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It is widely assumed that the occurrence of sponse and simultaneously rewards the ob-
imitative or observational learning is con- server. If the modeled responses are thus
tingent on the administration of reinforcing paired repeatedly with positive reinforcement
stimuli either to the model or to the observer. they gradually acquire secondary reward
According to the theory propounded by Miller value. The observer can then administer posi-
and Bollard (1941), for example, the neces- tively conditioned reinforcers to himself sim-
sary conditions for learning through imitation ply by reproducing as closely as possible the
include a motivated subject who is positively model's positively valenced behavior. In the
reinforced for matching the rewarded behavior second, or empathetic form of imitative learn-
of a model during a series of initially random, ing, the model not only exhibits the responses
trial-and-error responses. Since this concep- but also experiences the reinforcing conse-
tualization of observational learning requires quences. It is assumed that the observer, in
the subject to perform the imitative response turn, experiences empathetically both the re-
before he can learn it, this theory evidently sponse-correlated stimuli and the response
accounts more adequately for the emission of consequences of the model's behavior. As a re-
previously learned matching responses, than sult of this higher-order vicarious condition-
for their acquisition. ing, the observer will be inclined to reproduce
Mowrer's (1960) proprioceptive feedback the matching responses.
theory similarly highlights the role of rein- There is some recent evidence that imita-
forcement but, unlike Miller and Dollard who tive behavior can be enhanced by noncontin-
reduce imitation to a special case of instru- gent social reinforcement from a model (Ban-
mental learning, Mowrer focuses on the clas- dura & Huston, 1961), by response-contingent
sical conditioning of positive and negative reinforcers administered to the model (Ban-
emotions to matching response-correlated dura, Ross, & Ross, 1963b; Walters, Leat, &
stimuli. Mowrer distinguishes two forms of Mezei, 1963), and by increasing the reinforc-
imitative learning in terms of whether the ob- ing value of matching responses per se through
server is reinforced directly or vicariously. In direct reinforcement of the participant ob-
the former case, the model performs a re- server (Baer & Sherman, 1964). Nevertheless,
1 reinforcement theories of imitation fail to ex-
This investigation was supported by Research plain the learning of matching responses when
Grant M-5162 from the National Institutes of Health,
United States Public Health Service. the observer does not perform the model's re-
2
The author is indebted to Carole Revellc who sponses during the process of acquisition, and
assisted in collecting the data. for which reinforcers are not delivered either
589
590 ALBERT BANDURA
to (he model or to the observers (Bandura et quences to the model would result in signifi-
al., .1961, 1%3a). cant differences in the performance of imita-
The acquisition of imitative responses under tive behavior with the model-rewarded group
the latter conditions appears to be accounted displaying the highest number of different
for more adequately by a contiguity theory classes of matching responses, followed by
of observational learning. According to the the no-consequences and the model-punished
latter conceptualization (Bandura, in press; groups, respectively. In accordance with previ-
Sheffield, 1961), when an observer wit- ous findings (Bandura et al., 1961, 1963a) it
nesses a model exhibit a sequence of responses was also expected that boys would perform
the observer acquires, through contiguous as- significantly more imitative aggression than
sociation of sensory events, perceptual and girls. It was predicted, however, that the in-
symbolic responses possessing cue properties troduction of positive incentives would wipe
that are capable of eliciting, at some time out both reinforcement-produced and sex-
after a demonstration, overt responses corre- linked performance differences, revealing an
sponding to those that had been modeled. equivalent amount of learning among children
Some suggestive evidence that the acquisi- in the three treatment conditions.
tion of matching responses may take place
through contiguity, whereas reinforcements METHOD
administered to a model exert their major in- Subjects
fluence on the performance of imitatively The subjects were 33 boys and 33 girls enrolled in
learned responses, is provided in a study in the Stanford University Nursery School. They ranged
in age from 42 to 71 months, with a mean age of
which models were rewarded or punished for SI months. The children were assigned randomly to
exhibiting aggressive behavior (Bandura et one of three treatment conditions of 11 boys and 11
al., 1963b). Although children who had ob- girls each.
served aggressive responses rewarded subse- Two adult males served in the role of models, and
one female experimenter conducted the study for all
quently reproduced the model's behavior while 66 children.
children in the model-punished condition
failed to do so, a number of the subjects in Exposure Procedure,
the latter group described in postexperimental The children were brought individually to a semi-
interviews the model's repertoire of aggressive darkened room. The experimenter informed the child
responses with considerable accuracy. Evi- that she had some business lo attend to before they
dently, ihey had learned the cognitive equiva- could proceed to the "surprise playroom," but that
during the waiting period the child might walch a
lents of the model's responses but they were televised program. After the child was scaled, the
not translated into their motoric forms. These experimenter walked over lo the television console,
findings highlighted both the importance of ostensibly tuned in a program and then departed. A
distinguishing between learning and perform- film of approximately S minutes duration depicting
the modeled responses was shown on a glass lenscrcen
ance and the need for a systematic study of in the television console by means of a rear projec-
whether reinforcement is primarily a learning- tion arrangement, screened from the child's view by
related or a performance-related variable. large panels. The televised form of presentation was
1 n the present experiment children observed utilized primarily because attending responses to
televised stimuli arc strongly conditioned in children
a film-mediated model who exhibited novel and this procedure would therefore serve to enhance
physical and verbal aggressive responses. In observation which is a necessary condition for the
one treatment condition the model was se- occurrence of imitative learning.
verely punished; in a second, the model was The film began with a scene in which the model
generously rewarded; while the third condi- walked up to an adult-size plastic Bobo doll and
ordered him to clear the way. After glaring for a
tion presented no response consequences to the moment at the noncompliant antagonist the model
model. Following a postexposure test of imi- exhibited four novel aggressive responses each ac-
tative behavior, children in all three groups companied by a distinctive verbalization.
were offered attractive incentives contingent First, the model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sat
on it, and punched it in the nose while remarking,
on their reproducing the models' responses so "Pow, right in the nose, boom, boom." The model
as to provide a more accurate index of learn- then raised the doll and pommeled it on the head
ing. It was predicted that reinforcing conse- with a mallet. Each response was accompanied by
ACQUISITION OF IMITATIVE RESPONSES 591
the verbalization, "Sockeroo . . . stay down." Fol- contained a Bobo doll, three balls, a mallet and peg-
lowing the mallet aggression, the model kicked the board, dart guns, cars, plastic farm animals, and a
doll about the room, and these responses were inter- doll house equipped with furniture and a doll family.
spersed with the comment, "Fly away." Finally, the By providing a variety of stimulus objects the chil-
model threw rubber balls at the Bobo doll, each dren were at liberty to exhibit imitative responses or
strike punctuated with "Bang." This sequence of to engage in nonimitative forms of behavior.
physically and verbally aggressive behavior was re- After the experimenter instructed the child that he
peated twice. was free to play with the toys in the room, she
The component responses that enter into the de- excused herself supposedly to fetch additional play
velopment of more complex novel patterns of be- materials. Since many preschool children are reluc-
havior are usually present in children's behavioral tant to remain alone and tend to leave after a short
repertoires as products either of maturation or of period of time, the experimenter reentered the room
prior social learning. Thus, while most of the ele- midway through the session and reassured the child
ments in the modeled acts had undoubtedly been that she would return shortly with the goods.
previously learned, the particular pattern of com- Each child spent 10 minutes in the test room
ponents in each response, and their evocation by spe- during which time his behavior was recorded every
cific stimulus objects, were relatively unique. For 5 seconds in terms of predetermined imitative re-
example, children can manipulate objects, sit on sponse categories by judges who observed the session
them, punch them, and they can make vocal re- through a one-way mirror in an adjoining observa-
sponses, but the likelihood that a given child would tion room.
spontaneously place a Bobo doll on its side, sit on it, Two observers shared the task of recording the
punch it in the nose and remark, "Pow . . . boom, occurrence of matching responses for all 66 children.
boom," is exceedingly remote. Indeed, a previous Neither of the raters had knowledge of the treat-
study utilizing the same stimulus objects has shown ment conditions to which the children were as-
that the imitative responses selected for the present signed. In order to provide an estimate of interscorcr
experiment have virtually a zero probability of oc- reliability, the responses of 10 children were scored
curring spontaneously among preschool children independently by both observers. Since the imitative
(Bandura ct al., 1961) and, therefore, meet the cri- responses were highly distinctive and required no
terion of novel responses. subjective interpretation, the raters were virtually in
The rewarding and punishing contingencies associ- perfect agreement (99%) in scoring the matching
ated with the model's aggressive responses were in- responses.
troduced in the closing scene of the film. The number of different physical and verbal imi-
For children in the model-rewarded condition, a (ative responses emitted spontaneously by the chil-
second adult appeared with an abundant supply of dren constituted the performance measure.
candies and soft drinks. He informed the model that
he was a "strong champion" and that his superb ag- Acquisition Index
gressive performance clearly deserved a generous
At the end of the performance session the experi-
treat. He then poured him a large glass of 7-Up, and
menter entered the room with an assortment of fruit
readily supplied additional energy-building nourish-
juices in a colorful juice-dispensing fountain, and
ment including chocolate bars, Cracker Jack pop-
booklets of sticker-pictures that were employed as
corn, and an assortment of candies. While the model
the positive incentives to activate into performance
was rapidly consuming the delectable treats, his ad-
what the children had learned through observation.
mirer symbolically reinstated the modeled aggressive
After a brief juice treat the children were informed,
responses and engaged in considerable positive social
that for each physical or verbal imitative response
reinforcement.
that they reproduced, they would receive a pretty
For children in the model-punished condition, the
reinforcing agent appeared on the scene shaking his sticker-picture and additional juice treats. An achieve-
finger menacingly and commenting reprovingly, "Hey ment incentive was also introduced in order to pro-
there, you big bully. You quit picking on that clown. duce further disinhibition and to increase the chil-
I won't tolerate it." As the model drew back he dren's motivation to exhibit matching responses. The
tripped and fell, the other adult sat on the model experimenter attached a pastoral scene to the wall
and expressed an interest in seeing how many sticker-
and spanked him with a rolled-up magazine while
reminding him of his aggressive behavior. As the pictures the child would be able to obtain to adorn
model ran off cowering, the agent forewarned him, his picture.
"If I catch you doing that again, you big bully, I'll The experimenter then asked the child, "Show me
give you a hard spanking. You quit acting that way." what Rocky did in the TV program," "Tell me what
Children in the no-consequences condition viewed he said," and rewarded him immediately following
the same film as shown to the other two groups each matching response. If a child simply described
except that no reinforcement ending was included. an imitative response he was asked to give a per-
formance demonstration.
Although learning must be inferred from perform-
Performance Measure ance, it was assumed that the number of different
Immediately following the exposure session the physical and verbal imitative responses reproduced
children were escorted to an experimental room that by the children under the positive-incentive condi-
592 ALBERT BANDURA
tained in the observer's repertoire. A person (Bandura et al., 1961, 1963a). The additional
who possesses a very narrow repertoire of be- finding, however, that the introduction of posi-
havior, for example, will, in all probability, tive incentives practically wiped out the prior
display only fragmentary imitation of a mod- performance disparity strongly suggests that
el's behavior; on the other hand, a person who the frequently observed sex differences in
has acquired most of the relevant components aggression (Goodenough, 1931; Johnson,
is likely to perform precisely matching re- 1951; Sears, 1951) may reflect primarily dif-
sponses following several demonstrations. In ferences in willingness to exhibit aggressive
the case of young preschool children their responses, rather than deficits in learning or
motor repertoires are more highly developed "masculine-role identification."
than their repertoires of verbal responses. It The subgroups of children who displayed
is, perhaps, for this reason that even in the significant increments in imitative behavior
positive-incentive condition, children repro- as a function of positive reinforcement were
duced a substantially higher percentage boys who had observed the aggressive model
(67 f c ) of imitative motor responses than punished, and girls for whom physically ag-
matching verbalizations (20%). A similar pat- gressive behavior is typically labeled sex inap-
tern of differential imitation was obtained in propriate and nonrewarded or even negatively
a previous experiment (Bandura & Huston, reinforced. The inhibitory effects of differing
1961) in which preschool children served as reinforcement histories for aggression were
subjects. dearly reflected in the observation that boys
It is apparent from the foregoing discussion were more easily disinhibited than girls in the
that considerably more research is needed in reward phase of the experiment. This factor
identifying variables that combine with con- may account for the small sex difference that
tiguous stimulation in governing the process of was obtained even in the positive-incentive
imitative response acquisition. condition.
It is possible, of course, to interpret the The present study provides further evidence
present acquisition data as reflecting the op- that response inhibition and response disinhi-
eration of generalization from a prior history bition can be vicariously transmitted through
of reinforcement of imitative behavior. Within observation of reinforcing consequences to a
any social group, models typically exhibit the model's behavior. It is interesting to note,
accumulated cultural repertoires that have however, that the performance by a model of
proved most successful for given stimulus sit- socially disapproved or prohibited responses
uations; consequently, matching the behavior (for example, kicking, striking with objects)
of other persons, particularly the superiors in without the occurrence of any aversive conse-
an age-grade or prestige hierarchy, will maxi- quences may produce disinhibitory effects
mize positive reinforcement and minimize analogous to a positive reinforcement opera-
the frequency of aversive response conse- lion. These findings arc similar to results from
quences. Since both the occurrence and the studies of direct reinforcement (Crandall,
positive reinforcement of matching responses, Good, & Crandall, 1964) in which nonreward
whether by accident or by intent, are inevita- functioned as a positive reinforcer to increase
ble during the course of social development, the probability of the occurrence of formerly
no definitive resolution of the reinforcement punished responses.
issue is possible, except, through an experiment Punishment administered to the model ap-
utilizing organisms that have experienced parently further reinforced the girls' existing
complete social isolation from birth. It is evi- inhibitions over aggression and produced re-
dent, however, that contemporaneous rein- markably little imitative behavior; the boys
forcements are unnecessary for the acquisition displayed a similar, though not significant,
of new matching responses. decrease in imitation. This difference may be
The finding that boys perform more imita- partly a function of the relative dominance of
tive aggression than girls as a result of ex- aggressive responses in the repertoires of boys
posure to an aggressive male model, is in ac- and girls. It is also possible that vicarious re-
cord with results from related experiments inforcement for boys, deriving from the mod-
ACQUISITION OF IMITATIVE RESPONSES 595
el's successful execution of aggressive behavior and non-reactions on children's achievement ex-
(that is, overpowering the noncompliant ad- pectations: A replication study. Child Develop-
ment, 1964, 35, 385-397.
versary), may have reduced the effects of GOODENOUGII, FLORENCE L. Anger in young children.
externally administered terminal punishment. Minneapolis: Univer. Minnesota Press, 1931.
These factors, as well as the model's self-re- JOHNSON, ELIZABETH Z. Attitudes of children toward
warding and self-punishing reactions follow- authority as projected in their doll play at two age
levels. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard
ing the display of aggression, will be investi- University, 1951.
gated in a subsequent experiment. McGuiRE, W. J. Interpolated motivational state-
ments within a programmed series of instructions
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V. J. The reinforcement effects of adult reactions (Received October 21, 1963)