ME 309: Mechanics of Machines

Instructor: Tajammal Imran

Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department

Text Book: Design of Machinery: An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of

Mechanisms and Machines by Robert Norton, McGraw Hill, 5th edition
What do you intend to gain
from this course?
or
Why are you studying this
course?
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Motivation for the course

Anything moving has a mechanism

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• ..\Animations\WM\ch2\oil_pump\oil_pump.avi
• ..\Animations\WM\ch2\power_hacksaw\power_hacksaw.avi
• ..\Animations\WM\ch2\radial_engine\radial_engine.avi
• ..\Animations\WM\ch2\gas_pedal\gas_pedal.avi

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 Course outcomes
• After successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

i. demonstrate an understanding of fundamentals of mechanics of machines

ii. draw kinematic diagrams and solve problems relevant to mechanics of

machines

iii. demonstrate balancing of force and couple in rotating and reciprocating

machine parts

iv. demonstrate concepts and problem-solving skills of mechanical vibrations

including damping and resonance
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Course Logistics
• A review of the course schedule to include:

• Exams (2 majors, 1 final)

• Quizzes and Homeworks (7 quizzes, 6 Homeworks)

• Grading (To be returned ASAP)

• Disciplinary actions (absence, writing note, disturbing classes)

• Course Project (individual or group)

• Attendance
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Lecturer #2

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Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO’s)
At the end of the class today, students should be able to:

1. Understand joints, links and linkages

2. Recognize different forms of joints

3. Sketch different types of joints

4. Select joints based on design requirements

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 Kinematics and kinetics
• Kinematics – study of motion (s, v, a) without regard to forces (think about the
3 equations of motions)
• Kinetics – study of forces on system in motion (think about F = ma)
• Please note that this division is done for the purpose of engineering education since
motion is largely due to force.
• For example; F = ma where ‘a’ is the acceleration, ‘m’ being mass and ‘F’ is the force.
• Usually, ‘a’ is known and F can be calculated or vice versa.
• ‘a’ belongs to the kinematics and
• ‘F’ to kinetics
• The aim of kinematics is to create a desired motion, and then compute the
position, velocity and acceleration that the motion will create on the parts.
• Kinematic elements are:
• Links, Cams, Belts, Chains etc.
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Mechanics and Machines

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 Mechanics and Machines
• Mechanism is a combination of various links which can have relative motion
with respect to one another. It is a system of elements arranged to transmit
motion in a predetermined fashion.
• Machine is the combination of number of such mechanisms used to carry out
a particular task. It is used to provide forces and transmit motion and
power/energy from the source to the load e.g., a car, drilling machine, airplane
etc.
• For example, a car is a machine made of various mechanisms such as the wiper which is
a simple 4 link crank lever mechanism, piston-crankshaft is a slider crank mechanism,
differential is a gear mechanism.
• Thus a machine is made of number of mechanism to carryout a particular task.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-a-machine-and-a-
mechanism
• Example, an engine is a machine that uses crank-lever mechanism to combust fuel.12
 Mechanics and Machines
• If the forces or energy levels within the device are significant, it is considered a

machine; if not, it is considered a mechanism.

• Some examples of common mechanisms are a pencil sharpener, a camera shutter,

an analog clock, a folding chair, an adjustable desk lamp, and an umbrella.

• Some examples of machines which possess motions similar to the mechanisms

listed above are a food blender, a bank vault door, an automobile transmission, a

bulldozer, a robot, and an amusement park ride.

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Degree of freedom (DOF) or Mobility:

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 Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of a rigid body
• The degrees of freedom (DOF) of a rigid body is
defined as the number of independent
movements it has.
• Figure shows a rigid body in a plane.
• To determine the DOF of this body we must
consider how many ways the bar can be
moved.
• In a two-dimensional plane such as this
computer screen, there are 3 DOF.
Figure: Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in a plane
• The bar can be translated along the x axis
• It can be translated along the y axis
• It can be rotated about its centroid.
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Fundamentals of Kinematics
Degree of freedom (DOF) or Mobility:
• The number of independent parameters
(measurements or coordinates) which are needed to
uniquely define its position in space at any instant of
time.
• The degree of freedom is best understood by the
numbers and types of links and joints.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdKo9PYwGaU

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 Fundamentals of Kinematics
Types of motions:
➢In pure rotation, the body possesses
one point (center of rotation) that has
no motion with respect to the
stationary frame of reference.
➢In pure translation, all points on the Figure: Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in space
body describe parallel path with
reference line changing its linear
position. Or to-and-fro movement.
➢A complex motion has simultaneous
combination of rotation and
translation.
https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/mechanisms/chpt4.html 17
 Links, joints and kinematic chains
• Linkages are basic building blocks of all mechanisms. Note that cams, gears,
belts, chains are variations of linkages. They are made of links and joints.
Linkage = link + joint
• A link is an assumed rigid body with at least 2 nodes that are point of
attachment to other links.

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 Links, joints and kinematic chains
A joint (or Kinematic pair)
• It is a connection between two or more links (at their nodes), which allows some motion,
or potential motion, between the connected links.
• Joints can be classified in several ways:
i. By the type of contact between the elements, line, point, or surface.
ii. By the number of degrees of freedom allowed at the joint.
iii. By the type of physical closure of the joint: either force or form closed.
iv. By the number of links joined (order of the joint).

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Joints based on types of contacts
• Lower pair – joints connecting two links having surface contacts (as with
a pin surrounded by hole). They are six.

The R and P pairs are the basic building blocks of all other
pairs which are combinations of those two.

R - Rotation: T – Translation
Planar has 2 dimensions 20
Spatial has 3 dimensions
• Higher pair describes joints with point or line contact between links.
Examples include cams, ball bearing, gear teeth, etc.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPMtPl7HG68 cam and follower

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5i4tT29oyY rotating gears

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 Joints based on the number of DOF allowed at the joint
• Elbow joint
• Kneel joint
• Wrist joint
• Hip joint
• Neck joint

➢ A common example of this type of joint is your automobile tire rolling against tie road.
➢ In normal use there is pure rolling and no sliding at the joint, unless, of course, you encounter an icy road or
become too enthusiastic about accelerating or cornering.
➢ If you lock your brakes on ice, this joint converts to a pure sliding one like the slider block.
➢ Friction determines the actual number of freedoms at this kind of joint. It can be pure roll, pure slide, or roll-slide.
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 Joints based on physical closure of the joint
➢ A form-closed joint is kept
together or closed by its geometry.
A pin in a hole or a slider in a two-
sided slot are form closed.
➢ A force-closed joint, such as a pin
in a half-bearing or a slider on a
surface, requires some external
force to keep it together or closed.
This force could be supplied by
gravity, a spring, or any external
means.
➢ In linkages, form closure is usually
preferred, and it is easy to
e.g. cam & follower
accomplish.
➢ But for cam-follower systems,
force closure is often preferred.

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 Joints based on number of links joined

➢ Joint order is defined as the number of links joined minus one. i.e., order = number of links - 1
➢ It takes two links to make a single joint; thus, the simplest joint combination of two links has order
one. As additional links are placed on the same joint, the order is increased on a one-for-one basis.
➢ Joint order has significance in the proper determination of overall degree of freedom for the
assembly. 24
 Modified definitions
• A kinematic chain is defined as an assemblage of links and joints, interconnected in a way
to provide a controlled output motion in response to a supplied input motion.

• A mechanism is defined as a kinematic chain in which at least one link has been
"grounded," or attached, to the frame of reference (which itself may be in motion).

• A machine is defined as a combination of resistant bodies arranged to compel the

mechanical forces of nature to do work accompanied by determinate motions.

• By Reuleaux's definition, a machine is a collection of mechanisms arranged to transmit

forces and do work. He viewed all energy or force transmitting devices as machines which
utilize mechanisms as their building blocks to provide the necessary motion constraints.

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Drawing kinematic diagrams

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Drawing kinematic diagrams

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Drawing kinematic diagrams

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Lecture #3

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Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO’s)
At the end of the class today, students should be able to:

1. Understand degree of freedom or mobility

2. Calculate the number of degree of freedom in a mechanism

3. Differentiate between mechanism, structure and pre-stressed

4. Discuss mechanical inversion

5. Explain Grashof and non-Grashof linkages

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 Determination of degree of freedom (DOF) or
Mobility (M)
• Degree of Freedom is the number of inputs which need to be provided in
order to create a predictable output; OR
• the number of independent coordinates required to define its position.

Implication for M for an assembly of links:

➢ If M > 0 , the assembly is a mechanism with relative motion

➢ If M = 0, it is structure with no motion
➢ If M < 0, preloaded or over constrained structure without motion but with stress

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 Gruebler’s equation

If more than one link of the kinematic chain is grounded, the net effect will be to
create one larger, higher-order ground link, as there can be only one ground
plane.

Kutzbach’s modification of Gruebler’s

equation for half joint (roller)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOFM8eG8kVc for DOF33

Examples

At multiple joint:
Order of joints = number of link-1
=3-1=2

This is therefore a mechanism

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 Roll-slide joint

This is therefore a structure

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 Categorize these assemblies into mechanism,
structure and preloaded.

➢ What is M for a body in space?

➢ What is M for a body on plane surface? 1, 0, -1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1,2
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 Effect of additional links on mobility

(a) M = 1, (b) M = 0, (c) M = -1

L=3, J1=2, J2=1

L=4, J1=3, J2=1

Mechanisms involving slippage only (a, M = 1), and slippage and rolling (b, M = 2).
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 Four Bar Linkage and Kinematics Inversion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-bar_linkage#/media/File:4_bar_linkage_animated.gif

• Four bar linkage is the simplest possible pin-jointed mechanism for single-degree-of-freedom controlled motion.
• It has four links, four full (pin) joints. Usually one of the links is fixed
• It sometimes appear as slider-crank and the cam follower. Examples are found in engine slider crank,
bicycle, power hacksaw,

➢ The link that makes a complete revolution is the CRANK

➢ The fixed link is the FRAME
➢ The link opposite the fixed link is the COUPLER
➢ The fourth link is ROCKER (if oscillate) or another CRANK (if rotate)
➢ If the shortest link is fixed (Frame), and the sum of the shortest and longest
links is less that sum of the other two links, then the next shorter link is the
crank

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 Mechanism inversion Inversion model

• If one link of a kinematic chain is fixed then, it becomes a “Mechanism’.

• The process of fixing different links one at a time to get different mechanisms is called
‘Inversion of Mechanism’
• In this way, for an n-link chain n different mechanisms can be obtained.

• The motions resulting from each inversion can be quite different, but some inversions of a
linkage may yield motions similar to other inversions of the same linkage.

• In these cases only some of the inversions may have distinctly different motions.

• We will denote the inversions which have distinctly different motions as distinct inversions.

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Inversion of four-bar slider crank mechanism

Inversion Link simulation 40

 Inversion of four-bar slider crank mechanism
Inversion Link simulation
1. Inversion #1, with link 1 as ground and its slider block in pure

translation, is the most commonly seen and is used for piston

engines and piston pumps.

2. Inversion #2 is obtained by grounding link 2 and gives the Whitworth

or crank-shaper quick-return mechanism, in which the slider block

has complex motion.

3. Inversion #3 is obtained by grounding link 3 and gives the slider

block pure rotation.

4. Inversion #4 is obtained by grounding the slider link 4 and is used in

hand operated, well pump mechanisms, in which the handle is link 2
(extended) and link 1 passes down the well pipe to mount a piston
on its bottom.
Four inversions of the slider-crank chain: (a) an
internal combustion engine, (b) rotary engine
used in early aircraft, quick-return mechanism,
(c) steam engine, crankshaper mechanism, (d)
farm hand pump 41
Inversion Link simulation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUwonJpRmo

Four inversions of the slider-crank chain: (a) an internal combustion engine, (b) rotary engine used in
early aircraft, quick-return mechanism, (c) steam engine, crankshaper mechanism, (d) farm hand pump 42
Lecturer #4

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 The Grashof Condition https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8bz4ni6mdY

• The Grashof condition is a very simple relationship which predicts the

rotation behavior or rotatability of a fourbar linkage's inversions based
only on the link lengths.
Let: S = length of shortest link, L = length of longest link,
P = length of one remaining link, Q = length of other remaining link.

• If the inequality is TRUE, the linkage is Grashof and at least one link will be capable of
making a full revolution with respect to the ground plane. This is called a Class I
kinematic chain.
• If the inequality is FALSE, then the linkage is non-Grashof and no link will be capable of
a complete revolution relative to any other link. This is a Class II kinematic chain.
• The determination of the Grashof condition can be made on a set of unassembled
links. Whether they are later assembled into a kinematic chain in S, L, P, Q, or S, P, L, Q
or any other order, will not change the Grashof condition. 45
• The motions possible from a four-bar linkage will depend on both the
Grashof condition and the inversion chosen. The inversions will be
defined with respect to the shortest link.
• For the Class I case, S + L <P + Q:
➢Ground either link adjacent to the shortest and you get a crank-rocker,
in which the shortest link will fully rotate, and the other link pivoted to
ground will oscillate.
➢Ground the shortest link and you will get a double-crank, in which both
links pivoted to ground make complete revolutions as does the coupler.
➢Ground the link opposite the shortest and you will get a Grashof
double-rocker, in which both links pivoted to ground oscillate and only
the coupler makes a full revolution.
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The Grashof Law

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Inversion of Grashof four-bar linkage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuOlQUauvY4
At 2.55 mins

Two non-distinct crank-rocker inversions

Double rocker inversion

Double crank inversion

Double rocker inversion

Double crank inversion
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Inversion of Non-Grashof four-bar linkage
➢For the Class II case,
S + L > P + Q:
➢All inversions will be
triple-rockers in which no
link can fully rotate, and
the three links oscillate.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CiEkyUHOUOI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F4-0CoGDvHg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuOlQUauvY4
After 2.30 mins

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 Special cases of Grashof fourbar linkage
Used in truck tailgate lifts and industrial robots
Used in steam locomotive
For the Class III case,
S + L = P + Q:
➢ Either double-cranks or crank-rockers
➢ Behaviour is unpredictable because of
uncertain configuration
➢ The links become collinear twice per
revolution of the input crank
➢ If S, L, P, Q are distinct, mechanisms
become those of Grashof conditions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gY0s0oiEnZI
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For distinct lengths:

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Two equal lengths opposite or adjacent to each others:

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 QUICK RETURN MECHANISMS
➢ Convert circular motion into reciprocating motion.
➢ As the disc rotates, the black side moves forwards and backwards.
➢ Power hacksaw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3G3au-EyAQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZO8QEG4x0wY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lW3g_6AN1Jo

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Trammel quick-return mechanism Whitworth quick-return mechanism
 QUICK RETURN MECHANISMS
• A quick return mechanism is an apparatus that converts circular
motion (rotating motion following a circular path) into reciprocating
motion (repetitive back-and-forth linear motion) in presses and shaping
machines, which are utilized to shape stocks of metal into flat surfaces,
throughout mechanical engineering.
• The quick return mechanism is the foundation behind the energy of these
machines.
• The mechanism consists of an arm attached to a rotating disc that moves
at a controlled uniform speed. Unlike the crank, the arm of the
mechanism runs at a different rate than the disc. By having the disc run at
a different rate than the attached arm, productivity increases because the
amount of time needed for a cut is reduced.
• Examples include; Shaper, Screw press, Power-driven saw, Mechanical
actuator, revolver mechanisms
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D_KIOr_TpcM
The motion is transferred from the crank driven by a motor
through the coupler to the left rocker. The two rockers, left
and right, are connected by the rocker coupler, which
synchronizes their motion. The mechanism comprising
links 1 (frame), 2 (crank), 3 (coupler), and 4 (rocker) is
called a four-bar mechanism. In this example, revolute
joints connect all links.

A windshield wiper mechanism.

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