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The Fourier Transform, especially after treatments of the theory of the Laplace transform
and the theory of Fourier series and integrals, may be introduced from two perspectives.
On one hand, we may introduce it from the perspective of a special case of the Laplace
transform for a function f ( x ) that is defined on the entire real axis, and in which the
parameter s is pure imaginary ( s jt ), with the angular frequency permitted to
assume all values on the entire interval . On the other hand, we may choose
to introduce it from the perspective of a complex form of the Fourier integral of a non-
periodic function of a function f ( x ) , again defined on the entire real axis. Our treatment
here will use the latter approach, as it appears to relate, physically, much more closely to
other electrical and mechanical engineering concepts, to establish the basic definition.
When we come to investigations of properties of the transform, then we shall frequently
have occasions to refer to the corresponding or analogous properties of the Laplace
transform. Further, for reasons of closeness to electrical or mechanical variables, it will
be more convenient to adopt "t " , which will frequently denote “time”, in place of the
usual " x " for the independent variable in our writings.
To begin then, we recall from our discussions of the extension of the Fourier series to the
representation of non-periodic functions that a function f (t ) , defined on the entire real
axis, t , may be represented by means of the Fourier integral
f (t ) A( ) cos t B( )sin t d , , (2.1.1)
0
where
1
A( )
f ( ) cos d , , (2.1.2)
and
provided,
1. f (t ) and f (t ) are piecewise continuous in every interval, and
2.
f (t ) dt exists.
Note that in the last two statements (2.1.2) and (2.1.3, we have used " " simply as a
dummy variable of integration so as not to get confused with "t " used to specify the
domain of definition of the non-periodic function f (t ) of interest. We shall reinstate
"t " once we have established the desired definition and no further confusion is apparent.
Then by introducing statements (2.1.2) and (2.1.3) in (2.1.1), we may clearly rewrite the
Fourier integral as
1 1
f (t ) f ( ) cos d cos t f ( )sin d sin t d .
0
1
f (t ) f ( ) cos cos t sin sin t d d .
0
1 1
f ( )e
j ( t ) j ( t )
f (t ) f ( ) e d d d d . (2.1.4)
2 0 2 0
By replacing with ( ) in the second term and thereby changing the direction of
integration with respect to , we may recast the integral in this second term as
Upon using this result in (2.1.4) and combining the resulting two terms, we find that
1
f ( )e d d .
j ( t )
f (t ) (2.1.5)
2
1
f (t ) 2
f ( )e j ) d e jt d .
(2.1.6)
It is evident that, once performed and the limits have been substituted, the inner integral
1
2 f ( )e j ) d yields a function of . If we denote this function by F ( ) , then the
F ( )e
jt
f (t ) d , (2.1.7)
with
1
F ( )
2
f ( )e j d . (2.1.8)
Reinstating "t " in place of " " , we may, without further confusion, re-write the latter
expression as
1
F ( )
2
f (t )e jt dt. (2.1.9)
Equations (2.1.7) and (2.1.9) constitute what is commonly known in the literature as the
Fourier Transform Pair. Equation (2.1.9) is known as the Fourier transform F ( ) of
the function f (t ) and for emphasis is thus sometimes symbolised by F f (t ) . Similarly,
f (t ) in equation (2.1.7) is called the Inverse Fourier Transform of F ( ) and is thus
again for reasons of emphasis sometimes denoted by F 1 F ( ) .
A word of caution is necessary at this point though. In the literature there is actually no
universal agreement over the convention that should be used to symbolise what is meant
by the Fourier Transform and what is meant by the Inverse Fourier Transform. Thus,
as the Fourier transform. Others, on the other hand, partition the coefficient equally
between the two expressions and thereby have
1
F ( )e
jt
f (t ) d (2.1.12)
2
Further still, there is also variation in the location of the factor e jt and e j t , in such a
way that the former features in the Fourier Transform, while the latter features in the
Inverse Transform. It is thus important to be aware of these variations when referring to
other sources. Of these we shall henceforth use versions (2.1.10) and (2.1.11) throughout,
so that we may easily relate some of the results here to those already obtained during our
consideration of the Laplace transform.
Turning to expression (2.1.11), we note the similarity between it and the definition of the
Laplace transform of f (t ) :
L f (t ) F ( s) f (t )e st dt. (2.1.14)
0
We see that, apart from the limits of integration, the substitution j s in equation
(2.1.11) yields the Laplace transform. There indeed exists an important relationship
between the two transforms, which will be discussed further subsequently. We should
also note here that although formula (2.1.10) provides a means of recovering a function
f (t ) from its transform, evaluation of the integral is frequently very difficult to evaluate.
Other approaches may therefore have to be resorted to.
f (t )
dt e t e jt dt
jt
F ( ) f (t )e (since f (t ) 0 for t 0)
0
e (1 j )t 1
e (1 j ) t
dt (since e (1 j )t 0 as t ).
0 (1 j ) 0 1 j
Hence
F u (t )et F ( )
1
. (2.1.15)
1 j
Example 2.1.2: Find the Fourier integral representation of the function defined by
1, 1 t 1,
f (t ) (2.1.16)
0, t 1.
2sin
is the required integral representation. We note that F ( ) is the Fourier
sin
transform of f (t ) , defined in equation (2.1.16). Because the function arises very
frequently in applications, it has been given the special name of sinc function.
Just as with Laplace transforms, tables of Fourier transforms have been compiled for
reference. Table 2.1.1 contains some of the common transforms.
f (t ) Au (t )e t , a 0 A
F ( )
j
1, t , 2sin
f (t ) F ( )
0, otherwise
f (t ) A (a constant) F ( ) 2 ( )
f (t ) u (t ) A (a constant) 1
F ( ) A ( )
f (t ) (t ) F ( ) 1
f (t ) (t ) F ( ) e j
f (t ) cos at F ( ) ( a) ( a)
f (t ) sin at
F ( ) ( a) ( a)
j
f (t ) e
t
, 0 2
F ( )
2
2
1, t 0 F ( )
2
f (t ) sgn(t )
1, t 0 j
1 F ( ) j sgn( )
f (t )
t
f (t ) e at
2
F ( ) e
2
/ 4a
2.2.1 Linearity
Both of these properties follow directly from the definition and linearity properties of
integrals, as already seen with regard to Laplace transforms. They emphasise that the
Fourier operator F is linear just like the Laplace operator L. To illustrate, let us consider
an example.
Solution:
a) From definition we have
2
2
e jt e2 j e2 j e2 j e2 j
F ( ) dt 3 e
jt jt
f (t )e dt 3 3 6
2 j 2 j 2 j
sin 2
6 .
sin 2
b) From part a), we already have F ( ) 6 . Upon invoking the First Shift
Theorem, we then find that
sin 2( 1)
F e jt f (t ) F ( 1) 6 .
1
c) By direct computation,
2
2
e j (1 ) t
F e jt
f (t ) e
jt
f (t )e jt
dt 3 e j (1 ) t
dt 3
2 j (1 ) 2
e2 j (1 ) e2 j (1 ) e2 j (1 ) e 2 j (1 ) sin 2( 1)
3 6 6 ,
j (1 ) 2 j (1 ) (1 )
as in part b).
Example 2.2.4:
Use the First Shift Theorem to find the function whose Fourier transform is
1
F ( ) ,
3 j ( 2)
given that F u (t )e mt
1
, m 0.
m j
Solution:
From the given hint, we have F u (t )e3t
1
. Therefore, by the Shift Theorem
3 j
with 2, we get
Example 2.2.5:
a) Find the Fourier transform of
e3t , t 0,
f (t ) 3t
e , t 0.
6
b) Deduce the function whose Fourier transform is G ( ) .
10 2 2
f (t )e jt dt e e dt e e dt
3t jt 3t jt
F ( )
0
(3 j ) t 0
0
e e (3 j ) t
e dt e
(3 j ) t
dt (3 j ) t
0 3 j (3 j ) 0
1 1 6
.
3 j 3 j 9 2
Solution:
1, 1 t 3,
a) The function g (t ) is sketched in the Figure 2.2.2 below.
0, otherwise.
g (t )
1 2 3 t
1, 1 t 3,
Figure 2.2.2: The Graph of g (t )
0, otherwise.
1, t 1,
This function is clearly f (t ) translated 2 units to the right, that is,
0, t 1,
g (t ) f (t 2)
2sin
But we already have F f (t ) F ( ) . Therefore,
2e2 j sin
F g (t ) = F f (t 2) e 2 j F ( ) .
Example 2.3.1: Obtain and sketch the spectrum of the of the non-periodic function
1, t 1,
f (t ) (2.3.1)
0, t 1.
Solution: In Example 2.1.2, we already found that the Fourier transform of this function is
twice the sinc function, that is,
2sin
F ( ) (2.3.2)
In this case the Fourier transform is thus purely real. The spectrum of f (t ) is thus depicted
2sin
by plotting F ( ) against the angular frequency , as illustrated in Figure 2.3.1
below.
1,
t 1
Figure 2.3.1: Spectrum of f (t )
0, t 1
To illustrate further the concept of spread (extent) and location (point of concentration) of
the spectrum of a given non-periodic, we consider the following example, that you will
encounter subsequently in your course of Telecommunications Engineering.
1 1 t
Figure 2.4.1: Illustrating the t Duality Principle
2sin t
2 f ( )
t
2
t 1 1
Example 2.4.2
1
Given that the Fourier transform of f (t ) u (t )et is F ( ) , use the duality
1 j
1
principle to deduce the Fourier transform of g (t ) .
1 jt
Solution
1
Since we know that F ( ) is the Fourier transform of f (t ) u (t )et , the duality
1 j
1
principle informs us that G( ) 2 u ( )e is the Fourier transform of g (t ) .
1 jt
sin te
jt
F ( ) dt , (2.5.1)
we run into problems, since the integral cannot be evaluated in the usual sense due to the
and hence one of the conditions for the existence of an integral representation of a non-
periodic is thus absent.
f (t ) (t )e jt dt f ( ) (2.5.3)
Therefore,
F (t ) (t )e
jt
dt e j . (2.5.4)
In particular, for 0, we have
F (t ) (t )e
jt
dt 1. (2.5.5)
The latter result is depicted in Figure 2.5.1.
t
Figure 2.5.1: The Spectrum of F (t ) 1
F (t )
2 ( )
F
1 2
t
2 2 2 (2.5.8)
( a) ( a) .
Likewise, we find that
Solution
From the definition and by direct integration, for Laplace transform we have
e ( s 3)t
L f (t ) L u (t )e u(t )e 1
3t 3t
e dt e
st ( s 3) t
dt , (2.6.6)
0 0 ( s 3) 0 s 3
provided s 3.
Clearly, therefore, f (t ) u (t )e3t has a Laplace transform, but not a Fourier transform.
Example 2.6.2:
Comment on the result of setting s j in Laplace transforms of the functions
f (t ) u (t )e2t and g (t ) u (t )e2t .
Solution:
First, we recall that
L u (t )e st and L u (t )e st
1 1
. (2.6.8)
s2 s2
Replacing s by j in both expressions we find that
1 1 1 1
and .
s2 2 j s2 j 2
But we also know that
F u (t )e2t
1
2 j
.
Thus, replacement of s by j in the Laplace transform of f (t ) u (t )e2t yields its
Fourier Transform. On the other hand, however, we know that the Fourier
transform, F u(t )e2t , of the function f (t ) u (t )e2t does not exist, despite the
1
replacement of s by j in its Laplace transform yielding ! Consequently we
j 2
1
must not simply interpret as the Fourier transform of g (t ) u (t )e2t .
j 2
Notwithstanding the foregoing example, the Fourier transform does possess certain
advantages over the Laplace transform. Thus, for instance, while the Laplace transform can
only be applied to functions that are initially zero, that is, are zero for t 0, the Fourier
transform is applicable to functions with domain t . It important to note this
difference, particularly in situations where t does not represent time but, say, some spatial
variable, because we then often have to deal with negative values of t .
Finally, we should point out that although the inverse Fourier transform
In cases where f (t ) and g (t ) are zero for t 0, this expression reduces to that for Laplace
transform, namely,
t
f g f (t ) g ( )d (2.4.11)
0
Convolution Theorem:
If F ( ) F f (t ) is the Fourier transform of f (t ), while G( ) F g (t ) is the Fourier
transform of g (t ), then
F f g F f (t )F g (t ) F ( )G( ). (2.4.12)
A graphical representation of convolution is often useful in as far it can throw some light
on the underlying process and help us to determine the appropriate limits of integration.
To illustrate these points, let us consider the following example.
Example 2.7.1
a) Using the defining formula for convolution, compute the convolution f g ,
given that f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t , where u (t ) is the unit step function.
b) Verify the Convolution Theorem for these two functions.
Solution
The convolution of f and g is given by
f g
f (t ) g ( )d .
1
f (t ) u (t )et
g (t ) u (t )e 2t
t
Figure 2.7.1: Graphs of f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t
The first step is to understand and provide interpretation to the functions that feature in the
integrand. Thus, if f (t ) u (t )et , then f ( ) u ( )e . Likewise, if and g (t ) u (t )e 2t , then
g ( ) u ( )e2 . On the other hand, g ( ) is obtained by reflecting g ( ) in the vertical
axis, as depicted in Figure 2.7.2 (a). The process of reflection about the axis is sometimes
called folding in signal processing.
1 f ( ) u ( )e
Figure 2.7.1(a): Graphs of f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t
The folded graph can then be translated (shifted along the horizontal axis) by t units the left
or right by changing the argument of g to g (t ).
g (t ) u (t )e 2( t )
1 f ( ) u ( )e
when t 0
t
Figure 2.7.2(b): Graphs of f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e2(t )
If t is negative the graph moves to the left as shown in Figure 2.7.2 (b) above. On the hand,
if t is positive, the graph to the right, as shown in Figure 2.7.2 (c) below. In Figure 2.7.2, we
have superimposed the graphs of f ( ) , shown red, and g (t ), shown blue, for t being
zero, negative and positive. Quite clearly, when the graphs do not overlap, as in Figure 2.7.2
(a), the product f ( ) g (t ) and hence the convolution, must be zero. To identify when the
graphs over lap, we examine the domains t 0 and t 0 separately.
g (t ) u (t )e 2( t )
when t 0
t
Figure 2.7.2(c): Graphs of f ( ) u ( )e and g (t ) u (t )e2(t )
0
0 0
The complete expression for the convolution then has the form
et e2t , t 0,
f g (2.4.15)
0, t 0.
Using the unit step function, we may re-write this expression more compactly as
f g u(t ) et e2t (2.4.16)
In order to verify the Convolution Theorem for the functions f (t ) u (t )et and
g (t ) u (t )e 2t , from Table of Fourier transforms presented at the beginning of the Chapter,
we have
F ( ) F u (t )e t , G ( ) F u (t )e2t
1 1
.
1 j 2 j
Their product is therefore
1
F ( )G ( ) .
(1 j )(2 j )
Expressing this product as partial fractions, we have
1 1 1
F ( )G ( ) .
(1 j )(2 j ) 1 j 2 j
Taking the inverse transform of this product and exploiting the linearity property, we get
Example 2.7.2
c) Using the defining formula for convolution, compute the convolution f g ,
1, 1 t 1,
given that f (t ) and g (t ) u (t )et ,
0, elsewhere,
where u (t ) is the unit step function.
Solution
The convolution of f and g is given by
f g
f (t ) g ( )d .
f (t )
g (t ) u (t )et
1 1
1 1 t t
t
2.7.3: Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )e
Evaluating a convolution at the beginning can be difficult to conceptualise, and so we shall
develop the procedure and hence solution in stages.
2.7.4 (a): Graphs of the “top-hat” function g ( ) u ( )e and its reflection about vertical axis
Like previously, the function g ( ) is obtained by reflecting or folding the graph of the
function g ( ) in the vertical axis. This folding is shown in Figure 2.7.4 (a) above. The folded
graph can than be translated a distance t to the left or to the right by changing the argument
of the function g to g (t ) . If t is negative, the Figure 2.7.4 (a) moves to the left, whereas if
it is positive it moves to the right. The resulting graphs are shown in Figures 2.7.4 (b) – (f).
1
g (t ) u (t )et
when t 1
t 1 1
2.7.4 (b): Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )et
1
g (t ) u (t )et
when t 1
1 1
t
2.7.4 (c): Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )e
1 t 1
2.7.4 (d): Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )et
1
g (t ) u (t )et
when t 1
1 t 1
2.7.4 (e): Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )et
1
t
g (t ) u (t )e
when t 1
1 t 1
2.7.4 (f): Graphs of the “top-hat” function and g (t ) u (t )et
When t 1, the graphs overlap, but only for values of in the range 1 1. So
1 t
f g e (t ) d e t e d e t e e t e1 e 1 .
1
1
1 1
t 1 1
e e e , t 1.
To this we first observe that the convolution is defined differently over the various portions
of the domain of integration. Consequently, we must find the Fourier transform of the
transform by integrating over each part of the domain separately. In other words, we must
obtain the Fourier transform of the convolution by means of the expression
1 1
f g (t ) e jt dt f g (t ) e jt dt f g (t ) e jt dt f g (t ) e jt dt .
1 1
1 1 1 1
f g (t ) e
jt
dt e1 e 1 e t e jt dt
1 1
e1 e 1 e (1 j ) t dt
1
e (1 j ) t
e e 1 1
(1 j ) 1
e j (1 j )
e1 e 1 .
1 j
On adding the three components, we then get
e j e j 1 e
(1 j )
e(1 j ) (1 j )
e e
1 e
f g (t ) e
jt
dt e 1
j 1 j 1 j
e j e j e(1 j ) e (1 j )
e 1 e1
j 1 j 1 j
e j e j e j e j
j 1 j 1 j
e j e j 2 j e j e j
j 1 j 2j
2sin 2 j sin
1 j )
2sin
(1 j )
2sin 1
F ( )G ( ),
1 j
Note that mathematically this formula is virtually the same as that for the convolution,
except for the important difference that the function g is not folded, that is, we have
g ( t ) rather than g (t ) . Correlation, unlike convolution, is not exactly commutative in
the strict sense, but it can be written alternatively as
f g
f ( t ) g ( )d (2.7.10)
Correlation Theorem
If F f (t ) F ( ) and F g (t ) G( ) , then the Fourier transform of the correlation of
f (t ) and g (t ) is given by
F f g F ( )G( ) (2.7.11)
This theorem thus gives a technique of computing the correlation of two functions using the
Fourier transform, since by the inverse Fourier transform formula we then find that
F 1 F ( )G( ) f g. (2.7.12)
Thus, it is possible to find the correlation of two functions f (t ) and g (t ) using the Fourier
transform through the following steps:
Step 1:
Find the corresponding Fourier transforms F ( ) F f (t ) and G( ) F g (t ) ;
Step 2:
Replace the argument of G( ) F g (t ) by and then multiply by
F ( ) F f (t ) to obtain F ( )G ( );
Step 3:
Find the inverse Fourier transform of the product F 1 F ( )G( ) f g.
Like for the case of convolution, this is in fact the process used for finding convolutions
using a computer.
Example 2.7.3
e) Using the defining formula for correlation, compute the correlation f g ,
given that f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t , where u (t ) is the unit step function.
f) Verify the Correlation Theorem for these two functions.
Solution
The correlation of f and g is given by
f g
f (t ) g ( )d .
1
f (t ) u (t )et
g (t ) u (t )e 2t
t
Figure 2.7.5: Graphs of f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t
Evaluating a correlation can also be difficult to conceptualise, and may require development
of the procedure and hence solution in stages.
The first step again is to provide interpretation to the functions that feature in the integrand.
Thus, if f (t ) u (t )et , then f ( ) u ( )e . Likewise, if and g (t ) u (t )e 2t , then
g ( ) u ( )e2 . As there is no folding, we do not need to give an interpretation to the
function g ( ) , as was the case for convolution. Instead, we simply look at g ( t ) as the
function g ( ) translated to the left or right a distance t along the horizontal axis. If t 0
the translation is to the left and if t 0 , the translation is to the right, as depicted in Figures
2.7.6(a) and (b).
Where the graphs do not overlap, the product f ( ) g ( t ) , and hence the correlation is
zero. Specifically, when t 0 , the graphs overlap for 0 . Hence,
1
f ( ) u ( )e
g ( t ) u ( t )e 2( t )
when t 0
Figure 2.7.6(a): Graphs of f ( ) u ( )e and g ( t ) u ( t )e2( t )
f ( ) u ( )e
1
g ( t ) u ( t )e 2( t )
when t 0
Figure 2.7.6(b): Graphs of f ( ) u ( )e and g ( t ) u ( t )e2( t )
e3 1 t
f g f (t ) g ( )d e e 2( t )
d e 2t
e
3
d e
2t
e .
t t t 3 t 3
To verify the correlation theorem for the functions f (t ) u (t )et and g (t ) u (t )e 2t , from
Table of Fourier transforms, we again have
F ( ) F u (t )e t , G ( ) F u (t )e2t
1 1
.
1 j 2 j
Therefore
1
F ( )G ( ) .
(1 j )(2 j )
F f g (t ) f g (t ) e jt
0 0
1 1 1 1
3
e 2t e jt dt e t e jt dt e (2 j )t d e (1 j )t d
30 3 30
0
1 e(2 j ) t 1 e (1 j ) t 1 1
3 2 j 3 1 j 0 3(2 j ) 3(1 j )
1
F ( )G ( ),
(1 j )(2 j )
as expected.
It is instructive to observe the following points from the foregoing example. First, we note
that for both t 0 and t 0, we have
lim f g (t ) 0 .
t
0
It thus follows that when there is no overlap we have a zero correlation and when there is a
complete overlap we get maximum correlation. When there is partial overlap the correlation
will lie some where between zero and the maximum value. It is this feature that underlies the
application of the concept of correlation in signal detection in radar and sonar systems.