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Binoculars and Telescopes for Ornithologists

Article · January 1980

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 OPTICALINSTRUMENTS
FOR
ORNITHOLOGISTS
RexL De Silva,FZS.,MBOU
"Basicbirdmanshipconsisls in having the l i g h to f a l l c o l o u r st o t h e s a m e f o c u s )o f
bestpair of binocularsin any group" relatively largefocallengthwhichfocuseslight
f r o mt h e s u b j e c tt,h e r e b yf o r m i n ga p r i m a r y
StephenPotter image.Thisis in turnmagnilied by theeyepiece
o r o c u l a r( a c o m p o u n dl e n so f s h o r tf o c u s )
Fieldornithologists considerbinoculars and whichformsthe imageviewedby theobserver.
telescopes to be theirmostimportant optical
a i d s a s t h e s ei n s t r u m e n tesn a b l e st h e mt o Whenthe instrument is pointedtowardsthe
makeobservations underconditions in which lightand viewedfromsomedistancebehind,a
the unaidedeye wouldbe ineffective. lt should b r i g h td i s k w i l l b e s e e n i n t h e c e n t e ro f t h e
be notedhowever thatopticsof highqualityare eyepiece. Thisis knownas the exit-pupil and is
neededfor ornithological workand instrumentsan imageof the objective. Thebrightness of an
w h i c ha r e a c c e p t a b l ef o r m o r e m u n d a n e imagein poorlightis dependent on the sizeof
p u r p o s e s ( s p o r t s ,t r a v e l e t c . ) m a y b e the exit-pupil, a largediameter yieldsa bright
u n s a t i s f a c t o froy r b i r d s t u d y .T h i s a r t i c l ei s imageandviceversa.
intended therefore as a compendium of things
thatan ornithologist needsto knowaboutthese Binoculars
e s s e n t i ai ln s t r u m e n t sT.h e a d v a n t a g etsh a t
binoculars andtelescopes ofier(overthe naked B i n o c u l a rasr e m e r e l yt w o l o w - p o w e r e d
eye)maybe summarized as follows telescopes mountedtogetherwith theiroptical
axesparallelto one another. The opticalpaths
(1) Greater magnification (larger image) in binoculars are shortened by the interposition
of a prismtrainbetweeneachobjectiveand
(2) lmproved imageresolutionidefinition e y e p i e c e r, e s u l t i n gi n s h o r t e ra n d m o r e
(sharper image) c o m p a citn s t r u m e n a t ss s h o w ni n f i g u r e s1 a
(3) Enhanced lightgathering power a n d 1 b . ( N O T E ;
B i n o c u l a rssh o u l dn o t b e
(betterimagein poorlight). c o n f u s e w
d i t h " f i e l d - g l a s s ewsh" i c ha r e n o n -
prismatic instruments of lowpoweranddifferent
Additionally binoculars (butnot telescopes)opticaldesign.As field-glasses are of littleuse
producean enhanced stereoscopic effect. t o o r n i t h o l o g i s t t
h s e y w i l l n o t be discussed
h e r e ) .T h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o sf b i n o c u l a rasr e
BasicPrinciples m a r k e do n o n e o f t h e p r i s mh o u s i n g sa n d
includemagnification and objective aperturein
A n u n d e r s t a n d i nogf t h e b a s i cp r i n c i p l e s m m s e p a r a t e d b y a n " x " s i g n .Thus an
governingthemwill assistthe ornithologist instrument designated as B x 40 will magnify
to
selecta suitableinstrument as well as obtain eight times and have an objectiveof 40 mm
optimumservicefromopticsalreadyat hand. a p e r t u r e( d i a m e t e r ) . t h i r ds e t o f f i g u r e s
A
Performance is judgedby imagequality,which indicating the instrument's field-of-view is also
is in turndependent on resolution, normally included.
contrastand
brightness. A telescope - binoculars are a form
o f t e l e s c o p e- c o n s i s t se s s e n t i a l l o yf an Whenselectingbinoculars severalfactors
achromatic objective lens(ie.one whichbrings m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e dt ,
h e s e a rediscussed
below.

61
MAGNIFICATION OR POWER. MagnificationLIGHT.GATHERING POWEROR RELATIVE
is the firstthingthatmostusersconsiderwhen BRIGHTNESS INDEX. This is a measureof
selecting binoculars. lt is important to realize imagevisibility underlow-light conditions and is
howeverthat magnification mustbe evaluated indicated numerically as the exit-pupil diameter
i n r e l a t i o nt o t h e o b j e c t i v ea p e r t u r ei f t h e ( i n m m ) s q u a r e d .( T h e e x i t - p u p icl a n b e
instrumentis to proveeffectivein use (see measured, or calculated by dividingobjective
b e l o w ) .F o r o r n i t h o l o g i c o
ab l s e r v a t i o nt sh e apertureby power).Largeobjectivesand low
powershouldbe between7 x and 12 x. Less p o w e r sg i v e b r i g h ti m a g e sw , h e r e a ss m a l l
than 7 x will producean imagewhichis often objectives and highpowersproducedimmer
too small,whereasexceeding 12 x will resultin images.A 5 mm exit-pupil (relativebrightness
an instrument whichis difficult to holdsteadyfor i n d e x 2 5 ) i s p r o b a b l yt h e o p t i m u mf o r
any lengthof time (remember everytremorof ornithology. Theexit-pupil shouldnotbe greater
the user'shandswillbe magnified in proportion than 7.1 mm (relativebrightness index50) as
to the power).7 andI x binoculars are suitable t h i s w o u l de x c e e dt h e m a x i m u mp u p i l l a r y
for generalobservation whereasinstruments of a p e r t u r eo f t h e d a r k - a d a p t eedy e a n d l i g h t
12 x will be preferred for long-range usessuch wouldbe wasted."Nightglasses"ie. thosewith
as sea and shorebirdwatching.Notethat on 7 mmexit-pupils (7 x 50 and8 x 56)providethe
accountof designconstraints so-called "high- brightest possible imagesin low light,but note
power"binocularsoftenproducerelativelypoor that in daylightthe imagesare no brighterthan
i m a g e s t, h i s i s a n o t h e r e a s o nf o r a v o i d i n g i n c o n v e n t i o n ai nl s t r u m e n t sA.s t h e e y e ' s
binoculars of morethan 12 x. Zoombinoculars maximumpupillaryaperturedecreaseswith
are available: rejecttheseas they invariably a g e , o l d e ru s e r sw i l l n o t b e n e f i tf r o m n i g h t
p r o d u c ei n f e r i o ri m a g e s .l f h i g h p o w e ri s g l a s s e s a n d w i l l b e s e r v e d b e t t e r b y
importantuse a telescope.Note that some conventional modelswhichare lighterandmore
inexpensive b i n o c u l a r sa r e m a r k e dw i t h c o m p a c t S . p e c i f i c a t i o nosf s o m e p o p u l a r
specifications whichare onlyapproximate (or in binoculars arelistedhere.
a few instancesevenincorrect), the criticaluser
m a y t h e r eof r e w i s h t o d e t e r m i n et h e
m a g n i f i c a t i o on f h i s i n s t r u m e n at n d t h e M A E R (T) REMARKS
necessary formulaearegivenhere.
7x35 5 2s (15.7)
7 x50 7 . 1 50 (18.7)
OBJECTIVE APERTURE (DIAMETER).Aper- 8x24 3 9 (13.9) Not recommendedfor
ture of the objectiveis importantas image ornithology
resolution (sharpness) and exit-pupildiameter 8 x 30 3.75 14 (15.5) Not recommendedfor
ornithology
(seebelow)are dependenton this factor.In 8 x 4 0 5 25 (17.e)
generala largeobjectivewill producebetter 8 x 5 6 7 49 (21.1)
resolution than smallerone (although this is 1 0 x 5 0 5 25 (22.4)
mainlytheoreticalinsofaras binocularsare 1 2 x 5 0 4.17 17.4 (24.5) Forlong-range usein
goodlightonly
concerned). Ornithologists' binoculars should
ideallyhave objectiveswith aperturesbetween M = Magnitication
35 and 50 mm. lf lessthan 35 mm resolution A = Objectivediameter(mm)
may be inadequate and in low light images E = Exit-pupildiameter(mm)
couldbe verydim (theseare soundreasonsfor R = Relativebrightnessindex
a v o i d i n gs o - c a l l e d" c o m p a c t "a n d " m i n i " (T) = Twilightfactor
binoculars). On theotherhandobjectives larger
than50 mm will resultin binoculars whichare
toobulkyforfielduse.

62
(A few manufacturerd s e s c r i b ei m a g e i n t e n s i v eol yv e ra l o n gp e r i o dc o u l dp o s s i b l y
brightness in terms of a "Twilight Factor"which havean adverseeffecton the user'ssight.To
is derivedby calculating the squarerootof the t e s t b i n o c u l a rfso r c o l l i m a t i o nf o, c u so n a
p r o d u c ot f t h e o b j e c t i v ed i a m e t e(rm m )a n d distanthorizontal object(wall,sea-horizon etc.)
p o w e r .S e v e r a lt e s t s u s i n g a v a r i e t yo f thenslowlymovethe instrument awayfromthe
instruments of differing apertures and powers eyeswhilesimultaneously swinging the barrels
suggesthoweverthatthe twilightfactor may outwards t h e r e b yi n c r e a s i ntgh e s eparation
n o t b e r e l i a b l eF. o r e x a m p l ew h e nt e s t e da t between the eyepieces. Binoculars which arein
duskan 8 x 40 instrument (TF17.9)gavebetter collimation w i l lg i v e i m a g e sr e s e m b l i n f igg u r e
imagesthananotherof 10 x a0 (TF20), Note 1c at all oositions o f t h e b a r r e l s l
. f the
howeverthat as thesetestswere not carried collimation is defective the images will resemble
f i g u r e1 d a t o n e o r m o r ep o s i t i o n so f t h e
o u t u n d e rs t r i c t l yc o n t r o l l e cdo n d i t i o ntsh e y
could havebeensubjectto undetected errors. e y e p i e c e sS.o m ei n e x p e n s i vbei n o c u l a rasr e
In viewof this ambiguity the writerprefersto n o t p r o p e r l yc o l l i m a t e da t t h e t i m e o f
relyon the relativebrightness index:but note manufacture, otherslosetheircollimation after
thisis a personal opinion only.) a shortperiodof serviceand a very few are
almostimpossible to collimate. Thisis justone
FIELDOF VIEW. In standard instruments the of the reasons for buyinga reliable make.Note
fieldof viewand powerare interdependent; a that recollimation is a skilledjob whichshould
highmagnification resulting in a smallfieldand onlybe carriedoutby a competent repairman.
lowmagnification in a widerone.Binoculars of
normaldesignhavefieldsranging fromc. 5 to 7 FOCUSING.Binoculars comewithone of two
d e g r e e so r s o . A w i d ef i e l di s o f t e nu s e f u l , focusing systems, theyarethecenter-focus and
e s p e c i a l l yw h e n o b s e r v i n gf l y i n g b i r d s , individual-focus types.In theformerbothoptical
communalroostsand largeflocks.Wideangle systemsare focusedtogetherby rotationof a
binoculars withfieldsof up to 11 degreesare largecentralfocusing wheel.One eyepiece is
p r o d u c e du; n f o r l u n a t etl hy e l a r g ef i e l d sa r e alsoadjustable separately to compensate for
s o m e t i m egs a i n e da t t h e s a c r i f i c eo f i m a g e d i f f e r e n c e si n t h e u s e r ' s e y e s ( d i o p t r e
quality.Wideanglebinoculars fromreputable a d j u s t m e n ta) n d o n c e s e t r e q u i r e so n l y
manufacturerg s i v e i m a g e s w h i c h a r e o c c a s i o n ar le a d j u s t m e n t ht e r e a f t e rC. e n t e r -
s a t i s f a c t o r fyo r s e r i o u sw o r k , b u t t h e s e focusbinoculars can be adjustedquicklyand
instruments are costlier, somewhat largerand a r e w e l l s u i t e df o r u s e i n t h e f i e l d . T h e
heavierthanconventional models.The fieldof i n d i v i d u a l - f o c ut ysp e r e q u i r e st h a t e a c h
a n i n s t r u m e nm t a y b e i n d i c a t e de i t h e ri n eyepieceis adjustedseparately; a relatively
degreesor by the fieldin feet at a distanceof sloworocess.hencetheseinstruments are not
1 , 0 0 0y a r d s .( T oc o n v e rt h e f o r m e ri n t ot h e usuallyrecommended for fielduse but as they
lattermultiply thefieldin degrees by 52.5). are ruggedand ratherweatherproof theycould
sometimeb s e u s e f u lf o r o b s e r v i n gu n d e r
C O L L I M A T I O Nl .t i s e s s e n t i at lh a t t h e t w o adverse conditions.
o p t i c a ls y s t e m si n b i n o c u l a r s h o u l db e
a b s o l u t e lpya r a l l etlo o n e a n o t h e ri ,n o t h e r O P T I C S . D u e t o t h e n a t u r eo f l i g h to p t i c a l
wordsthe instrument shouldbe in collimation.s y s t e m sa r e s u b j e ct o a b e r r a t i o n(si m a g i n g
An instrument whichis grossly outof collimationerrors).Twoaberrations whichconcernus here
will produce a doubleimagewhereas whenthe arechromatic aberration anddistortion.
c o l l i m a t i oen r r o ri s s m a l l e rt,h e e y e s w i l l
unconsciously strainin an attemptto fusethe Chromaticaberration:Thisoccurswhenall
t w o i m a g e st o g e t h e r .T h i s m a y r e s u l ti n c o l o u r sd o n o t c o m et o a f o c u sa t t h e s a m e
c o n s i d e r a b l e y e s t r a i na c c o m p a n i e d b y point.By judicious selection of opticalglasses
headaches and if suchan instrument is used and lensdesignopticalengineers are ableto

63
 minimize thisfault.An instrument suffering from prismmodels,eachof whichhas its particular
thisaberration w i l l g i v e i m a g e sw i t h s o m e a d v a n t a g eas n d d i s a d v a n t a g e (sR. e f e rt o
spurious colour.To testfor thisfaultfocuson a figures1aand1b).
distantthinobject(antenna, flagpoleetc.)which
Porroprismbinoculars are sturdy,easyto
is backlighted againsta brightsky.lf the image effect.lf well
repairandgivegoodstereoscopic
s h o w sf r i n g e so f f a l s e c o l o u r ,c h r o m a t i c h i gh quality.
m a d e t h e y g i v e i m a g e so f
a b e r r a t i o ni s p r e s e n t .A s m a l la m o u n to f
D i s a d v a n t a g easr e t h a t t h e y a r e n o t v e r y
spuriouscolourmay be tolerableat the edges
c o m p a c te, s p e c i a l liyf o f t h e " A m e r i c a n("B )
of the field,but the centralregionshouldbe "German"(Z) two
absolutely freeof this.lf chromatic aberration is singleunit bodytype.The
piecebodytypesare morecompact,although
a t a l l o b t r u s i v et h e i n s t r u m e nwt i l l p r o v e
in use. notas compactas roofprismmodels.
unsatisfactory
Roofprismbinoculars arelight,compactand
D i s t o r t i o n : T h i sa b e r r a t i o o n c c u r sw h e n thanmost
usually more dust and weatherproof
m a g n i f i c a t i oi sn n o t u n i f o r mt h r o u g h o ut th e prismmodels.Theyare opticallymore
fromthe edge porro
field.lf magnification increases
results.lf on c o m o l i c a t e a dnd can be difficulto repair'
towardsthecenterbarreldistortion some of the bestbinoculars areof
nevertheless
t h e o t h e rh a n di t i n c r e a s e fsr o mt h e c e n t e r T h e m a i n d i s a d v a n t a gi se t h a t
t h i s d e s i g n .
t o w a r d st h e e d g et h e r e s u l ti s p i n c u s h i o ngoodroofprismmodelscanbe veryexpenslve.
d i s t o r t i o nT. o t e s t f o r d i s t o r t i o nf o c u st h e
instrument on a distantobjectwithstraightlines
B i n o c u l abro d i e sa r e m a d eo f a l u m i n i u m ,
( p r e f e r a b lcyr o s s i n ga t r i g h ta n g l e st o o n e
zinc die-castings or plastics.Metalbodiesare
anothereg. window,buildingetc.).lf distortion covered with texturedplasticcoatings'
usually
is presentthe straightlinesof the objectwill m o d e l sc o m e f i t t e dw i t h r u b b e r
Several
appearslightlycurvedin the image;outwardly ( a r m o u r f) o r p r o t e c t i o nI.n s o m e
b o w e dl i n e si n d i c a t i n b nn d c o v e r i n g s
g a r r e ld i s t o r t i o a
this is not removable andmayhave
inwardly curvedonespincushion distortion (figs. instruments
to be cut a w a y t o e f f e c tr e p a i r sW. h i l et h e
1 e , 1 fa n d 1 g ) .l n g o o di n s t r u m e ndt si s t o r t i o n be refitted, appearance may
rubbercan usually
shouldbe minimal. h e n c e r e p u t a b l em a k e s h ave
be marred
provision f o r r e p a i r sw i t h o u d t a m a g et o t h e
Modernlensesare coatedat theirsurfaces arefittedwith
covering. Somebinoculars
to reducereflection and therebyincreaselight rubber m o u n t i n go n c a m e r a
t h r e a d e db u s h i n g s f o r
t r a n s m i s s i oT nh . i s r e s u l t si n i m a g e so f h i g h i s a u s e f u f
l e a t u r eb u t m o s t
tripodsT . his
c o n t r a sw t i t h l i t t l eo r n o l e n s f l a r e .O l d e r can be adapted to a tripod with a
binoculars
b i n o c u l a rw s e r e s u p p l i e dw i t h m a g n e s i u m device.
simplehome-made
flouridecoatedopticswhereasmoremodern
i n s t r u m e n tcso m ew i t h m u l t i c o a t eodp t i c s . Binoculars comewithfittedcarryingcases
M u l t i c o a t e do p t i c s h a v e h i g h e r l i g h t and lenscaps.These are for protection of the
transmission factorsbutthe coatingsare rather instrument whilstin transit.Lenscaps easily are
e a s i l ys c r a t c h e da n d a l s o a t t a c k e db y l e n s lost but as theseprotectthe opticsit is well
fungus,hencetheyshouldbe treatedwithextra worthlookingafterthem.A neckstrapis an
I care.Althoughbinoculars maybe described as e s s e n t i ailt e m ,h o w e v e rm o s t a r e t o o l o n g
I "fully-coated" the prisms,in all butthe verybest allowingthe binoculars to swingaboutwiththe
instruments, are normally left uncoated' obviousriskof damage,hencetheyshouldbe
keptas shortas is convenient. Notethatnarrow
I
DESIGNAND CONSTRUCTION. Binocularsstrapsare best,broad(camera-type) strapsare
I comein a varietyof forms,all arebasedon one nota goodchoicefor binoculars.
of two designsviz. the porroprismand roof

I
64
 Binoculars

Eyepiece

- Prisns
FIGURE 1a

- Objective

PORROPRIS}I BINOCULAR

- EyePiece

-Prisns
FIGURE 1b

ROOF PRISU BINOCULAR

-Obj ective

FIGURE 1c FIGURE 1d

L LR

In collination Out of collimation

Obj ect 8arre1 Pincushion

dis tort ion di s tort ion

FIGUREle FIGURE1f FIGURE 1g

(Illustrations p . T . G . Perera )

65
 Telescopes

FIGURE 2a. A SPOTTING

TERRESTRIAI-
FIGURE REFRACTOR

FIGURE 2c CATADIOPTRIC
TELESCOPE

(Illustrations by P. T. G. Perera)

66
 TELESCOPES - theseare no more
oftenwithzoomeyepieces
thantoys).
W h e nh i g h p o w e ri s r q u i r e da t e l e s c o p e
s h o u l d b e u s e d . A d i s a d v a n t a g ew i t h C a t a d i o p t r i casr e c o m p o u n dt e l e s c o p e s
telescopes is that theycannoteasilybe hand- whichuse spherical mirrorsin conjunction with
heldhencetheyshouldalwaysbe mountedon m e n i s c u sl e n s e so r a s p h e r i c acl o r r e c t i n g
tripods.Telescopes providehighmagnificationplates.Theyare compactbut not lightandgive
combined withgoodimage-quality if wellmade, sharpimageswith goodcontrast;drawbacks
buttheirfields-of-view are rathersmallandthey are highcostsand exceptionally slowfocusing
givebestperformance in fairlybrightconditions.movements. Smallermodels(ie.apertures of
Threebasicdesignsare usedby ornithologists;125mmor less)aresuitable forornithology.
they are spottingscopes,terrestrial refractors
(bothof whichuse lenses)and catadioptrics M o s t t e l e s c o p e sa r e p r o v i d e d
with
( u s i n g m i r r o r s a n d l e n s e s ) . N o t e t h a t i n t e r c h a n g e a belyee p i e c egsi v i n ga r a n g e
of
c o n v e n t i o n anl e w t o n i a na n d c a s s e g r a i n magnilications. Ornithologists normallyuse the
a s t r o n o m i c ar el f l e c t o r cs a n n o tb e u s e df o r lowerpowers(15- 30 x) muchof thetimeand
ornithological purposes. reservehigherpowersfor usewhenconditions
a r e i d e a l . T h i s i s b e c a u s eh i g h p o w e r
S p o t t i n g s c o p e s a r e p o p u l a r w i t h eyepieces givesmallfields,magnifydefectsin
ornithologists as theyare short,compactano t h e o p t i c sa n d a r e s e v e r e l ya f f e c t e db y
henceeasilycarriedabout.Theyusuallyare atmospheric scintillation (seebelow).Variable
prismaticinstruments which,whenfittedwith p o w e ro r z o o m e y e p i e c e sa r e s o m e t i m e s
t h e a p p r o p r i a teey e p i e c e sc,a n e n c o m p a s s encountered andit is claimed thata singlesuch
r e l a t i v e l yw i d e f i e l d s - o f - v i e w
T .h e p r i s m s e y e p i e c ec a n r e p l a c ea s e t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
sometimes introduce a smallamountof false ones. Despitethe apparent convenience thisis
c o l o u ra n d t o c o u n l e tr h i s s o m e( e x p e n s i v e )a f a l l a c ya s m a n yz o o me y e p i e c e ps r o d u c e
modelshavealuminized first-surface mirrorsin inferiorimagesof low resolution, poorcontrast
p l a c eo f p r i s m s .W h e n u s e dw i t h l o w a n d andsometimes severechromatic aberration.
m e d i u mp o w e re y e p i e c e ss,p o t t i n gs c o p e s
p r o d u c ei m a g e sw h i c ha r e a d e q u a t e lsyh a r p Telescope performance is alwaysdependent
and of satisfactory contrast. Theirrathersrow o n a t m o s p h e r ci co n d i t i o n(s" s e e i n g "w) h e n
f o c u s i n gm o v e m e n t sc o u l d h o w e v e rb e imagequalitycouldbe seriously compromised
disadvantageous at times.Spottingscopesare b y t u r b u l e n coer s c i n t i l l a t i or e n s u l t i nfgr o m
alwaysidentifiable by theircharacteristic "bent" r i s i n g h e a t - w a v e s( s o m e t i m e sm i s c a l l e d
orofiles. " m i r a g e " )l ,a r g ea p e r t u r e as n d h i g h m a g -
nifications are moreseriouslyaffectedthan
T h e b e s t m o d e r nt e r r e s t r i arle f r a c r o r s smallerapertures andlowpowers.
(apochromats) produceextremelysharp,high- TRIPODS.To use a telescope effectively it is
contrastimages.Manyare smallastronomicaln e c e s s a rtyh a t i t b e s e c u r e l ym o u n t e do n a
telescopes adaptedfor terrestrial use.Theyare t r i p o d .I n g e n e r ahl e a v yt r i p o d sa r e s t e a d i e r
u s u a l l yf i t t e dw i t h e i t h e rr a c k - a n d - p i n i o n
r t h a n l i g h to n e s .A s p o r t a b i l i t iys a p r i m e
s l i d i n gd r a w t u b ef o c u s i n gm o v e m e n t sb:o t h consideration for fielduse a compromise must
s y s t e m sp e r m i t f a s t f o c u s i n g .A l t h o u g h often be madebetweenfirmnessand weight.
relatively light,refractors havelongtubesand T h e s t e a d i e sf ti e l dt r i p o d sh a v et u b u l a r( " O "
thistogether withtheirsmallfieldscouldbe a crosssection)alloylegs.Forfirmnesseachleg
drawbackbut exceptional imagequalitymakes shouldpreferably be in two (or not morethan
themidealfor criticalwork.(Bewarethoughof three)sections.Tripodswith channellegs("C"
similar-looking "department store"telescopes,crosssection) are popularas theycanbe easily

67
 *rlf,?hs

set up and dismantled on accountof the fast- spray,dustandmoisture.

a c t i n gl e v e r - l o c kfsi t t e dt o t h e i r l e g s .O n a
weight-for-weight ( 2 ) U s e l e n s - c a p sa n d c a s e a n d s t o r et h e
basishowever theyarenotas
f i r m a n d s t e a d ya s t h o s ew i t h t u b u l a rl e g s . instrument in a dry placewhennot in use.
Steadiestof all are the old-fashioned Protect a telescope objective withUV,1A or
wooden
a n d m o d e r np r o f e s s i o n avl i d e o t r i p o d s , 1B filter especially when used nearthe sea
regrettably theseare oftentoo heavyfor use and in dusty conditions.
underfieldconditions. Forfieldusetrioodswith ( 3 ) C l e a n l e n s e s o n l y w h e n a b s o l u t e l y
tubularlegswouldideallyweighbetween2.25 necessary. Usea blowerlens-brush, good
and4.5kgs(5 and10 lbs).Tripods withchannel q u a l i t yl e n st i s s u ea n d l e n sc l e a n i n fgl u i d
legswouldrequireto be 1 to 2 kgs more in (usethe fluidverysparingly). DONOTuse
orderto haveequalstability. Manytripodshave substitutes suchas cottonwooland toilet
c r a n k - o p e r a t ecde n t r ep o s t sf o r c o n v e n i e n t p a p e rf o r l e n st i s s u e o ; r x y l e n e b, e n z i n e
heightadjustment, howevera telescope willbe and othersolventsin placeof lenscleaning
steadiestwhenthe centrepostis retractedto its f l u i d .l n t e r n acl l e a n i n gc, o l l i m a t i oann d
lowestposition.A wide varietyof headsare repairsshouldbe carriedout by a qualified
availablefor bettertripods;the standard"pan person.lf youdo not havethe correcttools
andtilt"unitsarequiteadequate, butavoid"ball andexpertise resistthetemptation to "do-it-
and socketheads"whichare not suitablefor yourself":a screwdriver in unskilled hands
f i e l d u s e . L a s t l yt h e t r i p o ds h o u t db e o f canbe a weaponof destruction!
adequate height.
A C C E S S O R I E SF. i l t e r sc a n b e o f v a t u er n FORMULAE
certaincircumstances but very few telescopes Theformulae givenbelowmaybe of assistance
havethe necessary threadedobjective cellsto to readers.
takethem;a simplehome-made adaptorcan
howeverbe easilydevised to acceptstandard
camerafilters.The writerfindsthe filterslisted
b e l o wt o b e o f s o m ev a l u ef o r l o n g - r a n g e
observation of seabirds. F
(1) Todeterminemagnification(power):M = -
K2 (Yellow):for
penetrating
tighthaze. I

Polarizer:
for betterhaze-penetration
with A
0r: M=-
somelightloss,alsoeliminates
reflections E
fromwatersurfacesandfor glarereduction.
A
ND4(neutraldensity 4 x):forglare- (2) Tocalculate
exit-pupil
diameter: E= -
M
reduction.
(3) Tocalculate
relative
brightness
index: R = E2
'1A,1B
or UV:for lensprotection.
CAREANDMAINTENANCE
B i n o c u l a r sa n d t e l e s c o p e sa r e d e l i c a t e
instruments whichcan be easilydamaged, they NOTES:
shouldthereforebe handledwith care - not
a l w a y s e a s y i n t h e f i e l d . F o l l o w i n gt h e A = Objectivediamter,
guidelines E = Exit-pupil
diameter,
belowwill keeptheseinstruments in F = Focallengthol objective
goodworkingorder. f = Focallengthofeye-piece.
M = Magnification.
(1) Protectfromexcessive R= Relative brightnessindex.
heat,vibration.
sea-

6B
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fiegg,J. J. M. 1972, Binoculars, telescopesand cameras
for the birdwatcher.BTO guide 14,Tring,BTO.
I am grateu f l t o T h u s i t h aP e r e r aw h o p r o d u c e dt h e
illustrations.
My thanksalso go out to Brindleyde Zylvator , . ( e d , )A m a t e u r
H a n n a ,A . 1 9 5 2 , B i n o c u l a r si n I n g a l l s A
constructivecommentson the text. lelescopemaking(advanced).Vol. 3, New York,Scientific
American.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hill,S.B. & Clayton,D.H. 1985.Wildlileafterdark:a review
The undernotedreferencesprovidemore informationon the ol nocturnalobservationtechniques. Minneapolis.Bell
subjectsdealtwith here. Museumof NaturalHistory.

Anon, 1990,Pupilsize and aging.SKY AND TELESCOPE Johnson,B.K. 1960. PracticalOptics. New York, Dover
80 (6). Publications
Inc.

Bowen,K P. 1991, Agingeyeballs.SKY AND TELESCOPE Lowenfield,l.E. 1987, Night vision. Washington,National
82 (3). AcademyPress.

Brown,S, 1975.All abouttelescopes.

Banington,Edmund's R u t t e n ,H . a n d V e n r o o i j ,M . 1 9 8 8 . T e l e s c o p eO p t i c s :
Scientific
Corp. evaluation and design.Richmond.Willmann-Bell.

Conrady,A.E. 1952, Appliedopticsand opticaldesign (2 M i n n a e r tM

, . 1 9 5 4 .T h e n a t u r eo f l i g h ta n d c o l o u ri n t h e
vols.).New York,DoverPublications
Inc. open air. New York.Dover PublicationsInc.

D e S i l v a , R . l . 1 9 8 0 , B i n o c u l a r sa n d t e l e s c o p e sl o r Sidgewick,J. 1971. Amateurastronomers'

handbook.New
ornithologists. LORIS15 (3). York.Dover Publicationslnc.

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