3.

SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Signal waveforms.
Normally signal in electrical circuits is an electrical current i(t) or voltage v(t).
A waveform is an equation or graph that defines the signal as a function of
time.
The voltages and currents in electric circuits are described by three classes of
time functions:
• (i) Periodic functions
• (ii) Nonperiodic functions
• (iii) Random functions

The terms function, waveform, and signal are used interchangeably.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
DC signal waveforms are constant for all time.
Mathematical expressions for a dc voltage v(t) or current i(t) take the form :

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

in waveform representations :
Constant electrical quantities (non-timevarying) are usually represented by
uppercase letters like
VA, I , T0
Time-varying electrical quantities are usually represented by the lowercase
letters i, v, p, q, and w and the time variation is indicated when we write these
quantities as
v1(t), iA(t), or wC(t)

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Examples of voltage waveforms :
The bipolar waveforms change polarity as a function of time.

We can derive most of the waveforms using just three basic signal models:
– the step,
– exponential, and
– sinusoidal functions.
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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Some useful signal operations :
1.Time Shifting :
Whatever happens in x(t) at time t in fig.a, happens at (t +T) in Ø (t) = x(t-T) in fig b.
Whatever happens in x(t) at time t in fig.a, happens at (t -T) in Ø (t) = x(t+T) in fig b.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
2. Time Reversal :
Whatever happens in x(t) at time t in fig. a, happens at (-t) in Ø(t) = x(-t) in fig b.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS :
1. UNİT STEP FUNCTİON
Unit step function is defined as

Theoretically it is impossible to generate

a true step function since signal variables
(current and voltage) cannot jump from one
value to another in zero time.
Practically, we can generate very good
approximations to the step function.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

Multiplying u(t) by a constant VA produces the waveform

– where the amplitude VA scales the size of the step discontinuity.

Replacing t by (t — TS) produces a waveform

– where the time shift parameter T advances or delays the time at which
the step occurs

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3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

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2. THE UNIT AREA PULSE FUNCTION :
The unit area pulse pΔ(t) is a pulse of height 1/Δ, and width Δ , and starting at t = 0.
Whatever the value of the positive parameter Δ, the area under pΔ(t) is 1.

We define the unit area pulse function pΔ(t) by :

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
EXAMPLE :
Express the waveform in Figure (a) in terms of step functions.

Solution :
v(t) = 3u (t — 1) — 3u (t — 3)

Pulses that turn on at some time T1 and off at

some later time T2 are sometimes called gating
functions because they are used in conjunction
with electronic switches.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
EXAMPLE :
The switch in the circuit is moved to position 2 at t = t0 . Express VAB using the
step function.
Solution : VAB = V0 [u(t — t0)]

EXAMPLE :
If the switch is moved to position 2 at
t = 0 and then moved back to position 1
at t = 5 s, express VAB using the step
function.
Solution : VAB = V0[u(t) — u(t - 5)]

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3. UNIT IMPULSE :
If we have a unit area pulse as shown, it can be expressed as follows :

As T→ 0, the area under the pulse remains equal to

one.
The function obtained in the limit is called a unit
impulse, δ(t).

Hence , from this definition we get :

t
∫δ(t).dt = u(t) or δ(t) = du(t)/dt
-

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The unit impulse δ(t) has units of reciprocal time, or s-1.

An impulse of strength K is denoted as K δ(t). Here K is called the scale factor

and is the area under the impulse K δ(t).

In the graphical representation of the impulse, the value of K is written in

parentheses beside the arrow, as shown in Fig.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
EXAMPLE
Calculate and sketch the derivative of the pulse in the
figure.
SOLUTION:
the pulse waveform is
v(t) = 3u(t-1) – 3u(t-3) Volts
Using the derivative property of the step function, we
write
dv(t)/dt = 3 δ(t-1) - 3 δ(t-3) Volts/s

The derivative waveform consists of a positive-going impulse at t =1 s and a

negative-going impulse at t = 3 s.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
MULTIPLICATION OF A FUNCTION BY AN IMPULSE
Since the impulse has nonzero value only at t = 0, we obtain
Ø(t) δ(t) = Ø(0) δ(t)

Generalization of this result :

Provided Ø(t) is continuous at t = T,
“Ø(t) multiplied by an impulse δ(t - T) results in an impulse located at t = T
having the strength Ø(T) at the location of the impulse”.

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SAMPLING PROPERTY OF THE UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

This result means that :

“the area under the product of a function with an impulse δ(t) is equal to the value
of that function at the instant at which the unit impulse is located.

This property is very important and useful and is known as the “sampling” or
“sifting property” of the unit impulse. It follows that

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4. THE RAMP FUNCTION
The unit ramp waveform r(t) is defined as :
r(t) = 0 for t < 0
r(t) = t for t> 0.
Hence : r(t) = tu(t) and dr(t)/dt = u(t)
The slope of r(t) is u(t) and has the units of time (s) .
t
It follows that :r(t) = ∫u(t).dt
-
A ramp of strength K is Kr(t), where K is the scale
factor.
K is the slope of the ramp.
The general ramp waveform shown is written as
v(t) = Kr(t - Ts) which is zero for t < Ts and
equal to K(t - Ts) for t > Ts .
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THE UNIT DOUBLET
The unit doublet δ' is another type of singularity function which is defined as :
0 at  t≠0
dδ(t)/dt  at t=0
t
From this we can say that  ∫δ'(t) dt' = δ(t)
-

We can show δ(t) as a triangular pulse of height 1/Δ and width 2Δ as Δ → 0 . This is
permissible because its area is still equal to 1.

The derivative curve consists of a positive

pulse followed by a negative pulse.
The pulses have magnitudes of 1/Δ2 and
areas of 1/Δ.
In the limit as Δ approaches zero, the areas
δ‘(t)
become infinite.
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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Thus the unit doublet consists of an infinite positive impulse followed by an
infinite negative impulse in such a way that the second integral has a value of
unity.
The doublet is characterized by its second integral and has the dimensions of
amp.sec2 for a current doublet, and voltsec2 for a voltage doublet.

δ'(t)

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The use of singularity functions to represent waveforms
Sectioned waveforms :
Unit step function can be used to section a function.
The waveform shown in “a” is a sine wave which extends over all time. Its
mathematical expression is f(t) = sin(t)

The waveform shown in (b)

is a sine wave which is zero
for negative time.
It is said to be sectioned at
the origin. Its mathematical
expression is sin(t) .u(t)
f(t) = sin(t) .u(t)

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THE EXPONENTIAL WAVEFORM
The exponential waveform is a step function whose amplitude gradually
decays to zero. The equation for this waveform is

The two parameters that define

the waveform are the
• amplitude VA (in volts)
and
• the time constant TC (in seconds).

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exponential waveform for different values of the amplitude :

exponential waveform for decreasing values of the time constant :

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

In one time constant Tc exponential decays to VAe-1 which is about 37% of its
initial amplitude VA.
At t = 5Tc, the value of the waveform is VAe-5, or approximately 0.00674 VA.

An exponential signal decays to less than 1% of its initial amplitude in a time

span of five time constants.

In theory, an exponential goes on forever, but practically speaking after about

5 Tc the waveform amplitude becomes negligibly small.

It is generally accepted that the duration of an exponential waveform is 5T.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL WAVEFORMS :

For t = (t + Δt) the exponential waveform is given by

The ratio of these two amplitudes is

The decrement property states that the same percentage decay occurs in
equal time intervals.
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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Differentiating v(t) for t> 0 with respect to time:

The slope (time rate of change) of the exponential waveform is inversely

proportional to the time constant. Hence
– Small time constants lead to large slopes or rapid decays,
– large time constants produce shallow slopes and long decay times.

Above equation can be rearranged as

This tells us that, the exponential waveform :

is a solution of the first-order linear differential equation above.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
The time-shifted exponential waveform is
obtained by replacing t with → (t – Ts).
The general exponential waveform is written as

where Ts is the time-shift parameter for the

waveform.
Time shifting translates the waveform to the
left or right depending on whether Ts is
negative or positive.
The factor (t-Ts) must appear in both the
argument of the step function and the
exponential.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
The sinusoid, like the dc waveform, extends indefinitely in time in both the
positive and negative directions.
The sinusoid in below figure is an endless repetition of identical oscillations
between positive and negative peaks.
The amplitude VA (in volts) is the peak deviation of the function from its center
position (maximum and minimum values of the oscillations)
The period T0 (usually seconds) is the time required to complete one cycle of
the osciliation.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
If the period T0 is the time required to complete one cycle of the osciliation.,
then
The number of cycles per second = frequency of the oscillations
= f = 1/ T0 (in cycles/sec or Hertz)

And also  = angular velocity (rad/sec) = 2π /T0 = 2π f

(Because there are 2π radians per cycle)

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
The sinusoid can be expressed mathematically using either the sine or the
cosine function. The choice between the two depends on where we choose to
define t = 0.

– If we choose t = 0 at a point where the sinusoid is zero, then it can be

written as → v(t) = VAsin[(2π/T0)t /] = VAsin( .t)

– If we choose t = 0 at a point where the sinusoid is at a positive peak,

then it can be written as → v(t) = VACos[(2πt) /T0] = VAcos( .t)

In electrical engineering it is common practice to choose cosine wave.

Even then we continue to call the waveform a sinusoid.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
The general sinusoid is obtained by
replacing t by (t - Ts) :
v(t) = VA cos[(2π /T0)(t - Ts)]
Here ,
the constant Ts = time-shift parameter.

The sinusoid shifts to the right when Ts > 0

and to the left when Ts <0.
In effect, time shifting causes the positive
peak nearest the origin to occur at
t = Ts.

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So far we have expressed the sinusoidal waveform as :

v(t) = VA cos[2π(t - Ts)/T0]
This can also be expressed as :
VA
v(t) = VA cos[(2πt/T0)+Ø] = VA cos[t+Ø]
where Ø is called the phase angle. Ø

As seen in the figure;

Ø
VAcos[( t+Ø] is the cosine of vector VA rotating VA
anticlockwise with an angular velocity of ω = 2π/T0 ,
starting from an angle Ø at t=0.
Therefore the sinusoidal waveform in the figure is
obtained by projecting the vector VA on the real axis as it
rotates with angular velocity of .
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In the sinusoidal waveform in the figure, VA

the phase angle Ø is the angle between t=0 and the time
when v(t) becomes the nearest +ve maximum. Ø

In the example on the rigth, voltage v(t) is said to be

Ø
leading by angle Ø. VA

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For all sinusidal waveforms, as a rule :

 the phase angle Ø is the angle between t=0 and the time VA
when v(t) becomes the nearest +ve maximum.
 if phase angle Ø is positive then it is a leading angle Ø
and
 if phase angle Ø is negative then it is a lagging angle
Ø
VA

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
If Ø is the leading phase angle :
v(t) = VA cos[(2πt/T0)+Ø] ........ (1)

Our original expression for sinusoidal

waveforms was,
v(t) = VAcos[2π(t - Ts)/T0] ………….. (2)

İf the two equations are equal then,

Ø = - 2 πTs/T0

• if Ts is positive, Ø is negative and v(t) is

lagging
• If Ts is negative, Ø is positive and v(t) is
leading 36
 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

As well as Ts , changing the phase

angle Ø also moves the waveform to the
left or right.
The phase angle should be expressed
in radians.

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An alternative form of the general sinusoid is obtained by using the identity
cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) — sin(x) sin(y),
using this, v(t) = VA cos[(2πt/T0 )+Ø] becomes
v(t) = [VA cos Ø] cos (2πt/T0) - [VA sin Ø] sin (2πt/T0)
The quantities inside the brackets in this equation are constants; therefore, we
can write the general sinusoid in the form

The two parameters a and b have the same units as the waveform (volts in this
case) and are called Fourier coefficients.
By definition, the Fourier coefficients are related to the amplitude and phase
parameters by the equations

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The inverse relationships are obtained by squaring and adding the

expressions :

and by dividing the second expression in Eq. by the first:

To define a sinusoidal expressions, we need three types of parameters:

1. Amplitude: either VA or the Fourier coefficients a and b
2. Time shift: either Ts or the phase angle Ø
3. Period/frequency: either T0, f0, or ω0.
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PROPERTIES OF SINUSOIDS
A waveform is said to be periodic if v(t + T0) = v(t) for all values of t where T0 is
called the period of the waveform.
It follows that periodic signals must have eternal waveforms that extend
indefinitely in time in both directions. Signals that are not periodic are called
aperiodic.
The sinusoid is a periodic signal since

But cos(x+2π) = cos(x) Hence

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The additive property of sinusoids states that

“summing two or more sinusoids with the same frequency yields a sinusoid
with different amplitude and phase parameters but the same frequency”
Consider two sinusoids

The waveform v3(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) can be written as

where (a1 + a2) and (b1 + b2) are fourier coofficients of the cosine function cos (2πf0t)

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The derivative and integral properties state that
“when we differentiate or integrate a sinusoid, the result is another sinusoid
with the same frequency”

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WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE DESCRIPTORS
Amplitude descriptors are positive scalars that
describe signal strength.
The peak-to-peak value describes the total
excursion of v(t) and is defined as
VPP= VMAX—VMIN
Under this definition VPP, is always positive even
if VMAX and VMIN are both negative.
The peak value is a positive number that
indicates the maximum absolute excursion of the
waveform from zero.
Vp = Max [|VMAX | , |VMIN|]

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Average value is the area under the waveform over some period of time T,
divided by that time period.
Mathematically, we define average value (Vavg) over the time interval T as

For periodic signals the period T0 is used as the averaging interval T.

For some periodic waveforms the integral can be evaluated graphically.
The net area under the waveform is the area above the time axis minus the area
below the time axis.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
For example, the sinusoid in figure has zero average value, since the area above
the axis is exactly equal to the area below.
The sawtooth in Figure has a positive average value. By geometry, the net area
under one cycle of the sawtooth waveform is VAT0/2, so its average value is
(1/To)(VAT0/2) = VA/2.

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The average value indicates whether the waveform contains a constant, non-
time-varying component.
The average value is also called the dc component of the waveform because
dc signals are constant for all t.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
EXAMPLE :
Find the peak, peak-to-peak, and average values of the periodic input and output
waveforms in below figure.

SOLUTION:
The input waveform is a sinusoid whose
amplitude descriptors are
Vpp = 2VA, Vp = VA, Vavg = 0
The output waveform is obtained by clipping off
the negative half-cycle of input sinusoid.

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ROOT-MEAN-SOUARE VALUE
The root-mean-square value (Vrms) is a measure of the average power carried
by the signal. The instantaneous power delivered to a resistor R by a voltage v(t)
is

The average power delivered to the resistor in time span T is defined as

The quantity inside the large brackets is the average value of the square of the
waveform.
The square root of the term in large brackets defines the amplitude partial
descriptor Vrms

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For periodic signals the averaging interval is one cycle since such a waveform
repeats itself every T0 seconds.

We can express the average power delivered to a resistor in terms of Vrms as

The equation for average power in terms of Vrms has the same form as the
power delivered by a dc signal.

For this reason the rms value was originaliy called the effective value, although
this term is no longer common.

If the waveform amplitude is doubled, its rms value is doubled, and the
average power is quadrupled.

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 3. SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
EXAMPLE :
Find the rms value of the sinusoid and sawtooth in Figure.
sin2x = ½(1-cos2x)
SOLUTION:
For the sinusoid:

For the sawtooth the rms value is found

as follows:

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