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MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

FORGING

 Forging may be defined as the plastic flow of metal

by the application of compressive forces in which a
metal is altered in shape permanently without rupture.

 Hence, it involves the shaping of metal using

localized compressive forces.

The application of heat increases the plasticity of

metals thus making it possible to conduct the
operations necessary for the fabrication of various
shapes of products.
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Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking

processes.
 Forged parts can range in weight from less than a
kilogram to 580 metric tons.

 In modern times, industrial forging is done either with

presses or with hammers powered by compressed air,
electricity, hydraulics or steam.

These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the

thousands of kilograms. Smaller power hammers, 230 kg
or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are
common in art smithies as well.
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Forging
Directional Strength: Forging refines the grain structure and
develops the optimum grain flow. Grain flow is a directional
orientation of metal grains and any inclusions that have been
deformed by forging. Individual grains are elongated in the direction
of the metal flow or plastic deformation. Grain flow imparts
desirable directional properties such as ductility, impact toughness,
fracture toughness and fatigue strength. Additional heat treatment
is required especially in cold forged components.
A section through a forging indicates that the grain flow
follows the contour of the component, which often
maximizes impact strength in the direction of greatest
operating stress.

Grain
Flow

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FORGING

FORGING
• Forgings are free from internal voids and porosity. The
process achieves very consistent material uniformity,
which results in uniform mechanical properties and a
uniform, predictable response to heat treatment.
• Dynamic Properties: Through proper deformation and
grain flow, combined with high material uniformity, the
forging process maximizes impact toughness, fracture
toughness and fatigue strength. These properties are
particularly advantageous in safety related applications,
such as aerospace structural components and automotive
components, typically suspension, brake and steering
systems, which are subject to shock, impact and cyclic
loads.
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More Applications
• These components include
– engine crankshafts and connecting rods,
– gears,
– jet engine turbine parts.

FORGING

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FORGING CLASSIFICATION - based on

working temperature.
• Cold forging – The cold forging is performed at
room temperature. The job-piece is compressed
between two dies until it has assumed their shape.
– Advantages of Cold forging – Saving in heating energy
• No Shrinkage after forging & therefore very little or no
finishing work is required in Cold forging, which saves
cost.
• High precision, Economical, High production rates,
Long die life
– Cold Forging Disadvantages
• Only simple shapes in high volumes can be shaped
• Not suitable for customised components
• Low ductility ,Residual stress may occur.
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Hot Forging vs. Cold Forging

Hot forging – Heated to easily allow deformation, carried at higher temperature
(about 1100°C for steel, 360°C to 520°C for Al-alloys, 700°C to 800°C for Cu-alloys).
Commonly done, due to the significant deformation and the need to reduce
strength and increase ductility of work metal
• Hot Forging Advantages
– Good ductility , More flexible than cold forging, thus customized parts can
be manufactured, Excellent surface quality
• Hot Forging Disadvantages
– Less precise dimensional tolerance, Careful monitored of cooling process
to be performed, Risk of warpage , Risk of job piece and atmosphere
reactions
• Hot Forging vs. Cold Forging: Conclusion
Hot forging results in optimum yield strength, low hardness and high ductility. The
process delivering desired quality more economically is chosen. The decision is
based on the required properties of the desired component, its cost of production
and customer’s requirements. Warm forging – below scaling (oxidation)
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temperatures

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FORGING CLASSIFICATION
• Either IMPACT OR GRADUAL pressure is used in
forging.
• The distinction derives more from the type of
equipment used than differences in process
technology.
• A forging machine that applies an impact load is
called a forging hammer, while one that applies
gradual pressure (squeezing action) is called a
forging press.
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FORGING CLASSIFICATION
• Another difference among forging operations is
the degree to which the flow of the work metal
is constrained by the dies.
• By this classification, there are three types of
forging operations, shown in Figure :
(a) Open-die Forging,
(b) Impression-die Forging, and
(c) Flashless Forging.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zg9UKEJ1Wj8
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Open Die Forging

• Most forging processes begin with open die forging
• Open die forging is mechanical forming between flat dies in which
the metal flow is not restricted from sides
• The stock is laid on a flat anvil while the flat face of the forging
hammer is struck against the stock.
• The equipment may range from the anvil and hammer to giant
hydraulic presses

Open Die Forging

OPEN-DIE FORGING
• The simplest case of open-die forging involves
compression of a work part of cylindrical cross
section between two flat dies with no pre-cut
profiles in the dies.
• Larger parts over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in
length can be hammered or pressed into shape
this way.

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CLASSIFICATION- Open-die Forging

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(2) CLASSIFICATION- Impression-die Forging

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CLASSIFICATION- Flashless Forging

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OPEN-DIE FORGING with No-Friction

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions

in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece at its
original length and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size.
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OPEN-DIE FORGING with Friction

• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains
lateral flow of work, resulting in barreling effect.
• When performed on a hot work part with cold dies,
the barrelling effect is even more pronounced.
• This results from a higher coefficient of friction
typical in hot working and heat transfer at and near
the die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation.
• The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows
more readily than the cooler metal at the ends.
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OPEN-DIE FORGING with Friction

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging, showing

pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3)
final shape.
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Examples: Open Die Forging

Schematic illustration
of a cogging
operation on a
rectangular bar.
Blacksmiths use a
similar procedure to
reduce the thickness
of parts in small
increments by heating
the workpiece and
hammering it
numerous times along
the length of the part.

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Examples: Open Die Forging

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Examples: Open Die Forging

SMITH FORGING
• Blacksmith
manipulates the
work piece
• Skill of blacksmith
determines the
final shape & size
of the work piece
• Suitable for small
volume
production
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Examples: Open Die Forging

Reducing the
diameter of a bar
by open-die
forging

Or

Open Die Forging

of a multi
diameter shaft
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuGNhEwZs0s
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Examples: Open Die Forging

The thickness of a
ring being
reduced by open-
die forging

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Examples: Open Die Forging

Making of a crane hook by open die forging

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OPEN-DIE FORGING
• ADVANTAGES
– Little or no tooling cost
– Reduced lead time
• DRAWBACKS
– Not suitable for forming precision parts or other
close-tolerance applications
– Machining is often required after forging to achieve
accuracy and desired features

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IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
• Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-
die forging , is performed with dies that contain
the inverse of the desired shape of the part.
• The process is illustrated in a three-step
sequence in Figure.
• The raw workpiece is shown as a cylindrical part
similar to that used in the previous open-die
operation .

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IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING

Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with

raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure,
causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

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IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
• As the die closes to its final position , flash is
formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity
and in to the small gap between the die plates.
• Although this flash must be cut away from the
part in a subsequent trimming operation, it
actually serves two important functions during
impression-die forging.
– As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
– In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates
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IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING

Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash after

impression-die forging.
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FLASHLESS FORGING (PRECISION FORGING)

• As mentioned EARLIER, impression-die forging is

sometimes called closed-die forging in industry
terminology.
• However, there is a technical distinction between
impression-die forging and true closed-die forging.
• The distinction is that in closed-die forging, the raw
workpiece is completely contained with in the die
cavity during compression , and no flash is formed .
• The process sequence is illustrated in Figure.
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FLASHLESS FORGING (PRECISION FORGING)

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
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(2.3) FLASHLESS FORGING (PRECISION FORGING)

• Flashless forging imposes requirements on

process control that are more demanding than
impression- die forging.
• Most important is that the work volume must
equal the space in the die cavity with in a very
close tolerance.
• If the starting blank is too large, excessive
pressures may cause damage to the die or press.
• If the blank is too small , the cavity will not be
filled.
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FLASHLESS FORGING (PRECISION FORGING)

• Because of the special demands made by flash

less forging, the process lends itself best to part
geometries that are usually simple and
symmetrical, and to work materials such as
aluminium and magnesium and their alloys.
• Flash less forging is often referred as a precision
forging process.

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CLOSED-DIE FORGING
• ADVANTAGES
– Better surface finish
– Little or reduced machining
– Cost effective for large production runs
– Dimensions of tighter tolerances and net shapes can
be achieved
• DRAWBACKS
– Not economical for short production runs due to the
high cost of die production
– Higher setup cost due to costly machines and
furnaces 36

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Upset forging
• Upset forging increases the diameter of the
workpiece by compressing its length.
• Based on number of pieces produced, this is the
most widely used forging process.
• A few examples of common parts produced
using the upset forging process are engine
valves, axels, bolts, screws, and other fasteners
• Also called as Machine Forging

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Upset forging

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Upset forging
• An upset forging operation to form a head on a
bolt or similar hardware item. The cycle is as
follows:
(1) wire stock is fed to the stop;
(2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is
retracted;
(3) punch moves forward; and
(4) bottoms to form the head.
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FORGING CLASSIFICATION: based on how

deforming force is applied
• Either IMPACT OR GRADUAL pressure is used in
forging.
• The distinction derives more from the type of
equipment used than differences in process
technology.
• A forging machine that applies an impact load is
called a forging hammer (Drop forging), while
one that applies gradual pressure (squeezing
action) is called a forging press.
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Drop Forging
• Drop forging is a forging process using a drop
hammer.
• A drop hammer is a machine that uses gravity,
air, or steam pressure to make repeated blows
against a workpiece.
• With gravity drop hammers, a heavily weighted
ram is lifted above, and then released.

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Drop Forging
• The press action is then repeated until the
workpiece has attained the desired shape.
• Impact force aids the forging operation.
• This process is most suitable for less intricate,
simpler shapes.

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Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

Apply impact load against work part
• Two types:
– Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling
weight of a heavy ram
– Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by
pressurized air or steam
• Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted to the
floor of building

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Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for forging.

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Press Forging
• Press forging suitable for smaller components
than drop forging because it needs higher press
capacity (5-50 Million Newton for normal
working & up to 600 MN for special heavy duty
applications)
• It differs from drop forging in that the forging
action results from a slow squeezing action
rather than a hammer-like impact.
• This squeezing action produces deformation
more uniformly throughout the workpiece,
resulting in greater dimensional accuracy. 47

Press Forging
• The presses used for press forging are normally
hydraulic.
• This process is most suitable for more complex
shapes.

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Press Forging Advantages over Drop

Forging
• Press forging is quieter than drop forging.
• Press forging is faster (one operation).
• Alignment of the two die halves can be easily
maintained.
• Structural quality of the product is superior.
• More accurate parts are obtained.
• Drop forging leaves the centre of the metal not
so hard as the outside, but press forging gives
more uniform hardness for larger components.
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Fullers
Some Forging Operations
Fullering, Edging, Blocking

• Fullering & edging are

used to distribute the
material
–Fullering – material is
distributed away from
an area
–Edging – required
quantity of material is
gathered into an area
• Blocking – rough shaping
of the part

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Various Steps Involved in MULTI– DIE Drop Forging of a Component

The crankshaft connecting rod mechanism transforms
reciprocative motion to rotational motion

Fullering

Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion
engine. Note: the amount of flash required to ensure proper filling of the
die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c) edging operations to properly distribute the
material when pre-shaping the blank for forging (d) Blocking is done to
achieve first major shape change ie semi finishing

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