Composition of blood:

• Plasma: Plasma is a liquid which contains a variety of dissolve substances. It is 91% of water. The
other 9% consists of digested food products (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol),
vitamins, minerals, gases, (oxygen and carbon dioxide) enzymes, hormones, soluble proteins
(globulin, fibrinogen, prothrombin), and waste products such as urea.

• Red blood cells (Erythrocytes): Red blood cells are biconcave disc-shaped which increases the
surface area for absorbing more oxygen. They are produced from bone marrow and have a lifespan
of about 100 days. They lack nucleus which provides them more space for haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is red pigment in the blood cell and each molecule of haemoglobin is made up of 4
iron & protein (globulin protein). Haemoglobin transports oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin for
the lung to body cells. Lack of iron causes anemia.

• White blood cells (leukocytes): There are two types of white blood cells:

o Phagocytes (70%): They are irregular in shape. They

are produced from bone marrow. They have three
lobed nuclei. They engulf germs by phagocytosis in
which germs are trapped in food vacuole. Then
digestive enzyme digests the germs into soluble
products which are absorbed into the cytoplasm.

o Lymphocytes (25%): They are regular in shape. They are

produced from lymphatic system. They have large round
nucleus. They produce a chemical called antibody. At first
lymphocytes scan the pathogens and then produce a
particular antibody which kill the germs.

• Platelets (Thrombocyte): Platelets are tiny and irregular in shape. They lack nucleus and are
produced from bone marrow. They help blood to clot. When skin is cut, exposure of the air
stimulates the platelets and damaged tissue to produce a chemical that causes the soluble plasma
protein fibrinogen to change into the insoluble fiber of another protein called fibrin. The fibrin forms
a network across the wound, in which red blood cells become trapped. The clot develops into a scab
that protects the damaged tissue and prevents the entry of microorganisms and bleeding while new
skin forms.

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Immune Response
White blood cells flow with blood and continuously search for any pathogenic organisms in our bodies.
After the pathogen has been detected the phagocytes immediately attack and destroy it by consuming
it. While engulfing the pathogen, the phagocytes identify the type of antigen present in the pathogen's
body surface and transmit the antigen's information to lymphocytes. On receiving the message from the
phagocytes, lymphocytes immediately activate. Some of the lymphocytes go and kill the body cells
which are affected by the pathogen and the others use the antigen's collected information to start
producing a special type of protein called antibodies. Antigens that are used by the bacteria for the
uptake of nutrients, bacterial communication, and subversion of host response have a unique matching.
Antibody produced by lymphocytes fits the antigen like a lock and key model and can des7troy the
pathogen by:

o causing the bacteria to burst open

o neutralizing poisons produced by pathogens
o acting as ‘label’ on the pathogen, so that it is more easily recognized by a phagocyte
o causing the bacteria to stick together, so that phagocytes can ingest them more easily.

Millions of antibodies are produced which circulate the body and destroy the pathogen. While on the
other hand, familiar symptoms like high temperatures are processed to aid the immune system as the
pathogens are temperature sensitive and cannot reproduce in a warm condition. Some lymphocytes do
not help in producing the antibodies
instead they act as memory cells to
remember the type of pathogen and how
they have been killed so that when the
same type of pathogen re-infects the body
the immune system can destroy it before it
causes any harm. This secondary immune
response is much faster and more effective
than the primary response as it quickly
rises the number of antibodies in the blood
to a high and killing the pathogens quickly.
Memory cells remain in the blood for many
years or even lifetime. This is how the immune system responds to a pathogen
*Antibiotics: antibiotics are chemicals which are used to control pathogenic or disease-causing
microorganism such as bacteria.

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Vaccination
A person can be given artificial immunity to a disease-causing organism without ever having the disease
itself. This is done by vaccination. A person is injected with an 'agent' that carries the same antigens as a
specific pathogen. Lymphocytes recognize the antigens and multiply exactly as if that a microorganism
had entered the bloodstream. They produce memory cells and make the person immune to the disease
which means that if the person comes into contact with a 'real' pathogen, they will experience a
secondary immune response which kills the pathogen more quickly preventing them to reproduce and
cause the disease.

Some agents used as vaccines are:

• A weakened strain of the actual microorganism; e.g. vaccines against polio, tuberculosis (TB) and
measles.
• Dead microorganisms; e.g. typhoid and whooping cough vaccines.
• Modified toxins of the bacteria; e.g. tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.
• Just the antigens themselves; e.g. influenza vaccines.
• Harmless genetic engineered bacteria to carry the antigens of a different pathogen; e.g. vaccines
against hepatitis B.

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ARTERY, VEIN AND CAPPILARY

Differences between artery and vein

Artery Vein

Thick muscular wall with more elastic tissue Thin muscular wall with few elastic tissue

Lumen narrower Lumen wider

Valves absent (except pulmonary artery) Valves present

Carries oxygenated blood (except pulmonary Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary
artery) vein)

Carry blood with high pressure Carry blood with low pressure

Carry blood from heart to all parts of the body Carry blood from body parts to heart

*Arteries carry blood with high pressure. So, there is no chances of back flow. As a result, they do not
have valve

Capillaries: Walls of the capillary are made up of single layer of cells, so

they are very thin which reduce distance for the movement of
substances. Capillary walls are permeable which allows movement of
substance easily

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HEART

• Atrio ventricular valve prevent backflow of blood from ventricles to atria.

• Bicuspid or mitral valve prevent back flow of blood from left ventricle to left atrium.
• Tricuspid valve prevents backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles.
• Semi-lunar valve prevents back flow of blood from arteries to ventricles.
• Pulmonary semi lunar valve prevents back flow of blood from pulmonary artery to right
ventricle.
• Aortic semi lunar valve prevents back flow of blood from aorta to left ventricle.
• Wall of left ventricle is much thicker than wall of the right ventricle because it pumps blood to
all parts of the body except lung.
• Wall of the atria is very thin because it pumps blood only from atria to ventricles.
• Septum divides heart into left and right sides so that oxygenated blood cannot mix.
• If coronary arteries are partially or totally blocked, cardiac muscle deprive from sufficient
oxygen or no oxygen. So, they respire anaerobically and produce lactic acid which cause pain
and prevent further contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle which may cause heart attack.
• Hepatic portal vein transport digested food from intestine to liver.
• Heart beat is initiated in the wall of the right atrium.

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The Circulatory System

The two different types of circulatory systems are as follows:

Single circulatory system: Heart pumps blood to the gas exchange organ, then the blood is transferred to
the rest of the body directly.

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Double circulatory system: Blood is first pumped to the gas exchange organ, then it goes back to the heart
which then pumps it once again, to the rest of the body. Double circulatory system is of two types:

• Pulmonary circulation: Heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it is oxygenated and
then returned to the heart, which then pumps it again to all parts of the body.
• Systemic circulation: Heart releases oxygenated blood directly, which then goes to all parts of
the body.

Tissue fluids: When part of plasma comes out of the capillaries due to high pressure, it is known as tissue
fluid. Tissue fluid surrounds every cell. They act as a medium for exchange of substances between blood
and cell cytoplasm by diffusion.

Coronary arteries: Supply oxygenated blood to cardiac muscles or wall of the heart. If main artery is
partially blocked, cardiac muscles receive less oxygen so they also respire anaerobically and produce lactic
acids which prevents further contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle causing heart attack.

These factors can increase the risk of developing coronary heart diseases:

• Heredity: tendency to develop heart disease is inherited from previous generation

• High blood pressure: puts more strain on the heart
• Diet: eating large amounts of saturated fat raises cholesterol level
• Smoking: blood pressure increases and blood clots form
• Stress: raises blood pressure
• Lack of exercise: increases blood pressure and weakens the heart

Prevention of coronary heart disease

• Taking balanced diet or reduce consumption of fat rich food.

• Never smoke cigarette.
• Never drink alcohol.
• Regular exercise.
• Avoid hypertension or mental stress.

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