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Glossary
A (aminoacyl) site (of a ribosome): Portion of a ribo-
some into which aminoacyl tRNA molecules bind during
translation.
accession number: Unique identifying letter and number
code assigned to every cloned DNA sequence that is cat-
alogued in databases such as GenBank (for example,
BC009971 is the accession number for one of the
human keratin genes, which produces a protein that is a
major component of skin and hair cells). The accession
number for any sequence can be used by scientists
around the world to retrieve database information on
that particular sequence.
acetylase: Enzyme produced by the lacA gene of the lac-
tose (lac) operon in bacteria.
acquired mutations: These occur in the genome of somatic
cells and are not passed along to offspring; can cause
abnormalities in cell growth leading to cancerous tumor
formation, metabolic disorders, and other conditions.
adenine: Abbreviated A; purine base present in DNA and
RNA nucleotides.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP): A nucleoside-triphos-
phate that contains the nitrogenous base adenine. ATP is
the primary form of energy used by living cells.
adenovirus: Virus that causes the common cold.
adult-derived stem cells (ASCs): Stem cells derived from
tissues of an adult, as opposed to embryonic stem cells,
which are derived from a blastocyst; can differentiate to
produce other cell types.
aerobes: Organisms that use oxygen for their
metabolism.
aerobic conditions: Conditions in which oxygen is
present.
aerobic metabolism: Metabolism that requires oxygen.
affinity chromatography: A separation technique, based
on the unique match between a molecule and its col-
umn-bound antibody, that involves passing proteins or
other substances in solution over a medium that will
bind to (“have an affinity for”) specific components of
the solution. It is used to isolate fusion proteins from a
mixture of bacterial cell proteins.
agarose gel electrophoresis: See gel electrophoresis.
agricultural biotechnology: A discipline of biotechnology
that involves plants and their applications, including
genetic engineering of plants for agricultural purposes.
Agrobacter: Soil bacteria that invade injured plant tissue.
alcohol (ethanol) fermentation: Enzymatic breakdown
of carbohydrates (sugars) in the absence of oxygen;
products include ATP, CO2, and ethanol (alcohol) as
waste products; important type of microbial metabolism
used for the production of certain types of alcohol-
containing beverages.
allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) analysis: Genetic
testing technique that involves using PCR with oligonu-
cleotides specific to a disease gene to analyze a person’s
DNA.
alternative splicing: Splicing sometimes can join certain
exons and cut out other exons, essentially treating them
as introns. This process creates multiple mRNAs of dif-
ferent sizes from the same gene. Each mRNA can then
be used to produce different proteins with different,
sometimes unique, functions. Alternative splicing allows
several different protein products to be produced from
the same gene sequence.
amino acids: Building blocks of protein structure; combi-
nations of 20 different amino acids can join together by
covalent bonds in varying order and length to make a
polypeptide.
aminoacyl transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecule with an amino acid attached.
amniocentesis: A technique for obtaining fetal cells from
a pregnant woman to analyze fetal cells to determine the
genetic composition of the cells, such as the number of
chromosomes or the sex of the fetus.
amniotic fluid–derived stem cell (AFS): Stem cells in
the amniotic fluid of pregnant women that have been
found to have many of the same traits as embryonic
stem cells.
amylase: An enzyme that digests starch.
anaerobes: Organisms that do not require oxygen for their
metabolism.
anaerobic metabolism: Lacking oxygen; an organism, envi-
ronment, or cellular process that does not require oxygen.
G-1
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G-2 Glossary
angiogenesis: The growth of new blood vessels.
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS):
The branch of the USDA responsible for protecting U.S.
agriculture from pests and diseases.
animal biotechnology: A diverse discipline of biotechnol-
ogy that involves the use of animals to make valuable
products such as recombinant proteins and organs for
human transplantation; also includes organism cloning.
annotation: Bioinformatics approach that involves search-
ing databases to determine whether the sequence and
function of a gene sequence has already been determined.
antibiotic: Substance produced by microorganisms that
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms; commonly
used to treat bacterial infections in humans, pets, and
farm animals.
antibiotic selection: See selection.
antibodies: Proteins produced in response to a non-self
molecule by the immune system; antigen-binding
immunoglobulins, produced by B cells, that function as
the effector in an immune response.
antibody-mediated immunity: Portion of the immune
system dedicated to producing antibodies that combat
foreign materials; also known as humoral immunity.
anticodon: Three-nucleotide sequence at the end of a
tRNA molecule. During translation, the anticodon binds
to a specific codon in an mRNA molecule by comple-
mentary base pairing.
antifreeze proteins (AFPs): Category of proteins isolated
from aquatic organisms that live in cold environments;
these proteins have the unique property of lowering the
freezing temperature of body fluids and tissues.
antigens: Molecules unique to specific surfaces that can
stimulate antibody response; substances that trigger anti-
body production when introduced into the body.
antimicrobial drugs: Chemicals that inhibit or destroy
microorganisms.
antiparallel: Refers to the 5' and 3' directionality of strands
of DNA in which the two strands joined together by
hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs are
oriented in opposing directions with respect to their
polarity.
antisense RNA: An RNA molecule that is complementary
to a native RNA.
apoptosis: Involves a complex cascade of cellular proteins
that cause cell death; controlled apoptosis is an impor-
tant biological process that remodels tissues during
development; uncontrolled apoptosis is involved in
degenerative disease conditions such as arthritis; also
known as “programmed cell death.”
aquaculture: Farming finfish, shellfish, or plants for com-
mercial or recreational uses.
aquatic biotechnology: The use of aquatic organisms
such as finfish, shellfish, marine bacteria, and aquatic
plants for biotechnology applications.
Archaea: See domain Archaea.
astaxanthin: A pigment that gives shrimp their pink color.
Recombinant astaxanthin is used to change the color of
aquaculture species such as salmon.
attenuated vaccine: Vaccine consisting of weakened, live
microorganisms.
autograft: Transplanting a patient’s own tissues from one
region of the body to another; for example, skin or hair
grafting, coronary artery bypass surgery.
autoradiograph: An image created by exposing photo-
graphic film to a radioactively labeled compound.
autoradiography: Technique that uses film to detect
radioactive or light-releasing compounds (such as DNA
probe) in cells, tissues, or blots; produces photographic
film image called an autoradiogram or autoradiograph.
autosomes: Chromosomes whose genes are not primarily
involved in determining an organism’s sex; chromo-
somes 1–22 in humans.
avian flu: “Avian influenza virus” refers to influenza A
viruses found chiefly in birds, but infections with these
viruses can occur in humans.
avidin: A protein in egg whites that binds biotin and
inhibits bacterial growth.
B lymphocytes (B cells): White blood cells (leukocytes)
that develop in the bone marrow and can mature into
antibody-producing cells called plasma cells.
bacilli: Rod-shaped bacteria.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): A bacterium that produces a
crystalline protein that dissolves the cementing sub-
stance between certain insect midgut cells.
bacteria: See domain Bacteria.
bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs): Large circular
vectors that can replicate very large pieces of DNA; used
to clone pieces of human chromosomes for the Human
Genome Project.
bacteriophage: Virus that infects bacteria; often simply
called phage.
baculoviruses: Viruses that attack insect cells.
band shifting: Equal molecular-weight fragments of DNA
that do not migrate uniformly because of variations in
the gel matrix.
Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST): Internet-
based program from the U.S. National Center for
Biotechnology Information (NCBI) that can be used for
DNA nucleotide-sequence-comparison (alignment) stud-
ies and for sequence searches in GenBank and other
databases.
basic sciences: Research disciplines that examine funda-
mental aspects of biological processes, often without
obvious direct applications (for curing disease or making
a product).
batch (large-scale or scale-up) processes: Growing
microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast and other
living cells such as mammalian cells in large
quantities for the purpose of isolating useful products in
a batch.
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β-galactosidase: Enzyme produced by the lacZ gene of the
lactose (lac) operon in bacteria; β-galactosidase degrades
the disaccharide lactose.
β-sheet: One of two secondary structures of proteins.
bioaccumulation: Progressive concentration or accumula-
tion of a substance, such as a chemical pollutant, as it
moves up the “food chain” from organism to organism.
bioaugmentation (seeding): Adding bacteria or other
microorganisms to a contaminated environment to assist
native (indigenous) microbes in the bioremediation
processes.
biocapsules: Tiny spheres or tubes filled with therapeutic
cells or a chemical substance such as a drug; can be
implanted for therapeutic purposes; also known as
microcapsules.
biodegradation: The use of microorganisms to break
down chemicals (not necessarily pollutants).
biodiversity: The range of different species present in an
ecosystem.
bioethicist: A person who studies bioethics.
bioethics: The area of ethics (a code of values for our
actions) concerning the implications of biologic and
biomedical research and biotechnological applications
(particularly with respect to medicine).
biofilming (biofouling): The attachment of organisms to
surfaces; examples include the attachment of shellfish to
the hull of a ship and the attachment of microorganisms
to teeth.
bioimpedance: A technique involving the use of low-
voltage electricity to measure muscle mass and the fat
content of tissues; used, for example, to measure the fat
content of fish to be sold for consumption.
bioinformaticists: Scientists specializing in the bioinformatics.
bioinformatics: Interdisciplinary science that involves
developing and applying information technology (com-
puter hardware and software) for analyzing biological
data such as DNA and protein sequences; also includes
the use of computers for the analysis of molecular struc-
tures and creating databases for storing and sharing bio-
logical data.
biologic: Pertaining to biology.
Biological License Agreement (BLA): Filed by a biotech
company seeking approval of a biologically derived
product such as a viral therapy, blood compound, vac-
cine, or protein derived from animals.
bioluminescence: The release of light by living organisms.
biomarkers: Substances used as indicators of a biologic
state. A characteristic that is objectively measured and
evaluated as an indicator of normal biologic processes,
pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a
therapeutic intervention.
biomass: The dry weight of living material in part of an
organism, a whole organism, or a population of organisms.
biopiles: Large piles of contaminated soil that have been
removed from the original site. Air and vacuum systems
Glossary G-3
are used to help dry these piles and release chemicals by
evaporation. Vacuums are sometimes used to collect
chemical vapors and trap them in filters.
bioprocessing engineers: Work at the frontiers of biologic
and engineering sciences to “bring engineering to life”
through the conversion of biologic materials into other
forms needed by mankind.
bioprocessing: The use of biologic systems to manufacture
(process) a product.
bioprospecting: Endeavors to capitalize on indigenous
knowledge of natural resources. However, bioprospect-
ing may also describe the search for previously
unknown compounds in organisms that have never
been used in traditional medicine.
bioreactors: Cell systems that produce biologic molecules
(which may include fermenters).
bioremediation: The use of living organisms to process,
degrade, and clean up naturally occurring or man-made
pollutants in the environment.
biosensors: Living organisms used to detect or measure
biological effects of some factor, such as a chemical pol-
lutant, or condition.
biotechnology: A broad area of science involving many
different disciplines designed to use living organisms or
their products to perform valuable industrial or manu-
facturing processes or applications that will solve
problems.
bioterrorism: The use of biological materials (live organ-
isms or their toxins) as weapons to cause fear in or harm
against civilians.
bioventing: Pumping air or oxygen-releasing chemicals
such as hydrogen peroxide into contaminated soil
or water to stimulate aerobic degradation by
microorganisms.
bioweapons: Biological materials used as weapons.
blastocyst: Hollow cluster of approximately 100 cells
formed about 1 week after fertilization of an egg.
blunt ends: Double-stranded ends of a DNA molecule
created by the action of certain restriction enzymes.
BRCA1 gene: A gene found in about 65% of human breast
tumors. Commonly part of breast cancer diagnosis for
treatment.
byssal fibers: Ultrastrong, protein-rich threads created by
mussels and other shellfish. Byssal fibers have unique
adhesive properties and can withstand great stress from
stretching and shearing forces; attach shellfish to sub-
strates such as rocks.
CAAT Box: Short nucleotide sequence (CAAT) usually
located approximately 80 to 90 base pairs “upstream” (in
the 5' direction) of the start site of many eukaryotic
genes; part of promoter sequence bound by transcription
factors used to stimulate RNA polymerase.
calcitonin: A thyroid hormone that stimulates calcium
uptake by digestive organs and promotes bone
hardening (calcification).
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G-4 Glossary
callus: A loose collection of de-differentiated plant tissue.
Cancer Genome Atlas Project: NIH is working this can-
cer genome project to map important genes and genetic
changes involved in cancer.
carbohydrases: Enzymes that digest carbohydrates.
carcinogen: A cancer-causing chemical.
carrageenan: Polysaccharide (sugar) derived from sea-
weeds; wide range of uses in everyday products such as
syrups, sauces, and adhesives as a “thickening” or bulk-
ing agent.
cDNA: DNA synthesized as an exact copy of mRNA called
complementary DNA (cDNA). The mRNA is degraded by
treatment with an alkaline solution or enzymatically
digested; then DNA polymerase is used to synthesize a
second strand to create double-stranded cDNA.
cell culture: Growing cells in laboratory conditions outside
of a whole organism (in vitro); usually a term applied to
growing mammalian cells.
cell line: An established or immortalized cell line has
acquired the ability to proliferate indefinitely, either
through random mutation or deliberate modification.
Numerous well-established cell lines are representative
of particular cell types.
cell lysis: See lysis.
cellulase: Bacterial enzyme that degrades the polysaccha-
ride cellulose (a primary component of the plant cell
wall).
centrifugation: Involves using an instrument called a cen-
trifuge to apply a rotational force to samples to separate
components based on their weight. Rotational forces
measured in revolutions per minute (rpm) or times
gravity (g). Centrifugation has a number of important
applications related to separating components of a mix-
ture (for instance, separating proteins from DNA, sepa-
rating different cell types).
centromere: Constricted region of a chromosome formed
by intertwined DNA and proteins that hold two sister
chromatids together.
chemotherapy: The treatment of cancer and other dis-
eases with specific chemical agents or drugs that have a
toxic effect on diseased cells or disease-causing
microorganisms.
chimera: An organism with more than one type of cell;
some cells are normal and some are genetically modified.
chitin: A complex polysaccharide polymer composed of
repeating units of a sugar called N-acetylglucosamine.
Chitin forms the hard outer shell (exoskeleton) of crabs,
lobsters, crawfish, shrimp, and other crustaceans. Also
found in insects and other organisms.
chitosan: Polysaccharide polymer derived from chitin.
Used in many applications from health care to agricul-
ture to dyes for fabrics and in dietary supplements for
weight loss.
chloroplast: The photosynthetic organelle of complex
plants.
cholera: Acute intestinal infection of humans caused by
the bacterium Vibrio cholerae that causes severe diarrhea,
which can result in dehydration and death, particularly
in young children, if not treated. Spreads by contami-
nated water and food; bacterium often found in water
supplies of developing countries with poor sanitary con-
ditions.
chorionic villus sampling: Technique for sampling fetal
cells from the placenta to determine the genetic compo-
sition of these cells, such as the number of chromosomes
or the sex of the fetus.
chromatin: Strings of DNA wrapped around proteins; pre-
sent in the nucleus of eukaryotes and the cytoplasm of
prokaryotes; coils tightly together to form chromosomes
during cell division.
chromatography: A columnar separation method that
uses resin beads with special separation capabilities.
chromosomes: Highly folded arrangements of DNA and
proteins; they package DNA to allow even separation of
genetic material during cell division.
chymosin: See renin.
clinical trials: Experimental process of testing products
before approval of a drug, or treatment plan for wide-
spread use in humans; clinical trials involve several
“phases” of carefully planned experiments in different
numbers of human participants to test drug effectiveness
and safety.
clone: A genetically identical copy of a cell or whole organ-
ism; also describes the process of making copies of a
gene, cell, or organism.
cocci: Bacteria with a spherical shape.
CODIS, Combined DNA Index System: CODIS enables
federal, state, and local crime labs to exchange and com-
pare DNA profiles electronically, thereby linking crimes
to each other and to convicted offenders.
codon: Combinations of three nucleotide sequences in an
mRNA molecule; with few exceptions, each codon codes
for a single amino acid; 64 possible codons compose the
genetic code of mRNA molecules.
cohesive (sticky) ends: Overhanging single-stranded ends
of a DNA molecule created by the action of certain
restriction enzymes.
colchicine: Substance derived from crocus flowers that
blocks microtubule formation; used to stop cell division
(for instance, when creating polyploid organisms).
collagenase: Protease (protein-digesting enzyme) used in a
number of biotechnology applications.
colony hybridization: A procedure for binding a single-
stranded DNA probe to DNA molecules from bacterial
colonies; used for library screening to identify a gene of
interest.
comparative genomics: Studies that allow researchers to
investigate gene structure and function in organisms in
ways designed to understand gene structure and func-
tion in other species including humans.
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competent cells: Bacterial cells that have been chemically
treated to be able to take in DNA (transformation) from
their surrounding environment; to be “competent” to
accept DNA.
complementary base pairs: Refers to the nucleotides
adenine (A) and thymine (T) [or uracil (U) when refer-
ring to RNA], and guanine (G) and cytosine (C); in a
DNA molecule, A&T and G&C nucleotides join by
hydrogen bonds to “complement” each other.
complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA copy of an mRNA
molecule; mRNA can be copied into cDNA by the
enzyme reverse transcriptase (for instance, when
preparing a cDNA library).
complementary DNA (cDNA) library: DNA copies of all
mRNA molecules expressed in an organism’s cells; can
be “screened” to isolate genes of interest.
composting: Mixing soil with hay, straw, grass clippings,
wood chips, or other similar “bulking” materials to stim-
ulate biodegradation by soil microbes; also used to
degrade everyday materials such as vegetable scraps,
grass clippings, weeds, and leaves.
contigs (contiguous sequences): Restriction
enzyme–digested pieces of entire chromosomes are
sequenced separately, and then computer programs are
used to align the fragments based on overlapping
sequence pieces called contigs (contiguous sequences).
Coomassie stain: A sensitive stain that reacts with proteins.
Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotech-
nology: A 1984 governmental report that proposed that
biotechnology products be regulated much like tradi-
tional products.
copy number: The number of copies of a particular DNA
molecule or gene sequence such as a plasmid in a bacte-
rial cell.
cosmid vector: Large circular double-stranded DNA vector
that is used for gene-cloning experiment in bacteriophages.
credible utility: Requirement of the USPTO that the
researcher must convince the patent office that the
application is backed by sound science.
crown gall: A hardened mass of protruding dedifferenti-
ated plant tissue usually resulting from an attack from
Agrobacter.
cryopreservation: Storage of tissue samples at ultra low
temperatures (–150 to –20°C).
customer relations specialists: Sometimes work in QA
divisions of a company. One function of customer rela-
tions is to investigate consumer complaints about a
problem with a product and follow up with the con-
sumer to provide an appropriate response or solution to
the problem encountered.
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
(CFTR): Protein that serves as a “pump” to regulate the
amount of chloride ions in cells; mutations in the CFTR
are the cause of the genetic disorder cystic fibrosis.
cytokines: Stimulating factors that enhance an animal’s
immune system function.
Glossary G-5
cytoplasm: The inner contents of a cell, consisting of fluid
(cytosol) and organelles; its boundaries are defined by
the plasma membrane.
cytosine: Abbreviated C; pyrimidine base present in DNA
and RNA nucleotides.
cytosol: Gel-like, nutrient-rich aqueous (water-based) fluid
of the cytoplasm.
dideoxyribonucleotide (ddNTP): modified nucleotide. A
ddNTP differs from a normal deoxyribonucleotide
(dNTP) because it has a hydrogen group attached to the
3' carbon of the deoxyribose sugar instead of a hydroxyl
group-OH.
denaturation: A process that involves using high heat or
chemical treatment to break hydrogen bonds in DNA or
RNA molecules to separate complementary base pairs
and create single-stranded molecules; also refers to the
act of changing protein structure (through heat or
chemical treatment).
deontological (Kantian) approach: Developed by Ger-
man philosopher Immanuel Kant, this approach suggests
that absolute principles (of moral or ethical behavior)
should be followed to dictate our actions.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Double-stranded nucleic
acid consisting of bases (adenines, guanines, cytosines,
thymines), sugars (deoxyribose), and phosphate groups
arranged in a helical molecule; inherited genetic mater-
ial that contains “genes,” which direct the production of
proteins in a cell.
depolymerization: A process of reducing multiunit struc-
tures to single units.
deregulated status: First step in the APHIS (USDA)
review of a genetically altered product in which field-
test reports, scientific literature, and any other pertinent
records are checked before APHIS determines whether
the plant is as safe to grow as traditional varieties.
diabetes mellitus: A condition of elevated blood sugar.
There are several different forms of diabetes. In some
people (type 1 or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus),
the hormone insulin is missing.
diafiltration: See dialysis.
dialysis: A separation of water and a solute involving a
semipermeable membrane.
Dicer: Enzyme that cuts microRNA transcripts into short
single-stranded pieces of 21 to 22 nucleotides.
dicotyledonous: A seed with two embryonic seed leaves
(like peanuts).
differential display PCR: A PCR technique that uses ran-
dom primers to amplify DNA in two or more different
samples with the purpose of identifying randomly ampli-
fied genes that are different (differentially expressed) in
one sample compared with another sample.
differentiation: Cellular maturation process; involves
changes in patterns of gene expression that affect the struc-
ture and functions of cells. For instance, embryonic stem
cells differentiate to produce mature cells such as neurons,
liver cells, skin cells, and all other cell types in the body.
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G-6 Glossary
diploid: Refers to a cell or an organism consisting of two
sets of chromosomes: usually, one set from the mother
and another set from the father. In a diploid state, the
haploid number is doubled; thus, this condition is also
known as 2n.
diploid number: Two sets of chromosomes (2n); often
used to describe cells with two sets of chromosomes,
typically one set from each parent.
directed molecular evolution: A process that selects for
proteins after extensive mutations.
DNA-binding domains: Regions with folded structural
arrangements of amino acids called motifs that interact
directly with DNA.
DNA fingerprinting: An analysis of an organism’s unique
DNA composition as a characteristic marker or fingerprint
for identification purposes, such as forensic analysis,
remains identification, and paternity. DNA fingerprinting
is also used in biologic research (for example, to compare
related species based on their DNA sequences).
DNA helicase: Enzyme that separates two strands of a
DNA molecule during DNA replication.
DNA library: See genomic DNA library or complementary
(cDNA) library.
DNA ligase: Enzyme that forms covalent bonds between
incomplete (Okazaki) fragments of DNA during DNA
replication; routinely used for joining DNA fragments in
recombinant DNA experiments.
DNA microarray (gene chip): A chip consisting of a glass
microscope slide containing thousands of pieces of sin-
gle-stranded DNA molecules attached to specific spots on
the slide; each spot of DNA is a unique sequence.
DNA polymerase: Key enzyme that copies strands of
DNA during DNA replication to create new strands of
nucleotides; has important applications for synthesizing
DNA in molecular biology experiments.
DNA sequencing: Laboratory technique for determining
the nucleotide “sequence” or arrangement of A, G, T,
and C nucleotides in a segment of DNA.
doctrine of equivalents: If a patent holder claims patent
infringement on two similar DNA sequences, a court
must decide whether the sequences have essentially the
same function.
domain Archaea: A classification (domain) of prokaryotic
cells; a common feature of these microbes is that they
live in extreme environments, for example, boiling hot
springs.
domain Bacteria: Taxonomic category of living organisms
that includes bacteria; one of three domains (Bacteria,
Archaea, Eukarya), domain Bacteria is the most diverse
domain consisting of primarily unicellular prokaryotes.
domains: Taxonomic categories above the kingdom level:
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
dot blot: A detection strip coated with DNA sequences that
reflect sites in human DNA where antibody-forming
alleles (gene) differ.
double-blind trial: Study, such as a clinical trial, in which
neither the patients nor the researchers administering
the treatment know which patients receive a drug treat-
ment and which patients receive a placebo; researchers
learn the treatment of each patient after the study is
completed.
Down syndrome: Human genetic disorder first described
by John Langdon Down. Most commonly results from
individuals having three copies of chromosome 21 (tri-
somy 21). Characteristics of affected individuals include
a flat face; shortness; short, broad hands and fingers;
protruding tongue; and impaired physical, motor, and
mental development.
downstream processing: Purification processes involved
in producing a pure product such as a recombinant
protein.
DPT vaccine: Childhood vaccine designed to provide
immune protection against bacterial toxins diphtheria,
pertussis, and tetanus (contains killed Bordetella pertussis
cells). Microbes producing these toxins cause upper res-
piratory infections, whooping cough, and tetanus (mus-
cle spasm and paralysis), respectively.
E site: A groove through which tRNA molecules leave the
ribosome.
efficacy: The effectiveness of a particular product such as a
drug or medical procedure.
effluent: Water that has been treated to remove chemical
pollutants or sewage; treated water as it leaves a treat-
ment facility, such as water leaving a sewage-treatment
plant.
electroporation: A process for transforming bacteria with
DNA that uses electrical shock to move DNA into cells;
can also be used to introduce DNA into animal and plant
cells.
embryo twinning: Splitting embryos in half at the two-
cell stage of development to produce two embryos.
embryonic stem (ES) cells: Cells typically derived from
the inner cell mass of a blastocyst; cells can undergo dif-
ferentiation to form all cell types in the body.
endotoxins (lipopolysaccharides): Molecules that are
toxic to cells; endotoxins are part of the cell wall of cer-
tain bacteria; endotoxins cause cell death.
enhancers: Specific DNA sequences that bind proteins
called transcription factors to stimulate (“enhance”)
transcription of a gene.
enucleation: Removal of the DNA from the nucleus
of a cell.
Environmental Genome Project: NIH program designed
to study the impacts of environmental chemicals on
human genetics and disease.
Environmental Protection Agency: See U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
environmental genomics (metagenomics): Involves
sequencing genomes for entire communities of microbes
in environmental samples of water, air, and soils from
oceans throughout the world, glaciers, mines—virtually
every corner of the globe.
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EnviroPig: A transgenic pig expressing the enzyme phy-
tase in its saliva. It is deemed environmentally friendly
because it produces substantially less phosphorus in its
urine and feces than do nontransgenic pigs.
enzymes: Catalytic proteins.
ES (embryonic stem) cell transfer: Embryonic stem cells
(ES cells) are collected from the inner cell mass of blas-
tocysts. Transformed ES cells are usually injected into
the inner cell mass of a host blastocyst.
ethidium bromide: Tracking dye that penetrates (interca-
lates) between the base pairs of DNA. Commonly used
to stain DNA in gels because ethidium bromide fluo-
resces when exposed to ultraviolet light.
eugenics: The creation of a new superior species of human.
eukaryotic cells: Cells that contain a nucleus, including
plant and animal cells, protists, and fungi.
European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal
Products (EMEA): Agency that authorizes medicinal
products for human and veterinary use. It also helps
spread scientific knowledge by providing information on
new products in all 11 official EU languages.
exons: Protein-coding sequences in eukaryotic genes and
mRNA molecules.
ex situ bioremediation: Removing contaminated soils or
water from the site of contamination for clean-up at
another location (as opposed to cleaning up pollutants at
the contaminated site—a process called in situ
bioremediation).
ex vivo gene therapy: Gene-therapy procedure that
involves removing a person’s cells (such as blood cells)
from the body, introducing therapeutic genes into these
cells, and then reintroducing the cells back into a person.
experimental use permit (EUP): Permit issued by the
EPA for field experiments with new plant varieties with
pesticidal capabilities that involve at least 10 acres of
land or 1 acre of water; these experiments cannot be
conducted without an experimental use permit.
expressed sequence tags (ESTs): Small incomplete
pieces (tags) of gene sequence such as those derived
from a cDNA library; represent mRNAs expressed in a
given tissue.
expression vector: DNA vector such as a plasmid that can
be used to produce (express) proteins in a cell.
extrachromosomal DNA: DNA that is not part of an
organism’s nuclear (chromosomal) DNA; examples
include plasmid and mitochondrial DNA.
fermentation: A metabolic process that produces small
amounts of ATP from glucose in the absence of oxygen
and also creates byproducts such as ethyl alcohol
(ethanol) or lactic acid (lactate). Fermenting microbes
(bacteria and yeast) are important for producing a vari-
ety of beverages and foods, including beer, wine, breads,
yogurts, and cheeses.
Glossary G-7
fermenters (bioreactors): Containers for growing cul-
tures of microorganisms or mammalian cells in a batch
process. Fermenting vessels allow scientists to control
and monitor growth conditions such as temperature, pH,
nutrient concentration, and cell density.
fertilization (nutrient enrichment): Addition of nutri-
ents (fertilizer such as nitrogen and phosphorus) to a
contaminated environment to stimulate growth and
activity of naturally occurring soil microorganisms that
will aid bioremediation.
field trials: Tests outside of the laboratory required by
APHIS (USDA) after a new plant has been engineered in
a laboratory; may require several years to investigate
everything about the plant, including disease resistance,
drought tolerance, and reproductive rates.
5' end: The end of a strand of DNA or RNA in which the
last nucleotide is not attached to another nucleotide by a
phosphodiester bond involving the 5' carbon of the
pentose sugar.
fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): Laboratory
technique that uses single-stranded DNA or RNA probes
labeled with fluorescent nucleotides to identify gene
sequences in a chromosome or cell in situ (Latin for “in
its original place”).
Food and Drug Administration (FDA): An agency of
the federal government that regulates food and drug
safety.
forensic biotechnology: The analysis and application of
biologic evidence such as DNA and protein-sequence
data to help solve or recreate crimes.
frameshift mutation: Mutation resulting from the addi-
tion or deletion of nucleotides that causes a shift in the
genetic code-reading frame of a gene.
functional genomics: Genetic-sequencing analysis of
genes active during a cellular event.
fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that belong to Kingdom
Fungi.
fusion proteins: A “hybrid” recombinant protein consist-
ing of a protein from a gene of interest connected
(fused) to another, well-known protein that serves as a
tag for isolating recombinant proteins.
gametes: Haploid cells often called “sex” cells include
human sperm and egg cells (ova). Gametes join together
during fertilization to form a zygote (see meiosis).
gel electrophoresis: Laboratory procedure that involves
using an electrical charge to move and separate
biomolecules of different sizes, such as DNA, RNA, and
proteins, through a semisolid separating gel matrix.
Examples include agarose gel electrophoresis and poly-
acrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE).
GenBank: Renowned public database of DNA sequences
provided by researchers throughout the world; resources
for sharing and analyzing DNA sequence information.
gene: A specific sequence of DNA nucleotides that serves as
a unit of inheritance. Genes govern visible and invisible
characteristics (traits) of living organisms in large part by
directing the synthesis of proteins in a cell.
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G-8 Glossary
gene chip: See DNA microarray.
gene cloning: The process of producing multiple copies of
a gene.
gene expression: Term generally used to describe the syn-
thesis (“expression”) of RNA by a particular cell or tis-
sue. For instance, if mRNA for the fictitious gene korn is
detected in a tissue by PCR or Northern blot analysis,
that tissue is said to express the korn gene.
gene gun: A microprojectile device used to propel genes on
the surface of metal particles into cells.
Genentech: California company. Name derived from
genetic-engineering technology. Founded in 1976 and
widely recognized as the world’s first biotechnology
company.
gene regulation: General term used to describe processes
by which cells can control gene activity or “expression”
(RNA and protein synthesis).
gene therapy: The use of therapeutic genes to treat or
cure a disease process; also refers to the delivery of genes
to improve a person’s health.
generally-recognized-as-safe (GRAS) status: Status
granted by the FDA if a food product or additive poses
no foreseeable threat.
generic drugs: Copies of brand-name products that gener-
ally have the same effectiveness, safety, and quality but
are produced at a cheaper cost to the consumer than the
brand-name drugs.
genetic code: Information contained in bases of DNA and
RNA that provide cells with instructions for synthesizing
proteins; consist of three-nucleotide combinations called
codons.
genetic engineering: The process of altering an organ-
ism’s DNA. This is usually by design.
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act: This act
prohibits discrimination based on genetics and the
improper use of genetic information in health insurance
and employment.
genetically modified foods: Foods that have been genet-
ically altered to produce desired characteristics.
genetically modified (GM) organisms: GM organisms
included selectively bred and transgenic organisms. For
example, GM crops have been produced to plants that
can resist pests, disease, or harsh climates, allowing bet-
ter production of crops.
genome: All of the genes in an organism’s DNA.
genomic DNA library: Collection of DNA fragments con-
taining all DNA sequences in an organism’s genome; can
be “screened” to isolate genes of interest.
genomics: The study of genomes.
germline genetic engineering: Genetic alteration of
sperm, eggs, or embryos to create inheritable genetic
changes in offspring.
glycosylation: A natural process of adding sugar units to
proteins by complex cells.
glyphosphate: A small molecule that interacts and blocks
5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS),
a key enzyme in plant photosynthesis. Resistant plants
have a substitute pathway obtained by gene transfer.
Golden Rice: Genetically engineered rice with high vita-
min A content.
good clinical practice (GCP): An FDA requirement gov-
erning clinical trials that protects the rights and safety of
human subjects and ensures the scientific quality of
experiments.
good laboratory practice (GLP): An FDA requirement
that testing laboratories follow written protocols, have
adequate facilities, provide proper animal care, record
data properly, and conduct valid toxicity tests.
good manufacturing practice (GMP): Regulations
instituted by the FDA to govern animal studies of
pharmaceutical products.
green fluorescent protein (GFP): Protein produced by
the bioluminescent jellyfish Aequorea victoria. Protein flu-
oresces when exposed to ultraviolet light; the GFP gene
is used as a reporter gene.
Gram stain: Technique for staining the bacterial cell wall
that can be used to divide bacteria into different cate-
gories, gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria.
growth hormone (GH): A peptide hormone produced by
the pituitary gland; accelerates the growth of bone, mus-
cle, and other tissues.
guanine: Abbreviated G; purine base present in DNA and
RNA nucleotides.
HAMA response: When mouse hybridoma-produced
human antibodies produce enough “mouse” antigens,
they evoke this undesirable immune response in
humans.
haploid: A single set of 23 chromosomes.
haploid number: A single set of chromosomes (n); often
used to describe cells with a single set of chromosomes.
helix: One of two secondary structures of proteins.
hemoglobin: Oxygen-binding and oxygen-transporting
protein of red blood cells in vertebrates. Mutation of glo-
bin genes that encode hemoglobin results in a number
of different human blood disorders with a genetic basis,
including sickle-cell disease.
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC):
High-pressure separation of similar proteins by using
incompressible beads with special properties.
Hippocratic Oath: An oath that embodies the obligations
and duties of medical doctors; one expectation of the
oath is that physicians treat patients with the intent of
not worsening human health (“first, do no harm”).
Histone: DNA-binding proteins that are important for
chromosome structure.
homologous recombination: A gene recombines with its
corresponding existing gene on a chromosome (with
which it has a high degree of sequence similarity),
replacing part or all of the gene.
6090_THIE_Gloss_pG1-G18.qxd 6/13/08 11:18 AM Page G-9
homologues: Related genes in different species; genes
share sequence similarity because of a common evolu-
tionary origin.
hormone: Molecules involved in chemical signaling
between cells and organs; transported in body fluids,
hormones interact with and control the activity of many
cells.
human antimouse antibody (HAMA) response: Mouse
hybridomas produce enough “mouse” antigens that they
still evoke an undesirable immune response in humans.
human embryonic stem cells: Stem cells are immature
cells that can grow and divide to produce different types
of cells such as skin, muscle, liver, kidney, and blood
cells. Most stem cells are obtained from embryos
(embryonic stem cells or ESCs). Some ESCs can be iso-
lated from the cord blood of newborn infants.
humane treatment: Compassionate and sympathetic
approach, as applied to treating humans or animals.
Human Genome Project: An international effort with
overall scientific goals of identifying all human genes
and determining (mapping) their locations to each
human chromosome.
human papillomavirus (HPV): Causes about 70% of
cervical cancers (HPV strains 16 and 18) and a large
percentage of genital warts (caused by HPV strains 6 and
11). Cervical cancer affects 1 in 130 women, nearly half
a million women worldwide, and approximately 70% of
sexually active women will become infected with HPV.
Human Proteome Project: A potential project designed
to study the structures and functions of all human pro-
teins (the proteome).
humulin: The recombinant form of human insulin,
became the first recombinant DNA product to be
approved for human applications by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration.
hybridization: The joining of two DNA strands by comple-
mentary base pairing; for instance, binding of a single-
stranded DNA probe to another DNA molecule.
hybridomas: Hybrid cells used to create monoclonal anti-
bodies; created by fusing B cells with cancerous cells
called myeloma cells that no longer produce an antibody
of their own.
hydrophilic: Water-loving (portion of protein molecule).
hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC):
Chromatographic separation based on binding of
hydrophobic parts of proteins to the column.
hydrophobic: Water-hating (portion of protein molecule).
hydroponic systems: A form of aquaculture in which
tanks of flowing water are used to grow plants; in some
cases, water from fish aquaculture tanks is used to pro-
vide nutrients for plant growth in a polyculture
approach.
hydroxyapatite (HA): Structural component of bone and
cartilage.
Glossary G-9
in situ bioremediation: Cleaning up pollutants at the
actual site of contamination; “in place” clean-up as
opposed to removing contaminated soils or water from
the clean-up site for remediation at another location—a
process called ex situ bioremediation.
in situ hybridization: Laboratory technique that uses sin-
gle-stranded DNA or RNA probes, usually labeled with
radioactive or color-producing nucleotides, to identify
gene sequences in a chromosome or cell in situ(Latin for
“in its original place”).
in vitro: Occurring within an artificial environment such as
a test tube; from Latin “in glass.”
in vitro fertilization: Assisted-reproduction technology in
which sperm and egg cells are removed from patients
and cultured in a dish (in vitro) to achieve fertilization.
in vivo: Occurring within a living organism; from Latin “in
something alive.”
in vivo gene therapy: Gene therapy procedure that
involves introducing therapeutic genes directly into a
person’s tissue or organs without removing them from
the body.
inactivated vaccines: Vaccine consisting of killed
microorganisms.
inclusion bodies: Foreign proteins that concentrate in
transformed cell.
indigenous microbes: Naturally occurring microorgan-
isms living in the environment.
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs): Nuclear repro-
gramming of mouse and human cells, heralded as a rev-
olution in stem-cell biology research. One approach has
involved using retroviruses to deliver four transgenes
Oct3/4, Sox2, c-myc, and Klf4 into fibroblasts. Expression
of these four genes, which encode transcription factors
involved in cell development, “reprograms” the fibrob-
lasts back to an earlier stage of differentiation. iPS cells
demonstrate many properties of hESCs, such as self-
renewal and pluripotency, and appear to be indistin-
guishable from hESCs.
influenza: Caused by a large number of viruses that belong
to the influenza family of viruses. Influenza kills approx-
imately 500,000 to 1 million people worldwide each
year. Because flu viruses mutate so rapidly, no one-
size-fits-all vaccine protects against all strains.
informed consent: Applies to clinical trials in humans.
Patients are made aware of potential beneficial and
harmful effects of a particular treatment so that they are
informed of the risks of a procedure before they agree
(consent) to participate.
inherited mutations: A change in DNA structure or
sequence of a gene passed to offspring through gametes;
can be a cause of birth defects and genetic disease.
inner cell mass: Layer of cells in the blastocyst that
develop to form body tissues; a source of embryonic
stem cells.
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G-10 Glossary
Innocence Protection Act: A law that gives the convicted
access to DNA testing, prohibits states from destroying
biological evidence as long as a convicted offender is
imprisoned, prohibits denial of DNA tests to death-row
inmates, and encourages compensation for convicted
innocents.
inorganic compounds: See inorganic molecules
inorganic molecules: Molecules that do not contain
carbon.
insulin: Protein hormone produced by cells of the pan-
creas; involved in glucose metabolism by cells; deficien-
cies in insulin production or insulin-receptor production
can cause different forms of diabetes.
insulin-dependent (type I) diabetes mellitus: Caused
by an inadequate production of insulin by beta cells. The
decreased production of insulin results in an elevated
blood glucose concentration that can cause a number of
health problems such as high blood pressure, poor circu-
lation, cataracts, and nerve damage. People with type I
diabetes require regular injections of insulin to control
their blood sugar levels.
integration: Inserting DNA into a genome. A process by
which retroviruses such as lentivirus and HIV can enter
host cells, copy their RNA genome into DNA and then
randomly insert their DNA into the genome of the host
cell, where it remains permanently.
International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural
Biotechnology (ITLAB): A not-for-profit research lab-
oratory funded by Monsanto and others to research
plant varieties that could benefit countries by improving
their food quality.
introns: Non–protein-coding sequences in eukaryotic
genes and primary transcripts that are removed during
RNA splicing.
investigational new drug (IND) application: A formal
request to the FDA to consider the results of previous
animal experiments, the nature of the substance itself,
and the plans for further testing.
ion-exchange chromatography (IonX): The attachment
of protein to a column based on its charged side groups.
isoelectric focusing: Migration of a protein until its
charge matches the pH of the medium.
isoelectric point (IEP): pH at which the charge on pro-
teins matches that of the surrounding medium.
Kantian approach: See deontological (Kantian) approach.
karyotype: A laboratory procedure for analyzing the num-
ber and structure of chromosomes in a cell.
knock-in animals: Animals can have a human gene
inserted to replace their own counterpart by homolo-
gous recombination to become knock-ins.
knock-outs: An active gene is replaced with DNA that has
no functional information.
laboratory technician: Entry-level laboratory job with a
range of responsibilities such as preparing solutions and
mediums, ordering laboratory supplies, cleaning and main-
taining equipment; may sometimes involve bench research.
lac operon: A well-characterized bacterial operon that con-
tains a series of genes (lacZ,Y, Z) responsible for metabo-
lism of the sugar lactose.
lac repressor: Inhibitory protein encoded by the lacI gene
of the lactose (lac) operon in bacteria; in the absence of
lactose, repressor blocks transcription of the lac operon.
lactic acid fermentation: See fermentation.
lagging strand: During DNA replication, the strand of
newly synthesized DNA that is copied by DNA poly-
merase in a discontinuous (interrupted) fashion, 5' to 3'
away from the replication fork as a series of short DNA
pieces called Okazaki fragments.
landfarming: Process by which contaminated soil is
removed from a site and spread into thin layers on a pad
that allows polluted liquids (usually water) to leach from
the soil. Chemicals also vaporize from spread-out soil as
the soil dries.
leachate: Water or other liquids that move (leach) through
the ground from the surface or near the surface to
deeper layers.
leading strand: During DNA replication, the strand of
newly synthesized DNA that is copied by DNA poly-
merase in a continuous fashion, 5' to 3' into the
replication fork.
leaf-fragment technique: A method of plant cloning
from asexual plant tissue.
legal specialists: In biotechnology companies, typically
work on legal issues associated with product develop-
ment and marketing, such as copyrights, naming rights,
and obtaining patents. Staff in this area also address legal
circumstances that may arise if problems are found with
a product or litigation from a user of a product.
leukocytes: White blood cells; important cells of the
immune system; include B and T lymphocytes and
macrophages.
ligands: Binding components.
limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test: A procedure
involving blood cells (amoebocytes) from the horseshoe
crab (Limulus polyphemus); an important test used to
detect endotoxin and bacterial contamination of foods,
medical instruments, and other applications.
lipases: Fat-digesting enzymes.
liposomes: Small hollow spheres or particles made of
lipids; can be packaged to contain molecules such as
DNA and medicines for use in therapeutic procedures
(for example, gene therapy).
luciferase: A light-releasing enzyme present in biolumi-
nescent organisms.
lyophilization: The process of freeze-drying.
lysis: The dissolution or destruction of cells.
lytic cycle: A process of bacteriophage replication that
involves phages infecting bacterial cells and then repli-
cating and rupturing (lysing) the bacterial host cells.
macrophage: Term literally means big eaters; macrophages
are phagocytic white blood cells that engulf and destroy
dead cells and foreign materials such as bacteria.
6090_THIE_Gloss_pG1-G18.qxd 6/13/08 11:18 AM Page G-11
major histocompatibility complex (MHC): Tissue-typ-
ing proteins present on all cells and tissues; recognized
by a person’s immune system to determine whether cells
are normal body cells or foreign; MHCs must be
“matched” for successful organ transplantation.
malaria: Caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falci-
parum and transmitted by insects. Worldwide,
Plasmodium strains are developing resistance to the most
commonly used antimalarial drugs.
manufacturing assistant: Entry-level job includes mater-
ial handlers, manufacturing assistants, and manufactur-
ing associates. Supervisory and management-level jobs
usually require a bachelor’s or master’s degree in biology
or chemistry and several years of experience in manu-
facturing the products or type of product being produced
by a company.
manufacturing technicians: Must strictly comply with
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations at all
stages of producing biotech drugs.
mariculture: The cultivation or “farming” of aquatic
organisms (animals or plants).
marker gene: See reporter gene.
marketing specialist: Marketing and sales position in
biotechnology companies; marketing specialists are often
involved in designing ad campaigns and promotional
materials to market effectively a company’s products.
Mass Fatality Identification System (M-FISys): M-FISys
was essentially built in response to the 9/11 tragedy. Gene
Codes did not have to write entirely new software, and
they were able to customize M-FISys as necessary. In
addition to analyzing mitochondrial DNA, M-FISys incor-
porated male-specific variations in the Y chromosome
called Y-STRs to aid in the identification of individuals.
mass spectrometry (mass spec): Separation or identifica-
tion based on charge-to-mass ratio.
maternal chromosomes: The 23 chromosomes inherited
from your mother.
medical biotechnology: A diverse discipline of biotech-
nology dedicated to improving human health; includes a
spectrum of topics in human medicine from disease
diagnosis to drug discovery, disease treatment, and tissue
engineering.
meiosis: A nuclear division process that occurs during for-
mation of gametes. Meiosis involves a series of steps that
reduce the amount of DNA in newly divided cells by half
compared with those in the original cell.
membrane filtration: Using a thin membrane sheet with
small holes (pores) to filter materials (such as large pro-
teins or whole cells) out of a solution.
messenger RNA (mRNA): mRNA, a template for protein
synthesis, is an exact copy of a gene, contains nucleotide
sequences copied from DNA that serve as a genetic code
for synthesizing a protein, and is then bound and “read”
by ribosomes to produce proteins.
Glossary G-11
metabolic engineering: Modifying an energy-generating
or energy-requiring chemical process (usually to
improve energy generation or to reduce energy use)
through a biotechnical or chemical process.
metabolomics: A biochemical snapshot of the small mole-
cules produced during cellular metabolism, such as glu-
cose, cholesterol, ATP, and signaling molecules that
result from a cellular change.
metagenomics: Sequencing of genomes for entire com-
munities of microbes in environmental samples of water,
air, and soils from oceans throughout the world, glaciers,
mines—virtually every corner of the globe.
metallothioneins: Metal-binding proteins.
microbes: Tiny organisms that are too small to be seen
individually by the naked eye and must be viewed with
the help of a microscope. Although the most abundant
microorganisms are bacteria, microbes also include
viruses, fungi such as yeast and mold, algae, and single-
celled organisms called protozoa.
microbial biotechnology: Discipline of biotechnology
that involves the use of organisms (microorganisms such
as bacteria and yeast) that cannot be seen individually
by the naked eye to make valuable products and
applications.
Microbial Genome Program (MGP): U.S. Department of
Energy program to map and sequence genomes of a
broad range of microorganisms.
microcosms: Test environments designed to mimic pol-
luted environmental conditions; may consist of bioreac-
tors or simply a bucket of polluted soil; allows scientists
to test clean-up strategies on a small scale under con-
trolled conditions before trying a particular clean-up
approach in the environment.
microfiltration: Removal of particles 40 µm or smaller.
microorganisms (microbes): Organisms that cannot indi-
vidually be seen with the naked eye; include bacteria,
yeast, fungi, protozoans, and viruses.
microRNAs: A new class of non-protein coding RNA mol-
ecules (miRNAs). MicroRNAs are part of a rapidly
growing family of small RNA molecules about 20 to 25
nucleotides in size that play novel roles in regulating
gene expression.
microsatellites: Also known as short tandem repeats
(STRs), microsatellites are short repeating sequences of
DNA usually consisting of one-, two-, or three-base
sequences (for example, CACACACACA); microsatellites
are important markers for forensic DNA analysis.
microspheres: Tiny particles that can be filled with drugs
or other substances and used in therapeutic applications.
missense mutation: A mutation changing a codon to
another codon that codes for a different amino acid.
mitochondrial DNA: Small circular DNA found in mito-
chondria responsible for proteins unique to mitochon-
dria. Mutations in this DNA can be followed from
mother to offspring, because the egg is the predominant
source of mitochondria.
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G-12 Glossary
mitosis: A nuclear-division process that occurs during cell
division in eukaryotic somatic cells and prokaryotes;
divided into four major stages (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase). Mitosis results in the even
separation of DNA into dividing cells.
MMR vaccine: Measles, mumps, and rubella (German
measles) vaccine designed to provide immune protection
against common childhood diseases.
model organisms: Nonhuman organisms that scientists
use to study biologic processes in experimental labora-
tory conditions; common examples include mice, rats,
fruit flies, worms, and bacteria.
molecular pharming: The use of plants as sources of
pharmaceutical products.
monoclonal antibodies (MABs): Antibody proteins pro-
duced from clones of a single (“mono”) cell; these pro-
teins are highly specific for a particular antigen.
monocotyledonous: Describes a plant with a single
embryonic seed leaf (like corn).
moratorium: As it relates to science, a temporary but
complete stoppage of any research.
morula: Latin term meaning “little mulberry;” solid ball of
cells that forms during embryonic development in ani-
mals, created by repeated cell division of the zygote.
motifs: These regions, called DNA-binding domains, have
folded structural arrangements of amino acids called
motifs that interact directly with DNA.
multilocus probes: The probe will bind only to comple-
mentary sequences of DNA, located at more than one
site in the genome.
mutagen: A physical or chemical agent that causes a
mutation.
mutation: A change in the DNA structure or sequence of a
gene.
myelomas: Antibody-secreting tumors.
nanomedicine: Applying nanotechnology to improve
health; for instance, microsensors that can be implanted
into humans to monitor vital values such as blood
pressure.
nanotechnology: Engineering and structures and tech-
nologies at the nanometer scale.
National Institutes of Health (NIH): Government
agency that is the focal point for medical research in the
United States; houses world-renowned research centers
and agencies that are an essential source of funding for
biomedical research in the United States.
New Drug Authorization (NDA): Approval of a new
drug by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) after
the drug has successfully passed through Phase III clini-
cal trials.
nitrogenous base: Important component of DNA and
RNA nucleotides; often simply called a “base.” Nitrogen-
containing structures include double-ring purines
(which include the bases adenine and guanine) and sin-
gle-ring pyrimidines (which include the bases cytosine,
thymine, and uracil).
nonsense mutation: A mutation changing a codon into a
stop codon; usually produces a shortened, poorly func-
tioning, or nonfunctional protein.
Northern blot analysis: Laboratory technique for separat-
ing RNA molecules by gel electrophoresis and transfer-
ring (blotting) RNA onto a filter paper blot for use in
hybridization studies.
Northern blotting: See Northern blot analysis.
notification: A declaration to the USDA that can be used
to “fast-track” some new agricultural products, in which
the plant species are well characterized, introduce no
new disease, are contained within the nucleus, do not
produce a toxin, and are not produced from a plant, ani-
mal, or human virus.
nuclear envelope: A double-layered membrane, is typi-
cally the largest structure in an animal cell.
nuclear reprogramming of somatic cells: Used for iso-
lating stem cells without creating an embryo. The basic
concept of this approach is to use genes involved in cell
development to push a somatic cell back to an earlier
stage of development and affect gene expression, to
reprogram the somatic cell genetically to return to a
pluripotent state characteristic of the stem cells from
which it was derived.
nucleic acids: Molecules composed of nucleotide building
blocks; two major types are DNA and RNA.
nucleotide: Building block of nucleic acids; consists of
a five-carbon (pentose) sugar molecule (ribose or
deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and the bases
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T),
or uracil (U).
nucleus: Membrane-enclosed organelle that contains the
DNA of a eukaryotic cell.
nutrient enrichment: See fertilization.
nutrigenomics: A new field of nutritional science focused
on understanding interactions between diet and genes.
oligonucleotides (oligos): Short, single-stranded syn-
thetic DNA sequences; used in PCR reactions and as
DNA probes.
oncogenes: Cancer-causing genes; they are usually part of
the genome and have normal functions; when mutated,
oncogenes contribute to the development of cancer.
operator: Region of DNA, such as that located in an
operon, that binds to a specific repressor protein to con-
trol expression of a gene or group of genes such as an
operon.
operon: Gene unit common in bacteria; typically consists
of a series of genes, located on adjacent regions of a
chromosome, that are regulated in a coordinated
fashion. Many operons are involved in bacterial cell
metabolism of nutrients such as sugars. Refer to the lac
operon as a well-characterized bacterial operon.
organelles: Small structures in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells that perform specific functions.
organic molecules: Molecules that contain carbon and
hydrogen.
6090_THIE_Gloss_pG1-G18.qxd 6/13/08 11:18 AM Page G-13
origins of replication: Specific locations in a DNA mole-
cule where DNA replication begins.
osteoporosis: Category of bone disorders that generally
involve a progressive loss of bone mass.
oxidation: The removal of one or more electrons from an
atom or molecule.
oxidizing agents: Atoms or molecules that accept elec-
trons during a redox reaction and cause the oxidation of
other atoms or molecules; known as electron acceptors,
oxidizing agents become reduced when they accept an
electron.
P (peptidyl) site (of a ribosome): Portion of a ribosome
into which peptidyl tRNA molecules bind during
translation.
p arm: “Petit” or small/short arm of a chromosome.
palindrome: A word or phrase that reads the same for-
ward and backward (for example, “a toyota”). In the
context of biotechnology, a DNA sequence with comple-
mentary strands that reads the same forward and back-
ward. Most restriction enzyme recognition sequences
are palindromes.
papain: Protein-digesting enzyme.
parthenogenesis: Creating an embryo without fertiliza-
tion by pausing DNA division in an egg and allowing the
egg to develop with an increased number of chromo-
somes; for instance, preventing chromosomes from sepa-
rating in a human egg creates a diploid cell that may
develop to form an embryo.
patent: Legal recognition that gives an inventor or
researcher exclusive rights to a product and prohibits
others from making, using, or selling the product for a
certain number of years (20 years from the date of filing).
pathogens: Disease-causing organisms.
pentose sugar: A five-carbon sugar; important compo-
nents of DNA and RNA nucleotide structure. The pen-
tose sugar deoxyribose is contained in DNA nucleotides;
the pentose sugar ribose is contained in RNA
nucleotides.
peptidoglycan: Structure in bacterial cell walls consisting of
specialized sugars and short, interconnected polypeptides.
peptidyl transferase: rRNA enzyme that is part of the
large ribosomal subunit; catalyzes the formation of pep-
tide bonds between amino acids during translation.
peptidyl tRNA: tRNA molecule attached to a growing
polypeptide chain; located in the P site of a ribosome
during translation.
permease: Enzyme produced by the lacY gene of the lac-
tose (lac) operon in bacteria; permease transports the
disaccharide lactose into bacterial cells.
personalized genomes: Sequencing a genome for an
individual.
personhood: A term popular in bioethics that defines an
entity that qualifies for protection based on certain
attributes not intrinsic (built-in) or automatic values.
pharmaceutical companies: Companies creating drugs
for the treatment of human health conditions.
Glossary G-13
pharmacogenomics: A form of customized medicine in
which disease-treatment strategies are designed based
on a person’s genetic information (for a particular health
condition).
phase I: The first clinical phase of FDA testing in which 20
to 80 healthy volunteers take the medicine to see
whether any unexpected side effects are present and to
establish the dosage levels.
phase II: The second clinical phase of FDA testing in which
the testing of the new treatment on 100 to 300 patients
who actually have the illness occurs.
phase III: The third clinical phase of FDA testing in which
between 1,000 and 3,000 patients in double-blinded
tests are tested after phase II has shown no adverse side
effects; usually lasts for 3.5 years.
phase testing: A statistically significant number of trials
are required on cell cultures, in live animals, and on
human subjects in the three-phase testing processes
specified by the Food and Drug Administration.
phosphodiester bond: Covalent bond between the sugar
of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of an adja-
cent nucleotide; joins nucleotides within strands of DNA
and RNA.
phytoremediation: Using plants for bioremediation.
placebo: A blank or ineffective treatment. Used in the sci-
entific practice of having a control group in an experi-
ment, such as a drug trial, that receives an ineffective
pill or treatment such as a sugar pill or injection of water
instead of the actual medication being tested.
plant transgenesis: Gene transfer to a plant from another
species.
plaques: Small clear spots of dead bacteria appearing on a cul-
ture plate, caused by bacterial cell lysis by bacteriophage.
plasma (cell) membrane: A double-layered structure,
consisting of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, that
defines the boundaries of a cell; performs important
roles in cell shape and regulating transport of molecules
in and out of a cell.
plasma cells: Antibody-producing cells that develop from
B lymphocytes after B cells are exposed to foreign mate-
rials (antigens).
plasmid: Small, circular, self-replicating double-stranded
DNA molecules found primarily in bacterial cells. Plasmids
often contain genes coding for antibiotic resistance pro-
teins and are routinely used for DNA-cloning experiments.
pluripotent: Term used to describe cells, such as embry-
onic stem cells, with the potential to develop into other
cell types.
point mutations: A single base change in DNA sequence.
polarity: Refers to the 5' and 3' ends of DNA and RNA
molecules.
polyadenylation: Addition of a short sequence or “tail”
of adenine (A) nucleotides to the 3' end of an mRNA
molecule; occurs during RNA splicing in eukaryotes;
poly(A) tail is important for mRNA stability in the
cytoplasm.
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G-14 Glossary
polyculture (integrated aquaculture): Raising more than
one aquatic species in the same environment. For
instance, cultivating fish together with aquatic vegetation.
polygalacturonase: An enzyme naturally produced by
plants that digests tissue, causing rotting.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Laboratory technique
for amplifying and cloning DNA; involves multiple cycles
of denaturation, primer hybridization, and DNA poly-
merase synthesis of new strands.
polypeptide: A chain of amino acids joined by covalent
(peptide) bonds; usually greater than 50 amino acids in
length.
polyploids: Organisms with an increased number of com-
plete sets of chromosomes.
posttranslational modification: Protein modification
that naturally occurs after initial synthesis.
precipitates: Combines because of mutual attraction.
preimplantation genetic testing: PCR and ASO analysis
as well as FISH are being used to screen for gene defects
in single cells from eight- to 32-cell– stage embryos cre-
ated by in vitro fertilization. Allows individuals to select a
healthy embryo before implantation.
primary sequence: Amino acid sequence of a protein.
primary transcript (pre-mRNA): Initial mRNA molecule
copied from a gene in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells;
undergoes modifications (processing) to produce mature
mRNA molecules that enter the cytoplasm.
primase: Enzyme that adds small RNA segments to a single
strand of DNA as an early and necessary step for DNA
replication.
primers: Oligonucleotides complementary to specific
sequences of interest; used in PCR reactions to amplify
DNA and DNA-sequencing reactions.
principal/senior scientists: Science leadership position in
biotechnology companies; senior scientists are usually
Ph.D. or M.D.-trained individuals who plan and direct
the research priorities of a company.
prions: Infections protein particles. They attract normal
cell proteins and induce changes in their structure, usu-
ally leading to the accumulation of useless proteins that
damage cells. Prion diseases can occur in sheep and
goats (scrapie) and cows (bovine spongiform encephali-
tis, or “mad cow” disease). Human forms of these brain-
destroying diseases include kuru and transformable
spongiform encephalitis (TSE). All these diseases involve
changes in the conformation of prion precursor protein,
a protein normally found in mammalian neurons as a
membrane glycoprotein.
probe: Single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule (labeled, for
instance, with radioactive or fluorescing nucleotides)
that can bind other DNA or RNA sequences by comple-
mentary base pairing and be detected by a process such
as autoradiography; important laboratory technique for
such applications as identifying genes and studying gene
activity.
prokaryotic cells: Cells that lack a nucleus and mem-
brane-enclosed organelles; only examples are bacteria
and Archae.
promoter: Specific DNA sequences adjacent to a gene that
direct transcription (RNA synthesis); binding site of RNA
polymerase to begin transcription.
pronuclear microinjection: This method introduces the
transgene DNA at the earliest possible stage of develop-
ment of the zygote (fertilized egg).
prostate-specific antigen (PSA): A protein released into
the bloodstream when the prostate gland is inflamed,
and elevated levels can be a marker for prostate inflam-
mation and even prostate cancer.
proteases: Protein-digesting enzymes.
protein: Macromolecule consisting of amino acids joined
by peptide bonds; major structural and functional mole-
cules of cells.
protein chip: See protein microarray.
protein microarray: A “chip” similar to a DNA microar-
ray; consists of a glass slide containing thousands of indi-
vidual proteins attached to specific spots on the slide;
each “spot” contains a unique protein.
protein sequencing: Identification of amino acid
sequence by cleavage of each amino acid, one at a time.
proteolytic: Protein–lysing characteristic.
proteome: The entire complement of proteins in an organism.
proteomes: Families of proteins.
proteomics: Study of protein families.
protoplast fusion: Fusing of a plant cell with another cell.
protoplast: A naked plant cell (without cell wall).
PulseNet: Partnership of bacterial DNA fingerprinting lab-
oratories, developed by the U.S. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, designed to provide rapid analysis of con-
taminated food, with the purpose of identifying contam-
inating microbes and preventing outbreaks of food-
borne disease.
q arm: Long arm of a chromosome.
quality assurance (QA): All activities involved in regulat-
ing the final quality of a product, including quality-
control measures.
quality control (QC): Procedures that are part of the QA
process involving laboratory testing and monitoring of
production processes to ensure consistent product stan-
dards (of purity, performance, and the like).
quasi-automated x-ray crystallography: Fast x-ray
analysis of protein structure by using algorithms and
data analysis.
quaternary structure: Proteins containing more than one
amino acid chain that is folded into a tertiary structure.
real-time or quantitative PCR (qPCR): New applica-
tions in PCR technology make it possible to determine
the amount of PCR product made during an experiment.
Uses primers made with fluorescent dyes and specialized
thermal cyclers that enable researchers to quantify
amplification reactions as they occur.
6090_THIE_Gloss_pG1-G18.qxd 6/13/08 11:18 AM Page G-15
recognition sequence: See restriction site.
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC): NIH
panel responsible for establishing and overseeing guide-
lines for recombinant DNA research and related topics.
recombinant DNA technology: Technique that allows
DNA to be combined from different sources; also called
gene or DNA splicing. Recombinant DNA is an impor-
tant technique for many gene-cloning applications.
recombinant proteins: Commercially valuable proteins cre-
ated by recombinant DNA technology and gene-cloning
techniques; examples include insulin and growth hormone.
redox reaction: Combination of oxidation and reduction
reactions.
reduction: The addition of one or more electrons to a
molecule.
regenerative medicine: A discipline of medical biotech-
nology that involves repairing or replacing damaged tis-
sues and organs by using tissues and organs grown
through biotechnological approaches.
rennin (chymosin): Protein-degrading enzyme derived
from the stomach of milk-producing animals such as
cows and goats; used in cheese production; recombinant
form called chymosin.
replica plating: Technique in which bacteria cells from
one plate can be transferred to another plate to produce
a replica plate with bacterial cells growing in the same
location as on the original plate; can also be carried out
with other cells such as yeast, or viruses.
reporter genes: Genes (such as the lux genes) that can be
used to track or monitor (report on) expression of other
genes.
reproductive cloning: Cloning process that creates a new
individual; process typically involves using the genetic
material of a single cell to create an individual with the
single genetic composition of its creator cell.
research assistants/associates: Laboratory positions in
which individuals are primarily involved in carrying out
experiments under the supervision of other scientists
such as principal or senior scientists.
restriction enzymes (endonucleases): DNA-cutting pro-
teins found primarily in bacteria. Enzymes cleave (cut)
the phosphodiester backbone of double-stranded DNA at
specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites). Com-
mercially available restriction enzymes are essential for
molecular biology experiments.
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP):
Unique patterns created when DNA with different num-
bers of restriction enzyme digestion sites (due to DNA
variation) is separated on an electrophoresis gel and
detected with dyes or other means.
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
analysis: DNA fingerprinting technique that involves
digesting DNA into fragments of different lengths by
using restriction enzymes; patterns of DNA fragments
are analyzed to create a “fingerprint.”
Glossary G-15
restriction map: An arrangement or “map” of the num-
ber, order, and types of restriction-enzyme cutting sites
in a DNA molecule.
restriction site: Specific sequence of DNA nucleotides rec-
ognized and cut by a restriction enzyme.
retroviruses: Viruses that contain an RNA genome and
use reverse transcriptase to copy RNA into DNA during
the replication cycle in host cells.
retrovirus-mediated transgenesis: Infecting embryos
with a retrovirus (usually genetically engineered) before
the embryos are implanted. The retrovirus acts as a vec-
tor for the new DNA.
reverse transcriptase: Viral polymerase enzyme that
copies RNA into single-stranded DNA. This commercially
available enzyme is used for many molecular biology
experiments, such as creating cDNA.
reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR): Laboratory
technique that involves using the enzyme reverse
transcriptase to copy RNA from a cell into cDNA and
then amplifying cDNA by the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR); a valuable technique for studying gene expression.
ribonucleic acid (RNA): Single strands of nucleotides
produced from DNA. Different types of RNA have
important functions in protein synthesis.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Small RNA molecules that are
essential components of ribosomes.
ribosome: Organelle composed of ribosomal ribonucleic
acid (rRNA) and proteins assembled into packages called
subunits. Ribosomes bind to mRNA and tRNA molecules
and are the site of protein synthesis in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC): RISC unwinds
the double-stranded siRNAs, releasing single-stranded
siRNAs that bind to complementary sequences in mRNA
molecules. Binding of siRNAs to mRNA results in degra-
dation of the mRNA (by the enzyme slicer) or blocks
translation by interfering with ribosome binding.
RNA interference (RNAi): RNA-based mechanisms of
gene silencing. These siRNAs are bound by a
protein–RNA complex called the RNA-induced silencing
complex (RISC).
RNA polymerase: Copies RNA from a DNA template; dif-
ferent forms of RNA polymerase synthesize different
types of RNA.
RNA splicing: The removal of nonprotein coding
sequences (introns) from primary transcript (pre-mRNA)
and joining of protein-coding sequences (exons).
sales representatives: Salespersons in biotechnology
companies; sales representatives are “people persons”
who work closely with medical doctors, hospitals, and
health care providers to promote a company’s products.
scaling-up: Process manufacturing modification from orig-
inal research purification.
secondary structure: α-Helix or β-sheet structure of proteins.
seeding: See bioaugmentation.
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G-16 Glossary
selection (antibiotic, blue-white screening): Laboratory
technique used to identify bacteria containing recombi-
nant DNA of interest; involves growing bacteria on
media with antibiotic or other selection molecules.
selective breeding: Mating organisms with desired fea-
tures to produce offspring with the same characteristics.
semiconservative replication (of DNA): Process by
which DNA is copied; one original (parent) DNA mole-
cule gives rise to two molecules, each of which has one
original strand and one new strand.
senescence: Cellular aging process.
severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID): Genetic
condition created by a mutation in the gene encoding
the enzyme adenosine deaminase. Affected individuals
have no functional immune system and are prone to
death by common, normally minor infections. Com-
monly known as “boy in the bubble” condition because
of need for SCID individuals to live in germ-free
environments.
sex chromosomes: Contain majority of genes that deter-
mine an organism’s sex; the X (female) and Y (male)
chromosomes in humans.
short interfering RNA (siRNA): Small (21 or 22 nt)
double-stranded pieces of nonprotein coding RNA, so
named because they were shown to bind to mRNA and
subsequently block or interfere with translation of
bound mRNAs.
short tandem repeat (STR): One to six nucleotide
repeats that are dispersed throughout chromosomes.
Because these repeated regions can occur in many loca-
tions within the DNA, the probes used to identify them
complement the DNA regions that surround the specific
microsatellite being analyzed.
“shotgun” cloning: Random cloning of many fragments
at once; no individual gene is specifically targeted for
cloning.
silent mutation: Base-pair substitution that has no effect
on the amino acid sequence of a protein.
single-locus probe: The probe will bind to only comple-
mentary sequences of DNA, found in only one location
in the genome.
single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP): A single-
nucleotide variation in the gene sequence; or a type of
DNA mutation; the basis of genetic variation among
humans.
single-strand binding proteins: Proteins that bind to
unraveled single strands of parental DNA during DNA
replication to prevent DNA from reforming double
strands before being copied.
sister chromatids: Exact copies of double-stranded DNA
molecules and proteins (chromatin) joined to form a
chromosome.
site-directed mutagenesis: With this technique, muta-
tions can be created in specific nucleotides of a cloned
gene contained in a vector. The gene can then be
expressed in cells, which results in translation of a
mutated protein. This allows researchers to study the
effects of particular mutations on protein structure and
functions as a way to determine what nucleotides are
important for specific functions of the protein.
size-exclusion chromatography (SEC): Separation based
on molecular size.
sludge: A semisolid material produced from treated sewage
waste; consists largely of small particles of feces, waste
papers, and microorganisms.
slurry-phase bioremediation: Process in which contami-
nated soil is removed from a site and mixed with water
and fertilizers (and often oxygen) in large drums or
bioreactors to create a mixture (slurry) that stimulates
bioremediation by microorganisms in the soil.
Sodium dodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gel elec-
trophoresis (SDS-PAGE): Protein separation based on
molecular size and the uniform distribution of charged
sulfate groups.
solid-phase bioremediation: Ex situ soil clean-up strate-
gies that primarily involve composting, landfarming, or
biopiles.
somatic cell nuclear transfer: DNA transfer process that
can be used for reproductive or therapeutic cloning pur-
poses; involves removing DNA from one cell and insert-
ing it into an egg cell that has had its DNA removed
(enucleated).
somatic cells: All cell types in multicellular organisms
except for gametes (sperm and egg cells).
Southern blot analysis: Laboratory technique invented
by Ed Southern that involves transferring (blotting)
DNA fragments onto a filter-paper blot for use in probe
hybridization studies.
Southern blotting: See Southern blot analysis.
species integrity: Generally refers to maintaining the nat-
ural functions, abilities, and genetic constitution of a
particular species; for example, creating recombinant
animals or plants such as transgenic or polyploid organ-
isms may change “species integrity” by making a species
less well adapted to life in the wild.
specific utility: Requirement of the USPTO that a
researcher must know exactly what the DNA sequence
does to patent it.
spectral karyotype: Karyotyping technique involving
probes specific for each chromosome that fluoresce
different colors to identify chromosomes according to
their color pattern.
sperm-mediated transfer: The DNA is injected or attached
directly to the nucleus of the sperm before fertilization.
StarLink: A transgenic corn not approved for humans that
was suspected of contaminating seed intended for food.
startup company: Formed by a small team of scientists
who believe they may have a promising product to make
(such as a recombinant protein to treat disease). The
team must typically then seek investors to fund their
company so they can buy or rent laboratory facilities,
buy equipment and supplies, and continue the research
and development necessary to make their product.
6090_THIE_Gloss_pG1-G18.qxd 6/13/08 11:18 AM Page G-17
statistical probability: Using statistical measures to calcu-
late the possibility (probability) that a particular event
will happen.
stem cells (embryonic and adult-derived stem cells):
Immature (undifferentiated) cells that are capable of
forming all mature cell types in animals and that can be
derived from embryos at several days of age or from
adult tissues.
stone-age genomics: A number of laboratories around the
world are involved in analyzing “ancient” DNA. These
studies are generating fascinating data from minuscule
amounts of ancient DNA from bone and other tissues
and fossil samples that are tens of thousands of years
old.
substantial utility: Requirement of the USPTO that the
product must have a real-world function before it can be
patented.
substrate: Molecule or molecules on which an enzyme
performs a reaction.
subtilisin: Protease derived from Bacillus subtilis, a valuable
component of many laundry detergents, where it
functions to degrade and remove protein stains from
clothing. Several bacterial enzymes are also used to man-
ufacture foods, such as carbohydrate-digesting enzymes
called amylases that are used to degrade starches.
subunit vaccine: Vaccine created from components of a
pathogen such as viral proteins or lipid molecules.
Superfund Program: Program established by the U.S.
Congress in 1980 through the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, designed to identify and clean up haz-
ardous waste sites and protect citizens from harmful
effects of waste sites.
T lymphocytes (T cells): Play essential roles in helping B
cells recognize and respond to antigens.
Taq DNA polymerase: DNA-synthesizing enzyme isolated
from Thermus aquaticus, a thermophilic Archae that lives
in hot springs; its ability to withstand high temperatures
(thermostable) without denaturation makes it valuable
for use in PCR experiments.
TATA box: Short nucleotide sequence (TATA) usually
located approximately 20 to 30 base pairs “upstream” (in
the 5' direction) of the start site of many eukaryotic
genes; part of promoter sequence bound by transcription
factors used to stimulate RNA polymerase.
telomerase: Enzyme that fills in gaps of DNA nucleotides
at the ends of chromosomes (telomeres) that remain
after DNA polymerase has copied DNA.
telomere: The end structures of a eukaryotic chromosome;
in humans, consists of specific repeating sequences of
DNA (TTAGGG).
template strand: After RNA polymerase binds to a pro-
moter, it unwinds a region of the DNA to separate the
two strands. Only one of the strands, called the template
strand (the opposite strand is called the coding strand), is
copied by RNA polymerase.
tertiary structure: The unique three-dimensional shape
of a protein.
Glossary G-17
thalidomide: Compound used initially to combat morning
sickness in pregnant women; certain chemical forms of
thalidomide caused severe birth defects; thalidomide
derivatives are still being investigated for their use in
treating cancer, HIV, and other diseases.
therapeutic cloning: Using a patient’s DNA to create
(clone) an embryo as a source of stem cells that could be
used in therapeutic applications to treat the patient.
thermophiles: Organisms with high optimal growth tem-
peratures. For example, bacteria that live in hot springs
are thermophiles.
thermostable enzymes: Enzymes that are capable of
withstanding high temperatures and that are isolated
from theromophiles. For example, Taq DNA polymerase
is a thermostable enzyme.
3' end: The end of a strand of DNA or RNA in which the
last nucleotide is not attached to another nucleotide by a
phosphodiester bond involving the 3' carbon of the
pentose sugar.
three Rs of animal research: Reduce the number
of higher species used; Replace animals with
alternative models whenever possible; and Refine
tests and experiments to ensure the most humane
conditions possible.
thymine: Abbreviated T; pyrimidine base present in DNA
nucleotides.
Ti vector: Plasmid DNA vector derived from soil bacterium
that can be used to clone genes in plant cells and deliver
genes into plants.
T lymphocyte: Type of white blood cell (leukocyte); T
lymphocytes, also called “T cells” play an essential role
in helping the immune system recognize and respond to
foreign materials (antigens).
tissue engineering: Designing and growing tissues for use
in regenerative medicine applications.
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV): A virus that naturally
invades certain plants.
traits: Inherited features of an organism such as skin color
and body shape.
transcription: The synthesis of RNA from DNA, which
occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cyto-
plasm of prokaryotic cells.
transcription factors: DNA-binding proteins that bind
promoter regions of a gene and stimulate transcription
of a gene by RNA polymerase.
transcriptional regulation: Form of gene-expression regu-
lation that involves controlling the process of transcription
by controlling the amount of RNA produced by a cell.
transfection: Introducing DNA into animal or plant cells.
transfer RNA (tRNA): Small RNA molecules that trans-
port amino acids to a ribosome during protein synthesis.
tRNA binds to specific codons in mRNA sequences dur-
ing translation.
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G-18 Glossary
transformable spongiform encephalitis (TSE): Prion
disease that can occur in sheep and goats (scrapie) and
cows (bovine spongiform encephalitis, or “mad cow”
disease). Human forms of these brain-destroying dis-
eases include kuru and TSE. All these diseases involve
changes in the conformation of prion precursor protein,
a protein normally found in mammalian neurons as a
membrane glycoprotein.
transformation: The process by which bacteria take in
DNA from the surroundings. Term also is used to define
changes that cause a normal cell to become a cancer cell.
transgene: Gene from one organism introduced into
another organism to create a transgenic; term usually
applies to genes used to create transgenic animals and
plants.
transgenic: Animals that contain genes from another
source. For instance, human genes for clotting proteins
can be introduced into cows for the production of these
proteins in their milk.
triploid: Three sets of chromosomes (3n); used to describe
organisms with three sets of chromosomes.
tuberculosis (TB): TB is caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which grows slowly and can
exist in a human for several years before the individual
develops TB.
tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid: A plasmid vector found in
Agrobacter.
translation: The synthesis of proteins from genetic infor-
mation in messenger (mRNA) molecules. Translation
occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells.
two-dimensional electrophoresis: Separation based on
charge in two directions.
type I, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Disease
caused by a lack of the pancreatic hormone insulin,
which is required for carbohydrate metabolism. Creates
elevated blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).
U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA): Agency cre-
ated in 1862 that has many functions related to the
advancement and regulation of agriculture. Some of
those functions include the regulation of plant pests,
plants, and veterinary biologics.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Agency
whose primary purpose is to protect human health and
to safeguard the natural environment (air, water, and
land) by working with other federal agencies in the
United States and state and local governments to
develop and enforce regulations under existing environ-
mental laws.
U. S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO): The office
of the federal government that issues patents (including
patents for gene sequences).
ultrafiltration: Separation of particles smaller than
20 µm.
upstream processing: Adjustments in purification process
based on changes in the biologic process, making pro-
cessing more efficient.
uracil: Abbreviated U; pyrimidine base present in RNA
nucleotides.
utilitarian approach: Line of ethical thought that states
that actions are moral if the result produces the greatest
good for the greatest number of humans; also referred to
as consequential ethics because it focuses on results or
consequences, not on intentions.
vaccination: The process of administering a vaccine to
provide an organism with immunity to an infectious
microorganism.
vaccines: A preparation of a microorganism or its
components that is used to stimulate the production
of antibodies (antibody-mediated immunity) in an
organism.
variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs): The recog-
nition that variable numbers of repeated nucleotides can
be found in DNA and can be used for identification of
individuals.
vector: DNA (or viruses) that can be used to carry and
replicate other pieces of DNA in molecular biology
experiments; for example, plasmid DNA, viruses used for
gene therapy; also refers to organisms that carry disease.
Western blot analysis: Laboratory technique for separat-
ing protein molecules by gel electrophoresis and trans-
ferring (blotting) proteins onto a filter paper blot that is
usually probed with antibodies to study protein struc-
ture and function.
Western blotting: See Western blot analysis.
xenotransplantation: The transfer of tissues or organs
from one species to another; for instance, transplanting
a pig organ into a human.
x-ray crystallography: Identification of molecules based
on the patterns produced after bombardment of their
crystals with x-rays.
yeast: A unicellular fungus.
yeast artificial chromosome (YAC): Plasmid vectors
grown in yeast cells that can replicate very large pieces
of DNA; used to clone pieces of human chromosomes for
the Human Genome Project.
yeast two-hybrid system: Laboratory technique involv-
ing the use of yeast to join together different proteins
(creating a hybrid protein) as a way to study protein
function.
zygote: Diploid cell formed when haploid gametes such as
a sperm and egg cell unite.