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OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Petroleum Open Learning
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Gas Flow Measurements Petroleum Open Learning
As a large part of this subject deals with calculations, you will require to be comfortable with
maths up to about standard grade level. Visual Cues
Although some of the equations are fairly complex, all relevant data and information is
provided to assist you to solve the problems. training targets for you to
All formulae required for calculations in your examination will be provided for achieve by the end of the unit
you. However, it is necessary that you are able to recognise the symbols
in formulae and allocate the correct units of measurement to each
symbol in your calculations
You will also find that a scientific calculator will be useful for this programme. test yourself questions to see
how much you understand
Contents Page
check yourself answers to
let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
* Training Targets 4
* Introduction 5
activities for you to apply your
* Section 1 - Gas Flow Measurement Applications and Gas Physics 6 new knowledge
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Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Gas Flow Measurement, you will be able to:
• State the gas laws and perform relevant calculations using the appropriate units of measurements.
• Define molecular mass, gas density and specific gravity, and perform calculations when given appropriate formulae.
• Define Reynold’s number and, given Reynold’s equation, define the terms in it and use it in a calculation.
• Describe Bernoulli’s principle and state the types of pressure in a flowing fluid.
• Describe the main types of gas flow measuring devices.
• State the relationship between differential pressure and flowrate.
• Describe the main features of orifice plate meters.
• Perform a flowrate calculation in which all necessary formulae and data are given.
• Draw a schematic diagram of a typical multi-stream system which complies with fiscal standards.
• Describe the main safety implications associated with metering systems.
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Gas Gas Separation
Flow Measurement Systems Petroleum Open Learning
Introduction
Introduction
For most of this century there has been a necessity to measure gas flow accurately, both in commercial applications and scientific investigations.
The measurement of gas flow is more complex than that of liquid since gas is more sensitive to physical factors, such as pressure, temperature, composition,
etc. It has therefore been subjected to considerable research effort, which has led to a high degree of accuracy now being possible.
In this book we will be mainly concerned with natural gas flow measurement, but the principles are generally applicable to all gas phase matter.
Section 1, Gas Flow Measurement Applications and Gas Physics, outlines areas in which the ability to accurately measure gas flow is essential. It then
covers the basic physics of gas behaviour, which are essential to an understanding of the measurement and flow calculation methods.
Section 2, Fluid Flow Principles, presents the concepts of laminar and turbulent fluid flow, develops the Bernoulli and continuity principles to produce a
simple flowrate / differential pressure relationship.
Section 3, Measurement Devices and Methods, describes various fluid flow measurement devices which are applicable to gases. It then gives a more
detailed treatment of the orifice plate method, since this is the one most widely used. It ends with the ISO 5167 formula, and an explanation of its terms.
Section 4, Orifice Plate Metering Equipment, describes : various orifice plate designs, differential pressure and gas density sensing and measuring
equipment and a typical gas metering station. It ends by drawing attention to the safety aspects of gas metering systems.
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Units of Measurement
It is not possible to fully appreciate the methods
and procedures of gas flow metering without a
basic understanding of the physical behaviour
of gases, in particular the relationship between
pressure, volume and temperature.
Boyle’s Law
Figure 1 illustrates the principle behind Boyle’s
Law, which describes the relationship between
the volume occupied by a given mass, or number
of molecules, of gas and its pressure, while the
temperature remains constant.
The weight (W) balances the force due to the If we double this force to give us four times
Figure 1 depicts a piston in a cylinder which pressure (P), and the gas occupies a volume (V), the original force, Figure 1 (c) shows that
contains a fixed mass of gas. The highly energetic as shown in Figure 1 (a). a gas pressure of 4P is produced and the
gas molecules collide with each other and with the
volume is reduced to 1/4 of V1.
cylinder walls and the piston face, resulting in a Now consider what happens if we double the force
force being exerted. The property we describe as on the piston, a condition we achieve by applying The relationship between the pressure and volume
pressure is defined as the magnitude of that force a second weight of the same mass as the first one is now clear. Doubling the pressure halves the
divided by the area over which it acts. (we assume that the piston itself is weightless), to volume; quadrupling the pressure reduces the
exert 2W. volume to a quarter of its original value. Boyle’s
The force acting on the bottom face of the piston
Law expresses this formally with the statement that:
is therefore the pressure multiplied by the cross To balance this force the gas must now exert At constant temperature, the absolute pressure
sectional area of the piston. To prevent the piston twice the pressure, i.e. 2P. If we measure the new of a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely
being driven out of the cylinder, a force of the volume we find it to be 1/2 of V1, as shown in proportional to the volume.
same magnitude must be applied downwards, in Figure 1 (b).
this case by a weight (W).
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If the Ifvolume
the volume is measured at various temperatures and the
is measured at various temperatures
results are plotted on a graph, we obtain a diagram like
and the results are plotted on a graph, we obtain
Figure 3 when we use the Celsius temperature scale
a diagram like Figure 3 when we use the Celsius
temperature scale.
Figure 3 : Volume / Temperature Graph Figure 4 : Volume / Temperature Graph (Celsius and Kelvin Scale)
(Celsius Scale Only)
We see that there is a simple linear relationship Figure 4 is similar to Figure 3, but with the graph line extrapolated to intersect the Temperature axis.
between the volume and temperature (the graph This point is taken as 0 for our other temperature scale, and we see that it corresponds to -273.15°C.
is a straight line). However calculations involving Absolute Zero is the term that is commonly applied to this temperature, since it is physically impossible
temperatures below 0°C are slightly inconvenient to achieve lower temperatures than it. Absolute zero has been approached experimentally, but has never
due to the presence of negative numbers. This been quite achieved; and is therefore a theoretical value rather than a practical one. We see in Figure 4
problem is solved by employing a different that the gas would occupy no volume at that point; a futile observation, since no substance would be in
temperature scale which only has positive values. the gas phase at such a low temperature.
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Absolute zero is the lowest point on the absolute To derive a mathematical expression of Charles'
temperature scale, which is measured in units Law we can employ a similar argument to the one
called Kelvin (K) in the SI system. In the Imperial we used for Boyle's Law.
system the units are known as Rankine (˚R).
The statement that the volume of gas is
As evident in Figure 4, the unit step sizes for the proportional to its temperature can be written as :
Kelvin and Celsius scales are the same. So a
one degree Celsius temperature change is also V = cT
one Kelvin. (A convention, which is by no means
universally applied, is to omit the term degree where c is a constant
when using absolute temperature units). O°C,
then, is 273.15 K, and 100°C is 373.15 K, so to so c=V
convert from °C to K we simply add 273.15 to the T
°C value.
We see in Figure 5 that if the absolute Referring to Figure 5 (a) and (b) we see that
Absolute zero on the Rankine scale is equal to temperature is doubled, the gas volume will also
-459.67°F, and a degree on the Rankine scale is be doubled. V1 = c and V2 =c
the same size as a degree on the Fahrenheit T1 T2
scale. Charles' Law, then, states that: at constant
pressure, the volume occupied by a given hence : V1 = V2
In most practical situations sufficient accuracy is mass of gas is proportional to its absolute T1 T2
achieved by using 273 as the conversion factor temperature.
between Celsius and Kelvin, and 460 between
Fahrenheit and Rankine. However, where high
This equation can be used to evaluate the new
accuracy is required, such as in fiscal gas flow
volume or temperature of an ideal gas for a
measurement, the more exact values should be
change in which the pressure stays constant.
used.
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The first step is to ensure that the pressures and You will find the answer in Check Yourself 1.1 on page 54.
temperatures are in absolute units. The pressures
are quoted in bar a, which means that the values are
absolute. However we will have to add 273 to the
temperatures to convert them from ˚C to K.
V2 = 3 x 5 x 318 Let us consider methane, the lightest alkane hydrocarbon and the main component of natural gas. It is a
(1.5 x 288)
molecule comprising one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. Carbon has an atomic mass of 12
atomic mass units (a.m.u.). Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1 a.m.u. The molecular mass of methane is
V2 = 11.04 Ltr
the sum of the masses of its constituent atoms, which is therefore 12 + (4 x 1) = 16 a.m.u.
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Although it may not be scientifically correct, the An appropriate unit of measurement for molecular Having seen how the molecular mass of pure
terms molecular mass and molecular weight weight (Mw) is obtained by using the units in the substances like methane and ethane are
(Mw) are often used interchangeably. calculated, we will now determine the molecular
n= m equation. Hence: mass of a mixture of components, such as
The very small size of atoms and molecules Mw natural gas. We have already seen that methane
makes calculations using their individual masses is the main constituent of natural gas, but it
inconvenient. A more practical approach is to n(kg-mol) = m(kg) also contains smaller quantities of heavier
consider the mass of a large number of them, and Mw hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane and
this involves the concept of the mole. Mw = m(kg) butane. The relative amounts of these can vary
n(kg-mol) considerably between samples of gas, depending
The mole, usually written as mol, or gramme- on factors such as the reservoir conditions,
mole (g-mol) is defined as the atomic or processing methods, etc. These variations can
molecular mass of a substance expressed in So, in this case, the unit of molecular mass is have very significant effects on the behaviour of
grammes. kg/kg-mol. It may also be written as kg kg-mol-1 gas during handling and measurement of its flow
It will have the same value when expressed in rates.
The number of moles of substance is usually units of g/g-mol, so molecular mass is one of the
assigned the symbol n, and is easily calculated few physical quantities for which it is acceptable We will use a simple example of a
for a given mass (m) of material using the to omit its unit of measurement. two-component mixture of methane and ethane.
relationship:
To perform the calculation, we will obviously
n= m need to know the relative quantities of each
Mw
Test Yourself 1.2 component. These are expressed as mole-
fractions, which simply means the relative
EXAMPLE number of molecules of each constituent. Let
Calculate the molecular mass of ethane, us assume that our mixture has mole-fractions
Calculate the number of kg-mol in 40 kg of which is a molecule comprising two carbon of 80% and 20% for methane and ethane
methane. and six hydrogen atoms. respectively. In other words, 80 of every 100
molecules of the mixture are methane, and 20 are
We have already seen that the molecular mass of ethane.
methane is 16.
You will find the answer in Check Yourself
n = m = 40 = 2.5kg-mol 1.2 on page 54.
Mw 16 12
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The procedure is shown in the following table, and involves adding up the The physical behaviour of the heavier mixture will be considerably different
results of multiplying the mole-fraction of each component by its molecular from that of the lighter one.
mass.
The procedure for calculating the molecular mass of mixtures of more than
Component Mol. Mass Mol. Fraction Mol. mass x two components is exactly the same as for two.
Mol.Fraction
PV = a constant
T
Test Yourself 1.3 In other words, for a given type and mass of an ideal gas, the absolute
pressure multiplied by the volume and divided by the absolute temperature
Calculate the molecular mass of a mixture comprising 60% will always produce the same answer.
methane, and 40% ethane.
If we call the constant C, we can rewrite the equation as:
PV = CT
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Because it applies to all ideally behaving gases, We first find the number of moles of air using:
R is termed the universal gas constant. Its
value will depend on the units by which the other n = m = 1.5 = 0.0517 kg-mol
terms in the equation are measured; the following Mw 29
table shows values of R for various combinations
of units. and use this value in : PV = nRT, having selected the appropriate value of R
from the table as 0.0831. Note that this will make our volume units m3. As these
are the most commonly used units for gas measurement calculations, we will use
0.0831 for all our calculations where a value of R is required
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Reference Pressures and There are various conventions for expressing EXAMPLE
reference volumetric and volumetric flow rate
Temperatures What is the actual volume of 5m3 (st) of an ideal
units. For example the standard cubic metre
may be written as sm3. The oil industry often gas at 3 bar and 25°C.
Gas flow rates are often quoted in volumetric units,
such as m3 / minute and ft3 / minute. Having expresses gas flow rates in millions of volume We will use
studied the very significant interdependence of units per day, which would be 106 sm3 / d or 106
pressure, temperature and volume, you will now sft3 / d. However, the oil industry would normally P1V1 = P2V2
be aware that it is meaningless to express a write these as MMSCMD or MMSCFD, although T1 T2
volume of gas without stating the pressure and you may also come across ksm3/hr (1000m3 (st)
temperature at which it is measured. This has led / hour in place of MMSCMD. Before performing and assign the standard conditions to the left side.
to the establishment of reference conditions for any calculations, you must always ensure that you
gas volumetric measurements. know which units the quantities you are using are
Hence:
expressed in, and the units that will apply to the
The values of reference pressures and temperatures result.
may vary between countries and contracts, but the P1 = 1.013 bar
most common ones are Gas volumes or volumetric flow rates measured at T1 = 15°C = 288 K
pressures and temperatures other than reference V1 = 5 m3
1. 1.013 bar ; 15°C ones are sometimes called actual volume, or P2 = 3 bar
2. 1.013 bar ; 0°C actual volumetric flow rate. 1 m3 at 10 bar and T2 = 298 K
40°C is an actual cubic metre at that pressure and
3. 14.73 psia ; 60°F temperature, and would require conversion to be and we are required to find V2.
expressed in terms of reference conditions, as the
The first one is usually termed Standard following example shows.
Pressure and Temperature, and the second 1.013 x 5 = 3 X V2
Normal Pressure and Temperature. However 288 298
you should be aware that some textbooks use
Standard Pressure and Temperature (STP) with 0.01007 X V2 = 0.01759
a reference temperature of 0°C. Clearly, the first
two conditions apply to the metric system, and the V2 = 0.01759 = 1.747 m3
third to the imperial system. 0.01007
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EXAMPLE
Calculate the volume occupied by 1 kg-mol of b) Accounting for non-ideal gas behaviour, we find
Activity methane at 70 bar and —35°C, in Figure 7 that Z = 0.68 (interpolation between
the T = —30°C and T = —40°C curves was
a) ignoring non-ideal behaviour required). So we use this value in :
Use Figure 7 to find values of Z for each
of the following sets of conditions :
b) accounting for non-ideal behaviour. PV = ZnRT
1. 70 bar ; 20oC
a) Assuming ideal behaviour, we simply apply V = ZRT
P
2. 100 bar ; -70oC
PV = nRT
= 0.68 x 0.0831 x 238
3. 150 bar ; 0oC
Since n = 1 kg-mol, we can ignore it. So 70
V = RT = 13.449
P 70
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EXAMPLE
We have already seen that, to perform gas We have also seen that the compressibility factor 65 x 3 = 150 x V2
calculations involving changes in conditions from varies with pressure and temperature, so 0.88 x 293 0.61 x 243
P1, V1 and T1 to P2, V2 and T2 , we use: different values of Z are likely to be required for
each set of conditions; ie. Z1 for P1, V1 and T1, 1.012 V2 = 0.756
P1V1 = P2V2 and Z2 for P2, V2 and T2.
T1 T2 V2 = 0.756 = 0.747 m3
The complete equation will be : 1.012
You will now be aware that, unless the gas is
ideal at both sets of conditions, corrections will P1V1 = P2V2 Until now, we have used Z values which were
have to be applied. Z1T1 Z2T2 less than 1, which caused the volume occupied
by a given mass of gas to be less than that
predicted by the ideal gas equation.
It should now be clear that, if Z is greater than 1, Figures 8 and 9 are examples of such charts, and apply to mixtures of molecular mass 18.85 and
the volume at a given pressure, or the pressure at a 23.2 kg / kg-mol respectively. Charts are also available for lower, intermediate and higher molecular
given volume, will be greater than that predicted by masses. When applying factors to mixtures with molecular masses that are between values for which
the ideal law. You will also observe, when studying charts are available, reasonable accuracy can be achieved by interpolation.
Figure 7, that Z is only significantly greater than 1
at pressures and temperatures considerably higher
than those we normally encounter.
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Density Example
s.g. = ρg
ρ
a
where the subscripts g and a denote the gas
being evaluated and air respectively.
sgmethane = ρ methane
ρ a
Summary of Section 1
Applications in which accurate gas flow measurement is required are :
Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law combine to express the relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature of gases when they behave
ideally, with the proviso that absolute temperature and pressure units must be used in the calculations.
The number of moles of a substance is found by dividing its mass by its molecular mass, a procedure that can be applied to mixtures as well as
pure substances.
The number of moles (n) can then be used in PV = nRT, where R is defined as the universal gas constant.
The interdependence of these properties demands the use of reference pressure and temperature at which gas volumes are calculated.
Most gases only obey the ideal gas laws at certain pressures and temperatures, so the compressibility factor (Z) is introduced to compensate for
non ideal behaviour.
Gas density can be evaluated from the ideal gas equation, and gas specific gravity is defined as its density divided by that of air, both values being
referred to standard conditions. Gas specific gravity is also found by dividing the molecular mass of the gas by that of air.
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For calculation purposes, the mean or average velocity is the important value;
The Streamline Concept in a laminar flow situation it would typically be about half the maximum velocity.
The construction of streamlines in a diagram is designed to enable Consider now what happens if the flow rate is increased. The laminar profile is
a visual image of fluid flow characteristics to be achieved, In simple maintained until a certain fluid velocity is reached, at which point eddy currents
terms, streamlines are drawn such that adjacent lines represent start to appear, indicating a breakdown of the laminar pattern as the layers start
different fluid flow speeds. to mix, and the onset of turbulent flow.
Turbulence commences near the centre of the pipe, where the velocity is
Flow Types : Laminar and Turbulent
greatest, and spreads towards the pipe wall as the flow rate increases. At the
pipe wall a thin layer of laminar flow will survive unless very severe turbulence
occurs. A flow pattern exists between the turbulent and laminar regions which is
known as the boundary layer or transition layer, as shown in Figure 11.
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The velocity profile is much flatter in a turbulently Reynold’s Number Viscosity can be considered simply as an
flowing fluid, as we see in Figure 12. indication of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Treacle
An indication of whether fluid flow is likely to be at temperatures below 10°C, for example, has a
laminar or turbulent, or between them, can be much higher viscosity than water. Gases generally
obtained by calculating a value called Reynold’s have considerably lower viscosities than liquids,
Number (Re), using the following formula: but this is partially compensated for in Reynold’s
number calculations by their densities also being
Re = ρDVavg lower.
µ
Reynolds number is an important factor in flow
Where: calculations, and is often incorporated in a quantity
called the discharge coefficient, as we will see
D = Internal Pipe Diameter (m) later.
vavg = Average Fluid Velocity (m / s)
ρ = Fluid Density (kg / m3)
= Fluid Viscosity (kg / m s)
Test Yourself 2.1
µ
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Here we see that the pressure of a flowing fluid, The Continuity Equation Alternatively, or additionally, you could consider a
subjected to the constraints I have described, particle which is travelling at the average velocity v
consists of two components : P is referred to as of the flowstream. If, for example, the velocity is 2
the m / s, the particle will move 2 m along the pipe in
1 second and the volume of fluid displaced will be
2 x A (the volume of a cylinder is calculated by
static pressure, and ρv2 is called the dynamic multiplying its cross-sectional area by its length;
2 so the volume of fluid moving along the pipe
pressure, because it is associated with the fluid in one second is, in effect, that of a cylinder of
velocity. Clearly, if the fluid is stationary, the total cross-sectional area A and length 2 m).
pressure would be P. Using the symbol PT to
represent the total pressure: The mass flowrate Qm is derived from ρ = M so
V
ρ Em = PT = P + ρv2 m = ρV, and, replacing V with Qv,
2
Qm =ρ Qv = ρ v A
We now have an equation with only three physical Figure 13: Velocity / Cross-sectional Area
quantities : pressure, density and velocity. If the Relationship We now have two simple formulae relating
fluid density is known, and we measure the total volumetric and mass flow rates to pipe dimensions
and static pressures, we can calculate the velocity. Figure 13 represents fluid flowing, at an average and fluid velocities.
This is the principle used by the Pitot Tube, which velocity v, through a pipe of cross-sectional area A.
I will describe later.
The volumetric flowrate Qv is given by:
Qv =Av
Here we see fluid flowing at average velocity V1, from the section of pipe with cross-section
area A, to the section with area a where its average velocity is v2. To account for compressible fluids
which might experience a change in density, we note that the densities are ρ1 and ρ2 in the wide and
narrow sections respectively.
The continuity equation, as its name might suggest, is based on the principle that the mass flowrate
must be constant through all cross-sections of a flowstream. So the mass flowrate in the wide section
(ρ1 A v1) is equal to the mass flowrate in the narrow section (ρ2 a v2) :
ρ1 A v1 = ρ2 a v2 =Qm
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EXAMPLE
Av =av
1 2
Figure 15 : Pipeline Diameter Reduction
π x 0.1502 x 0.5
v2 = A v1 = 4
a π x 0.0752
4 Figure 15 is silimar to Figure 14, but with the addition of two pressure gauges, P1 and P2, which
measure the static pressures of the wide and narrow pipe sections respectively.
The π s cancel to give:
Consistent with the assumption that energy losses due to friction are negligible, the total pressure PT
4
remains constant; thus we can write:
v2 = 0.01125 = 2m/s
0.005625
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
We can also apply the Bernoulli pressure
relationship, in which the total pressure is the sum
Clearly the pressure P2 must be less than P1 to compensate for v2 being greater than v1 and to obey
of the static and dynamic elements, to a situation
this equation.
involving a changing flowstream diameter.
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Fluid Flow Equation Applying it to the varying area flow depicted in While it is possible to measure fluid flow by
Figure 15, but assuming that the density does not applying this equation to a changing cross-
From the continuity principle we can express change ( ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ ), we get: sectional area pipeline configuration as shown
mass and volumetric flow rates in terms of the in Figures 14 and 15, a high degree of accuracy
flowstream dimensions and the fluid densities
and velocities. We have been able to calculate
( )
ρ1+ρ Qm 2 = ρ2+ρ
2 ρA 2 ( )
Qm
ρa
2 would not be achieved. In practice, there would
be considerable pressure energy loss due to
turbulence and friction. As stated when describing
flowrates in the preceding example and exercise,
but only because we were given the average Reynold’s number, the discharge coefficient term
velocity of the fluid. In practice, accurate Now we have an expression relating the mass will be introduced to compensate for this.
measurement of this quantity is difficult due to the flowrate to the change in static pressure,
susceptibility of the measuring devices to fouling, flowstream cross-sectional area, and fluid Gas flow measurement would be considerably
and other problems; so it is preferable to avoid density; no longer requiring velocities. Cross- inaccurate from a calculation using the equation
measuring it directly. sectional areas are known, pressures are easily as it stands, since compressibility is not
measured and densities can be measured or accounted for. Again we will see that the equation
Taking Bernoulli’s equation: calculated. This is the principle behind most of the will be modified by incorporation of a factor to
gas measurement devices that will be described correct this.
PT = P + ρv2 in this book.
2 These corrections and other modifications to the
It is customary to refer to the static pressure equation will be described in the next section. You
and the mass flowrate expression : change across a measurement device as the will be relieved to know that you are not expected
differential pressure, and it is often called delta to remember the fluid flow equation, either in this
Qm = ρv A p, which is written as ∆p. So ∆p = P1 - P2. form or when modified. However, you should be
able to describe the terms in it, and understand
which we rearrange in terms of v : When ∆p is substituted for P1 - P2 and the the terms and concepts of the Bernoulli and
equation is rearranged and simplified, we get: Continuity principles from which it was developed.
v = Qm One important relationship that you should keep
ρA in mind is that the flowrate is proportional to the
1. Which two components does the total pressure Fluid flow can be categorised as laminar or turbulent, and
of a flowing fluid consist of ? Reynold's number can be used to predict which category
applies.
2. Which quantity is always constant through all
cross-sections of a fluid flowstream ? Bernoulli's principle of fluid energy conservation can
be simplified and expressed in pressure terms, the
3. State which quantities are denoted by the total pressure being the sum of the static and dynamic
following terms and give their SI units components.
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The advantage of low energy loss is often outweighed by their high cost and space required
for installation.
Orifice Plate
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In addition to the orifice plate assembly, the The beta ratio (ß) is defined as d, where d is the Test Yourself 3.3
design and configuration of the line in the vicinity D
of the meter is subjected to certain specifications, diameter of the orifice and D is the internal
particularly in fiscal and other contract situations. diameter of the pipe. ß is an important factor in 1. What is the name of the region where
The plate assembly and pipeline lengths upstream orifice calculations and it is recommended that it the minimum flowstream diameter
and downstream of it are referred to as the meter should always be greater than 0.2 and less than occurs in an orifice meter, and what is
run. 0.7 in natural gas applications. its approximate location?
The objective of these specifications are, as we 2. On Figure 21, between which points
would expect, to achieve as smooth and would the maximum ∆p, and hence
symmetrical a flow of fluid through the meter as best measurement resolution, be
possible. The presence of bends, valves or other obtained?
devices within a certain distance of the meter could
cause measurement inaccuracy, so specific 3. What is the most common location for
minimum lengths of straight pipe, both upstream pressure tappings?
and downstream of the plate, are stipulated.
4. Why does Figure 21 show a slight but
The minimum lengths are quoted as multiples of the continuous line pressure drop in the
pipe diameter, and depend on the types of fitting direction of flow, outside the region of
such as bends, valves, reducers and expanders the plate?
on the upstream side, and on the diameter of the
orifice relative to the pipe diameter. Tables of values
5. What is the ß ratio of a meter in which
are available in international standards publications
the orifice diameter is 130 mm, and
such as ISO 5167; these range from 5 to 80 times
the pipe internal diameter is 250 mm ?
the pipe diameter on the upstream side, and from 4
to 8 on the downstream side.
In some applications where the physical layout of You will find the answers in Check Yourself
the plant makes the minimum straight length 3.3 on page 58.
unattainable, it is possible to install straightening
vanes upstream of the meter, which help to smooth
out flow disturbances. 40
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Orifice Plate Flow Calculations C is the factor that compensates for the energy losses Again, you are not expected to remember this
due to turbulence and friction that were mentioned formula for ℇ, but you should note that its value
The ISO 5167 Formula earlier, and it is interesting to note that a typical value increases (approaches 1) as the line pressure
for the venturi tube is 0.98, thus reflecting its more P increases; which confirms that gases become
aerodynamically efficient design.
At the end of Section 2 we had the following less compressible as their pressure and density
equation for mass flowrate: E is called the velocity of approach factor. It has
increases. You should also be careful to avoid
confusing ℇ with Z, the non-ideal gas behavioural
2∆pþ A2a2
Qm =
(
A2 - a2 ) enabled us to eliminate the A and a pipe and orifice
cross-sectional area terms since it employs the 13ß factor which was described in an earlier section.
factor in the following formula:
We saw that this equation required to be modified Qv, the volumetric flowrate, is found by dividing
before it could be used for accurate flow calculations, the mass flowrate Qm by the gas density at the
E= 1 - ß4
and you will recognise similarities between it and reference pressure and temperature:
the following flow equation from ISO 5167: ℇ, termed the expansion factor, is important in gas
measurement since it accounts for the compressibility, Qv = Qm
Qm = CEℇ π d2 2∆p ρ
and hence density change, of gases when their pressure ρ
4
changes as they flow through the meter. Liquids, being
You will be relieved to learn that it is beyond the essentially incompressible, have an ℇ factor of 1, which We saw in Section 1 that:
scope of this book to show how this equation is means that it can be ignored. For gases, it is obtained
derived from the preceding one. It looks more from the following formula: þ = PMw
simple, but that is because the modifications have
been mainly incorporated in the first three terms, ℇ = 1 - ∆p (0.41 +0.35 ß4) ZRT
which we will now look at. PY So, if the volumetric flowrate is required to be
referred to standard conditions, P = 1.013 bar, T =
C is defined as the discharge coefficient, and is
The only term that may be unfamiliar to you is Y, 288 K and Z = 1.
a function of Reynold’s number Re and ß. It can
which is the specific heat ratio of gases. It is given by:
be calculated from a formula, or obtained from
This expression can also be used to obtain a value
tables. ISO 5167 presents discharge coefficient Y = Cp
Cv for ρ, the fluid density upstream of the orifice, in
tables for various pressure tapping locations and
the ISO equation, so non-ideal gas behaviour is
pipe internal diameters, but if high accuracy is not
where Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, accounted for here. Clearly, the P, T, Z and Mw
critical, a value of 0.605 can be used in typical
and Cv is the specific heat at constant volume. These values would be the prevailing ones upstream of
applications.
values vary between gases, and typical values of Y are the meter. It is fairly common nowadays, however,
1.4 for air and 1.3 for methane. to measure the gas density directly.
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At the end of Section 2, I asked you to take Figure 22 demonstrates the problem associated
particular note of the relationship between the with this square root relationship. Were the
flowrate Qm and ∆p, in that Qm is proportional relationship linear, the scale on the left would
to the square root of ∆p. This relationship, of apply and the resolution to which it is read is
course is maintained in the ISO 5167 equation, constant over the complete range. With the
and has an important implication with regard to square root scale, however, we see that high
the resolution to which flow measurement can be resolution is available on the upper region, but
made. it deteriorates lower down and is extremely
poor near the bottom. For this reason a
range switching facility is recommended, and
stipulated in fiscal systems, so that low flowrate
measurements can be measured to greater
accuracy.
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þ = PMw
ZRT
d = 125mm
D = 257.4 mm
∆p = 100mbar (10000 Pa)
Line pressure P = 24 bar g
Line temperature T = 59°C
Mw = 22.7 kg / kg-mol You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.5
Z = 0.937 on page 60.
C = 0.605
ℇ = 0.9987
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Summary of Section 3
The main features of the following devices were described:
• Pitot tube
• flow nozzles
• venturi
• dall tube
• orifice plate
The Pitot tube is the only velocity head device, the others being dependent on differential
pressure measurement.
The orifice plate was identified as the most popluar gas flow measurement device, and the rest
of the section was devoted to describing its effects on flowing fluid and how these effects could
be used to measure flowrates. The description showed that:
• The maximum fluid velocity, and hence minimum static pressure, is at the vena contracta.
• Flange-mounted pressure tappings are the most popular type, although they do not tap
into the regions of the meter at which the maximum differential pressure occurs.
• The ISO 5167 formula is used for orifice and contains terms which correct for fluid frictional
energy losses and gas compressibility.
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Senior Orifice Plate Fitting Figure 25 is a sketch of the basic design which comprises an orifice plate
carrier which is moved by a handle operated rack and pinion arrangement,
We have seen that orifice plates are normally fitted between flanges, so a and a chamber situated above the plate.
plate changout demands the inconvenience of depressurising and purging the
meter run. To alleviate this, the Senior fitting assembly was produced. The following description is intended as an explanation of the operating
principle of the system, and it is important that you do not regard it as an
operating procedure. If your work involves the operation of Senior fittings,
then you must follow the procedures pertinent to your installation.
1. The chamber is purged with inert gas and pressurised to the pipeline
pressure.
2. The carrier and plate are retracted into the chamber, which is then sealed
from the process stream, depressured and purged.
3. The plate is removed from the carrier and chamber, and the replacement
plate is inserted.
4. The chamber is sealed and purged with inert gas and pressurised to the
pipeline pressure.
5. The plate and carrier assembly is lowered into the meter run.
In theory, this method can be followed without the gas flow being stopped. In
practice, however, many plant operations managers doubt that it is as safe as
a proper line isolation, depressurisation and purge procedure. Nonetheless,
even if the meter section is isolated, depressurised and purged, the Senior
device saves plate changeout time by eliminating the work and problems that
can be associated with flanges.
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Gas Density
A device which is often used to measure gas
density directly uses the vibrating cylinder
principle. The process gas is passed over the
inner and outer surfaces of a thin metal cylinder,
which, like all solid objects, has a natural or
resonant vibration frequency. However, the vibration
frequency of the cylinder is affected by the gas
molecules which interact with its surface and vibrate
with it. The significant property, here is the mass of
gas, the relationship being that increasing the mass
will decrease the vibration frequency. This means
that, if the frequency is measured, it can be used to
evaluate the gas density.
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Metering Stations
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An additional feature shown in Figure 29 is a facility 1. The gas will be measured in either volume 5. Totalisers on individual meter runs and on
to measure the gas specific gravity, upstream of or mass units, depending on the agreement station summators will have sufficient digits
the meter runs. This is an option that is sometimes between the interested parties. Volumes will to prevent cycling occurring more frequently
used so that a more accurate measurement of the be measured in cubic metres and mass in than once every two months.
density is obtained. The sensing element in the tonnes. Volume measurement will be
specific gravity transducer is usually a vibrating referred to the metric standard conditions of Safety Implications
cylinder, as in the case of the density sensor, but 15°Celsius and 1.01325 bar.
with the facility to incorporate a reference gas. Most of the safety precautions and procedures that
2. While in most cases gas density will be apply to other items of process equipment handling
In addition to mass and volumetric flowrates, measured directly using a density combustible gases are pertinent to metering
measurements of line pressure, temperature and transducer, in some instances it may be equipment, and includes:
density can also be displayed. A fiscal requirement calculated, by an agreed method, from a
is that flow totalisers are used so that the total knowledge of the composition of the gas • isolation, depressurisation, purging and
mass or volume of gas for a period of time can be together with the measured operating pressurisation
measured. pressure and temperature.
• checking for leaking fittings
This description has only outlined the basic 3. Enough meter runs will be provided to
facilities of an automated metering station. Many ensure that at least one standby meter will • monitoring for hazardous gases
installations have additional features such as the be available, at the design production rate.
ability to transmit data to central monitoring sites. Isolation valves will be provided so that You should also be aware that many metering
individual meters can be removed from systems are installed in high pressure applications.
The following is an example of some of the main service without shutting down the metering
metering station design requirements that would system. I will repeat the statement I made when describing
likely be agreed between the relevant parties, the Senior orifice plate assembly, which is that you
which would include the UK Department of Energy, 4. All computing functions will be done by a must always follow the safety precautions and
in a fiscally controlled contract. You should note digital microprocessor based flow computer, procedures applying to the installation you are
that this does not include specifications applicable one of which will be allocated to each meter working on. Nothing in this book is a substitute for
to hardware such as the orifice plates, the meter run. them.
pipes and the installation of measuring elements.
Please regard this as an outline of some of the All the constants and factors which are
main clauses in a typical agreement in the UK, and held in the flow computer will be accessible
not as a specific contract. If you work on a fiscal for inspection in a general display register
metering system you should try to learn as much as and it will be possible to modify these
possible about the terms of the contract. values, with authorisation, after overriding 52
some form of security lock.
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Summary of Section 4
We looked at some variations of orifice pate design, and at the Senior fitting
which is intended as a means of simplifying plate changeouts. The pneumatic
torque balance is ofter used to measure differential pressure where electric
instrumentation is not employed. Electrical measurement of differential
pressure often uses capacitance changes in a sensing cell as the output
signal.
Gas density can be measured by the principle that the mass of gas in contact
with a thin-walled metal cylinder affects its vibrational frequency.
The main features of two-stream gas metering station were described, along
with some of the fiscal standards it complies with.
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Qv = A v = ( 2 X 3 = 0.0942 m3 / s
π
4
)x (0.2)
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3. ℇ accounts for gases being compressible and thus experiencing a change in density when
flowing through the meter.
4. Because the resolution is poor at the lower end of a square root scale.
5. ß=d
D
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Qm = CEℇ π d2 2∆pρ
4
Qm = 4.77 kg / s
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