Lecture Note

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th edition

by
Peter V. O’Neil,
Math 301 (Methods of Applied Mathematics)
Chapter 11 (Vector Differential Calculus)

11.4 The Gradient Field

Dr T. A. Apalara
IMPORTANT!! These instructor notes are made available for convenience to
reduce the amount of note-taking in class and also in case it is not possible to
attend class due to circumstances beyond control (e.g. illness). These notes are
neither intended as a replacement for class attendance and participation nor as a
substitute for using the textbook. The class presentation may differ from these
notes. Moreover, some other problems not in these notes may be discussed in class.
Math 301 Week #1 11.4 The Gradient Field Dr T. A. Apalara

§§ 11.4 The Gradient Field

Objective: In this chapter, you will know, insha Allaah:

☛ How to compute gradient.

☛ How to compute directional derivative and its applications.
☛ Analysis of Level Surfaces, Tangent Planes and Normal Lines.

Let φ(x, y, z) be a real-valued function of three variables. In the context of vectors, such a function
is called a scalar field. We will define an important vector field manufactured from φ.

Definition − Gradient: The gradient of a scalar field φ is the vector field ∇φ given by
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
wherever these partial derivatives are defined.

Remark 1.
☛ The symbol ∇φ is read ”del phi ”, and ∇ is called the del operator. It is also often called nabla.
It operates on a scalar field to produce a vector field.
☛ If φ is a function of x and y, then ∇φ is a vector field in the x, y plane.
☛ If P is a point, then the gradient field of φ evaluated at P is denoted ∇φ(P ).
Example 1. Compute the gradient of the function and evaluate this gradient at the given point.

(1) φ(x, y, z) = x2 y cos(yz); P (1, −1, 3) (2) φ(x, y) = (x − y) cos(y); P (2, π).

Solution
(1) ∇φ = 2xy cos(yz)i + x2 [cos(yz) − yz sin(yz)] j − x2 y 2 sin(yz)k.
∇φ(P ) = −2 cos(3)i + [cos(3) − 3 sin(3)] j + sin(3)k.
(2) ∇φ = cos(y)i − [cos(y) + (x − y) sin(y)] j.
∇φ(P ) = −i + j.
✍

Remark 2. The gradient has the obvious properties

∇(φ + ψ) = ∇φ + ∇ψ

and, if c is a number, then

∇(cφ) = c∇φ.

1
Math 301 Week #1 11.4 The Gradient Field Dr T. A. Apalara

Definition − Directional Derivative: The directional derivative of a scalar field φ at P0 in

the direction of the unit vector u is denoted Du φ(P0 ), and is given by

d 
Du φ(P0 ) = φ (x + at, y + at, z + ct)  .
dt t=0

We usually compute a directional derivative using the following.

Theorem: If φ is a differentiable function of two or three variables, and u is a constant unit
vector, then
Du φ(P0 ) = ∇φ(P0 ) · u.

Remark 3. In other words, Du φ(P0 ) is the dot product of the gradient of φ at the point, with
the unit vector specifying the direction.
Example 2. Compute the directional derivative of the function in the direction of the given vector
1
φ(x, y, z) = x2 y − xez , P0 = (2, −1, π), u = √ (i − 2j + k).
6

Solution The gradient is

∇φ =(2xy − ez )i + x2 j − xez k.
∴ ∇φ(2, −1, π) = − (4 + eπ )i + 4j − 2eπ k
1
Du φ(2, −1, π) = (−(4 + eπ )i + 4j − 2eπ k) · √ (i − 2j + k)
6
4 + eπ 8 2eπ 3
=− √ − √ − √ = − √ (4 + eπ ) .
6 6 6 6
✍
Remark 4. In working with directional derivatives, care must be taken that the direction is given
by a unit vector. If a vector w of length other than 1 is used to specify the direction, then use
w w
the unit vector in computing the directional derivative. Of course, w and have the
∥w∥ ∥w∥
same direction. A unit vector is used with directional derivatives so that the vector specifies only
direction, without contributing a factor of magnitude.
Example 3. Compute the directional derivative of the function in the direction of the given vector

φ(x, y, z) = yz + xz + xy, v = i − 4k.

Solution The gradient is

∇φ =(z + y)i + (z + x)j + (y + x)k.

v 1
u= = √ (i − 4k)
∥v∥ 17
1 1
Du φ = ((z + y)i + (z + x)j + (y + x)k) · √ (i − 4k) = √ (z − 3y − 4x) .
17 17
✍

2
Math 301 Week #1 11.4 The Gradient Field Dr T. A. Apalara

Theorem: Let φ and its first partial derivatives be continuous in some sphere about P0 , and
suppose that ∇φ(P0 ) ̸= 0. Then
☛ At P0 , φ(x, y, z) has its maximum rate of change in the direction of ∇φ(P0 ). This maximum
rate of change is ∥∇φ(P0 )∥.
☛ At P0 , φ(x, y, z) has its minimum rate of change in the direction of ∇φ(P0 ). This minimum
rate of change is −∥∇φ(P0 )∥.

Example 4. Determine the maximum and minimum rate of change of the function at the given
point
φ(x, y, z) = 2xz + ey z 2 , (2, 1, 1).

Solution The gradient is

∇φ(x, y, z) =2zi + ey z 2 j + 2(x + ey z)k.

∴ ∇φ(2, 1, 1) =2i + ej + (4 + 2e)k.
p p
∥∇φ(P0 )∥ = 4 + e2 + (4 + 2e)2 = 20 + 16e + 5e2

The maximum rate of increase of φ(x, y, z) at (2, 1, 1) is in the direction of 2i + ej + 2(2 + e)k, and
this maximum rate of change is p
20 + 16e + 5e2
The minimum rate of increase of φ(x, y, z) at (2, 1, 1) is in the direction of 2i + ej + 2(2 + e)k, and
this minimum rate of change is p
− 20 + 16e + 5e2
✍

Level Surfaces, Tangent Planes and Normal Lines

Depending on the function φ and the constant k, the locus of points φ(x, y, z) = k may form a
surface in 3−space. Any such surface is called a level surface of φ.
Example 5. Analyze the level surface of φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = k, for any k.

Solution
√
☛ If k > 0, then the level surface φ(x, y, z) = k is a sphere of radius k.

☛ If k = 0, then the locus is just a single point, the origin.

☛ If k < 0, then the locus is empty since there are no points whose coordinates satisfy this
equation.
✍
Theorem (Normal to a Level Surface): Let φ and its first partial derivatives be continuous.
Then ∇φ(P ) is normal to the level surface φ(x, y, z) = k at any point P on this surface at which
this gradient vector is nonzero. That is the point where ∇φ(P ) ̸= 0.

3
Math 301 Week #1 11.4 The Gradient Field Dr T. A. Apalara

Equation of the tangent plane: The equation of the tangent plane is

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
P0 (x − x0 ) + P0 (y − y0 ) + P0 (z − z0 ) = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Parametric equations of the normal line: The parametric equations of the normal line are
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
x − x0 = (P0 )t, y − y0 = (P0 )t, z − z0 = (P0 )t.
∂x ∂y ∂z

p
Example 6. Consider the level surface φ(x, y, z) = z − x2 + y 2 .
√
(a) Find the normal vector to this surface at (1, 1, 2).
√
(b) Find the tangent plane to this surface at (1, 1, 2).
√
(c) Find the equation of the normal line to the level surface at (1, 1, 2).
Solution This surface is a cone with vertex at the origin (as shown below)

p
Figure 1: Cone z = x2 + y 2 .

The gradient vector is

x y
∇φ(x, y, z) = − p i− p j + k.
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
√
(a) So, the normal vector to the cone at (1, 1, 2) is
√ 1 1
φ(1, 1, 2) = − √ i − √ j + k.
2 2
√
(b) The tangent plane to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has equation
1 1 √ √
− √ (x − 1) − √ (y − 1) + z − 2 = 0 =⇒ x + y − 2 z = 0.
2 2
√
(c) The normal line to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has parametric equations
1 1 √
x − 1 = − √ t, y − 1 = − √ t, z − 2 = t
2 2
or
1 1 √
x = 1 − √ t, y = 1 − √ t, z = 2 + t.
2 2
✍

END

4
 11.4 The Gradient Field 361

–4
–2
–4 –2 2 0 2
4 4

FIGURE 11.9 Circular cone z = x 2 + y2.

EXAMPLE 11.8

The level surface ϕ(x, y, z) = z − x 2 + y 2 is a cone with vertex at the origin (Figure 11.9).
Compute
√ 1 1
∇ϕ(1, 1, 2) = − √ i − √ j + k.
2 2
√
The tangent plane to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has the equations
1 1 √
− √ (x − 1) − √ (y − 1) + z − 2 = 0
2 2
or
√
x + y − 2z = 0.
√
The normal line to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has parametric equations
1 1 √
x = 1 − √ t, y = 1 − √ t, z = 2 + t. 
2 2

SECTION 11.4 PROBLEMS


In each of Problems 1 through 6, compute the gradient of 6. ϕ(x, y, z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ; (2, 2, 2)
the function and evaluate this gradient at the given point.
Determine at this point the maximum and minimum rate of In each of Problems 7 through 10, compute the direc-
change of the function at this point. tional derivative of the function in the direction of the given
vector.
1. ϕ(x, y, z) = x yz; (1, 1, 1)
√
2. ϕ(x, y, z) = x 2 y − sin(x z); (1, −1, π/4) 7. ϕ(x, y, z) = 8x y 2 − x z; (1/ 3)(i + j + k)
3. ϕ(x, y, z) = 2x y + xe z ; (−2, 1, 6) 8. ϕ(x, y, z) = cos(x − y) + e z ; i − j + 2k
4. ϕ(x, y, z) = cos(x yz); (−1, 1, π/2) 9. ϕ(x, y, z) = x 2 yz 3 ; 2j + k
5. ϕ(x, y, z) = cosh(2x y) − sinh(z); (0, 1, 1) 10. ϕ(x, y, z) = yz + x z + x y; i − 4k

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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362 CHAPTER 11 Vector Differential Calculus

In each of Problems 11 through 16, find the equation of 14. x 2 − y 2 + z 2 = 0; (1, 1, 0)

the tangent plane and normal line to the level surface at the 15. 2x − cos(x yz) = 3; (1, π, 1)
point.
√ 16. 3x 4 + 3y 4 + 6z 4 = 12; (1, 1, 1)
11. x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4; (1, 1, 2)
17. Suppose that ∇ϕ(x, y, z) = i + k. What can be said
12. z = x 2 + y; (−1, 1, 2) about level surfaces of ϕ? Show that the streamlines
13. z 2 = x 2 − y 2 ; (1, 1, 0) of ∇ϕ are orthogonal to the level surfaces of ϕ.

11.5 Divergence and Curl

The gradient operator produces a vector field from a scalar function. We will discuss two other
important vector operations. One produces a scalar field from a vector field, and the other
produces a vector field from a vector field. Let
F(x, y, z) = f (x, y, z)i + g(x, y, z)j + h(x, y, z)k.

The divergence of F is the scalar field

∂f ∂g ∂h
div F = + + .
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
The curl of F is the vector field
     
∂h ∂g ∂f ∂h ∂g ∂ f
curl F = − i+ − j+ − k.
∂ y ∂z ∂z ∂ x ∂x ∂y

Divergence, curl and gradient can all be written as vector operations with the del operator
∇, which is a symbolic vector defined by
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= i + j + k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
The symbol ∇, which is called "del", or sometimes "nabla", is treated like a vector in carrying out
calculations, and the "product" of ∂/∂ x, ∂/∂ y and ∂/∂z with a scalar function ϕ is interpreted to
mean, respectively, ∂ϕ/∂ x, ∂ϕ/∂ y and ∂ϕ/∂z. Now observe how gradient, divergence, and curl
are obtained using this operator.

1. The product of the vector ∇ and the scalar function ϕ is the gradient of ϕ:
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k ϕ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= i+ j+ k = gradient of ϕ.
∂x ∂y ∂z

2. The dot product of ∇ and F is the divergence of F:

 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ·F= i + j + k · ( f i + gj + hk)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂g ∂h
= + + = divergence of F.
∂ x ∂ y ∂z

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

October 15, 2010 16:11 THM/NEIL Page-362 27410_11_ch11_p343-366