phenomena can be
expected to fit this concept. An alternative Clearly, the mere observation that a zone of lo-
hypothesis would be that some essentially new calized deformation exists within a deformed
physical deformation mechanism comes into play, solid is an inadequate basis for choosing which,
abruptly, and rapidly degrades the strength of if any, of the various mechanisms discussed is
the material. In such cases the pre-localiza- correct for its explanation.
tion constitutive relations cannot be continued
analytically at the critical point, and they 2. GENERAL THEORY
provide no basis for prediction of localization.
Indeed, to .the extent that upper yield points vleconsider deformations which carry points ~
arise from the sudden breaking free of disloca- of some reference state to positions x, where
tions from pinning obstacles, with only lightly both ~ and ~ are coordinate sets (;.g., Xl,
impeded subsequent gliding, the Luders band case X2'X 3 ) referred to a fixed Cartesian frame. The
must be considered as one which is dominated by deformation gradient tensor is r = a~/a~ and
onset of some new mechanism, and thus the bifur- stress is measured by the nominal stress tensor
cation approach, explored here, does not apply to s , defined so that nos is the force acting,
it. (It is, however, curious that use ofa more per unit reference ar;a: on an element of sur..;.
sophisticated rate-dependent plastic flow theory face having normal vector n in the reference
would return this case to one for which localiza- state. It satisfies
tion could be understood in terms of con~tutive
relations, although the details of the analysis s ••• + f.
1J ,1 J
= a (s •• k ::
1J ,
as 1J-1<
. .lax. )
would be very different from what is to follow.)
at equilibrium, where f is the external force
density based on the reference state. vfuen
Further, the approach to be explored here, being
needed, the true (or Gauchy) stress is denote4
essentially a bifurcation approach, envisions a
.by a ; the measures are related by
process of simultaneous or nearly simultaneous
occurrence of concentrated deformation at all 2 deter) = r'~ .
points of the (ultimate) zone of localization. While a full analysis of rate effects on local-
But in contrast, there may be situations that
ization is well worth stUdy, the theory is not
are dominated by some strong local inhomogeneity,
yet well developed in that context and here we
which concentrates deformation in its vicinity
consider rate-independent~ thermally decoupled
and causes the initiation of a localized zone
(or else completely adiabatic) constitutive mod-
which, subsequently, creates its own strain con-
21.0 ·J.R. RICE
c-ussed. Its occurrence would~ in any- event, in- driven to the localization condition well before
validate (10) which assumes that-response remains the moduli of the outer field would allow local-
in a given constitutive cone. Indeed, in the ization.This approach merits wider study fora
general case, it i~ the presence of some imposed variety of-constitutive-relations. The critical
deformation like [0 which validates a particu- conditions, phrased in terms of ~ , are the same
lar response cone for small perturbations from as for-the bifurcation problem as worked out in
it, and then the stress at any instant is, in section 3, but one must additionally determine,
general, not only a function of dU/aX at the through solving (12) for the program of imposed
current instant, but also a functi~nai of prior deformation, the relation of the field in the
a!!/a~ value$. non-uniform zone to the nominal (or outer) de-
formation field.
2.3. Response with initial imperfections
The .last topic opens the subject of analysis of 2.4. Limiting nature of the localization insta-
localizations in presence of initial imperfec- bility
tions and, as suggested, the response is neces- Experimentally, other types of bifurcation or
sarily of an hereditary character in prior non- deformation non-uniformities (e.g., necking,
uniformities of aj!/d~. Most of the analysis bulging, buckling) can precede localization, but
done for localization with imperfections has the latter seems to be the limiting mode. This
been directed to sheet materials, where the in- is suggested by specific calculations [30,31]
stability corresponds to localized necking. and some understanding is obtained by following
Hadamardls [lJ example, extended by Hill (3], of
It is well known that when such problems are an- a solid deformed homogeneously by imposition of
alyzed with a smooth-yield~surface rigid-plastic displacement boundary conditions at all points
model, localization is predicted never to occur of its surfaee (so as to rule out Ugeornetricll
ina sheet deformed under conditions for which modes). Let S be the surface and V the vol-
both principal stretch rates are positive. Ex- ume of the body (both in the reference configur-
periments suggest otherwise, and Marciniak and ation), and let i:: to. ~ on S s_o that one
Kuczynski [28] showed that localization could be solution of the quasi-static field.-equatiQns
explained by assuming that a long rectangular (without body force) is that ~:: [o.~ in V.
slice of the sheet had properties slightly dif-
ferent from the material outside. Other explana- Fqr any other solution x meeting the same con-
- tions, based on vertex-like yield behavior [29] ditions on S, let Ax; x-
FOoX and observe
seem to be at least as suitable in explaining that this vanishes on ~S .- Ac~ordingly,
quantitatively the experimental results. but the
point- is that in this case imperfections lead to
localization at a finite strain whereas the per-
o :: f Sn.As •. Ax.dS
1 1J J
:: JAs 1J•• AFJ1•• dV
V
fect sheet could never localize. Needleman [30] since "Asi' i :: 0 , and thus if it is assumed
has recently completed a comparative study of that both ffie uniform and non-uniform field cor-
various imperfection approaches and of vertex respond to the same constitutive cone, a suffi-
effects for localized (and other) necking modes cient condition for uniqueness (I.e., the absence
in a Ifsheet" in the form of a pressurized spher- ~non-uniform solution) is, as in Hill [3],
ical membrane. that the functional
The MK approach [28J can be recast in our gener- I[A~J - ·fAX . . L. 'kllAX. odV
V J,1 1J IV f<,.ov (13)
al framework. Suppost that a thin slice of ma-
terial ,of parallel surfaces having normal n be positive definite for all fields A~ vanish-
in the reference state, has initial properties ing on S.
differing, perhaps only slightly, from the mate-
ial outside it. If F,s refer to the material In the restricted case for which the symmetry {4}
within the slice and NFO,so to that outside, applies (i.e., for elastic-plastic materials
then the kinem~tic~l r~lation (l~l applies~ with normality), the equations of continuing
where now g 1S s1mply to be Wl'1tten as - q and equilibrium validate Hillis variational statemax
q is the deformation non-uniformity accumulated oI[AiJ = 0 , and hence the first point in a pro-
up t~ the present ~nstant, ~::. to .,. :in. Eq. (2) 1 gram of deformation at which I[6x] becomes
app11es also,_ and 1£ ~ and ~o repr_esent the semi-definite is also the point at which, at
(finitely different.) incremental moduli inside least formally, conditions ape met for existence
and outside the slice, then an equation identical of a non-uniform solution field. In this sense
to (5) applies for growth of q: the Hill criterion is necessary as well, but
there is no reason for coincidence of the fail-
:: (12) ure of his sufficient condition and the exis-
tence of a non-uniform solution when L corres-
In this LO is a functional only of the imposed ponds to non-normality. . '"
outer field FO ,whereas L is a functional of
q as well. The localizati~n condition is that The connection with the condition for localiza-
det(nLn) :: 0 t and the relevance of the calcula- tion can be developed through the procedure of
tion is that for small but finite initial non- Van Hove [32]. By extending any field A~ to
unlformities, the field within the slice can be the exterior of V as 0, the Fourier represen-
THE LOCALIZATION OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION 213
_00
Equation (14) corresponds to the rigid-plastic
model as classically understood, with a smooth
can be employed and thu~
yield surface and plastic potential (i.e., ~ and
I[6*J oc f-aoA:(K.L.'k~Kn)Akd3K 9 independent of the direction of As will 2)..
"" J ~~) k k . ,.. be seen, it is too simple a model for our presax
purposes, but localization conditions can be gi~
where the *
denotes complex conjugate. Hence, en for it in general terms and the results are
if L has the symmetry (4), I[6~] will be pos~ suggestive of the response of more realistic mod-
tive"'definite so long as the 3)(3 matrix KLK els.
is positiv'e definite. Thus, if the localization
condition det(nLn) = 0 has not been met ·for When !: = 9 in (14) we say that plastic normal-
any orientation. B in .th.e progr~m. of <iefoJ'mp.~ ityapplie~ •., In fact (14) .. isform, invarIant. un,..
tion up to the current instant, the displacement der changes to other objective stress rate mea-
b.v.p. has only the homogeneous solution. Con- sures based on a reference state that is coinci-
versely, if the localization condition has been den~ instantaneously with the ourrent state. Any
met and exceeded by any finite amount, in the such measure, say g*, relates to Q by an ex-
sense that nLn is indefinite for some range of pression of the form (Hill [33]) ,
orientations, then it is elementary to construct
a field such that I[6~] is negative [1,3], im· *
r1 ••
~J
=
v
C1 ••
~J
+ Lijk1Dkf. ,
plying that a bifurcation point has been passed.
Such fields 6~ are constructed through multi- where the components of 1: are linear in compo-
plying a smooth function vanishing on S by an-
other function which generates gradients of the
nents of 2
forms to
.
Thus one m;y show that (14) trans-
-principal directions and being symmetricalrela- amp~es incorporating these will be taken up
tive to these directions. Let a;Bindex compo- later.
nents of tensors relative to two cartesian axes
lying in the plane of the band. Then, e.g., (16) The conditions (1) and (2), implemented with the
requires Pa6 = o· ,. and· because of the restric- current state taken as reference state, require
tion (15)2' Qij80i"j= Qa~8aOla. Thus writing g=All, that for localization on a plane of normal n,
we have 1 .. ' ,.. '" a non-trivial solution ~ exists to ~
. A{h.T 2 Qk!(llknr - nkl!r)or~
o= (~·e·~)·~ - hTg~~:E (~e~:E)(9:~*~)·g T ~-~ ,
.~ 0kr{llrn 9,. - nrll~)]J = Qaa80 aB (17) (21)
I
If holds, Qa 8 = P~a = 0 and a non-
normali~y
where ~ =2 [-~{E·£) T (~·£-E)! T (B-g)B - £J
zer~ s~lut10n for A (or g) can exist only when
the bracketed term vanishes. This gives the '
and (1) 1.)
N
•. = 6··
1)
•
critical hardening rate· h for localization.
Wri:ting g =!: and 'using-(16) for the latter, Nbw, unless the elastic moduli ~ themselves
allow localization n*E*n (considered as a 3x3
the result may be rearranged to the compact form
matrix) has an inver;e: ;hich will be denoted by
I 2 . (ll*li'en,,-l. Indeed, if the incremental elastic
cr1t = -2 l}.ll
.h •
~
(0 ll}.l - nn
(18) ° ) response is isotropic, § 'is such that
where the stresses are the respective normal
stresses in the directions of II and n. When EijktEkt = A 61J
•. E
kk
T 2G E ••
1)
the principal axes of deformati~n(i.e.: of P)
where A and G are the Lame moduli, and
coincide with those of £. we have, since }.I~
and· B lie along lines making equal angles~with
(ATG):,:~ T GI
the principal axes, 0}.ll! = 0nn and thus
hcrit = 0 (19)
On the other hand, when normality does not apply, Thus (21) can be rewritten as
it is possible (but not required) that some of 1
Beg (22)
g = --a (beg) T where
the components QaB are non-zero. In that case, '"
-v
" 'V
~ ", ",
a = E:D - hTg:f:E
1 E'P (Q'E'D) - Q-g g.~ • This last result has a simple interpretation.
~ ~ ~ ~.~ ~.~.~ -, ,- T --,- The term on the left is the incremental traction
vector that would be created on the surface of
This form covers a very general class of materi-
als, but it is important to realize that vertex- normal E if the material responded elastically
l~ke·yielding effects are not yet included. Ex- to an incremental deformation in the form of the
bifurcation, namely. 2~ = 9g T g~. That on the -v h
THE LOCALIZATION OF PLASTIC DEFOR~~TION 215
right-is the vector created in the same way by a for the "stress-differential effect" [34], by
"deformation increment in the form of the plastic which the yield stress levels of certain high-
field! namely E« g . - The two vectors must be strength steels are higher in compression than
co-axl.al.- in tension. The parameter -8 gives the ratio
of plastic dilation to plastic shear. If 8 :: ~ ,
-For an elastically isotropic material, the above normality applies. But representative val~es
results take the form for geological materials [22] suggest that 8
is usually less than p (representative values
h/G =4 n-P-Q-n - 2(n-P·n)(n-Q-n) - 2 P:Q for fissured rocks are 8::.1 to .5,
p = .3 to 1.0). Also, measurement of plastic
("loT IItJ ....... '-J ~V ,..., "~,J _ ~ rv- .-'\,0 ~,..
-[2A/(A+2G)][(n-P-n)-tr(P)][(n-Q-n)-tr(Q)]
~_fV ,...,.-- ....., ..... ,
volume change in the strength-differential ex-
periments [34] suggests, as expected, that 8
is negligible by comparison to p and can be
taken as zero. Hence, in neither of the cases
cited does normality apply precil?ely. The param-
These formulae are useful for the models devel-
eter h is the rate of-plastic hardening ob-
oped in the next two sections. That for h has
served in a pure shear test, e.g. 2h nP - = i
a simple form when written with a,8 denoting
components on cartesian axes in the plane of lo-
~or an element subjected to a state of n9drostat-
calization:
1C stress plus a pure shear stress a
• h'"
= 012 =T •
12'
W1.t 0kk = 0 •
h/G = 2 Pa8 Qa8 - 2APaaQ8S/(A+2G} • The present model has an interpretation also for
void-containing plastic materials undergoing duc-
From this it is clear that when normality holds tile rupture. The porosity increase through void
(Le"., P = Q), the value of h at localization growth requires B > 0 and, as Berg [15] re-
can never be positive, at "least when the rota-
marks, if the material of the solid matrix is
tional effects in the stress rate are neglected.
modelled locally by continuum plasticity of a
kind for ~hich the normality rule holds, then the
To incorporate these effects, i.e. to use g
rule app11es to the aggregate also and thus ~=8.
rathe~ than £ in (20), we must r~turn to the
Gurson [35] gives specific forms ,for 8 and u
general case, represented concisely by (20), and
based on a rigid-plastic model of a voided mate-
solve the problem for ~ 1 o. Remembering that rial, ana re~rks that the inclusion-in the con-
~ has components that are small compared to stitutive relations of a hydrostatic stress de-
unity in practical cases (order stress divided pendent criterion for void nucleation (say, by
by elastic modulus), we may assume the inverse
the brittle-cracking or decohering of inclusions)
<!_]}-l exists and, if so desired, represent it
leads to deviations from normality with u > 8 •
to any desired order in the series
_(!_~)-l Let us first analyze the material described by
(26) according to the rigid-plastic model. In
that case localization is possible only if the
In terms of it the solution for A {and thus,
intermediate principal value of f -vanishes,
from (22)4' for h) is i.e. if
A = !z. (l.-!P -1 -~ [~ a: (I-B)
'" "..
-1
°a]
..... ail = - (28/3) T ,
3.3. Plasticaliydi1atant material with pressure-
sensitive yielding and then localiz~tion is possible no matter how
large or small the value of h if 8 1 u ,
Rudnicki and Rice [22] derived conditions for
whereas localization is possible only when h= 0
localization in a material which was assumed to
if B:: p . Rudnicki and Rice [22] obtained di-
exhibit an _i~o_tropic elastic" response and to rectly the result corresponding to (25) for the
have, in the present notation for plastic re- elastic-plastic model and, searching out the
sponse,
plane which first allows localization (that cor-
P •.
1J
= (i:1J./21 + (8/3) 6 •.
1J
responding to the maximum h over all orienta-
tions n), they showed that provided u and B
(26)
I ~re not too large (see p. 384 of [22]), the crit-
Qij
::: O•
1.J
./21: + (p/3) o" 1)
•. l.cal value is
Of
where 2T2 = £I:~I and 2' is the deviatoric :: l+v 2l+v II ~+8 2 1:
h . /G 9(l_v){U-B) - 2 ( - 1 - + -3-) + O(G')
part of 2. If ~ = B = 0 , this coincides cr1.t
with the classical Prandtl-Reuss material. If is the elastic Poisson ratio. (27)
Here v
~ # 0 , the model can also represent a material
for which there is a "frictional lt effect in
The result i~ interesting in several respects.
yielding: ~ is the rate of increase with pres-
First note that to neglect of terms of O(T/G) ,
:sure of the "equivalent shear stress" 1" re-
quired for yield. This kind of effect is pres-
arising from the distinction between ~ and a
localization can never occur with positive h '
in fissured rock masses and in granular materi-
if normality applies (i.e., if U = 8). On the
als under compression. It seems also to account
other hand, if normality does not apply, it is
216 J.R. RICE
possible for localization to occur with positive stacking faults, so as to make the local change
h ~ depending on the value of GrI/T •. Indeed t of slip plane possible. For effects of numeric~
replacing this quantity in favor of FIr (recall 1y comparable size, that due to the resolved
that according to the rigid-plastic model, lo- stress on the cross-slip plane is by far the mo~
calization can occur only when Plr = 0) , the important for localization (it corresponds to
critical condition is nOD-zero OaB in (17», and hence for simplicity
we rewrite the plastic constitutive relation to
include only this effect:
Several numerical tabulations of these results where X = 4(A+G)/(A+2G) and where, in the last
are given in [22J, in which it is also pointed form" is the angle between n and the x 2
out that vertex-like yield effects have a strong axis and 8 is the angle made with the Xl axis
influence on the predicted conditions for local- by the projection of n .onto the x1 ,x3 plane;
ization (see section 3.5 to follow). e increases hy n/2 in a rotation From the Xl
to x3 direction. rf ~ is small as expected,
3.1.j.. Localization in a single crystal s6 also will be the deviation of 4> for the most
Consider.a ductile single crystal undergoing critical plane from zero. Thus, expanding the
pla!;>tic flow by slip on a single system of planes result to quadratic order in ,
having normal in the x 2 direction and slip di- 2
h/G ~ ,~sine - ,2(sin e + X cos e) •
2
rection in the Xl direction. For brevity, we
analyze the problem by neglecting the distinction
between 2 and Q and otherwise neglecting This is easily shown to take on its maximum val-
terms of order stress divided by elastic modulus; ue when a = n/2 and 4> = ~/2 , corresponding
. a full analysis is to be presented in the near to
future by the author in collaboration with R. J. 2
Asaro. If the Schmid law of resolved shear hcrit ~ ~ G/4 (30)
stress governing slip is followed, the plastic
response is given by This shows again the destabilizing influence of
deviations from normality. A value of ~ on
= the order of 1/10 would give localization ac-
cording to (30) at what would have to be judged
where h is the hardening rate. This law cor- as a significantly strain-hardening state~
responds to r = 2. , hence ··normality ~ with
P12 = P21 = 1/2 and all other P •. = O. A As remarked earlier, it remains an open question
non-deforming surface always exist~ in this case for many dUct·ile metals as to whether the pre-
(namely the x ,x 3 plane) so that when studied as sent ucoarse.slipH type of localization serves.
1
a rigid-plast~c problem, the critical condition· to concentrate strain and lead to the nucleation
is h = o. Sometimes this fits the experimentll and growth to coalescence of voids in fracture,
facts at onset of coarsened slip (Jackson and or whether it is instead the incipient nuclea-
Basinski [8]). However, it is interesting for tion and growth of voids which leads to a local-
other cases to study sources of deviations from ization, as described in the previous section.
Schmid's law, because the corresponding non-nor-
mality can be destabilizing. 3.5. Yield v~rtex effects
When the plastic portion of the pre-localized
One of the most promising candidates is cross deformation rate field contains no non-deforming
slip. When screw segments of dislocations sur- plane, the criterion for localization is con-
mount local obstacles by this mode of slip the trolled by those constitutive parameters which
incremental plastic deformation shquld depend mark the stiffness of response to abrupt, though
not only on the increment of 012 , but also of perhaps small, changes in the Hdirection H of the
the stress resolved onto the cross~slip plane deformation rate. These changes correspond to
and of that which serves to coalesce dislocation the superposition of the localized shear band
THE LOCALIZATION OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION 217
mode on the given homogeneous field. Forttsmooth and hI can be identified as the secant modulus
yield surface and plastic potential" models, the to the stress-strain relation in shear (see [27]
relevant response moduli a~e of the same order for a comparison\with response moduli of "incre-
as elastic moduli, since superposed deformation mental" models). In any event, one may assume
increments that are ~thogonal·to the plastic that hI > h •
flow direction f induce only an elastic re-
sponse. This feature is at root of the strongly By applying the theory of section 3.1 to the re-
negative values predicted for h in (28) when lation (31), we see that in the absence of a
f departs greatly from conditions for existence vertex effect (hI =~) localization can occur
of a non-deforming plane. only if Oil = 0 and then, since (31) as written
invol'ves plastic normality, -only when the tangent
However, physical models of rate-insensitive modulus h = O. To see how the vertex effect
plastic flow based on microstructural slip, modifies these results, first invert (31) to
either of a Schmid (metal plasticity) or fric-
tional (geOlogic materials) type, lead universal- 2 = 01 + g-£ - g-g + 2hl~ - (hl-h)g' (2 :!2) /T 2
t
(32)
ly to the prediction of vertex development at the
current stress point on ftzero-offset" yield and where a = tr(o)/3. Now, since the material is
plastic potential surfaces [22,24,26,27]. Such incompressible~the bifurcation vector g of (1)
models entail a considerably softer elastic-pl~ must take the form gm l-lhere m is a unit vec-
tic response to small superposed deformation in- tor perpendicular to-~n , i.e. lying in the plane
crements, orthogonal to the prevailing plastic of localization. We take the reference state as
flow direction (see, e.g., fig. 2 of Hutchinson coincident instantaneously with the current stat~
[27] for crystalline slip), and this has a operate with n in (32), and dot with ~ to
strong, generally destabilizing effect on pre- obtain
dicted conditions for localization.
= nno+g{-
- .
.!m.o-!{n-o.m)n+!(n.o-n)m
2'" '" 2 '" ~ "" ~ 2,-v,., '" ",
The matter has been studied at length by Rudnicki
and Rice [22], who add vertex effects to the con- + h m - (h -h)(n~ot)(n.o'.m)/T2}
1- 1 ~ - - ~ N
s~itutive model of section 3.3 and demonstrate
both separate and combined destabilizing effects By dotting this equation successively with unit
that arise from vertex yielding and nqn-normal- vectors m and ~ , the latter being perpendic-
ity. Also, St¢ren and Rice (29] show that a ular to' nand m and hence also in the plane
vertex yield model leads to predictions of 10- of locali~ation, we obtain two simultaneous con-
calized'necking in thin sheets, under positive ditions for the existence of a non-zero bifurca-
in:"'plane principal extensions, at conditions tion amplitude g. These are
that compare favorably with experimental results 2 2
whereas, in the same circumstances, the smooth- (onn- omm)/2 + hI - (hl-h)omn/ T o (33)
yield-surface rigid plastic model (without im-
perfections [28]) predicts unlimited ductility. °
a mz /2 + (hl-h)onz mn /T2 = o (34)
For brevity we consider here only the non-dila- where there is no summation implied and indices
tant, pressure-insensitive version of the vertex denote components of ~ on the axes n,~,~.
constitutive relation studied in [22], first
speciali~ing it as in [29] to a rigid-plastic We may view (33) as an equation giving the crit-
model. The relation is ical value of h for a given hI' ~,and n ,
1 t 1 v - 0'-)
t and view (34) as a constraint on the correspond-
2 H- -h a'
~ T
- + -h (a'
~ T
(3l) ing direction m. The most critical plane n,
for a given hl~ and ~,is that which maxim~s
N
where 2T2 = ~I:~t and or is the deviatoric the correspond1ng h value since, for applica-
stresS. The' relation is 'intended to model re- tions, h is generally a non-increasing function
sponse on deformation paths that differ only of the amount of deformation imposed on the mate-
modestly from fixed-principal-axis deformation rial.
with £' « ~'. When deformations comply pre- By setting the variation oh = 0 for 0E infue
cisely with this, the last term of (31) vanishes direction of z, one finds that (34) as well as
and we are left only with the first, correspond- the equation
ing to classical Mises rigid-plastic response at
2
a hardening modulus h (in shear), with a nz /2 - (hl-h}o
. mz 0 mn /T = o
£ = 9 = £1/2T. The second term of (31) repre-
sents the vertex yield effect, and hI is the must be satisfied simultaneously. This can be
modulus of vertex response (defined analogously do~eonly if the ~ direction is principal,
to an elastic shear modulus) for small super- 0nz = 0mz = O. That is, Band ID must lie in
posed rates d' that are not coaxial with a' . a plane formed by two of the principal direc-
To the extent-that approximately path-indepe~d6tt tions. Next, setting oh = 0 when on is in
relations between suitably defined stress and de- the direction of m, and recognizing that the
formation measures [29'1 result for such only associated om ha; direction -B, one obtains
moderately non-proportional deformation paths,
2
the "deformation theory" of plasticity applies 20 mn + 2(hl-h)omn(onn-omm)/T = 0 (35)
> 218 J .R. RICE
Assuming that the criticaL plane does not corres- For the corresponding elastic-plastic material
pond to one of vanishing shear stress the criti~ with a yield verte~but treated as elastically
cal orientation is that for which impressible as well, one need only add a term
giG to the right side of (3l), where G is the
(0
mm
-0
nn
)/T = (36) shear modulus, and then the same analysis as giv-
en here applies provided that the replacements
and it can be shown that a plane exists meeting
this condition if h -+ hG/{G+h) ,
T ~ 2(hl_h)(1_3012/4~2)lf2
zz
(37) are made in all formulae. In particular, when
the critical condition analogous to (38) is
Thus, observing that solved for h, and the result expanded to the
order of terms as in (42), one obtains
T2 = £~gY2 = (Omm-Onn)2/4 + O~n + 30~;/4 , = hlG { u + (l-u+u2 )hl +(I-u)G
and using (36), one may substitute into (33) to hcrit hl+{I-u)G - hI + (l-u)G
obtain the critical condition (h l +G)2 T2 + ••. }
o • (38) 4 h2 G2
1
Retention of only the first term in the brackets
H~ncet to summarize, the critical condition is
given by (38) where ~ is one of the principal
namely -u, corresponds to writing a
for g ,
in the constitutive relation and thenNthe res~lt
directions, provided that the associated critical
may be compared with (27), setting ~ = a = 0
condition allows the inequality (37) to be satis- and v = 1/2 in the latter. Evidently, when the
fied. It is easy to show that ~ must be chosen
vertex modulus hI is ~uch less than the elastic
as the intermediate principal direction (denoted
shear modulus, the critical lfhardening U modulus
by II) to give the maximum of possible solutions
for localization at states other than pline
for h. " ·and it is convenient at this point to strain is considerably less negative than would
introduce the dimensionless stress state para-
be th; case in absence of a vertex (hI = ~) .
meter Numerl.cal results and comparisons are given by
ryhdnicki and Rice [22].
u = (39)
For example, in axi-symmetric extension or com-
noting that u = 0 for pure shear and that u
pression, u = 1/4 and the result is
takes on its maximum value, 1/4 , for axi-symme-
tric extension or compression. .hlG
= 4h +3G
The condition (38) can then be written l
2 when both T/G and Tlh l are small compared to
T = (40)
un~ty •• With hllG in the range .1 to .01
whl.ch ml.ght be regarded as representative for
and this is the critical condition provided the
heavily deformed metals based on a secant modulUs
inequality (37) is met. That inequality can now
interpretation, this formula gives critical hlG
be r~arranged to the requirement that the rate
values of -.03 to -.003 (compared to -.25
of hardening satisfies
when vertex effects are neglected). Strain soft-
(4l) ening effects of this magnitUde might well result
in the necked regions of some ductile metal ten-
sile specimens prior to fracture [l6,17], with
which does not seem restrictive in terms of the
.physical interpretation of h • Equation (40) the ~oftening resulting from progressive cavita-
reduces to that given by Hililand Hutchinson [3D tion at inclusions. Of course, imperfection ef-
fects could also be very important in such cases,
for states of plane strain, u = 0 , and this
state allows localization at a smaller equivalent as could the sources of non-normality discussed
stress T than does any other. earlier.
4. CONCLUSION
If Tfhl is regarded as a small parameter, (38)
may be solved for the critical hardening modulus
The localization of plastic flow is a fascinating
at localization and to the order of the terms re-
tained the result is and widely observed phenomenon, which seemsim-
portant in setting a limit to the achievable duc-
(42) tility of a solid. Yet the topic has remained
outside the mainstream of work on the mechanics
of inelastic solids, save for the elucidation of
Thus for small T/hl unless u is close to
general principles in the spirit of Hadamard by
zero (states approaching plane strain conditions)
Thomas, Hill, and Mandel. The present study
the localization condition requires strain soft-
shows that conditions for localization relate
ening behavior, .h < 0 •
closely to subtle and not well understood fea-
THE LOCALIZATION OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION 219
tures of the constitutive description of plastic 4. Mandel, J.; Conditions de stabi1ite et postu-
flow. Localization is favored by a low plastic lat de Drucker; in Rheology and Soil Me-
hard-ening modulus.; but the matters of how low arrl chanics, eds. J. Kravtchenko and P.M.
whether strain softening is required are deter- Sirieys, Springer-Verlag, p.5B-68, 1966.
mined by the nature of the pre-localized deforma-
tion, those states with non-deforming planes be- 5. Nadai, A., Plasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1931.
ing highly susceptible, and by deviations from
plastic normality. The latter may, for example, 6. Beevers, C.J. ~nd Honeycombe, R.W.K.; Ductile
arise from Coulomb frictional effects in yielding fracture of single crystals; in Fracture
or from non-Schmid effects in crystals as by (Prec. Conf. at Swampscott, Mass.), eds.
cross-slip or other triggeTed processes, where B. L. Averbach et aI., Technology Press-MtT,
stresses other than the resolved shear stress p.474-497, 1959.
contribute to flow on a given slip system". Ver-
tex yielding effects are predicted on physical 7. Price, R.J. and Kelly, A.; Deformation of age
grounds and these too have a strong influence on hardened aluminum alloy crystals-II, frac-
localization conditions, for example, in mitigat- ture; Acta Met., l2,p.979-992, 1964.
ing predictions of strongly negative hardenin~
for localization in axisymmetrically deformed 8. Jackson, P.J. and Basinski, Z.S.; Latent
solids and like cases. hardening and the flow stress of copper
single crystals; Can. J. Phys., 45,
While the constitutive modelling of these fea- p. 707-735, 1967. -
tures needs "to be improved in relation to the
detailed mechanisms of deformation, so also is 9. Cox, T.B. and Low, J.R.; An investigation of
there need for a fuller assessment of the role the plastic fracture of AISI 4340 and 18
of imperfections or initial non-uniformities in Nickel-200 grade maraging steels"; Met.,
material properties in promoting localization. Trans., ~, p.1457-"1470, 1974.
Indeed, the latter approach seems mandatory for
rate-dependent plastic flow models and these, as 10. McClintock, F .A.; A criterion for ductile
well as the range of thermornechanically coupled fracture by the growth of holes; J. Appl.
localization phenomena would seem to merit fur- Mech., ~, p.363-37l, 1968.
ther study.
11. Ric~-!J.R. and Johnson, M.A.; The role of
The basic theory of uniqueness in relation to large crack tip geometry" changes in plane
localizations and stationary waves is also not strain fracture; in Inelastic Behavior of
yet adequately developed for materials deviating Solids, eds. M.F. Kanninen et al., McGraw-
from normality, and neither can the case of ver- Hill, p.641-672, 1970.
tex yielding be handled in full generality with-
in the existing framework. Yet both are features 12. Green, G. and Knott, J.F.; The initiation and
which seem inherent to much of plastic constitu- propagation of ductile fracture in low
tive behavior and the examples and analysis of strength steels; Trans. ASME, 98, Ser. H,
the present study suggest that both are impor- J. Engr. Mat. Tech., p ;37-46, 1976.
tant destabilizing features for the process of
localization. 13. Hahn, G.T. and Rosenfield, A.R., Metallurgi-
cal factors affecting fracture toughness
Acknowledgement of aluminum alloys, Met. Trans. 6A,
Discussions with C. Dafermos, R. Hill and A. p.653-668, 1975. --
Needleman on the general theory, and with R. J.
Asaro andJ. W. Rudnicki on particular classes 14. Tanaka, K. and Spretnak, J.W.; An analysis of
of materials have been very helpful to the writen plastic instability in pure shear in high
The study was supported by the "U.S. Energy Re- strength AISI 4340 steel; Met. Trans. ~,
search and Development Administration under con- p.443-454, 1973~
tract £(11-1)3084 with Brown University.
15. Berg, C.A.; Plastic dilation and void inter-
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