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AN ARC HITEC TURE FO R AUTISM:
C O NC EPTS O F DESIG N INTERVENTIO N FO R THE AUTISTIC USER
Ma g da Mo sta fa
Ab stra c t
O ne in e ve ry 150 c hildre n is e stima te d to fa ll within
the a utistic sp e c trum, re g a rdle ss o f so c io -c ultura l
a nd e c o no mic a sp e c ts, with a 4:1 p re va le nc e o f
ma le s o ve r fe ma le s (ADDM, 2007). Arc hite c ture , a s
a p ro fe ssio n, is re sp o nsib le fo r c re a ting e nviro nme nts
tha t a c c o mmo da te the ne e ds o f a ll typ e s o f use rs.
Sp e c ia l ne e ds individua ls sho uld no t b e e xe mp t fro m
suc h a c c o mmo da tio n. De sp ite this hig h inc ide nc e o f
a utism, the re a re ye t to b e de ve lo p e d a rc hite c tura l
de sig n g uide line s c a te ring sp e c ific a lly to the sc o p e
o f a utistic ne e ds.
The p rima ry g o a l o f this re se a rc h is to c o rre c t this
e xc lusio n b y de ve lo p ing a p re limina ry fra me wo rk
o f a rc hite c tura l de sig n g uide line s fo r a utism. This
will b e do ne thro ug h a two p ha se study. The first
p ha se will de te rmine , thro ug h a q ue stio nna ire
o f first ha nd c a re g ive rs o f a utistic c hildre n, the
imp a c t o f a rc hite c tura l de sig n e le me nts o n a utistic
b e ha vio ur, to de te rmine the mo st influe ntia l. The
se c o nd p ha se , b a se d o n the finding s o f the first,
will te st the c o nc lusive hig he st ra nking a rc hite c tura l
e le me nts in a n inte rve ntio n study o n a utistic c hildre n
in the ir sc ho o l e nviro nme nt. Sp e c ific b e ha vio ura l
indic a to rs, na me ly a tte ntio n sp a n, re sp o nse time
a nd b e ha vio ura l te mp e ra me nt, will b e tra c ke d
to de te rmine e a c h c hild’ s p ro g re ss p re a nd p o st
inte rve ntio n, fo r a c o ntro l a nd study g ro up .
C o p yrig ht © 2007 Arc hne t-IJAR, Vo lum e 2 - Issue 1 - Ma rc h 2008 - (00-00)
Arc hne t-IJAR, Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Arc hite c tura l Re se a rc h
This study c o nc lude s in o utlining the finding s o f b o th
p ha se s o f the study, the first b e ing the de te rmina tio n
o f the mo st influe ntia l a rc hite c tura l de sig n e le me nts
o n a utistic b e ha vio ur, a c c o rding to the sa mp le
surve ye d. The se c o nd g ro up o f finding s o utline s
de sig n stra te g ie s fo r a utism in thre e p o ints. The first is
the p re se nta tio n o f a “ se nso ry de sig n ma trix” whic h
ma tc he s a rc hite c tura l e le me nts with a utistic se nso ry
issue s a nd is use d to g e ne ra te sug g e ste d de sig n
g uide line s. The se c o nd is the p re se nta tio n o f the se
hyp o the tic a l g uide line s, two o f whic h a re te ste d in
the p re se nte d study. The se g uide line s a re p re se nte d
a s p o ssib le inte rve ntio ns fo r furthe r te sting . The third is a
g ro up o f sp e c ific de sig n g uide line s re sulta nt fro m the
inte rve ntio n study. It is ho p e d tha t the se will p ro vide
a b a sis fo r the furthe r de ve lo p me nt o f a utistic sp e c ific
de sig n sta nda rds, a nd ta ke us o ne ste p furthe r
to wa rds mo re c o nduc ive e nviro nme nts fo r a utistic
individua ls.
Ke ywo rds
Autism ; d e sig n; a rc hite c ture ; sp e c ia l ne e d s; se nso ry
e nviro nm e nt.
Intro duc tio n
The p e rso n-e nviro nme nt re la tio nship ha s lo ng
b e e n a n inte g ra l p a rt o f a rc hite c tura l re se a rc h.
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
The c a re ful e xa mina tio n o f the d yna mic
MAG DA MO STAFA
b e twe e n the b uilt e nviro nme nt- with its a ttrib ute s
o f a c o ustic s, visua l c ha ra c te r, sp a tia l q ua lity,
c o lo r, te xture , g e o me try e tc - a nd huma n
b e ha vio r c a n le a d to the d e ve lo p me nt o f mo re
sp e c ific a nd se nsitive d e sig n g uid e line s. With
the se mo re a ttune d g uid e line s, d e sig ns b e c o me
mo re c o nd uc ive o f p ro d uc tivity, e ffic ie nc y a nd
c o mfo rt fo r a ll use rs. Sp e c ia l ne e d s ind ivid ua ls
ha ve b e e n g ive n p a rtic ula rly c lo se a tte ntio n in
this typ e d e sig n g uid e line d e ve lo p me nt. Autism, a
d e ve lo p me nta l d iso rd e r whic h is c ha ra c te rize d
b y d e la ye d c o mmunic a tio n skills, c ha lle ng e d
so c ia l inte ra c tio n, a nd re p e titive b e ha vio r, ha s
lo ng b e e n e xc lud e d fro m va rio us a rc hite c tura l
g uid e line s a nd c o d e s o f p ra c tic e fo r sp e c ia l
ne e d s.
It is the p rim a ry o b je c tive o f this stud y to
re m e d y this e xc lusio n a nd ta ke the first ste p
to wa rd s d e ve lo p ing a utistic sp e c ific d e sig n
g uid e line s. Using a n inte rve ntio n stud y o f a
g ro up o f a utistic stud e nts, the im p a c t o f the
a rc hite c tura l e nviro nm e nt o n the ir b e ha vio r
a nd d e ve lo p m e nt is a na lyze d . The c o nc lusive
a na lysis o f the d a ta c o lle c te d fro m this c a se
stud y p ro vid e s the c a ta lyst fo r the d e ve lo p m e nt
o f a fra m e wo rk, o r “ se nso ry d e sig n m a trix” ,
whic h o rg a nize s the c o m p le x a nd d yna m ic
re la tio nship b e twe e n se nso ry c ha ra c te ristic s o f
the b uilt e nviro nm e nt a nd the va ria nt sp e c trum
o f se nso ry issue s fo und in a utistic use rs. The
c o nc lusive g uid e line s inc lud e sp e c ific d e sig n
c rite ria whic h m a y b e use d to c usto m ize a sp a c e
fo r a n ind ivid ua l use r o r a g ro up o f a utistic use rs
with sim ila r se nso ry p ro file s. Le ss c a se sp e c ific ,
b ro a d e r g uid e line s a re a lso o utline d a nd
inc lud e c o nc e p ts suc h a s se nso ry zo ning , use
o f tra nsitio n sp a c e s b e twe e n zo ne s, a d o p tio n
o f e sc a p e sp a c e s a nd the use o f visua l c ue s to
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e nha nc e wa y-find ing . Suc h g uid e line s, b e ing
b a se d o n the “ se nso ry d e sig n” c o nc e p t p ut
fo rth in this p a p e r, a nd a fte r furthe r re se a rc h,
m a y b e unive rsa lly a p p lie d to a ny b uild ing typ e
fo r a utistic use rs, fro m e d uc a tio na l to re sid e ntia l
to m e d ic a l a nd re c re a tio na l.
Arc hite c ture a nd Autism
Re c e nt re se a rc h ha s ind ic a te d tha t a utism is
g ro wing a t a lm o st e p id e m ic p ro p o rtio ns (Hill
& Frith, 2003) a nd (Fo m b o nne , 2005). De sp ite
its o ve rwhe lm ing inc id e nc e , a utism is b y a nd
la rg e ig no re d b y the a rc hite c tura l c o m m unity,
e xc lud e d fro m b uild ing c o d e s a nd g uid e line s,
e ve n tho se d e ve lo p e d sp e c ific a lly fo r sp e c ia l
ne e d s ind ivid ua ls. In re fe re nc e to this e xc lusio n
Bro wn o f the Inte rna tio na l C o d e C o unc il
sta te d
“ I kno w o f no b uilding o r a c c e ssib ility c o de tha t
inc o rp o ra te s re q uire me nts sp e c ific a lly to a ddre ss
c hildre n with a utism. Ho we ve r, a c c e ssib ility in
g e ne ra l is a ddre sse d in the c o de s de ve lo p e d b y the
Inte rna tio na l C o de C o unc il.” Bro wn, L.,(2003), C BO
C o d e s & Sta nd a rd s De ve lo p m e nt, Te c hnic a l Sta ff1
The Unite d Na tio ns m a nd a te o n the G lo b a l
Pro g ra m o n Disa b ility a lso fa ils to o utline
sp e c ific b uild ing sta nd a rd s fo r a utism . Altho ug h
no t le g a lly b ind ing , the Sta nd a rd Rule s o n
the Eq ua liza tio n o f O p p o rtunitie s fo r Pe rso ns
with Disa b ilitie s, re so lutio n 48/ 96 a nne x o f 20/
12/ 1993, p re se nts g o ve rnm e nts with a m o ra l
c o m m itm e nt to p ro vid e e q ua l o p p o rtunitie s
fo r p e rso ns with d isa b ilitie s. This c o ve rs m a ny
issue s, inc lud ing e m p lo ym e nt, re c re a tio n,
re lig io n, e d uc a tio n a nd a c c e ssib ility to p ub lic
se rvic e s. The issue o f a c c e ssib ility is o f p rim a ry
c o nc e rn to a rc hite c ts. No sp e c ific re fe re nc e s
a re ma d e in the ma nd a te re g a rd ing ind ivid ua ls
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
with d e ve lo p me nta l d iso rd e rs o r e ve n a utism,
MAG DA MO STAFA
b ut the te rm “ c o nsid e ra tio n” is a p p lie d with
re g a rd s to “ o the r c o mmunic a tio n d iso rd e rs”
(UN G lo b a l Pro g ra m o n Disa b ility, 1993). This ha s
sinc e b e e n re vie we d a nd it ha s b e e n p o inte d
o ut tha t ind ivid ua ls with d e ve lo p me nta l a nd
p syc ho -so c ia l d iso rd e rs, o f whic h a utism is o ne ,
ha ve b e e n o ve rlo o ke d (Al Tha ni, 2004). Va rio us
b uild ing c o d e s o f p ra c tic e ha ve a lso e xc lud e d
sp e c ific re q uire me nts fo r d e sig ning fo r a utism.
Amo ng the se a re thre e d o c ume nts p ub lishe d b y
the De p a rtme nt o f Ed uc a tio n a nd Emp lo yme nt
in the UK (Arc hite c ts a nd Build ing Bra nc h,
De p a rtme nt o f Ed uc a tio n a nd Emp lo yme nt
(1), (2), (3)). The first two d o c ume nts “ Ac c e ss
fo r Disa b le d Pe o p le to Sc ho o l Build ing s” a nd
“ De sig ning fo r Pup ils with Sp e c ia l Ed uc a tio na l
Ne e d s- Sp e c ia l Sc ho o ls” , ma ke no re fe re nc e
to sp e c ific g uid e line s whe n d e sig ning fo r
a utistic use rs, while “ Inc lusive Sc ho o l De sig n-
Ac c o mmo d a ting Pup ils with Sp e c ia l Ed uc a tio na l
Ne e d s a nd Disa b ilitie s in Ma instre a m Sc ho o ls”
me ntio ns a utism in a ve ry limite d se nse with
g e ne ric re fe re nc e to a c o ustic s fo r sp e c ia l
ne e d s. The se d o c ume nts d o , ho we ve r, p ro vid e
c o mp re he nsive g uid e line s fo r d e a ling with o the r
sp e c ia l ne e d s a nd le a rning d iffic ultie s.
This g e ne ra l e xc lusio n m a y b e a re sult, in p a rt, o f
the no n-sta nd a rd ize d na ture o f c ha lle ng e s a nd ,
re sp e c tive ly, ne e d s a lo ng the a utistic sp e c trum .
It is the c o nte ntio n o f this p a p e r ho we ve r, tha t
a d e sig n stra te g y to d e a l with the se va rying
c ha lle ng e s m a y b e p ut in p la c e a llo wing a
fo rm o f c usto m iza tio n fo r g ro up s o f use rs. This
stra te g y will a lso fa c ilita te the g e ne ra tio n o f
b ro a d d e sig n g uid e line s a nd p o lic ie s.
In o rd e r to ha ve a b e tte r und e rsta nd ing o f
this d iso rd e r, ma ny d e finitio ns a nd the o rie s
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ha ve b e e n se t fo rth in the p a st re g a rd ing the
me c ha nisms o f a utism. This p a p e r b a se s its
hyp o the sis o n the se nso ry d e finitio n o f a utism,
p ut fo rth b y re se a rc he rs suc h a s Rimla nd
(1964), De la c a to (1974) a nd And e rso n (1998).
In suc h the o rie s, a utistic b e ha vio r is c re d ite d to
a fo rm o f se nso ry ma lfunc tio n whe n a ssimila ting
stimula to ry info rma tio n fro m the surro und ing
p hysic a l e nviro nme nt. It is the c o nc e p tua l p ivo t
o f this re se a rc h tha t the a rc hite c t, thro ug h
d e sig n o f this p hysic a l se nso ry e nviro nme nt, ha s
c o ntro l o ve r the na ture o f this c ritic a l se nso ry
inp ut. By und e rsta nd ing the me c ha nisms o f
this d iso rd e r a nd c o nse q ue nt ne e d s o f the
a utistic use r, this e nviro nme nt ma y b e d e sig ne d
fa vo ra b ly to a lte r the se nso ry inp ut, a nd p e rha p s
mo d ify the a utistic b e ha vio r, o r a t le a st c re a te
a n e nviro nme nt c o nd uc ive o f skill d e ve lo p me nt
a nd le a rning .
The ke y to suc h m o d ific a tio n is the p ro c e ss o f
p e rc e p tio n. If we lo o k a t typ ic a l p e rc e p tio n a s
the und e rsta nd ing o f, a nd re le va nt re sp o nse
to , the se nso ry inp ut fro m the surro und ing
e nviro nm e nt, i.e . the a rc hite c tura l d e sig n, we
c a n b e tte r und e rsta nd the ro le o f a rc hite c ture
in a utistic b e ha vio r. Mo st inte rve ntio ns fo r
a utistic ind ivid ua ls, p re d o m ina ntly m e d ic a l,
the ra p e utic a nd e d uc a tio na l, d e a l with the
se nso ry m a lfunc tio n itse lf a nd the d e ve lo p m e nt
o f stra te g ie s a nd skills fo r the a utistic ind ivid ua l
to use whe n c o p ing with the se m a lfunc tio ns. It
is the c o nte ntio n o f this re se a rc h tha t a utistic
b e ha vio r c a n b e influe nc e d fa vo ra b ly b y
a lte ring the se nso ry e nviro nm e nt, i.e . the
stim ula to ry inp ut, re sulting fro m the p hysic a l
a rc hite c tura l surro und ing s (c o lo r, te xture ,
ve ntila tio n, se nse o f c lo sure , o rie nta tio n,
a c o ustic s e tc .) b e fo re , ra the r tha n a fte r
the se nso ry m a lfunc tio n o c c urs. Pe rha p s b y
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
a lte ring this se nso ry inp ut in a m a nne r d e sig ne d
MAG DA MO STAFA
to a c c o m m o d a te sp e c ific a utistic ne e d s,
b e ha vio r m a y b e im p ro ve d , o r a t le a st a m o re
c o nd uc ive e nviro nm e nt c re a te d , fo r m o re
e ffic ie nt skill d e ve lo p m e nt.
Pre vio us a rc hite c tura l re se a rc h ha s sup p o rte d
the o rie s re g a rd ing the influe nc e o f the
a rc hite c tura l e nviro nm e nt up o n use r b e ha vio r
in typ ic a l no n-a utistic use rs. De a sy a nd La swe ll
d isc uss a rc hite c t’ s use o f c o m m o n p a tte rns
o f c o g nitio n to g uid e a nd m a nip ula te use r
b e ha vio ur in a sp a c e (De a se y & La swe ll,
1990). If we lo o k a t m e a ning , o r the c o g nitive
va lue g ive n to a n e xp e rie nc e , we c a n
und e rsta nd ho w a use r typ ic a lly inte rp re ts his
a rc hite c tura l e nviro nm e nt. La ng d isc usse s
va rio us m e c ha nism s thro ug h whic h m e a ning
is o b ta ine d fro m the a rc hite c tura l e nviro nm e nt
(La ng , 1987). Arc hite c ts utilize this c o nc e p t in
d e sig ning sp a c e , b y g iving c e rta in m e a ning s
thro ug h fo rm , to influe nc e use r b e ha vio ur.
Mo sta fa d isc usse s the m e a ns b y whic h c o g nitive
issue s g e ne ra te a rc hite c tura l p a tte rns in va rio us
c ulture s (Mo sta fa , 1998). Just a s a rc hite c tura l
p ra c tic e s a d just the m se lve s to a c c o m m o d a te
so c io -c ultura l c o g nitive p a tte rns this p a p e r
p ro p o se s sim ila r se nsitivity to the ve ry d iffe re nt
c o g nitive p a tte rns o f a utistic ind ivid ua ls. The se
p a tte rns a re fo rm e d thro ug h m ulti-se nso ry
p e rc e p tio n a nd he nc e d e via te fro m the typ ic a l
in a utism . It is the o b je c tive o f this p a p e r to
und e rsta nd the se p a tte rns thro ug h the e ye s
o f a utism a nd d e ve lo p the m into d e sig n
g uid e line s, a p p ro a c he s a nd c o nc e p ts.
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Me tho do lo g y
Study De sig n- Pha se 1
To re a c h this g o a l o f d e ve lo p ing a fra m e wo rk
fo r a rc hite c tura l g uid e line s fo r a utism , a two
p ha se stud y wa s c a rrie d o ut. The first p ha se o f
this wa s a c ro ss-se c tio na l d e sc rip tive stud y o f
the p rim a ry c a re g ive rs a nd te a c he rs o f a utistic
c hild re n. The o b je c tive o f this first p ha se wa s to
ra nk the im p a c t o f sp e c ific a rc hite c tura l fa c to rs
o r sp a tia l c ha ra c te ristic s - a c o ustic s, visua l
(c o lo rs a nd p a tte rns), visua l (lig hting ), te xture ,
o lfa c to ry a nd sp a tia l se q ue nc ing o f func tio ns.
The re sults fro m this ra nking wo uld ind ic a te
the m o st influe ntia l a rc hite c tura l fa c to rs o n
a utistic b e ha vio r, whic h wo uld b e c o m e the
inte rve ntio n va ria b le s to b e stud ie d in Pha se 2.
Study To o ls- Pha se 1
The p rim a ry to o l use d fo r this p ha se o f the
stud y wa s a n o nline q ue stio nna ire p o ste d
o n the Fa m ilie s fo r Ea rly Autism Tre a tm e nt,
FEAT, a we b site d e d ic a te d to fa m ilie s a nd
e d uc a to rs o f c hild re n with a utism . This sa m e
q ue stio nna ire wa s a lso d istrib ute d to the
c a re g ive rs a nd te a c he rs o f the Ad va nc e
So c ie ty fo r De ve lo p ing Skills o f Sp e c ia l Ne e d s
C hild re n, C a iro 1. Pa rtic ip a nts we re a ske d to
ra nk 5 a rc hite c tura l fa c to rs - a c o ustic s, visua l
(c o lo rs & p a tte rns), visua l (lig hting ), te xture ,
o lfa c to ry a nd sp a tia l se q ue nc ing o f func tio ns,
fro m the m o st influe ntia l to the le a st.
Study Sa m ple - Pha se 1
A p urp o se ful sa m p le o f a to ta l o f 83 ind ivid ua ls,
with a d istrib utio n o f 25 te a c he rs a nd 58 p rim a ry
c a re g ive rs, re sp o nd e d to this q ue stio nna ire .
The ir p a rtic ip a tio n wa s vo lunta ry. The
re sp o nd e nts we re b o th lo c a l (Eg yp tia n) a nd
we ste rn (Am e ric a ns). All p a rtic ip a nts we re
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
fro m the m id d le to up p e r stra ta o f the so c io -
MAG DA MO STAFA
e c o no m ic m id d le c la ss.
Study De sig n- Pha se 2
This se c o nd p ha se is c o m p rise d o f two
inte rve ntio ns, b o th im p le m e nte d a t the
Ad va nc e So c ie ty fo r De ve lo p ing Skills o f
Sp e c ia l Ne e d s C hild re n in C a iro . Ea c h o f the se
inte rve ntio ns stud ie s a n a rc hite c tura l va ria b le ,
c ho se n b a se d o n the re sults o f the p ha se
1 surve y. The se va ria b le s a re a c o ustic s a nd
sp a tia l se q ue nc ing . Bo th inte rve ntio ns c o m p a re
the p e rfo rm a nc e o f a c o ntro l a nd stud y g ro up .
The first te st a na lyze s the im p a c t o f a c o ustic s
o n a utistic b e ha vio r in sp e e c h a nd la ng ua g e
a c q uisitio n. This inte rve ntio n invo lve d the
a c o ustic a l m o d ific a tio n o f a sp e e c h a nd
la ng ua g e the ra p y ro o m thro ug h so und p ro o fing
o f flo o r, wa ll a nd c e iling surfa c e s with the
o b je c tive o f re d uc ing b o th e c ho a nd e xte rna l
no ise p e ne tra tio n. The d e ta iling use d fo r this
so und p ro o fing use d ine xp e nsive m a te ria ls
re q uiring m inim a l insta lla tio n in o rd e r to b e
c o st-e ffe c tive a nd re d uc e the d isturb a nc e to
the sc ho o l’ s o p e ra tio n d uring suc h insta lla tio n.
The a ve ra g e b a c kg ro und no ise le ve l wa s
re d uc e d fro m 65.5 d e c ib e ls to 52.5 d e c ib e ls.
The e c ho ra tio wa s re d uc e d fro m 96% to 57%.
The se re a d ing s we re ta ke n using a sta nd a rd
so und le ve l m e te r a nd a 90 d e c ib e l so und
so urc e . No ise le ve ls we re re c o rd e d o n a g rid
thro ug ho ut the ro o m a nd a num e ric a ve ra g e
wa s ta ke n. Ec ho e s we re m e a sure d a g a inst a ll
fo ur wa lls a nd a g a in a num e ric a ve ra g e ra tio
wa s ta ke n (Kuttriff, H., 1991).
The se c o nd inte rve ntio n d e a lt with sp a tia l
se q ue nc ing . This invo lve d re o rg a nizing the
sp a tia l la yo ut o f o ne o f the sc ho o l’ s c la ssro o m s,
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in suc h a wa y tha t p ro m o te d ro utine . This wa s
a c hie ve d thro ug h the o rg a niza tio n o f the
func tio na l sp a c e s o f the c la ssro o m , within whic h
a sing le a c tivity is c a rrie d o ut, into “ sta tio ns” o r
se p a ra te d e fine d zo ne s, inc lud ing a n “ e sc a p e
sp a c e ” whic h a c te d a s a ha ve n fo r tim e s o f
se nso ry im b a la nc e in the c hild re n (fig . 1). This
sc e na rio wa s b a se d o n the lo ng -sta nd ing
hyp o the sis tha t a utistic c hild re n a d he re to
ro utine (Ka nne r, L. 1943), (Me d ic a l Wo rld
Ne ws, 1966), a c o m p ulsio n whic h is a n inte g ra l
d ia g no stic ind ic a to r o f a utism (Sc ho p le r e t a l,
1988). This re sista nc e to c ha ng e is c o m m o nly
vie we d a s a p ro b le m in a utism , b ut it is ho p e d
tha t b y c a p ita lizing o n this o the rwise ne g a tive
c ha ra c te ristic , p o sitive c ha ng e s c a n b e m a d e .
By c re a ting a p re d ic ta b le e nviro nm e nt in the
le a rning sp a c e a nd c a te ring to the c hild ’ s ne e d
fo r ro utine , he o r she m a y b e m o re o p e n to
le a rning e sse ntia l skills tha t c a n b e g e ne ra lize d
o utsid e this c o ntro lle d sp a c e , m a king him o r he r
ultim a te ly le ss d e p e nd a nt o n the ro utine .
This d e sig n a p p ro a c h o f c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n
a lso c o nfine s the lim its o f the se nso ry
e nviro nm e nt with whic h the c hild inte ra c ts
d uring a ny g ive n a c tivity o r ‘ sta tio n’ . The
p hysic a l c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n o f a c tivitie s a lso
he lp s d e c re a se visua l d istra c tio ns, a nd lim its
fie ld s o f p e rip he ra l visio n. The se issue s no rm a lly
a d d to the d istra c tib ility o f the c hild a nd lim it
his a tte ntio n sp a n. It is the o rize d tha t b y lim iting
the se visua l a nd o the r se nso ry issue s, the c hild
will le a rn to fo c us o n the e d uc a tio na l ta sk a t
ha nd . Ultim a te ly the visua l a nd a ud ito ry c ue s o f
the a c tivity will c o nd itio n the c hild a nd he lp him
g e ne ra lize his re sp o nse s o utsid e the c o ntro lle d
e nviro nm e nt.
So m e m a y a rg ue tha t the re a l wo rld is no t se tup
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in c le a rly d e fine d “ sta tio ns” a nd ve ry fre q ue ntly suc h a c o nfig ura tio n within the c la ssro o m will
MAG DA MO STAFA

‘ ro utine ’ is d isrup te d . This is a ve ry re a listic he lp d e ve lo p skills to d e a l with suc h c ha o s,

a nd re le va nt o b se rva tio n, b ut it is ho p e d tha t d iso rg a niza tio n a nd unp re d ic ta b ility.

Fig ure 1: Pla n o f c o m p a rtm e nta lize d stud y c la ssro o m sho wing sim ulta ne o us use o f va rio us sta tio ns. (So urc e : Autho r).

Study To o ls- Pha se 2 ra tio na le b e hind the c ho ic e o f the se ind ic a to rs

The stud y te c hniq ue use d fo r b o th inte rve ntio ns,
a c o ustic a l m o d ific a tio n a nd sp a tia l se q ue nc e
c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n, wa s the p ro g re ss
o b se rva tio n o f sp e c ific b e ha vio ra l ind ic a to rs.
The se ind ic a to rs we re a tte ntio n sp a n, re sp o nse
tim e a nd b e ha vio ra l te m p e ra m e nt. The
is the ir inhe re nt ro le in skill d e ve lo p m e nt fo r a ll
ind ivid ua ls, b ut p a rtic ula rly a utism , whe re the y
p la y a fund a m e nta l ro le in skill a c q uisitio n a nd
d e ve lo p m e nt. Sinc e it is the ultim a te g o a l o f
this re se a rc h to o utline stra te g ie s to c re a te
e nviro nm e nts m o re c o nd uc ive o f le a rning ,

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the se b e ha vio ra l ind ic a to rs m ust b e a d d re sse d .
MAG DA MO STAFA
It is ho p e d tha t b y c re a ting a n e nviro nm e nt
whe re the a utistic c hild is m o re fo c use d a nd le ss
p ro ne to b e ha vio ra l o utb ursts, a n e d uc a tio na l
wind o w o f o p p o rtunity will b e g e ne ra te d ,
a nd m o re e ffic ie nt skill d e ve lo p m e nt will b e
a c hie ve d in a sho rte r p e rio d o f tim e . This so rt
o f a p p ro a c h is fund a m e nta l in o utwe ig hing the
d e ve lo p m e nta l d e la y o f the a utistic c hild .
Dire c t o b se rva tio ns, b y the re se a rc he r a nd
te a c he rs, a s we ll a s vid e o , we re the to o ls
use d to m e a sure a nd re c o rd the ind ic a to rs.
In the c a se o f a tte ntio n sp a n, d e fine d a s the
a m o unt o f tim e in se c o nd s the c hild re m a ins
o n ta sk witho ut d istra c tio n, a lo ng e r a tte ntio n
sp a n ind ic a te s a p o sitive re sult. With re g a rd s to
re sp o nse tim e , d e fine d a s the a m o unt o f tim e
in se c o nd s it ta ke s fo r the c hild to re sp o nd to
a c o m m a nd o r q ue stio n, a sho rte r re sp o nse
tim e ind ic a te s a p o sitive re sult. Be ha vio ra l
te m p e ra m e nt wa s ind ic a te d b y m e a suring
the o c c urre nc e o f se lf-stim ula to ry b e ha vio r.
This b e ha vio r is a ha b itua l, c o m p ulsive a c tio n
e xhib ite d b y the a utistic c hild , ind ic a tive o f
d isc o m fo rt a nd se nso ry im b a la nc e . Uniq ue to
e a c h c hild , this m a y ra ng e fro m he a d b a ng ing
to ha nd -b iting to ro c king e tc . It ha s b e e n sho wn
tha t suc h b e ha vio r, whe n d e c re a se d , ind ic a te s a
suc c e ssful o utc o m e o f the inte rve ntio n (Ka p la n
e t a l, 2006).
The to ta l tim e p e rio d o f the se te sts wa s o ne
a c a d e m ic ye a r, the first se m e ste r b e ing use d
fo r b a se line d o c um e nta tio n to b e nc hm a rk
e a c h ind ivid ua l c hild ’ s p ro g re ss, a s we ll a s to
a llo w the c hild re n to fa m ilia rize the m se lve s with
the p re se nc e o f the re se a rc he r o n the p re m ise s
d uring o b se rva tio ns. The se c o nd se m e ste r
wa s use d to d o c um e nt the im p a c t o f the te st
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sc e na rio s o n the stud y g ro up a nd c o ntro l g ro up .
Fo r e a c h o f the se ind ic a to rs, d uring this se c o nd
se m e ste r, re a d ing s we re ta ke n a t sp e c ific
m ile sto ne s d uring a to ta l sp a n o f 12 we e ks, fro m
Fe b rua ry to June 2003, a t we e k 0, we e k 4, we e k
8 a nd we e k12. Ea c h re a d ing wa s ta ke n d uring
o ne 45 m inute c la ss p e rio d . In the c a se o f
a tte ntio n sp a n a nd re sp o nse tim e , a n a ve ra g e
tim e wa s c a lc ula te d fo r the we e k. In the c a se
o f b e ha vio ra l te m p e ra m e nt a n a ve ra g e
o c c urre nc e ra te o f se lf-stim ula to ry b e ha vio r
d uring o ne c la ss p e rio d wa s c a lc ula te d fo r
e a c h we e k.
Be ha vio ra l m a p p ing wa s a lso use d a s a n
a d d itio na l q ua lita tive to o l, to inte rna lly va lid a te
the find ing s. This to o l o utline d b e ha vio ra l
p a tte rns a nd the ir re la tio nship to use o f
sp a c e (Sa no ff, H., 1991). Suc h p a tte rns we re
d o c um e nte d a t m ile sto ne s p a ra lle l to the o the r
re a d ing s: we e k 0, we e k 4, we e k 8 a nd we e k12.
The o b se rva tio na l d a ta c o lle c te d fro m this to o l
he lp e d tra nsla te the a b stra c t d a ta re c o rd e d
into wo rka b le a rc hite c tura l g uid e line s. To
p ro d uc e the b e ha vio ra l m a p , e a c h c hild wa s
o b se rve d fo r a five m inute inte rva l, o r vig ne tte ,
in the a lte re d sp a c e . His re sp o nse s, m o ve m e nts
a nd a c tivitie s we re d o c um e nte d a s a n
a nno ta te d d ia g ra m o n the la yo ut a s we ll a s in
a tim e -line c ha rt (fig . 2). This te c hniq ue wa s o nly
use d fo r the sp a tia l re o rg a niza tio n te st sc e na rio
a s the a c o ustic a l m o d ific a tio n sc e na rio d id no t
ha ve a sp a tia l se q ue nc e e le m e nt.
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MAG DA MO STAFA 8

Fig ure 2: Be ha vio ra l m a p o f stud y c la ssro o m sho wing a nno ta te d d ia g ra m m ing a nd tim e c ha rt. (So urc e : Autho r)

Study Sa m ple - Pha se 2

Bo th inte rve ntio ns use a c o m p a ra tive stud y
g ro up vs. c o ntro l g ro up fo rm a t. Sp e c ia l ne e d s
c la sse s, p a rtic ula rly tho se fo r a utistic c hild re n
a re sm a ll, with a te a c he r to c hild ra tio re a c hing
1:1 in so m e c a se s. O ne stud y c la ss a nd o ne
c o ntro l c la ss, o ut o f a to ta l o f 8 c la sse s in the
c e nte r, p a rtic ip a te d in the stud y, with 6 stud e nts
in e a c h c la ss, m a king a to ta l sa m p le size o f 12
stud e nts, re p re se nting 25% o f the stud e nt b o d y.
The c la sse s c ho se n fo r inte rve ntio n we re fro m
the p rim a ry le ve l c la sse s, g ive n tha t the ir e a rly
a g e m a ke s the m m o st im p re ssio na b le a nd
ind ic a tive o f inte rve ntio n im p a c t. The se c la sse s
a re g ro up e d b a se d m a inly o n skill a nd a b ility
ra the r tha n a g e a lo ne . The a g e s o f the stud e nts
p a rtic ip a ting in the stud y the re fo re ra ng e d fro m
6-10 ye a rs, with a m e a n a g e o f 8.33 ye a rs a nd
sta nd a rd d e via tio n o f 1.63 a nd m e d ia n o f 8.5 in

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the stud y g ro up , a nd a m e a n a g e o f 7.5 ye a rs
MAG DA MO STAFA
with a sta nd a rd d e via tio n o f 1.643 a nd m e d ia n
o f 7 in the c o ntro l g ro up . G ive n the na tura l
te nd e nc y o f hig he r o c c urre nc e o f a utism in
b o ys o ve r g irls the ra tio o f m a le s to fe m a le s in
the stud y wa s 9:3.
Due to the he te ro g e ne ity o f the sa m p le a nd
the fa c t tha t skills va ry fro m c hild to c hild , re sults
we re a na lyze d re la tive ly, with re g a rd s to e a c h
c hild ’ s re sp e c tive p e rfo rm a nc e , ra the r tha n
a b so lute ly, a c ro ss the e ntire sa m p le . Frie d m a n
te sting wa s use d fo r the m ultip le p ro g re ss
re a d ing s o f a tte ntio n sp a n a nd re sp o nse tim e
while Wilc o xo n Sig ne d Ra nk Te sting wa s use d
fo r the p re a nd p o st p ro g re ss re a d ing s o f
b e ha vio ra l te m p e ra m e nt.
Ethic a l C o nside ra tio ns
G ive n the se nsitive na ture o f this stud y, a nd
the c o nfid e ntia lity issue s invo lve d , p a rtic ula rly
with re sp e c t to the yo ung a g e o f the c hild re n
a nd the a d o p te d to o ls o f vid e o , c o nse nt fro m
the p rim a ry c a re g ive rs o f the c hild re n wa s
e sse ntia l. A writte n c o nse nt fo rm , o utlining the
g o a l, struc ture a nd p ro je c te d o utc o m e s o f the
stud y, wa s d istrib ute d to a ll the p a re nts a nd
le g a l g ua rd ia ns o f the c hild re n p a rtic ip a ting in
the stud y, re q ue sting the ir p e rm issio n fo r thre e
a sp e c ts. The first a sp e c t wa s the inc lusio n o f the
c hild in the stud y, the se c o nd wa s a c c e ss to the
c hild ’ s c linic a l a nd a c a d e m ic file , a nd the third
wa s p e rm issio n to re c o rd the c hild ’ s p ro g re ss
thro ug ho ut the stud y. Se p a ra te c o nse nt wa s
re q ue ste d fo r vid e o ta p ing a nd p ho to g ra p hy.
The wishe s o f a ll p a re nts re g a rd ing the d e g re e
a nd typ e o f invo lve m e nt o f the ir c hild re n we re
une q uivo c a lly re sp e c te d .
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Re sults a nd Disc ussio n
The o ve ra ll re sults o f this stud y sho w p ro m ising
ind ic a tio ns o f the p o ssib le im p ro ve m e nt o f
a utistic b e ha vio ur, a s ind ic a te d b y inc re a se d
a tte ntio n sp a n, re d uc e d re sp o nse tim e
a nd im p ro ve d b e ha vio ura l te m p e ra m e nt,
using a n a lte re d a rc hite c tura l e nviro nm e nt.
The se ind ic a to rs, whe n c o m b ine d , c re a te
a b e ha vio ura l e nviro nm e nt m o re c o nd uc ive
o f le a rning a nd m a y inc re a se the a utistic
c hild ’ s o p p o rtunity fo r skill a c q uisitio n
a nd d e ve lo p m e nt. This a lso ind ic a te s the
p re lim ina ry suc c e ss o f a c o ustic a l c o ntro l a nd
sp a tia l se q ue nc ing a s a rc hite c tura l g uid e line s
c o nd uc ive o f p o sitive a utistic b e ha vio ur.
De sp ite the he te ro g e ne ity o f the sa m p le
p o p ula tio n, a s we ll a s the sm a ll sa m p le size ,
sta tistic a lly sig nific a nt re sults, a s c a lc ula te d
using the Ma nn-Whitne y te st, sup p o rt the se
p re lim ina ry find ing s in m o st c a se s, a s ind ic a te d
b y a sig nific a nc e lo we r tha n 0.05.
This stud y sho uld he nc e b e c o nsid e re d a first
sta g e e xp lo ra to ry stud y, inte nd e d to jud g e
p re lim ina ry influe nc e o f the te st va ria b le s o n
a utistic b e ha vio ur a s m e a sure d b y the te st
ind ic a to rs. It is the re fo re re c o m m e nd e d tha t
furthe r stud ie s, using ra nd o m ize d te sting with
a la rg e r sa m p le size a nd sta nd a rd ize d p o ssib le
c o nfo und e r fa c to rs, b e c o nd uc te d to ve rify its
p re lim ina ry find ing s.
Pha se 1- Arc hite c tura l Influe nc e o n
Autistic Be ha vio r
The re sults o f this p ha se sho w tha t, a c c o rd ing
to the sa m p le surve ye d , a c o ustic s a re the
m o st influe ntia l a rc hite c tura l fa c to r o n a utistic
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
b e ha vio r, fo llo we d b y sp a tia l se q ue nc ing .
MAG DA MO STAFA
Ac c o rd ing to the re sults o f the q ue stio nna ire 64%
o f te a c he rs a nd 79.3% o f p a re nts ra nk a c o ustic s,
a nd 20% o f te a c he rs a nd 13.79% o f p a re nts
ra nk sp a tia l se q ue nc ing a s the m o st influe ntia l
a rc hite c tura l fa c to r o n a utistic b e ha vio r. O the r
fa c to rs suc h a s visua l (lig hting ), visua l (c o lo rs
a nd p a tte rns), te xture a nd o lfa c to ry issue s we re
g ive n le ss influe ntia l im p o rta nc e b y the sa m p le
surve ye d . Pe rc e nta g e o f te a c he rs ra nking
the se fa c to rs a s hig he st we re 8%, 4%, 4% a nd
0% re sp e c tive ly, while p e rc e nta g e o f p a re nts
we re 3.45%, 0%, 1.72% a nd 0% re sp e c tive ly.
The se re sults fo rm e d the b a sis fo r c ho ic e
va ria b le s fo r the e xp e rim e nta l te sting o f Pha se
2, c o nc lud ing a c o ustic s a nd sp a tia l se q ue nc ing
a s a p p ro p ria te inte rve ntio ns fo r e xp e rim e nta l
te sting .
Pha se 2- Ac o ustic a l Mo dific a tio n Te st
Atte ntio n Sp a n:
The re sults o f this inte rve ntio n ind ic a te p o sitive
im p ro ve m e nt in a tte ntio n sp a n o f the stud y
g ro up stud e nts. The c hild re n we re b e tte r a b le
to id e ntify, re c o g nize , im ita te a nd ve rb a lize in
the so und p ro o fe d sp e e c h ro o m . O n a ve ra g e
the stud y g ro up e xhib ite d a n inc re a se o f m o re
tha n 3 tim e s the ir o rig ina l a tte ntio n sp a ns. The y
e xhib ite d a g ra d ua l inc re a se in the ir a tte ntio n
sp a n m e d ia n fro m 44 to 58 to 72 to 142.50
se c o nd s o ve r the 12 we e k p e rio d . The m e a n o f
the g ro up p ro g re sse d g ra d ua lly fro m 45 to 130.5
se c o nd s with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 27.07 a nd
34.61 re sp e c tive ly.
The c o ntro l g ro up d id no t e xhib it sim ila r g ra d ua l
p ro g re ss. The re wa s no d istinc t p a tte rn o f
im p ro ve m e nt in the ir a tte ntio n sp a ns who se
m e d ia n p ro g re sse d fro m 38 to 28 to 22 to 27
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se c o nd s o ve r the 12 we e k p e rio d . The m e a n o f
the g ro up m o ve d fro m 38.67 to 27.33 to 27.83
to 27.33 with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 17.69, 17.1,
22.09 a nd 8.26 re sp e c tive ly.
The sta tistic a l sig nific a nc e o f the se re sults
we re ve rifie d using the Ma nn-Whitne y te st a nd
ra ng e d in e xa c t sig nific a nc e fro m 0.818, 0.026,
0.009 a nd 0.002 re sp e c tive ly o ve r the 12 we e k
p e rio d .
The Frie d m a n ra nk te sting re sults o f this d a ta
a lso sho ws sig nific a nt re la tive p ro g re ss o f e a c h
ind ivid ua l stud e nt o ve r tim e in the stud y g ro up ,
with a g ra d ua l inc re a se in m e a n ra nking fro m
1.33 to 2.17 to 2.50 to 4.0 thro ug h we e ks 0-
12, with a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f 0.004.
Frie d m a n ra nk te sting o f the c o ntro l g ro up sho ws
little re la tive im p ro ve m e nt o f e a c h ind ivid ua l
stud e nt with m e a n ra nks o f 3, 2.17, 2.33 a nd
2.5 thro ug h we e ks 0-12, with a n a sym p to tic
sig nific a nc e o f 0.7060.
Re sp o nse Tim e :
With re g a rd s to re sp o nse tim e , p ro m ising
ind ic a tio ns we re a lso o b se rve d . The stud e nts
o f the stud y g ro up we re se e n to re sp o nd fa ste r
a nd we re a b le to susta in tha t q uic k re sp o nse
m o re fre q ue ntly a nd fo r lo ng e r p e rio d s o f tim e .
During the sp a n o f the tria l, stud e nts fro m the
stud y g ro up illustra te d a g ra d ua l d e c re a se in
the ir re sp o nse tim e s, ind ic a ting a p o sitive re sult.
The ir m e d ia n re sp o nse tim e s d e c re a se d fro m
25.50 to 16 to 10.50 to 7.00 se c o nd s thro ug h
we e ks 0, 4, 8 a nd 12 re sp e c tive ly. The ir m e a n
re sp o nse s d e c re a se d g ra d ua lly fro m 24.83 to
6.83 se c o nd s with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 12.92
a nd 5.08 o ve r the sa m e p e rio d o f tim e .
Ag a in the c o ntro l g ro up d id no t e xhib it suc h
unifo rm p ro g re ss. The ir m e d ia n re sp o nse tim e
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
p ro g re sse d fro m 9 to 8 to 9.5 to 12 se c o nd s
MAG DA MO STAFA
thro ug h we e ks 0-12, sho wing no d istinc t p a tte rn
o f im p ro ve m e nt, b ut ra the r g e ne ra l c o nsiste nc y.
The ir m e a n re sp o nse tim e s we re 10.3, 7.17, 9.67
a nd 11.66 se c o nd s with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f
3.14, 3.54, 3.83 a nd 4.23 re sp e c tive ly thro ug h
we e ks 0-12.
The Ma nn-Whitne y e xa c t sig nific a nc e sc o re s o f
the se re sults we re 0.065, 0.132, 0.818 a nd 0.093
re sp e c tive ly o ve r the 12 we e k p e rio d .
Re g a rd ing ind ivid ua l re la tive p ro g re ss o f c a se s
Frie d m a n ra nk te sting o f re sp o nse tim e p ro g re ss
fo r the stud y g ro up is a lso p ro m ising , sho wing
a g ra d ua l d e c re a se in m e a n ra nk fro m 3.83 to
2.5 to 1.92 to 1.75 d uring the stud y p e rio d , with
a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f 0.02. Ag a in the
c o ntro l g ro up d id no t d isp la y sim ila r re g ula rity
in p ro g re ss. The c o ntro l g ro up ’ s re sp o nse tim e
m e a n ra nks we re 3.08, 1.25, 2.25 a nd 3.42 with
a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f 0.009.
Be ha vio ura l Te m p e ra m e nt:
The b e ha vio ura l te mp e ra me nt o f the stud y
g ro up stud e nts wa s a lso se e n to imp ro ve , with
the me d ia n o c c urre nc e o f se lf-stimula to ry
b e ha vio ur in the stud y g ro up d e c re a sing fro m 2.5
to 1 o c c urre nc e , c o mp a re d to a sta b le me d ia n
o f 2 o c c urre nc e s in the c o ntro l g ro up , p re a nd
p o st inte rve ntio n a t we e ks 0 a nd 12. The me a n
o c c urre nc e in the stud y g ro up wa s d e c re a se d
fro m 3.33 to 1.17 with a sta nd a rd d e via tio n o f 2.66
a nd 1.17 re sp e c tive ly, p re a nd p o st inte rve ntio n.
The c o ntro l g ro up sho we d little c ha ng e with a
me a n o f 2.17 a nd 2.5 o c c urre nc e s, p re a nd p o st
inte rve ntio n, with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 1.17
a nd 2.17 re sp e c tive ly.
G ive n the p re a nd p o st re a d ing fo rm a t o f
b e ha vio ura l te m p e ra m e nt the Wilc o xo n sig ne d
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ra nk te st wa s use d to d e te rm ine ind ivid ua l c a se
p e rfo rm a nc e o ve r tim e . 5 o ut o f 6 o f the stud y
stud e nts sho we d ne g a tive ra nks, ind ic a ting a
p o st-inte rve ntio n o c c urre nc e o f se lf-stim ula to ry
b e ha vio ur le ss tha n the p re -inte rve ntio n
o c c urre nc e , i.e . a n im p ro ve m e nt in b e ha vio ura l
te m p e ra m e nt. O ne tie ra nk wa s a lso o b se rve d .
The se re sults ha d a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f
0.041. With re g a rd s to the c o ntro l g ro up , o nly 2
o ut o f the 6 d isp la ye d a d e c re a se in o c c urre nc e
o r ne g a tive ra nking , with 3 e xhib iting p o sitive
ra nking , o r inc re a se in o c c urre nc e o f se lf-
stim ula to ry b e ha vio ur, a nd 1 tie . The a sym p to tic
sig nific a nc e o f this re a d ing wa s 0.480.
Pha se 2- Spa tia l Se q ue nc e Inte rve ntio n
Sim ila rly p ro m ising re sults we re o b se rve d in
the se c o nd inte rve ntio n whic h invo lve d the
stud y o f the im p a c t o f sp a tia l se q ue nc ing , o r
c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n, o n the te st ind ic a to rs.
Atte ntio n Sp a n:
In tra c king the p ro g re ss o f a tte ntio n sp a n in the
stud y g ro up a fte r im p le m e nta tio n o f the sp a tia l
se q ue nc e inte rve ntio n, a g e ne ra l p a tte rn
o f im p ro ve m e nt wa s o b se rve d . The m e d ia n
a tte ntio n sp a n d ip p e d a t first a nd the n g ra d ua lly
inc re a se d fro m 13.5 to 12.5 to 22 to 30 se c o nd s
fro m we e k 0 thro ug h12. The m e a n a tte ntio n
sp a n wa s 18, 17.83, 34 a nd 44 se c o nd s with
sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 12.7, 13.11, 26.01 a nd
28.85 o ve r the sa m e p e rio d . A sim ila r p a tte rn
o f g ra d ua l im p ro ve m e nt wa s no t o b se rve d in
the c o ntro l g ro up . Me d ia n a tte ntio n sp a n in
the c o ntro l g ro up we nt fro m 39.5 to 25 to 28 to
25.5 se c o nd s fro m we e k 0-12. The se re sults ha d
a n e xa c t sig nific a nc e o f 0.093, 0.132, 0.818 a nd
0.485 thro ug h we e k 0-12.
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
In tra c king ind ivid ua l c a se re la tive p ro g re ss,
MAG DA MO STAFA
this inte rve ntio n’ s Frie d m a n ra nk te sting re sults
sho we d a p re lim ina ry p la te a u, the n g ra d ua l
inc re a se thro ug ho ut the stud y p e rio d , in m e a n
ra nking o f the stud y g ro up fro m 1.5, to 1.5 to
3.33 to 3.67 with a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f
0.002. A sim ila r p a tte rn wa s no t fo und in the
c o ntro l g ro up whic h ha d a m e a n ra nking o f 3.5
to 2.33 to 1.83 to 2.33 fro m we e k 0-12, with a n
a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f 0.145.
Re sp o nse Tim e :
Re sp o nse tim e wa s a lso se e n to b e im p ro ve d
a s a re sult o f the c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n a nd
sp a tia l se q ue nc ing o f the c la ssro o m . The stud y
g ro up e xhib ite d a d e c re a se , i.e . im p ro ve m e nt,
in m e d ia n re sp o nse tim e fro m 11 to 8.5 to 6.5
to 3.5 se c o nd s d uring we e k 0, 4, 8 a nd 12
re sp e c tive ly. The ir m e a n re sp o nse tim e s o ve r
the sa m e p e rio d we re 18.33, 8.67, 8.5 a nd 4.17
se c o nd s with sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f 21.21, 4.32,
6.92 a nd 3.19.
The c o ntro l g ro up a g a in sho we d no re g ula r
p a tte rn o f inc re a se o f d e c re a se . The ir m e d ia n
re sp o nse tim e s we re 11, 7.5, 17 a nd 12.5
se c o nd s fro m we e ks 0-12. The ir m e a n re sp o nse
tim e wa s 12.33, 8.5, 23 a nd 12.17 se c o nd s with a
sta nd a rd d e via tio n o f 8.59, 3.39, 20.02 a nd 4.02,
o ve r the sa m e p e rio d o f tim e . The a sym p to tic
sig nific a nc e o f the se re sults wa s 0.937, 0.937,
0.093 a nd 0.009 fro m we e ks 0-12 re sp e c tive ly.
The ind ivid ua l re la tive p ro g re ss o f stud e nts
in the stud y g ro up e xhib it sim ila r p a tte rns o f
im p ro ve m e nt. The Frie d m a n ra nk te sting re sults
o f the stud y g ro up sho w a g ra d ua l d e c re a se
in m e a n ra nk fro m 3.67 to 2.58 to 2.67 to 1.08
with a n a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f 0.006. Ag a in,
a ltho ug h the ind ivid ua l p e rfo rm a nc e re fle c ts
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the g ro up p a tte rn, o r la c k the re o f, the re se e m s
to b e no d istinc t p a tte rn o f im p ro ve m e nt o r
re g re ssio n in the c o ntro l g ro up . The ir m e a n
ra nk p ro g re sse s fro m 2.33 to 1.5 to 3.42 to
2.75 thro ug h we e ks 0-12 with a nd a sym p to tic
sig nific a nc e o f 0.07.
Be ha vio ra l Te m p e ra m e nt:
Ag a in, b e ha vio ra l te m p e ra m e nt o f the stud y
g ro up wa s se e n to im p ro ve , a ltho ug h no t a s
sig nific a ntly a s the o the r ind ic a to rs. The m e d ia n
o c c urre nc e o f se lf-stim ula to ry b e ha vio r in
the stud y g ro up d e c re a se d fro m 1.5 to 0.5
o c c urre nc e s, with a m e a n o f 2.83 a nd 1.33
with c o rre sp o nd ing sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f
3.54 a nd 1.75, a ll p re a nd p o st inte rve ntio n a t
we e k 0 a nd we e k 12. The c o ntro l g ro up d id n’ t
sho w sim ila r sig nific a nt im p ro ve m e nt, with a
m e d ia n o c c urre nc e o f 1 a nd 1.5, p re a nd p o st
inte rve ntio n, a nd m e a n o c c urre nc e o f 0.83 a nd
1.50 with c o rre sp o nd ing sta nd a rd d e via tio ns o f
0.76 a nd 1.05. The e xa c t sig nific a nc e o f the se
re sults wa s 0.485 a nd 0.699 a t we e k 0 a nd we e k
12 re sp e c tive ly.
Ind ivid ua l p ro g re ss o f c a se s p a ra lle ls the re sults
o f the g ro up s. Ag a in using Wilc o xo n sig ne d
ra nk te sting 4 o ut o f 6 stud e nts fro m the stud y
g ro up sho we d ne g a tive ra nks, o r a d e c re a se
in se lf-stim ula to ry b e ha vio r, with 0 p o sitive ra nks
a nd 2 tie s. The c o ntro l g ro up d id no t e xhib it
sim ila r p ro g re ss with o nly 1 stud e nt o ut o f 6
sho wing ne g a tive ra nking , o r a d e c re a se in se lf-
stim ula to ry b e ha vio r, a nd 3 stud e nts sho wing
p o sitive ra nking , o r a n inc re a se , with 2 tie s. The
a sym p to tic sig nific a nc e o f this is 0.194.
O b se rva tio na l Re sults o f Be ha vio ra l Ma p p ing :
Ma ny inte re sting o b se rva tio ns we re re c o rd e d
re g a rd ing the b e ha vio ura l use o f sp a c e
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
thro ug ho ut the d ura tio n o f the sp a tia l se q ue nc e
MAG DA MO STAFA
te st. O ne o f the ve ry first o b se rva tio ns m a d e
e a rly o n in the te st wa s the e ffe c t o f the
“ e sc a p e sp a c e ” up o n the b e ha vio ur o f the
c hild re n, p a rtic ula rly the hyp e ra c tive a nd
se ve re ly a utistic o ne s. Prio r to the m o d ific a tio ns,
o ne suc h c hild with c o m p le x a ud ito ry, ta c tile
a nd p ro p rio c e p tive issue s, wa s c o nsta ntly
re m o ving he rse lf fro m the g ro up to sit o n the
flo o r a g a inst a wa ll with le g s stre tc he d in fro nt,
b a ng ing he r he a d a g a inst the m . This wo uld
usua lly la st fo r a b o ut 10 m inute s, a fte r whic h she
wo uld sit q uie tly a lo ne fo r a fe w m inute s a nd
the n re jo in the g ro up . The c hild wa s a p p a re ntly
e sc a p ing the m a la d juste d se nso ry stim ula tio n
o f the se ssio n a t ha nd a nd re -c a lib ra ting he r
inne r se nso ry m e c ha nism . She first re m o ve d
he rse lf fro m the situa tio n a nd the n p ro vid e d
he rse lf with the se nso ry inp ut re q uire d : a ud ito ry
re d uc tio n b y d ista nc ing he rse lf, ta c tile b y
inflic ting p a in, a nd p ro p rio c e p tive thro ug h the
rhythm ic m o ve m e nt a nd p hysic a l b o und a ry o f
the wa ll.
O nc e a n e sc a p e sp a c e wa s m a d e a va ila b le ,
whe re no o the r a c tivity wa s c o nd uc te d , b o th
te a c he rs a nd the re se a rc he r e xp e c te d this
c hild to sp e nd the m a jo rity o f he r tim e within
it. At the ve ry b e g inning , tha t wa s the c a se ,
b ut e ve ntua lly the c hild use d the sp a c e le ss
a nd le ss. It wa s o b se rve d , ho we ve r tha t she
c o nsta ntly lo o ke d o ve r he r sho uld e r, c he c king
to m a ke sure it wa s still a va ila b le . She b e c a m e
slig htly m o re fo c use d , if a nything o nly b e c a use
o f the d im inishe d num b e r o f “ e sc a p e s” . It wa s
a lm o st a s if the m e re p re se nc e o f the o p tio n to
e sc a p e wa s suffic ie nt, a nd he r ne e d to e sc a p e
d e c re a se d , no w tha t she wa s c o m fo rta b le
with the fa c t tha t the re wa s c o nsta nc y in tha t
e sc a p e o p p o rtunity.
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In the c o ntro l c la ss, with the a b se nc e o f a
fo rm a l a nd p a rtitio ne d e sc a p e sp a c e , sim ila r
e ffe c ts we re no t o b se rve d . Tho se c hild re n
who d id ne e d tim e -o ut use d a c ushio n in the
c o rne r b ut we re c o nsta ntly e ithe r d isturb e d b y
the ir c urio us p e e rs, o r jo ine d b y the m . Eithe r
wa y, b o th the ind ivid ua l c hild ’ s e sc a p e tim e ,
a s we ll a s the se ssio n, wa s d isrup te d . Altho ug h
the re wa s a p a rtitio ne d a re a in the c la ss, it
wa s a rra ng e d fo r o ne to o ne instruc tio n, with
d istra c tio ns a nd se nso ry stim ulus inc o ng rue nt
with a true ‘ e sc a p e ’ .
Ano the r a p p a re nt p o sitive influe nc e o b se rve d
wa s the e ffe c t o f the c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n
up o n the visua l d istra c tio n o f the c hild re n. Ma ny
o f the hyp e r-visua l a nd e ve n hyp e r-a ud ito ry
c hild re n wo uld lo o k up , b e c o m ing d istra c te d
fro m the ir wo rk, if a nyo ne m o ve d a ro und o r
e nte re d the ro o m . Sinc e re g a ining the a tte ntio n
o f a n a utistic c hild , o nc e d istra c te d , c a n b e
d iffic ult, this wa s a m a jo r p ro b le m . The d e sig n
m o d ific a tio n, ho we ve r, with its p hysic a l a nd
visua l c o m p a rtm e nts, influe nc e d this p o sitive ly.
In the ne w la yo ut, the c hild re n we re a lwa ys
situa te d so tha t visua l a c c e ssib ility wo uld b e
m inim ize d , p a rtic ula rly d uring the ir o ne to o ne
se ssio ns whe re fo c us wa s a p rio rity, a nd , unlike
g ro up se ssio ns, o utsid e inte ra c tio n wa s to b e
m inim ize d (fig . 1). Whe n the c hild he a rd a so und
o r sa w so m e thing m o ve in his p e rip he ra l visio n,
he wo uld lo o k up , a s b e fo re , b ut in this c a se b e
una b le to se e a b o ve a nd a ro und the p a rtitio ns.
Eve ntua lly the c hild b e c a m e c o nd itio ne d no t
to lo o k up . He b e c a m e m o re a tte ntive a nd
fo c use d with this d e c re a se in d istra c tio n. With
the re p e titio n o f this e xe rc ise he m a y le a rn to
tra nsfe r the se nse o f fo c us a nd a sso c ia te it with
the a c tivity a t ha nd . Ho p e fully suc h a skill c a n
e ve ntua lly b e g e ne ra lize d to o the r sp a c e s,
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
whe re suc h visua l a c c e ssib ility is no t c o ntro lle d .
MAG DA MO STAFA
Ag a in the c o ntro l g ro up , with the a b se nc e o f
the p hysic a l a nd visua l b o und a rie s, d id no t
d e ve lo p this c o nd itio ning .
Sp a tia l e ffic ie nc y wa s a furthe r p o sitive
o b se rva tio n m a d e in the stud y c la ss. Due to
the se g m e nte d a nd c o m p a rtm e nta lize d na ture
o f the ne w c la ssro o m la yo ut, the a va ila b le
sp a c e wa s use d m uc h m o re e ffic ie ntly. The
le ve l o f a c tivity a c hie ve d in the ne w la yo ut
wa s no t p o ssib le p rio r to the m o d ific a tio ns.
Pre vio usly, the te a c he rs fo und it fa r to o
d istra c ting fo r the c hild re n to c o nd uc t m e re ly
thre e o ne to o ne se ssio ns c o nc urre ntly. Afte r
the sp a tia l re o rg a niza tio n, thre e o ne to o ne ’ s,
a g ro up ta b le se ssio n, a flo o r p la y se ssio n a nd
a na p p ing stud e nt in the e sc a p e sp a c e we re
a ll c o m fo rta b ly a nd a tte ntive ly using the sp a c e
a t o nc e .
During suc h a se ssio n it wa s no te d tha t the
g e ne ra l a tte ntive ne ss o f the c hild re n, a s we ll
a s the ir te m p e ra m e nt, wa s a b o ve a ve ra g e ,
d e sp ite the fa c t tha t e a c h c hild wa s invo lve d in
a d iffe re nt a c tivity. Ap p a re ntly the p hysic a l a nd
visua l b o und a rie s o f the va rio us c o m p a rtm e nts
he lp p ro vid e lim its, a nd with the se a c e rta in
le ve l o f c o ntro l. In a n a utistic c hild the sm a lle st
o f e nviro nm e nts m a y se e m va st a s his se nse s,
with the ir va rio us se nsitivitie s, a re b e ing
c o nsta ntly o ve r o r und e r-stim ula te d . It wa s
o b se rve d tha t b y lim iting the e xte nts o f this
e nviro nm e nt, b o th p hysic a lly a nd visua lly, a nd
a d justing its se nso ry c o m p o ne nts, fo r a c e rta in
p e rio d o f tim e , it a llo we d the c hild to re m a in
fo c use d o n the a c tivity a t ha nd . This c re a te d
the e ve r-im p o rta nt wind o w o f o p p o rtunity fo r
skill d e ve lo p m e nt.
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This o b se rva tio n wa s, p e rha p s, the m o st c le a rly
a b se nt in the c o ntro l g ro up . De sp ite ha ving
a sm a ll num b e r o f c hild re n, it wa s o b se rve d
tha t o n m a ny o c c a sio ns it b e c a m e im p o ssib le
to wo rk a s a g ro up with e ve n a sing le o ne to
o ne se ssio n in p a ra lle l. The o ne to o ne c hild re n
we re c o nsta ntly b e ing re m o ve d fro m the c la ss
to use a no the r e m p ty c la ss o r e ve n o ffic e fo r
the ir se ssio ns.
The c o nc e p t o f g e ne ra lizing b e ha vio ur le a rnt
in the c la ssro o m is a n im p o rta nt o ne in a utistic
e d uc a tio n. The a lte re d sp a tia l o rg a niza tio n o f
the te st c la ssro o m wa s o b se rve d to fa c ilita te
the first sta g e o f this p ro c e ss. As the c hild e nte rs
the p a rtitio ne d a re a , the e q uip m e nt, furniture
a nd te a c he r a re a lwa ys a rra ng e d in a c e rta in
fa shio n fo r e a c h a c tivity, trig g e ring a so rt o f
p re d ic ta b ility. Prio r to the te st m o d ific a tio ns,
sim ila r a rra ng e m e nts we re use d . The ne w sp a tia l
o rg a niza tio n, ho we ve r, se e m s to ha ve a m p lifie d
the “ p re d ic ta b ility” fa c to r. Whe n a c hild se e s
the a rra ng e m e nt, c o up le d with the p hysic a l
a nd visua l b o und a rie s o f the c o m p a rtm e nt,
he c a n p re d ic t wha t a c tivity will ta ke p la c e . It
is suc h p re d ic ta b ility tha t a utistic c hild re n se e k
thro ug h the ir a d he re nc e to ro utine s. Whe n the
c hild is a b le to e xp e c t wha t will c o m e fro m his
o the rwise hig hly unp re d ic ta b le e nviro nm e nt,
he se ttle s. C a p ita lizing o n this is a he lp ful to o l to
he lp c a lm the m a nd a llo w the m to fo c us. This
ne w a rra ng e m e nt a p p a re ntly c re a te d just this
o p p o rtunity.
In the c a se o f the c o ntro l g ro up the re wa s no
sp a tia l c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n to a m p lify this
p re d ic ta b ility, e ve n with the use o f fa m ilia r
a rra ng e m e nts. C hild re n we re o b se rve d to ta ke a
fe w m inute s fro m the b e g inning o f e a c h se ssio n
to o rie nt the m se lve s to the a rra ng e m e nt a nd
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
ta sk a t ha nd . This wa ste d p re c io us tim e tha t wa s
MAG DA MO STAFA
a va ila b le to tho se c hild re n o f the stud y g ro up
who ha d this sp a tia l fa c ilita tio n.
Re c o m m e nda tio ns a nd C o nc lusio ns
As o utline d in the a b o ve d isc ussio n,
b o th inte rve ntio ns se e m to ha ve p o sitive
im p lic a tio ns o n the te st ind ic a to rs m e a sure d
in this stud y. The se p re lim ina ry find ing s c a n
no w b e tra nsla te d into a rc hite c tura l to o ls
a nd g uid e line s. Muc h te sting is still re q uire d
b e fo re the inte rve ntio ns te ste d he re m a y b e
g e ne ra lize d to a ll e nviro nm e nts d e sig ne d fo r
a utism . This stud y, ho we ve r, will p re se nt a to o l to
o rg a nize the g e ne ra tio n o f g uid e line s fo r furthe r
te sting , a s we ll a s p re se nt a g ro up o f sug g e ste d
g uid e line s, re sulta nt fro m the stud y.
The c o nc lusio ns o f this re se a rc h a re o utline d in
a se rie s o f find ing s a nd re c o m m e nd a tio ns. The
first find ing is the re sult o f the p re lim ina ry c ro ss-
se c tio na l d e sc rip tive stud y whic h d e te rm ine s
the hig he st ra nking o f a rc hite c tura l fa c to rs
influe nc ing a utistic b e ha vio ur a s a c o ustic s a nd
sp a tia l se q ue nc e , a c c o rd ing to the sa m p le
surve ye d .
The se c o nd g ro up invo lve s the o utline fo r a
d e sig n to o l a nd its re sulta nt g uid e line s. This to o l,
a “ se nso ry d e sig n m a trix” , he lp s o rg a nize the
d yna m ic re la tio nship b e twe e n the a rc hite c tura l
e nviro nm e nt a nd the c o m p le x ra ng e o f a utistic
se nso ry issue s.
Sinc e a utism p re se nts a la rg e sc o p e o f
sym p to m s, e a c h a utistic ind ivid ua l ha s the ir
o wn g ro up o f ne e d s. Ac c o rd ing to De le c a to ’ s
(1974) o rig ina l the o rie s, the se ne e d s a re
d e rive d fro m e a c h d iffe re nt se nso ry issue , fro m
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the hyp e r, hyp o to white no ise inte rfe re nc e
m a nife sta tio ns. Altho ug h im p o ssib le to
c usto m ize a p ub lic e nviro nm e nt, like a sc ho o l,
to e a c h use r, g ro up ing o f stud e nts with sim ila r
ne e d s is p o ssib le . An o rg a niza tio na l to o l
m a tc hing the va rio us a utistic se nso ry ne e d s
re p re se nte d in the ho rizo nta l a xis o f the m a trix,
with the ir a p p ro p ria te a rc hite c tura l tre a tm e nt
re p re se nte d b y the ve rtic a l a xis o f the m a trix,
ha s b e e n d e ve lo p e d b y the re se a rc he r fo r this
p urp o se . In this se nso ry d e sig n m a trix, e a c h
a rc hite c tura l a ttrib ute , suc h a s p ro p o rtio n,
sc a le , sym m e try, c o lo r, lig hting a nd te xture ,
is a na lyze d with re sp e c t to its c a p a c ity to
re sp o nd to the va rio us a utistic se nso ry ne e d s.
This g e ne ra te s a num b e r o f a rc hite c tura l
tre a tm e nts o r g uid e line s, like the a c o ustic a l
m o d ific a tio n a nd sp a tia l se q ue nc ing te ste d
he re , whic h a re sha d e d in the m a trix. This m a trix
a lso g e ne ra te s a furthe r g ro up o f tre a tm e nts to
b e c o nsid e re d fo r use in a utistic d e sig n, a nd
whic h c a n b e the b a sis fo r furthe r re se a rc h a nd
inte rve ntio n te sts sim ila r to the o ne s p re se nte d in
this p a p e r, in the future .
This d e sig n to o l a c ts a s a n a rc hite c tura l
g uid e line g e ne ra to r, whe re the use rs ne e d s
a re inp ut a s a se nso ry p ro file a nd a g ro up o f
a rc hite c tura l g uid e line s a re m a tc he d fo r e a c h
ind ivid ua l use r in c usto m ize d e nviro nm e nts suc h
a s ho m e s, o r g ro up s o f use rs in p ub lic b uild ing s
suc h a s sc ho o ls a nd a c a d e m ic c e nte rs.
Ad d itio na lly, d e sig n re c o mme nd a tio ns g e ne ra te d
fro m the re sults a nd o b se rva tio ns o f this re se a rc h
ma y b e summa rize d a s fo llo ws. The se a re
re c o mme nd e d g uid e line s to b e use d b y a rc hite c ts
d e sig ning e nviro nme nts fo r a utistic use rs.
The a p p lic a tio n o f no ise a nd e c ho tre a tme nt
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
in a re a s suc h a s sp e e c h ro o ms, a ltho ug h its
MAG DA MO STAFA
a p p lic a tio n ma y b e b e ne fic ia l in a lmo st a ll
sp a c e s use d fo r a utistic instruc tio n a nd p a rtic ula rly
in tho se whe re lo ng a tte ntio n sp a ns, q uic k
re sp o nse s a nd hig h le ve ls o f fo c us a re re q uire d .
Suc h sp a c e s c o uld inc lud e c o mp ute r ro o ms, o ne
to o ne instruc tio n ro o ms, se nso ry inte g ra tio n a nd
ne uro lo g ic a l o rg a niza tio n ro o ms.
The c re a tio n o f a g ra d ua te d se rie s o f
a c o ustic a lly m o d ifie d ro o m s fo r sp e e c h the ra p y
a s we ll a s o the r a c tivitie s re q uiring sim ila r
a c o ustic a l e nviro nm e nts. This is to a vo id the
‘ g re e nho use ’ e ffe c t, whe re a c hild b e c o m e s
d e p e nd a nt up o n the o p tim um a c o ustic a l
q ua lity o f the ro o m a nd is una b le to func tio n
a nd g e ne ra lize his skills o utsid e o f it. This
g ra d ua te d se rie s wo uld a llo w the c hild to use
the fully so und p ro o fe d ro o m d uring the c ritic a l
sta g e o f his a utism , whe n suc h a n inte rve ntio n
m a y b e the o nly wa y to initia te c o m m unic a tio n.
Ha ving m a ste re d a fund a m e nta l g ro up o f
c o m m unic a tio ns skills the c hild sho uld the n b e
m o ve d to a m o d e ra te ly so und -p ro o fe d ro o m
whe re he will b e g in to d e ve lo p b a c kg ro und
no ise filtra tio n skills. This sho uld c o ntinue thro ug h
the se rie s o f a va ila b le ro o m s with the ultim a te
o b je c tive o f func tio ning in a s a c o ustic a lly
no rm a l a n e nviro nm e nt a s p o ssib le .
The c re a tio n o f a n ‘ e sc a p e sp a c e ’ in le a rning
sp a c e s. The se nso ry m a ke -up o f the sp a c e
sho uld a lso b e we ll d e sig ne d . In g e ne ra l it
se e m s b e st to d e sig n a b a se line ne utra l se nso ry
e nviro nm e nt, a s if d e sig ning fo r the hyp e r-
se nsitive a c ro ss the e ntire sp e c trum . Ele m e nts
o f se nso ry stim ulus c a n the n b e a d d e d to
c o m p e nsa te fo r tho se hyp o -se nsitive ind ivid ua ls,
b y b e ing m a d e a va ila b le to tho se who ne e d
the m . This c o nc e p t is b a se d o n the id e a tha t
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it is e a sie r to a d d stim ula tio n fro m a n e xte rna l
te m p o ra ry so urc e , like a p ie c e o f sa nd p a p e r
fo r the hyp o -ta c tile , o r a m o ving m o b ile fo r the
hyp o -visua l, o r m usic fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry, tha n
to re m o ve stim ula tio n fro m the e nviro nm e nt,
like so und p ro o fing fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry, o r
c ha ng ing te xture s fo r the hyp e r-ta c tile .
Just a s e sc a p e sp a c e s ne e d to b e c o nd uc ive
o f the a c tivity o f ‘ e sc a p e ’ a ll o the r a re a s in
the c la ssro o m sho uld b e d e sig ne d with e a c h
a c tivity to b e c o nd uc te d in the m in m ind .
A g ro up o f fa c ilita tive furniture a rra ng e m e nts
fo r va rio us e d uc a tio na l a c tivitie s wa s
d e ve lo p e d d uring the c o urse o f this re se a rc h.
As o b se rve d p re vio usly, the c o nsiste nc y o f
the se a rra ng e m e nts a lso p ro vid e s visua l c ue s to
c o nd itio n the c hild to e xp e c t a nd se ttle e a sily to
the ta sk a t ha nd .
Suc h c o nd uc ive a rra ng e m e nts, a nd the c re a tio n
o f visua l c ue s, c o uld ha ve p a rtic ula r im p a c t
whe n c o up le d with c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n.
Suc h c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n c a p ita lize s up o n
the a utistic a d he re nc e to , a nd p re fe re nc e o f,
ro utine . This ro utine the o ry wa s sho wn to b e
suc c e ssful in the “ a p la c e fo r e ve rything a nd
e ve rything in its p la c e ” c o nc e p t a p p lie d thro ug h
the c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n o f the stud y g ro up
c la ssro o m . As se e n suc h c o m p a rtm e nta liza tio n
lim its the se nso ry e nviro nm e nt whic h the c hild
ha s to a ssim ila te . It ha s b e e n sho wn to p ro m o te
fo c us a nd c o nc e ntra tio n.
This the o ry m a y b e e xte nd e d to e nc o m p a ss
the se q ue nc ing o f a c tivitie s a nd func tio ns
fro m insid e the c la ssro o m to the b uild ing a s a
who le . This wo uld invo lve d e ve lo p ing d e sig ns
e m p ha sizing o rd e r, se q ue nc e a nd ro utine .
Ac tivitie s c o uld b e a rra ng e d to fo llo w a so rt o f
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
‘ o ne -wa y’ c irc ula tio n a rra ng e m e nt, a c c o rd ing
MAG DA MO STAFA
to the d a ily sc he d ule . Diffe re nt a c tivitie s c o uld
b e c le a rly visua lly a nd sp a tia lly d e fine d . Unive rsa l
o r m ultifunc tio na l sp a c e s, suc h a s ‘ o p e n-p la n’
c la ssro o m s, sho uld b e a vo id e d to re d uc e
se nso ry c o nfusio n. This se nso ry c o he re nc e c o uld
he lp stud e nt te m p e ra m e nt, im p ro ving o ve ra ll
p e rfo rm a nc e a nd e c o no m izing o n p re c io us
tim e while g e tting to a nd fro m c la sse s, a s we ll a s
re d uc ing the ne e d to a llo w c a lm ing d o wn tim e
a nd e ffo rt a t the b e g inning o f e a c h se ssio n.
This d isc ussio n b ring s us to c o nc lud e tha t
the a utistic use r id e ntifie s the a rc hite c tura l
e nviro nm e nt a ro und him o r he r in a c c o rd a nc e
to se nso ry zo ning ra the r tha n c o nve ntio na l
func tio na l zo ning . Sp a tia l g ro up ing s c o uld
fo llo w a utistic lo g ic a nd invo lve se nso ria l
c o m p a tib le func tio ns. The se g ro up ing s c a n
b e a c c e sse d thro ug h a o ne -wa y c irc ula tio n
syste m , e m p ha sizing , a s we ll a s c a p ita lizing o n,
ro utine , a s d isc usse d p re vio usly. Fo r e xa m p le
hig h-stim ulus func tio ns like m usic , a rt, c ra fts a nd
p syc ho m o to r the ra p y, re q uiring a hig h le ve l
o f a le rtne ss c a n b e g ro up e d to g e the r, while
lo w-stim ulus func tio ns like sp e e c h the ra p y,
o ne to o ne instruc tio n a nd g e ne ra l c la ssro o m s,
re q uiring a hig h le ve l o f fo c us, c a n b e g ro up e d
to g e the r. Se rvic e s, whic h a re usua lly hig h-
stim ulus, inc lud ing b a thro o m s, kitc he ns, sta ff-
ro o m s a nd a d m inistra tio n, sho uld b e se p a ra te d .
O nly tho se re q uiring stud e nt a c c e sse s sho uld b e
g ro up e d ne a r the hig h-stim ulus zo ne s a nd a s fa r
a s p o ssib le fro m the lo w-stim ulus zo ne s.
The a p p lic a tio n o f the c o nc e p t o f se nso ry zo ning
c o uld a lso re d uc e the p ro b le m s o f d istra c tio n
a nd d ive rsio n. Ke e p ing the se nso ry a tm o sp he re
o f e a c h a re a a s c o he re nt a s p o ssib le , c o uld
a llo w a m o re c o ntinuo us c irc ula tio n fro m o ne
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sp a c e to a no the r. Thro ug h the p re lim ina ry
struc ture d inte rvie ws c o nd uc te d d uring this
re se a rc h, it se e m e d tha t whe n the a utistic
c hild ve e rs o ff c o urse whe n m o ving fro m o ne
sp a c e to a no the r it is no t a q ue stio n o f g e tting
lo st b ut ra the r a q ue stio n o f b e ing d istra c te d
a lo ng the wa y. So m e p a re nts a nd te a c he rs
e ve n fo und the visua l re c o lle c tio n skills o f the ir
c hild re n to p ro vid e the m with a n e xc e lle nt
b a sis fo r na vig a tio n. It wa s the ir d istra c tib ility
b y the surro und ing se nso ry e nviro nm e nt tha t
p re ve nte d the m fro m re a c hing the ir d e stina tio n.
Se nso ry a tm o sp he ric c o he re nc e thro ug h d e sig n
m a y he lp to re d uc e this d istra c tio n.
Whe n m o ving to o r fro m a n a re a o f hig h se nso ry
stim ulus, the use o f se nso ry “ tra nsitio n zo ne s” ,
in the fo rm o f g a rd e ns o r se nso ry c urric ulum
a re a s, m a y he lp to p re p a re the c hild fo r suc h a
m o ve with m inim a l d istra c tio n. It is ho p e d tha t
suc h a n a rra ng e m e nt wo uld a llo w the c hild
a fo rm o f se nso ry c a lib ra tio n, in o rd e r to m a ke
the tra nsitio n fro m the se va rying se nso ry zo ne s
m o re fluid he nc e a llo wing im p ro ve m e nt o f
na vig a tio na l skills.
The se c o nc e p ts o f zo ning a nd c irc ula tio n
m a y b e e nfo rc e d a nd e nha nc e d using visua l
c ue s. As Pe e te rs (1997, p . 63) ha s sho wn,
suc h c ue s ha ve a p o we rful a sso c ia tive a nd
c o m m unic a tive e ffe c t o n a utistic p e rc e p tio n.
Eve n fro m a first-ha nd p e rsp e c tive , G ra nd in
(1996) b a se d he r e xp la na tio n o f a utism o n the
c o nc e p t o f ‘ thinking in p ic ture s’ . Pa tte rns, c o lo rs
o r a b stra c tio ns m a y b e use d to c o m m unic a te
to the c hild re n the c ha ra c te r o f va rio us zo ne s
a nd sp a c e s. Visua lly d istinc tive la nd m a rks m a y
b e use d a t the hub o f e a c h zo ne , ind ic a tive o f
its c ha ra c te r. A sim ila r visua l c o nc e p t m a y b e
use d fo r sig na g e thro ug ho ut a ny a utistic fa c ility.
 An Arc hite c ture fo r Autism: C o nc e p ts o f De sig n Inte rve ntio n fo r the Autistic Use r
This wo uld se rve two p urp o se s, first, c o m fo rt to
MAG DA MO STAFA
the c hild a llo wing him a c o m m o nly la c king
se nse o f o rie nta tio n, a nd se c o nd ultim a te ly
a llo wing him a b ility to na vig a te the se sp a c e s
ind e p e nd e ntly.
In c lo sing it is this id e a o f ind e p e nd e nc e tha t
is the p ivo ta l c o nc e p t o f fa c ilita ting a nd
im p ro ving q ua lity o f life fo r a ll sp e c ia l ne e d s
ind ivid ua ls, b ut fo r a utism p a rtic ula rly. As the
first ste p to wa rd s inc lusio n a nd a c c e p ta nc e ,
ind e p e nd e nc e re p re se nts a n im p o rta nt g o a l
in a ll a utistic inte rve ntio ns. With furthe r re se a rc h
a nd te sting o f the g uid e line s o utline d in this stud y
it is ho p e d tha t this p a p e r will ta ke us o ne m o re
ste p to wa rd s a c hie ving tha t g o a l. Enviro nm e nts
b a se d o n c a re ful sc ie ntific a na lysis will b e ne fit
no t o nly tho se with sp e c ia l ne e d s, b ut a ll use r
typ e s, m a king o ur a rc hite c ture m o re g e nuine ly
re sp o nsive to a ll o ur ra ng e o f ne e d s.
Ac kno wle dg e m e nts
Ac kno wle d g e m e nt sho uld g o to Dr. Za kia Sha fie a nd
Dr. Ha m m a m Se ra g El Din, b o th o f C a iro Unive rsity’ s
De p a rtm e nt o f Arc hite c tura l Eng ine e ring , fo r the ir
sup e rvisio n o f the o rig ina l the sis up o n whic h this p a p e r
is b a se d . Mrs. Ma ha El He la li a nd a ll o f the ADVANC E
sc ho o l a d m inistra tio n a nd sta ff p ro vid e d the g e ne ro us
c o o p e ra tio n re q uire d to m a ke te sting o f this stud y in
a n a utistic e nviro nm e nt p o ssib le . This stud y wo uld no t
ha ve b e e n p o ssib le witho ut the c o nse nt a nd sup p o rt
o f a ll the p a re nts o f the c hild re n invo lve d in the stud y.
This wo rk wa s p rim a rily d e ve lo p e d to he lp p e o p le with
a utism . The c hild re n o f this stud y ha ve b e e n p a tie nt,
c o o p e ra tive a nd a t m a ny tim e s a n insp ira tio n.
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MAG DA MO STAFA

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Mo sta fa , M. (1998). C ultura lly Re sp o nsive
Arc hite c ture : Its Existe nc e , O b je c tivity And
Me c ha nism s, M.Sc . d isse rta tio n, De p a rtm e nt o f
Arc hite c ture , C a iro Unive rsity, Eg yp t.
Pe e te rs, T. (1997). Autism : Fro m The o re tic a l
Und e rsta nd ing to Ed uc a tio na l Inte rve ntio n, Whurr
Pub lishing , Lo nd o n, UK.
Rim la nd , B. (1964). Infa ntile Autism , Ap p le to n C e ntury
C ro fts, NY, USA.
Ma g da Mo sta fa is a n Assista nt Pro fe sso r a t the
De p a rtme nt o f Arc hite c tura l Eng ine e ring , C a iro
Unive rsity whe re she ha s ta ug ht va rio us de sig n
c o urse s sinc e 1996. She is a lso a n a djunc t Assista nt
Pro fe sso r a t the Pe rfo rming a nd Visua l Arts, a s we ll
a s the C o nstruc tio n a nd Arc hite c tura l Eng ine e ring ,
De p a rtme nts a t the Ame ric a n Unive rsity in C a iro .
She wa s b o rn a nd ra ise d in C a na da , a nd la te r c a me
to Eg yp t to re side whe re she re c e ive d he r B.Sc in
a rc hite c ture fro m C a iro Unive rsity. She re c e ntly
re c e ive d he r Ph.D. fro m C a iro Unive rsity, whe re he r
do c to ra l disse rta tio n studie d a rc hite c tura l de sig n fo r
c hildre n with sp e c ia l ne e ds a nd se nso ry dysfunc tio ns,
with a fo c us o n a utism. She is c urre ntly wo rking a s a
sp e c ia l ne e ds de sig n c o nsulta nt fo r g o ve rnme nt a nd
p riva te se c to r p ro je c ts in Eg yp t, the G ulf a nd Euro p e ,
a s a n a sso c ia te a t the C a iro b a se d a rc hite c tura l
firm Pro g re ssive Arc hite c ts. She re c e ntly c o mp le te d
de sig ning the Adva nc e sc ho o l fo r c hildre n with
a utism in Q a tte me ya , C a iro , whic h wa s p re se nte d
a t the Wo rld C o ng re ss o n Autism in 2006, a nd is the
first b uilding to b e de sig ne d b a se d o n he r “ se nso ry
de sig n” the o ry. She wa s re c e ntly no mina te d fo r the
2005 UNESC O Prize fo r re se a rc h a nd tra ining in sp e c ia l
ne e ds e duc a tio n fo r c hildre n. She c a n b e c o nta c te d
a t m_mo st@ a uc e g yp t.e du

Sa no ff, H. (1991). Visua l Re se a rc h Me tho d s in De sig n,

Va n No stra nd Re inho ld , NY, USA.

Sc ho p le r, E., e t a l (1988). The C hild ho o d Autism

Ra ting Sc a le , We ste rn Psyc ho lo g ic a l Se rvic e s WPS,
USA.

UN G lo b a l Pro g ra m o n Disa b ility (1993). Ma nd a te s

o f the UN G lo b a l Pro g ra m o n Disa b ility: Sta nd a rd
Rule s o n the Eq ua liza tio n o f O p p o rtunitie s fo r Pe rso ns
with Disa b ilitie s, Ta rg e t Are a s fo r Eq ua l Pa rtic ip a tio n:
Ac c e ssib ility, Unite d Na tio ns G e ne ra l Asse m b ly
re so lutio n 48/ 96, a nne x, 20/ 12/ 1993.

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# De sig n G uide line Sug g e ste d O b je c tive a nd Use r

1. Hig h e nc lo sure a nd 1) to re d uc e e xte rna l visua l a nd a c o ustic a l d istra c tio n fo r the hyp e r-
c o nta inm e nt a ud ito ry a nd hyp e r-visua l
2) to p ro vid e ta c tile stim ula tio n via tig ht sp a c e s a nd c o nta inm e nt fo r
the hyp o -ta c tile
3) to c re a te visua l fo c us in c a se s o f visua l inte rfe re nc e
4) to re d uc e o lfa c to ry intrusio n via ve ntila tio n fo r the hyp e r-o lfa c to ry
2. Lo w e nc lo sure a nd o pe ne ss 1) to inc re a se o p p o rtunitie s fo r a c o ustic a l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -
a ud ito ry
2) to p ro vid e visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
3) to re d uc e se nse o f c o nta inm e nt fo r the hyp e r-ta c tile
3. Lo w c e iling s a nd m o de ra te 1) to re d uc e e c ho e s fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry
pro po rtio ns 2) to re d uc e visua l d isto rtio n a nd illusio ns o f sp a c e fo r the hyp e r-
visua l
3) to p ro m o te b a la nc e fo r the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e -p ro p rio c e p tive
4) to c re a te a m o re a c o ustic a lly c o ntro lla b le e nviro nm e nt fo r the
inte rfe re nc e
4. Hig h c e iling s a nd 1) to inc re a se e c ho e s a nd a ud ito ry stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry
e xa g g e ra te d pro po rtio ns 2) to c re a te visua l illusio na ry stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
3) to stim ula te the p ro p rio c e p tive se nse o f sp a c e fo r the hyp e r-
p ro p rio c e p tive a ud ito ry
5. Use o f intim a te sc a le 1) to re d uc e e c ho e s fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry
2) to c re a te a c o ntro lla b le a ud ito ry e nviro nm e nt fo r the inte rfe re nc e
a ud ito ry
3) to c re a te a c o ntro lla b le a nd m a na g e a b le sp a c e fo r the hyp e r
a nd inte rfe re nc e visua l
4) to inc re a se ta c tile stim ula tio n fro m b o und a ry p ro xim ity fo r the
hyp o -ta c tile
5) to inc re a se p ro p rio c e p tive stim ula tio n fro m b o und a ry p ro xim ity fo r
the hyp o -p ro p rio c e p tive
6) to c re a te a c o ntro lla b le e nviro nm e nt fo r the inte rfe re nc e a ud ito ry
a nd p ro p rio c e p tive

6. Use o f o p e n sc a le 1) to c re a te a ud ito ry stimula tio n thro ug h e c ho e s fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry

2) to c re a te visua l stim ula tio n thro ug h sp a tia l e xa p nse fo r the hyp o -
visua l
3) to re lie ve o ve r stim ula tio n fro m sp a tia l b o und a rie s fo r the hyp e r-
ta c tile a nd hyp e r-p ro p rio c e p tive
7. O rie nta tio n to wa rds e xte rna l 1) to c re a te fo c us a nd a ttra c tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
vie ws a nd e le m e nts o f 2) to instill b a la nc e a nd d ire c tio n fo r the hyp o -p ro p rio c e p tive
inte re st

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8. Use o f a c tivity fo c us to 1) to inc re a se a tte ntio n sp a n a nd re d uc e d istra c tib ility fo r the hyp e r-
o rg a nize spa c e a ud ito ry a nd visua l
2) to c re a te a b e ha vio ura l a nd g e o m e tric p o int o f re fe re nc e fo r the
hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive
9. Sym m e tric a l o rg a niza tio n 1) c re a te s p re d ic ta b ility fo r the hyp e r-visua l
2) c re a te s a c o ustic a l b a la nc e fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry
3) inc re a se s se nse o f c e ntre a nd b a la nc e fo r the hyp o a nd
inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive
4) c re a te s a c o ntro lla b le e nviro nm e nt fo r the inte rfe re nc e visua l
10. Asym m e tric a l o rg a niza tio n 1) c re a te s a ud ito ry a nd visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry a nd
visua l
2) c re a te s p ro p rio c e p tive stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -
p ro p rio c e p tive Ta b le s
11. Use o f visua l o r spa tia l 1) to c re a te visua l stim ula tio n a nd tra c king o p p o rtunitie s fo r the
rhythm hyp o -visua l
2) to c re a te p re d ic ta b ility a nd c o he re nc e to the sp a tia l e nviro nm e nt
fo r the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e
12. Visua lly ha rm o nio us spa c e 1) to c re a te a visua lly ne utra l sp a c e fo r the hyp e r-visua l
with no c o ntra st o r disc o rd 2) to c re a te a ne utra l ta c tile sp a c e fo r the hyp e r-ta c tile
13. Visua lly unha rm o nio us 1) to c re a te visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e visua l
spa c e using a c c e nts a nd 2) to c re a te p ro p rio c e p tive stim ula tio n fo r the inte rfe re nc e a nd
c o ntra sts hyp o -p ro p rio c e p tive
14. Use o f dyna m ic a nd 1) to c re a te o rie nta tio n a nd sta b ility fo r the hyp e r-p ro p rio c e p tive
sta tic a lly b a la nc e d spa c e s a nd visua l a s we ll a s the inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive a nd visua l
15. Use o f unb a la nc e d spa c e s 1) to c re a te visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
16. Use o f b rig ht c o lo urs 1) to c re a te visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
17. Use o f nue tra l c o lo urs 1) to c re a te se re nity fo r the hyp e r-visua l
18. Use o f wa rm c o lo urs 1) to c re a te p syc ho lo g ic a l wa rm th fo r the hyp o -ta c tile
19. Indire c t na tura l lig hting 1) m inim ize g la re a nd d istra c ting vie ws fo r the hyp e r-visua l
2) le ss d istra c ting tha n b uzzing a rtific ia l lig ht fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry
20. Dire c t na tura l lig hting a nd 1) c re a te s visua l stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -visua l
vie ws

21. No ise a nd e c ho - pro o fing 1) c re a te s a c o nd uc ive e nviro nm e nt fo r the hyp e r-a ud ito ry
2) re m o ve s the d istra c ting o p p o rtunity o f se lf-stim ula tio n thro ug h
e c ho e s fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry
3) c re a te s a ne utra l a ud ito ry b a c kg ro und fo r the inte rfe re nc e
a ud ito ry

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22. Use o f sm o o th te xture s 1) c a lm s the hyp o -ta c tile

2) c re a te s e c ho a nd re ve rb e ra tio n stim ula tio n fo r the hyp o -a ud ito ry
23. Use o f ro ug h te xture s 1) stim ula te s the hyp o -ta c tile
24. C ro ss- ve ntila tio n 1) re d ue s sm e lls a nd o d o urs fo r the hyp e r-o lfa c to ry
25. Enc lo se d ve ntila tio n 1) m a y he lp c o nta in sc e nts d uring a ro m a the ra p y fo r the hyp o -
o lfa c to ry
26. O rg a nize d 1) he lp s o rie nt a nd a d just the hyp e r-visua l
c o m pa rtm e nta liza tio n using 2) he lp s stim ula te to a c tio n the hyp o -visua l
visua l c ue s 3) he lp s o rg a nize the inte rfe re nc e visua l
4) c re a te s ne c e ssa ry b o und a rie s fo r the hyp o -ta c tile
5) he lp s o rie nt the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive
27. Spa tia l o rg a niza tio n 1) he lp s o rie nt a nd a d just the hyp e r-visua l
a c c o rding to se nso ry 2) he lp s o rg a nize the inte rfe re nc e visua l
c ha ra c te ristic s 3) he lp s o rie nt the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive
28. Use o f o ne - wa y c irc ula tio n 1) he lp s o rie nt a nd a d just the hyp e r-visua l
pa tte rns to c a pita lize o n 2) he lp s o rg a nize the inte rfe re nc e visua l
ro utine 3) he lp s o rie nt the hyp o a nd inte rfe re nc e p ro p rio c e p tive
4) he lp s c re a te p re d ic ta b ility in g e ne ra l a c ro ss the sp e c trum ,
p a rtic ula rly the hyp e r-a ud ito ry

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