SRINIVAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, MANGALURU

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Mechanism & Machine Theory

Sub Code – 21AE51
Machine & mechanism
 Mechanism & Machine Theoy
sub code 21AE51
Course objectives: This course will enable students
to
• Understand the theory of mechanisms including
velocity, acceleration and static force analysis.
• Acquire knowledge of spur gears, gear train,
balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses.
• Understand the concept of governors and
gyroscope.
 Syllabus
Mechanism & machine theory
Module-1
• Introduction to Mechanisms: Types of constrained motion, Link and
its types, joints and its types, kinematic pair and its types, degrees of
freedom, Grubler’s criterion,
• Types of kinematic chains and inversions: Inversions of Four bar
chain: Beam engine, coupling: rod of a locomotive, Watt’s indicator
mechanism.
• Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain: Pendulum pump or Bull
engine, Oscillating cylinder engine, Rotary internal combustion
engine, Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism,
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism.
• Inversions of Double Slider Crank Chain: Elliptical trammels, Scotch
yoke mechanism, Oldham’s coupling. Straight line motion
mechanisms: Peaucellier’s mechanism and Robert’s mechanism.
• Intermittent Motion mechanisms: Geneva wheel mechanism and
Ratchet and Pawl mechanism, Ackerman steering gear mechanism.
 Module-2 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of
Mechanisms (Graphical Method):

• Velocity, Acceleration and static force analysis of

Mechanisms (Graphical Methods):
• Velocity and acceleration analysis of Four Bar
mechanism, slider crank mechanism and Simple
Mechanisms by vector polygons.
• Static force analysis: Introduction: Static
equilibrium, Equilibrium of two and three force
members. Members with two forces and torque.
Free body diagrams, principle of virtual work.
• Static force analysis of four bar mechanism and
slider-crank mechanism with and without friction.
 Module-3
Spur Gears and Gear Trains
• Spur Gears: Gear terminology, law of gearing,
Path of contact, Arc of contact, contact ratio of
spur gear, Interference in involute gears,
Methods of avoiding interference.
• Gear Trains: Simple gear trains, Compound
gear trains, Reverted gear trains, Epicyclic gear
trains, Analysis of epicyclic gear train
(Algebraic and tabular methods), torques in
epicyclic trains.
 Module-4
Balancing of Rotating and Reciprocating Masses
Balancing of Rotating Masses:
• Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in the Same
Plane, Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in
Different Planes (only Graphical Methods).
• Balancing of Reciprocating Masses: Primary and
Secondary Unbalanced Forces of Reciprocating
Masses, Partial Balancing of Unbalanced Primary
Force in a Reciprocating Engine,
• Balancing of Primary and secondary Forces of
Multi-cylinder In-line Engines, Balancing of Radial
Engines (only Graphical Methods)
 Module-5
Governors and Gyroscope Governors:
• Types of governors; force analysis of Porter and
Hartnell governors, Controlling force, stability,
sensitiveness, isochronism, effort and power of
Porter and Hartnell governors.
• Gyroscopes: Vectorial representation of
angular motion, gyroscopic couple, effect of
gyroscopic couple on plane disc and aeroplane
• BOOK TITLE/AUTHORS/PUBLICATION
• Theory of Machines, Rattan S.S, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, and
3rd edition -2009
• Theory of machines & mechanisms, J J Uicker,
G R Pennock, J. E. Shigley. Oxford 3rd edition
• Mechanism and Machine theory, Ambekar,
PHI,2007
• Theory of machines , J.S Brar, Dr. R.K Bansal
(E-Book)
• Theory of Machines, Sadhu Singh, Pearson
Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd, Indian Branch
New Delhi, 2nd Edition. 2006
• Theory of machines, Kurmi R.S, J.K Gupta
 Course outcome:
After studying this course, students will be able
to:
1. Apply the theory of velocity, acceleration and
static force analysis to design of mechanisms.
2. Design spur gears, gear train, balancing of
rotating and reciprocating masses.
3. Apply governors and gyroscope
 Study of Mechanisms

Kinematics Dynamics
• Deals with the relative motions • Involves calculation of the
of different parts of a forces impressed upon different
mechanism without taking into parts of a mechanism. Forces
consideration the forces can be either static or dynamic.
producing the motions
• Study from a geometric point of • Kinetics – study of forces when
view, to know the displacement, the body is in motion
velocity and acceleration of a • Statics – body is stationary
part of mechanism
• 1- Kinematics: is that branch of Kinematics of machines
which is responsible for study of the motion of bodies
without reference to the forces which are causing this
motion, i.e. it relates the motion variables
(displacement, velocity, acceleration) with the time.
• 2- Kinetics: is that branch which is relates the action of
forces on bodies to their resulting motion.
• 3- Dynamics: is that branch which deals with the forces
and their effects, while acting upon the machine parts
in motion.
• 4- Statics: is that branch which deals with the forces
and their effects, while the machine parts are rest.
 Mechanism
• A number of bodies are assembled in such a way that the
motion of one causes constrained and predictable motion to
the others –Mechanism
• A mechanism transmits and modifies a motion.
• Eg. of mechanisms are typewriters, clocks, watches, spring
toys.
• If the links are connected in such a way that no motion is
possible, it results in a locked chain or structure.
Structures are meant for taking up loads.
• A Machine is a mechanism or a combination of
mechanism which apart from imparting definite motion to
the parts, also transmits and modifies the available
mechanical energy into some kind of work
• In a reciprocating engine, the displacement of the piston
depends upon the length of the connecting rod and crank, it is
independent of the bearing strength of the parts or whether
they are able to withstand the forces or not.
• A slider crank mechanism
converts the reciprocatory
motion of the slider into rotary
motion of a crank and vice versa.
• When it is used as an
automobile engine by adding
valve (ICE)mechanism etc.
•it becomes a machine which
converts the available energy
(force on piston) into the desired
energy (torque of the crank shaft)
• The torque is used to move
vehicle
•examples: Reciprocating pumps, reciprocating compressors
and steam engines
• Rigid body: A body is said to be Rigid if under the action of
forces, it does not suffer any distortion or the distance
between any two points on it remains constant.
• Semi rigid – which are normally flexible, but under certain
loading conditions act as rigid eg. Belt, fluids, springs
• Link – A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies
• It also defined as a member or combination of members of
a mechanism, connecting other members and having
motion relative to them.

• A slider crank mechanism consists of 4 links

• Frame and guides, crank, connecting rod and slider
• A link is also known as kinematic link or element
• Link can be classified as binary, ternary, quaternary etc.
depending upon their ends on which revolute or turning
pairs can be placed.
 Types of constrained motion

• Completely constrained motion: when the motion

between the two elements of a pair is in definitive
direction, irrespective of the force applied, it is known
as completely constrained motion.
Incompletely constrained motion – when the motion
between two elements of a pair is possible in more than
one direction and depends upon the force applied, it is
known as incompletely constrained

Successfully constrained motion – when the motion

between two elements of a pair is possible in more
than one direction, but is made to have motion only
in one direction by using some external means, it is
a successfully constrained motion, foot step bearing,
Piston – cylinder, valves of IC engine
 Kinematic pair
• A kinematic pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links
having relative motion between them.

Crank and slider

In a slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link

1and constitutes a revolute or turning pair. Links 2-3 and
3-4 constitute turning pair. Link 4 slider reciprocates
relative to link 1 and is a sliding pair.
 Kinematic pair

Nature of contact Nature of mechanical Nature of relative

constraint motion
• Lower pair
• Closed pair
• Higher pair • Sliding pair
• Unclosed pair
• Turning pair
• Rolling pair
• Screw pair
• Spherical pair
Nature of contact
a) Lower pair – a pair of links having surface or area contact
between the members is known as a lower pair. The contact surfaces
of the two links are similar. Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in
a bearing, all pairs of slider crank mechanism, universal joint
b) Higher pair
• When a pair has a point or line contact between the links. It is
known as a higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are
dissimilar. Eg. Wheel rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair,
tooth gears, ball and roller bearings.
According to nature of mechanical constraint
• Closed pair – when the elements of a pair are held together
mechanically, it is known as a closed pair. The contact
between the two can be broken only by destruction of at
least one of the members. All the lower pairs and some of
the higher pairs are closed pairs.
Unclosed pair
• When two links of a pair are in contact either due to
force of gravity or some spring action, they constitute
an unclosed pair. The links are not held together
mechanically.
Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion

• Sliding pair – if two links have a sliding motion relative

to each other, they form a sliding pair. A rectangular rod
in a rectangular hole in a prism is a sliding pair.
• Turning pair – when one link has a turning or revolving
motion relative to the other, they constitute a turning or
revolving pair. In a slider crank mechanism, all pairs
except the slider and guide pair are turning pairs. A
circular shaft revolving inside a bearing is a turning pair.
• Rolling pair – when the links of a pair have a rolling
motion relative to each other, they form a rolling pair. Eg.
Wheel rolling on a flat surface, ball and roller bearings
Screw pair (Helical pair)
• If two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion
between them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by
cutting matching threads on the two links. The lead screw
and the nut of the lathe is a screw pair.

Screw Pair
Spherical pair
• When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed
link. It is a spherical pair. The ball and socket joint is a
spherical pair.

Spherical pair
Degrees of Freedom
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe
the following independent motions
1. Translatory motions along any three mutually
perpendicular axes, x, y and z
2. Rotational motions about these axes.
Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom.
The number of restraints can never be zero (joint is
disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid)
Degrees of freedom (DOF) of a pair is defined as the number
of independent relative motions, both translational and
rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – Number of restraints
Classification of Kinematic pairs
• Depending upon the number of restraints imposed on
the relative motion of the two links connected together a
pair can be classified as given
Linkage, Mechanism and structure
• A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain
is fixed to the ground. If motion of any of the movable links
results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is
known as a mechanism.
• To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the
links or linkage, it is necessary to know how many inputs
are needed.
• Mechanisms in which one input is necessary to determine
the motion of the other links, are said to have one degree of
freedom.
• If two inputs are necessary to get constrained motions of
other links, they are said to have 2 degrees of freedom and
so on.
• A structure with –ve DOF is called a superstructure.
Mobility of a mechanism
• A mechanism may consist of a number of pairs belonging
to different classes having different number of restraints
• According to the number of general or common restraints,
a mechanism may be classified into a different order
• A zero order mechanism will have no such restraints
• A first order mechanism has 1 general restraint
• A second order mechanism has 2 general restraint and so
on up to fifth order
• A sixth order mechanism cannot exist since all the links
become stationary and no movement is possible
 Grubler’s equation:
• Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by
Grublers equation F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj,
• where, n2 = number of binary links, n3 = number of ternary
links…etc.
• l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the
number of joints. If more than two links are joined together at
any point, then, one additional lower pair is to be considered
for every additional link.
• h = Number of higher pairs

• If F>0 , mechanism with F DOF results

• If F=0, statically determinate structure
• If F<0, statically indeterminate structure
Problem-1
Find DOF

• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj =4,
• n2 = number of binary links=4
• n3 = number of ternary links=0.
• l=4 (Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by
counting the number of joints. If more than two links
are joined together at any point, then, one additional
lower pair is to be considered for every additional link).
• h = 0 (Number of higher pairs)
• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F=3(4-1)-2(4)-0=1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in definite
motion of all the links
Problem-2
Find DOF

• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj,
• n2 = number of binary links=5
• n3 = number of ternary links=0.
• l=5 (Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by
counting the number of joints. If more than two links
are joined together at any point, then, one additional
lower pair is to be considered for every additional link).
• h = 0 (Number of higher pairs)
• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F=3(5-1)-2(5)-0=2
• I.e., two inputs to any two links are required to yield
definite motions in all the link
Problem-3
Find DOF

• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj =6,
• n2 = number of binary links=4
• n3 = number of ternary links=2.
• l=7 (Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by
counting the number of joints. If more than two links
are joined together at any point, then, one additional
lower pair is to be considered for every additional link).
• h = 0 (Number of higher pairs)
• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F=3(6-1)-2(7)-0=1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.
Problem-4
Find DOF

• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj=6,
• n2 = number of binary links=5
• n3 = number of ternary links=1.
• l=5+2=7 (Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by
counting the number of joints. If more than two links are
joined together at any point (234), then, one additional lower
pair is to be considered for every additional link =1+1=2).
• h = 0 (Number of higher pairs)
• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F=3(6-1)-2(7)-0=1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.
Problem-5
Find DOF

• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F = Degrees of freedom
• n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj=11,
• n2 = number of binary links=10
• n4 = number of quaternary links=1
• l=7+8=15 (Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by
counting the number of joints=7.
• If more than two links are joined together at any point
(346,245,578,81011=4+4=8), then, one additional lower
pair has to be considered for every additional link).
• h = 0 (Number of higher pairs)
• F=3(n-1)-2l-h
• F=3(11-1)-2(15)-0=0
• I.e., DOF=0, statically determinate structure
• Grashof’s law:
• It states that “for a planar 4 bar linkage, the sum of the
shortest and longest link length cannot be greater than
the sum of remaining two links if there is to be continuous
relative motion between two members”
• The longest link has length l
• The shortest link has length s
• Other two links have length p
and q.
• Grashof’s law states that, the
shortest link will rotate continuously
relative to the other three links if and
only if s + l  p + q
• If this inequality is not satisfied, no link will make a
complete revolution relative to another.
• Grashof’s law does not specify the order in which the
links are connected or which link of the four bar chain is
fixed.
• Therefore we create the four inversions of the four bar
linkage

Crank –rocker mechanism

Drag-link mechanism Double-rocker mechanism
Inversions of a mechanism
• A kinematic chain becomes a mechanism when one of its
links is fixed.
• As many number of mechanisms can be obtained depending
on the number of links of the mechanism.
• The method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing
different links of a kinematic chain is called inversion of
the mechanism
• The relative motion between the various links is not altered as
a result of inversion, but their absolute motion with respect to
the fixed link may alter drastically
• If both the links a and c rotate through the full circles, the link b
also makes one complete revolution relative to the fixed link d.
• The mechanism obtained is known as crank – crank, or double crank,
or drag – crank mechanism or rotary converter.
If any of the adjacent links of
link d, i.e. a or c is fixed, d can
have full revolution (crank) and
the link opposite to it oscillates
(rocks)
The mechanism is known as
crank – rocker or crank – lever
mechanism or rotary oscillating
converter
If the link opposite to the shortest link
b is fixed and the shortest link d is
made coupler, the other two links a
and c would oscillate. The mechanism
is known as rocker – rocker or double
rocker or double lever mechanism or
oscillating - oscillating converter
• If in a four bar linkage, two opposite links are parallel
and equal in length, then any of the links can be made
fixed. The two links adjacent to the fixed link will
always act as two cranks. The four links form a
parallelogram in all positions of the cranks, provided
the cranks rotate in the same sense.
 Inversions of mechanism:

• Method of obtaining different mechanisms

• by fixing different links of a kinematic chain.
• A kinematic chain becomes a mechanism
when one of its links is fixed.
• Excepting the original mechanism, all other
mechanisms will be known as inversions of
original mechanism.
INVERSIONS OF 4 BAR CHAIN
 INVERSIONS OF 4 BAR CHAIN
APPLICATIONS
1)Beam engine or Crank and lever mechanism.
2) Coupling rod of locomotive or Double crank
mechanism
3) Watt's straight line mechanism or Double
lever mechanism.
 1.Beam engine/crank and lever mechanism

• It consists of four links

• In this mechanism,
• when the crank rotates about the fixed centre A,
the lever oscillates about a fixed centre D.
• The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston
rod which reciprocates due to the rotation of the
crank.
• In other words, the purpose of this mechanism is to
convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
 2.Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank
mechanism)

• consists of four links

• the links AD and BC (having equal length) act as
cranks and is connected to the respective wheels.
• The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB
is fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to
centre distance between them.
• This mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary
motion from one wheel to the other wheel
 3.Watt’s indicator mechanism (Double lever
mechanism)

• consists of four links

• The four links are: fixed link at A, link AC,
• link CE and link BFD.
• BF and FD form one link because these
• two parts have no relative motion between them.
• The links CE and BFD act as levers.
• The displacement of the link BFD is directly proportional to the
pressure of gas or steam which acts on the indicator plunger.
• On any small displacement of the mechanism, the tracing point
E at the end of the link CE traces out approximately a straight
line.
• The initial position of the mechanism is shown in full lines
whereas the dotted lines show the position of the mechanism
when the gas or steam pressure acts on the indicator plunger.
 Inversions of single slider crank chain

• 1)Reciprocating engine mechanism

• 2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism
• 3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism
• 4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
• 5) Rotary engine mechanism
• 6) Bull engine mechanism
• 7) Hand pump
 Slider crank chain
• When one of the turning pairs of a four bar chain is
replaced by a sliding pair, it becomes single slider crank
chain or slider crank chain
• This is a kinematic chain having four links.
• It has one sliding pair and three turning pairs.
• Link 2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3 has got
combined rotary and reciprocating motion and is called
connecting rod.
• Link 4 has reciprocating motion and is called slider.
• Link 1 is frame (fixed). This mechanism is used to convert
rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa.
 i) Pendulum pump or Bull engine
• used to convert reciprocating motion into oscillatory
motion
• the inversion is obtained by fixing the cylinder or link 4
(i.e. sliding pair)
• In this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates, the
connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to
the fixed link 4 at A
• The piston attached to the
piston rod (link 1) reciprocates.
 Oscillating cylinder engine

• The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine mechanism is used

to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
• the link 3 forming the turning pair is fixed.
• The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating
steam engine mechanism.
• When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to piston rod
(link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin
pivoted to the fixed link at A.
 Rotary internal combustion engine or
Gnome engine

• It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves about

fixed centre D, while the crank (link 2) is fixed.
• In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link 4) rotates, the
piston (link 3) reciprocates inside the cylinders forming link 1.
Rotary Engine
 Quick return motion mechanism:

• Quick return mechanisms are used in machine

tools to give a slow cutting stroke and a quick
return stroke.
• commonly used are
i) Crank and slotted lever mechanism
ii) Whitworth quick return mechanism
iii) Drag link mechanism
 Crank and slotted lever quick return motion
mechanism

• used in shaping machines,

slotting machines and in rotary
internal combustion engines.
• the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the
turning pair is fixed.
• The link 3 corresponds to the
connecting rod of a reciprocating
steam engine.
• The driving crank CB (link
2)revolves with uniform angular
speed about the fixed centre C.
• A sliding block attached to the crank pin at B
slides along the slotted lever AP and thus causes
AP to oscillate about the pivoted point A.
• Short link PR transmits the motion from AP to
the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates
along the line of stroke R1R2.
• The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is
perpendicular to AC produced.
• In the extreme positions, AP1 and AP2 are
tangential to the circle and the cutting tool is at
the end of the stroke.
• The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the
crank rotates from the position CB1 to CB2 (or
through an angle β) in the clockwise direction.
• The return stroke occurs when the crank rotates
from the position CB2 to CB1 (or through angle
α) in the clockwise direction. Since the crank
has uniform angular speed, therefore
 Whitworth quick return motion
mechanism
• used in shaping and slotting machines. In this
mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the
turning pair is fixed.
• The link 2 corresponds to a crank in
a reciprocating steam engine. The
driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a
uniform angular speed.
• The slider (link 4) attached to the
crank pin at A slides along the
slotted lever PA (link 1) which
oscillates at a pivoted point D.
• The connecting rod PR carries the
ram at R to which a cutting tool is
fixed.
• The motion of the tool is
constrained along the line RD
produced, i.e. along a line passing
through D and perpendicular to CD
• When the driving crank CA moves from the position
CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the position DP1 to
DP2) ) through an angle α in the clockwise direction,
the tool moves from the left hand end of its stroke to
the right hand end through a distance 2 PD.
• Now when the driving crank moves from the position
CA2 to CA1 (or the link DP from DP2 to DP1) through
an angle β in the clockwise direction, the tool moves
back from right hand end of its stroke to the left hand
end.
• A little consideration will show that the time taken
during the left to right movement of the ram (i.e.
during forward or cutting stroke) will be equal to the
time taken by the driving crank to move from CA1 to
CA2.
• Similarly, the time taken during the right to left
movement of the ram (or during the idle or return
stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving
crank to move from CA2 to CA1.
• Since the crank link CA rotates at uniform angular
velocity therefore time taken during the cutting
stroke (or forward stroke) is more than the time
taken during the return stroke.
Drag link mechanism
• Four bar mechanism with double crank in
which has the shortest link fixed.
• If the crank AB rotates at uniform speed, the
crank CD will rotate at non uniform speed.
• Rotation of CD is transformed to quick return
reciprocatory motion of the ram E by the link
CE
• If AB rotate through an angle α in ccw during working
stroke, CD rotates through 180°.
• AB continues to rotate through the angle β during
return stroke, CD rotates through another 180°.
• α >β
• Hence time of working stroke is α/β times more or
the return stroke is α/β times quicker.
 Inversions of Double slider – crank chain

• A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two

sliding pairs is known as double slider crank chain
• A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs
such that two pairs of the same kind are adjacent is
known as double slider – crank chain
• First Inversion – this inversion is
obtained when the link 1 is fixed and
the adjacent pairs 23 and 34 are turning
pairs and the other two pairs 12 and 41
are sliding pairs
• Inversions are
• Elliptical Trammel, Scotch yoke, old hams coupling etc
 Elliptical Trammel
• This is a device which is used for
generating an elliptical profile.
• This inversion is obtained by fixing the
slotted plate (link 4), as shown in Fig.
• The fixed plate or link 4 has two straight
grooves cut in it, at right angles to each
other.
• The link 1 and link 3 are sliders and form
sliding pairs with link 4.
• The link AB (link 2) is a bar which forms
turning pair with links 1 and 3.
• When the links 1 and 3 slide along their
respective grooves, any point on the link 2
such as C traces out an ellipse on the
surface of link 4, as shown in Figure.
• If AC = p and BC = q, then, x = q.cosθ and
• y = p.sinθ,
• OR

• This is the equation of an ellipse.

• The path traced by point C is an ellipse,
• with major axis and minor axis equal to
2p and 2q respectively.
 Scotch –yoke mechanism
• converts rotary motion
into a reciprocating motion.
• consists of two turning pairs
(Links 1&2, 2&3) and two
sliding pairs (Links 3&4, 4&1).
• The inversion is obtained by fixing either the
link 1 or link 3.
• In Fig, link 1 is fixed. In this mechanism, when
the link 2 (which corresponds to crank)
rotates about O2 as centre, the link 3 slides
inside the slot and 4 slides corresponds to a
frame
Scotch yoke mechanism
Oldham’s coupling
• Oldham’s coupling is used to connect two parallel shafts when the
distance between their axes is small.
• The two shafts have flanges at the ends and are supported in the
fixed bearings representing the link 3.
• In the flange 2, a slot is cut in which the tongue X of the link is
fitted and has a sliding motion.
• Link 1 is made circular and has another tongue Y to the right angles
to the first and which fits in the recess of the flange of the shaft 4.
• The intermediate link 1 slides in the two slots in the two flanges
while having the rotary motion
Oldham’s coupling
Intermittent Motion mechanisms
• Toggle mechanism,
• Geneva wheel mechanism,
• Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
• Pantograph
Toggle Mechanism/snap action mechanism
• Mechanisms used to overcome a large resistance of a
member with a small driving force are known as snap
action mechanism or toggle mechanism
• Used in variety of machines such as stone crushers,
embossing presses, switches etc.
• Toggle mechanisms are used, where large
resistances are to be overcome through short
distances.
• Here, effort applied will be small but acts over
large distance.
• In the mechanism shown, 2 is the input link, to
which, power is supplied and link 6 is the
output link, which has to overcome external
resistance.
• Links 4 and 5 are of equal length.
• Considering the equilibrium condition of slider
6,

As α 0, tan α 0

• For small angles of α, F (effort) is much smaller

than P(resistance).
• This mechanism is used in rock crushers,
presses, riveting machines etc.
Geneva Wheel Mechanism
➢ Intermittent motion mechanism.
➢ In the mechanism shown link A is driver and it
contains a pin which engages with the slots in
the driven link B.
➢ The slots are positioned in such a manner, that
the pin enters and leaves them tangentially
avoiding impact loading during transmission of
motion.
➢ In the mechanism shown, the driven member
makes one-fourth of a revolution for each
revolution of the driver.
➢ The locking plate, which is mounted on the
driver, prevents the driven member from
rotating except during the indexing period.
 Ratchet Pawl mechanism
➢ This mechanism is used to produce
intermittent circular motion from an oscillating
or reciprocating member.
➢ Ratchets are used to transform motion of rotation
or translation into intermittent rotation or translation.
➢A is the ratchet wheel and C is the pawl. As lever
B is made to oscillate, the ratchet wheel will rotate
anticlockwise with an intermittent motion. A holding
pawl D is provided to prevent the reverse motion of
ratchet wheel.
 Pantograph
• A Pantograph is an instrument
used to reproduce to an
enlarged or a reduced scale
and as exactly as possible to
the path described by a given
point
• It consists of a jointed
parallelogram ABCD as shown
• It is made of bars connected by turning pairs. The bars BA and BC
are extended to O and E respectively such that OA = AD
OB BE
• For all relative positions of the bars, the triangles OAD and OBE
are similar and the points O, D and E are in one straight line

• It may be proved that the point E traces out the same path as
described by point D
• From similar triangles OAD and
OBE, we find that, OD AD
=
OE BE
• Let point O be fixed and the points D
and E move to some new positons D|
and E| . Then, OD OD 1
=
OE OE 1
• The straight line DD| is parallel to
the straight line EE| .
• Hence, if O is fixed to the frame of
a machine by means of a turning pair
and D is attached to a point in the machine which has rectilinear motion
relative to the frame, then E will also trace out a straight line parallel to the
former.
• Pantograph is mostly used for the reproduction of plane areas such as
figures, maps and plans, on enlarged or reduced scale
 Straight line mechanism
• The most common forms of the constraint mechanisms is that it
permits only relative motion of an oscillatory nature along a
straight line.
• The mechanism used for this purpose are called straight line
mechanisms
• These mechanisms are of the following two types,
- in which only turning pairs are used
- in which one sliding pair is used
• These mechanisms can produce exact straight line motion or
approximate straight line motion
• Eg: Peaucellier Mechanism, Robert’s Mechanism
Principle of exact straight line motion mechanism
• Let O be a point on the circumference of
the circle of diameter OP.
• Let OA be any chord and B is a point on
OA produced, such that OA×OB =
constant
• The locus of the point B will be a straight
line perpendicular to the diameter OP
• Draw BQ perpendicular to OP produced
• Join AP
• The triangles OAP and OBQ are similar

OA  OB
Therefore, OA = OQ or, OP×OQ = OA×OB, or OQ =
OP OB OP

But OP is constant, as it is the diameter of the circle, therefore,

if OA×OB = constant, then OQ will be constant. Hence point B
moves along a straight path BQ which is perpendicular to OP
Robert’s Mechanism
• It is a four bar chain Mechanism
which in its mean position has
the form of a trapezium.
• The links OA and O1B are of
equal length and OO1 is fixed.
• A bar PQ is rigidly attached to
link AB at its middle point P.

Robert’s Mechanism,1
 Peaucellier Mechanism
• It consists of a fixed link, OO1 and
other straight links O1A, OC, OD,
AD, DB,BC and CA are connected by
turning pairs at their intersections
• The pin at A is constrained to move
along a circumference of a circle of
fixed diameter OP by means of link O1A
• AC = CB = BD = DA ; OC = OD; and
OO1 = O1A
• It may be proved that the product of OA× OB remains constant
when the link O1A rotates
• Join CD to bisect AB at R, from right angled triangles, ORC and BRC
OC2 = OR2 + RC2 ----- (i) and
BC2 = RB2 + RC2 ------(ii)
subtract eq (ii) from eq (i) we have Peaucellier mechanism, 1,2,3
OC2 – BC2 = OR2 – RB2
= (OR + RB)(OR – RB)
= OB × OA
Since OC and BC are of constant length, OB × OA = constant, hence
point B traces a straight path perpendicular to the diameter OP
 Automobile steering gear mechanism
➢ The steering gear mechanism is used
for changing the direction of wheels
axels with reference to the chassis as
to move the automobile in the desired
path.
➢ The two back wheels have common
axis, which is fixed in direction with
reference to the chassis and the
steering is done by the front wheels.
➢ In automobiles, the front wheels are placed over the front axles,
which are pivoted at the points A and B. These points are fixed to
chassis.
➢ The back wheels are placed over the back axle, at the ends of the
differential tube.
➢ When the vehicle takes a turn, the front wheel along with the
respective axles, turn about the respective pivoted points. The back
wheels remain straight and do not return. Therefore steering is done
by means of front wheels
 Condition for correct steering
➢ In order to avoid skidding (i.e. slipping of the wheels sideways), the
two front wheels must turn about the instantaneous centre I which
lies on the axis of the back wheels.
➢ If the instantaneous of the two front wheels do not coincide with the
instantaneous centre of the back wheels, the skidding on the front
and back wheels will definitely take place, which will cause more wear
and tear of the tyres.
➢ Thus, the condition for the correct steering is that, all four wheels
must turn about the same instantaneous centre. The axis of the inner
wheel makes a larger turning angle θ, than the angle φ, subtended by
the axis of the outer wheel.
➢ Let a = wheel track, b = wheel base and c = distance between the
pivots A and B of the front axle.
BP
➢ Now from triangle IBP, cot  = and from triangle IAP,
IP
AP AB + BP AB BP c c
cot  = = = + = + cot   cot  − cot  =
IP IP IP IP b b
➢ This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this
condition is
satisfied, there
will be no skidding
of wheels, when
the vehicle takes
a turn.

Steering mechanism
1,2
 Ackerman Steering gear
• The Ackerman steering gear consists of turning pairs

• The mechanism ABCD is a four bar crank chain. The shorter links
BC and AD are of equal length and are connected by hinge joints
with front wheel axels.
• The longer links AB and CD are of unequal length
• The following are the only 3 positions for correct steering
• When the vehicle moves along a straight path, the longer links AB
and CD are parallel and the shorter links BC and AD are equally
inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
• When the vehicle is steering to the left, the position of the gear is
shown by dotted lines. The lines of the front wheel axle intersect on
the back wheel axle at I, for correct steering.
• When the vehicle is turning to the right, similar position is
obtained.