Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geoderma
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Effect of cover crop management on soil hydraulic properties T

a,⁎ b b,c b
Melis Çerçioğlu , Stephen H. Anderson , Ranjith P. Udawatta , Salah Alagele
a
Kutahya Dumlupinar University, Vocational College of Simav, Simav 43500, Kutahya, Turkey
b
School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
c
The Center for Agroforestry, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Handling Editor: Morgan Cristine L.S. Cover crops are important for improving soil quality. They can provide multiple soil, agricultural and en-
vironmental benefits. The objective of the study was to compare the effects of cover crop management on soil
Keywords:
hydraulic properties which included saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), soil water retention, bulk density,
Bulk density
Cover crop and pore-size distributions over time. The experiment was carried out on a Grundy silt loam (fine, smectitic,
Pore-size distribution mesic Aquertic Argiudolls) at the Chariton Country Soil Health Farm, Missouri, USA The main grain crops were a
Saturated hydraulic conductivity corn (Zea mays L.)/soybean (Glycine max L.) rotation. Cover crops included radish (Raphanus sativus L. var.
Water retention longipinnatus), cereal rye (Secale cereals L.), cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum),
barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), red clover (Trifolium pretense), turnips (Brassica rapa L.), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa
Roth.), triticale (Triticale hexaploide Lart.), and winter peas (Lathryrus hirsutus L.). Undisturbed soil cores, 7.62
(diam.) by 7.62 (L) cm, were collected 1, 2 and 5 years after cover crops were established from six replicate
locations by 10-cm depth increments from the surface to the 40-cm depth. Results illustrated that cover crop
management significantly affected Ksat by year. The highest Ksat values (64.6%) were observed 5 years after
cover crop establisment compared to first and second year soil samples. However, bulk density, soil water
retention and pore-size distributions were affected significantly by soil depths. Soil bulk density values were
significantly lower at the soil surface 0–10 cm depth. Macropores, coarse and fine mesopores, and Ksat values
were significantly higher at the 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depths compared to deeper soil depth. Soil water content
was higher at the 30–40 cm depth for all soil water pressures due to higher clay content. Significantly higher
water retention was determined 5 years after cover crop establishment for the −2.5 kPa soil water pressure. This
study demonstrated that cover crops slightly improve some hydraulic properties in claypan soils but the changes
may take several years.

1. Introduction
The physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils are very
important to crop growth. Crop growth is affected by soil moisture
retention, which relates to particle and pore size distribution and bulk
density (Hubbard et al., 2013). Cover crops are described as “crops
grown primarily for the purpose of protecting and improving soil be-
tween periods of regular crop production” (Schnepf and Cox, 2006).
They have long been valued for their soil conservation benefits, in-
cluding reducing erosion, increasing infiltration, and improving soil
health (Chatterjee, 2013; Kaspar et al., 2001; Kaspar and Singer, 2011;
Schnepf and Cox, 2006).
Hydraulic properties of soil are dynamic and influenced by many
factors; those can be either physical, chemical or biological. Soil
structure (Fuentes et al., 2004), shrink-swell cracks in clay soils (Baer
and Anderson, 1997), and agricultural activities such as tillage and
traffic compaction (Fuentes et al., 2004; Udawatta et al., 2008) are
some physical factors that affect soil hydraulic properties. Plants and
organisms that grow and decay also can change soil hydraulic proper-
ties (Beven and Germann, 1982; Meek et al., 1992).
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is an essential soil para-
meter for understanding soil water movement and an important input
for modeling runoff, drainage, and movement of solutes in soils
(Mallants et al., 1997). This property is highly influenced by soil
management (Rachman et al., 2005; Udawatta et al., 2008). Recently,
as agriculture's impact on water quality has become a national concern
(CENR, 2010; Ribaudo, 2011), the potential water quality benefits of
cover crops, such as decreasing nitrate (NO3) leaching into surface

Abbreviations: Db, bulk density; Ksat, saturated hydraulic conductivity; PSD, pore-size distribution; SWR, soil water retention
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: melis.cercioglu@dpu.edu.tr (M. Çerçioğlu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.02.027
Received 14 September 2018; Received in revised form 12 February 2019; Accepted 18 February 2019
Available online 05 March 2019
0016-7061/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Çerçioğlu, et al. Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253

waters, have been highlighted (Kaspar et al., 2012; Kladivko et al., Table 1
2004, 2014; Strock et al., 2004). Cash crops and cover crops (with seed weights) at the Chariton County Soil
The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and other soil Health Farm Study Site for 2012 to 2016.
properties are very useful for understanding water flow in soils. Soil Year Cash crops Cover crop mixture composition
physical and chemical properties such as bulk density, organic matter
content, porosity, and pore-size distribution are used quite a lot to 2012 Wheat Sorghum-sudan (10.7 kg ha−1)
Buckwheat (11.8 kg ha−1)
model saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of soils
Cowpea (7.08 kg ha−1)
(Wösten et al., 2001). Soil physical properties can be degraded because Cereal Rye (2.81 kg ha−1)
of erosion (Arriaga and Lowery, 2003; Lal and Moldenhauer, 1987). SWcl (1.12 kg ha−1)
Erosion removes the coarse-textured topsoil and exposes the fine-tex- Radish (0.39 kg ha−1)
Sunn hemp (0.70 kg ha−1)
tured subsoil with higher bulk density and lower hydraulic conductivity
Barley (1.77 kg ha−1)
especially in claypan soils (Jagadamma et al., 2009; Seobi et al., 2005). 2013 Soybeans Radish (2.36 kg ha−1)
Hence, management is critical for maintaining good soil hydraulic Rye (0.73 kg ha−1)
properties to diminish runoff and erosion, and improve water quality Hairy Vetch (2.81 kg ha−1)
(Mudgal et al., 2012; Senaviratne et al., 2013). Some researchers have Peas (17.71 kg ha−1)
Winter Pea (5.31 kg ha−1)
studied and found that perennial vegetation can improve soil hydraulic
Cowpea (5.31 kg ha−1)
properties (Bonin et al., 2012; Fuentes et al., 2004; Jacobs et al., 2015; Turnip (0.22 kg ha−1)
Ma et al., 2000; Rachman et al., 2004; Seobi et al., 2005; Zeri et al., Sorghum Sudan (0.53 kg ha−1)
2013). Annual Sw Cl (0.56 kg ha −1)
2014 Corn Cereal Rye (28.1 kg ha−1)
Some researchers have indicated the impacts of various manage-
Triticale (11.2 kg ha−1)
ment practices utilizing perennial vegetation such as cover crops, grass Barley (14.1 kg ha−1)
hedges, and grass buffers on soil hydraulic properties. Rachman et al. Wheat (5.6 kg ha−1)
(2004) found the effect of stiff-stemmed grass hedge systems on soil 2015 Soybeans Oat (11.2 kg ha−1)
hydraulic properties of a Monona silt loam (Typic Hapludoll) soil in Cereal Rye (22.5 kg ha−1)
Triticale (22.5 kg ha−1)
Iowa. They examined and found that saturated hydraulic conductivity
2016 Corn Cereal Rye (19.7 kg ha−1)
(Ksat) and macroporosity under grass hedges (switchgrass) were greater Triticale (19.7 kg ha−1)
than for row crop and soil deposition areas. They also examined the soil Barley (21.3 kg ha−1)
under the grass hedges and found that more water was retained than in
row crop areas. Sahin et al. (2016), working on the same watershed
studied by Seobi et al. (2005), investigated water infiltration and soil The herbicides used to terminate the cover were applied by ground
water content as affected by agroforestry, grass buffers, and row crop spraying (VeVerka et al., 2019). The cover crops included radish (Ra-
management. They determined that Ksat fitted to an infiltration equa- phanus sativus L. var. longipinnatus), cereal rye (Secale cereals L.), cow-
tion in grass buffer areas (27 mm h−1) was 10 times greater than for peas (Vigna unguiculata), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), barley
row crop areas (2.6 mm h−1) for their second year measurements (Hordeum vulgare L.), red clover (Trifolium pretense), turnips (Brassica
(Sahin et al., 2016). Decaying roots of perennial grasses create more rapa L.), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), triticale (Triticale hexaploide
stable macropores compared to row crops (Mitchell et al., 1995). Por- Lart.), and winter peas (Lathryrus hirsutus L.). The study used a mixture
osity and cracks can be created by wetting and drying processes of the of seeds and it was based on Missouri NRCS guideline (NRCS, 2016;
soil near the root systems (Rasse et al., 2000). Macropores and cracks Table 1). The conservation watershed was under a wheat/corn (Zea
are responsible for rapid transport of water through the soil profile. As a mays L.)/soybean (Glycine max) rotation under cover crop and no-till
consequence, switchgrass can increase water infiltration into the soil, management.
decrease the velocity of runoff water, and reduce soil erosion processes.
Cover crops combined with no-till management can improve soil 2.2. Soil sampling and laboratory analyses
physical properties more than cover crops with conventional tillage
systems. Tillage disrupts soil aggregation and accelerates soil organic C Undisturbed soil cores (7.62 cm diameter by 7.62 cm long) were
mineralization and can reduce the soil benefits of cover crops relative to taken using a core sampler with aluminum rings. The soil samples were
no-till or reduced tillage management (Sainju et al., 2003). The purpose collected in a grid sample design. The approach was to develop a grid of
of this study was to compare the effects of cover crop management the cover crop experiment and then to sample by these grids for each
systems on bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), soil year of sampling. Seventy two soil cores (3 years × 6 replicates × 4
water retention, and pore-size distributions of a claypan soil over time. depths) were removed from the 0 to 10, 10 to 20 cm, 20 to 30 cm, and
30 to 40 cm soil depths 1, 2 and 5 years after cover crops were estab-
2. Materials and methods lished. The soil samples were collected during the cash crop growing
period after termination of cover crops in July 2013 and July 2014. The
2.1. Study site last samples were removed after termination of cover crops in May
2017. The soil cores were capped with 2 plastic covers on the top and
The study site (5.3 ha) was located at the Chariton County Cover bottom and transported to the laboratory in wooden boxes. They were
Crop Soil Health Farm in central eastern Chariton Country, Missouri stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C until analyses were performed.
(39°50′ N, 92°72′ W). The soil was classified as Grundy silt loam (fine, Soil water retention (SWR), pore-size distribution (PSD), bulk den-
smectitic, mesic Aquertic Argiudolls) by the USDA. The site had pre- sity (Db) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) were determined
viously been under a corn/soybean rotation with conventional tillage for the three sets of 24 soil cores; analyses were completed within a few
(chisel plow, disk-harrow) with synthetic chemical (fertilizers and months after sampling for each sampling year. Cores were removed
pesticides) inputs for ≥20 years. Rotational crop planting was im- from the refrigerator, the bottom of the core was covered with cheese-
plemented in the fall of 2012 for the watershed under cover crop cloth and then saturated in tubs with water (electrical
practices beginning with wheat (Triticum spp.), followed either by conductivity = 0.68 dS m−1; sodium absorption ratio = 2.34) for at
soybean/corn or corn/soybean rotation sequences during the sub- least 24 h before Ksat and SWR were measured. The Ksat measurements
sequent planting seasons. In 2013, the cover crop was planted via aerial were performed using the constant-head method if the Ksat was > 1
broadcast; thereafter, planting was done using a tractor and seed drill. mm h−1 or the falling head method was used if the Ksat was < 1

248
M. Çerçioğlu, et al. Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253

mm h−1 as described by Reynolds and Elrick (2002). After Ksat mea-

surements, the soil cores were resaturated for SWR measurements. SWR
was measured using Buchner funnels at 0, −0.4, −1.0, −2.5, −5.0,
−10.0, and − 20.0 kPa soil water pressures (Klute and Dirksen, 1986).
From these water retention data, PSD were calculated using the capil-
lary rise equation to estimate effective pore classes (Jury et al., 1991).
Pore sizes were divided into 4 classes: macropores (> 1000 μm effective
diam.), coarse mesopores (60 to 1000 μm effective diam.), fine meso-
pores (10 to 60 μm effective diam.), and micropores (< 10 μm effective
diam.) (Anderson et al., 1990). Corresponding soil water pressures
were: macropores (−0.4 kPa), coarse mesopores (−0.4 and −5.0 kPa),
fine mesopores (−5.0 kPa and −33 kPa), and micropores (−33 kPa).
The saturated core water content at 0 kPa soil water pressure was used
to determine total porosity. The soil cores were removed from the ap-
paratus and air dried for several days at 35 °C in an oven until they
reached a constant weight. The air-dried subsamples from each soil core
were used for additional water retention measurements at −33, −100,
and −1500 kPa soil water pressures using pressure chambers (Dane
and Hopmans, 2002). In addition, an air-dried subsample was oven
dried at 105 °C for 48 h to determine water content for each soil core
that was used to calculate soil bulk density (Grossman and Reinsch,
2002).

2.3. Statistical analysis

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using PROC GLM

in SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, 2015) statistical package to evaluate the ef-
fects of cover crop management systems over years and sampling depth
on Db, Ksat, SWR, and PSD. Statistical differences were evaluated using
the PROC MEANS procedure from SAS with Duncan's test of means at
an alpha level of 0.05.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity

The analysis of variance and means of Db and Ksat values are given
in Table 2. Soil Db was not significantly affected by cover crop man-
agement over the years (P < 0.05, Table 2, Fig. 1A). Averaged Db va-
lues were found to be significantly lower (1.28 g cm−3) at first soil Fig. 1. Cover crop management effects on soil (A) bulk density and (B) Ksat as
depth (0–10 cm). There were no significant differences between second, influenced by year and depth. The bar indicates the LSD (0.05) value for bulk
third and fourth depths of soil. Other scientists have found similar ef- density (A) and the LSD (0.05) value for Ksat is listed on the graph (B) due to
fects of soil depth on bulk density (Seobi et al., 2005). the log scale.
Ksat depends on the pore-size distributions and continuity of pores
especially the role of macropores which are created by roots of perennial plants that are effective in forming channels which subse-
quently allow water movement (Alagele et al., 2018). According to the
Table 2 results, soil Ksat changed (7.3 to 0.04 mm h−1) significantly among
Bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity by soil depth and year. years for the study. The highest Ksat was found after five years of cover
Means with different letters within a column are significantly different at the crop management (P < 0.05, Table 2, Fig. 1B). Results also showed
0.05 probability level.
that Ksat values were significantly different with soil depth with the
Bulk density (g cm−3) Ksat (mm h−1) higher Ksat values found within the first and second depths (1.79 and
1.17 mm h−1) respectively and lower Ksat values in third and fourth
Depth mean
0 to10 cm 1.28 b 1.79 a
soil depths. The ANOVA results also indicated that significant
10 to 20 cm 1.33 a 1.17 a (P < 0.05) interactions for Ksat values were found between year and
20 to 30 cm 1.36 a 0.09 b depth (Table 2). Similarly, Alagele et al. (2018) also found that Ksat
30 to 40 cm 1.35 a 0.12 b values were significantly higher at the first and second depths
Year mean
(33.4 mm h−1 and 33.5 mm h−1) than at the third and fourth depths.
1st 1.34 a 0.04 c
2nd 1.32 a 0.22 b The results of this study have shown that the Ksat values were de-
5th 1.33 a 7.03 a creased significantly with increasing soil depths. These differences were
Analysis of variance P > F probably due to the role of long-term cover crop management which
Year 0.562 < 0.001 may have led to improved soil structure, lower bulk density values and
Depth 0.007 < 0.001
Year by depth 0.824 < 0.001
the proportion of macropores and coarse mesopores which help water
move easily through the soil.
The ANOVA table presents significance levels among years and by depth for the Effects of cover crops on some soil hydraulic properties are not often
measured parameters.

249
M. Çerçioğlu, et al. Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253

measured. In North Carolina, hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) and winter
wheat in no-till corn (Zea mays L.) had no effect on the saturated hy-
draulic conductivity of a sandy loam after 3 year of management
(Wagger and Denton, 1989). A study conducted by Seobi et al. (2005)
found most of the differences among treatments occurred within 6 years
of establishment for claypan soils in northeastern Missouri. Thus, most
of the treatment effects occurred within the first 6 years, and small
changes occurred over the next 11 years (Akdemir et al., 2016). How-
ever, in the long-term, cover crops can result in improved soil hydraulic
properties. After 17 years of cover crop management on silt loam and
loam soils in Arkansas with winter rye, hairy vetch, and crimson clover
(Trifolium incarnatum L.). Keisling et al. (1994) have observed increased
soil porosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and water retention
capacity. However, in our study, the Ksat values of the second year were
still low in contrast with Ksat values obtained by others for similar soil
series with claypan horizon under agroforestry buffer and no-tillage
management (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2004; Seobi et al., 2005).
Fuentes et al. (2004) compared the hydraulic properties under
natural prairie, conventional till and no-till management for Palouse-
Thatuna silt loam soils (Ultic Haploxerolls) in Washington. They dis-
covered that in the natural prairie, hydraulic conductivity values were
about one order of magnitude larger than in cultivated soil. They
concluded that even after 27 years of continuous no-till, hydraulic
properties values were not restored to the original values of the prairie
soils. Bonin et al. (2012) also found that perennial vegetation improved
soil hydraulic properties similar to the current study. These findings
support our observations in the current study.
3.2. Soil water retention
Results of soil water retention as a function of soil water pressure
are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 2. The results show the effects of sam-
pling depth, years after cover crop initition and year by depth inter-
actions (year × depth). Analysis of variance for soil water retention
shows that there were significant differences (P < 0.05) among soil
depths for all pressures and among year means for the −2.5 kPa soil
water pressure and some significant interactions for the −0.0 kPa
and − 1.0 kPa soil water pressures between year and depth (Table 3).
There were differences in soil water retention due to soil depth for
all measured soil water pressures (Table 3). Differences among years for
specific soil depths are shown in Fig. 2. Soil water content as a function
of water pressure was lower for the first soil depths at all pressures
(Fig. 2A). However, there were no significant differences in water
content for the second and third soil depths for all pressures except
−100 and −1500 kPa (Table 3, Fig. 2B, C, D). Similarly, Zaibon et al.
(2016) found that soil water content for a switchgrass treatment was
higher than row crop management at all water pressures except at
−100 and −1500 kPa.
Generally, the greater water content values were determined from
30 to 40 cm soil depth (P < 0.05) compared with other soil depths as
shown in Fig. 2D. This was probably due to an increase in concentration
of clay content and micropores in the fourth soil depth. Seobi et al.
(2005) also reported an increase in soil water content at the deepest
depths for similar soils with a claypan horizon.
Cover crop management by year did not significantly affect soil
water retention due to low densities and slow root establishment.
According to Azooz and Arshhad (1996) water retention in the soil is
highly dependent on pore size distribution. Results from other studies
imply that changes found in soil water retention as affected by buffers
and vegetative filter strips can enhance water storage and reduce runoff
from cropland (Asbjornsen et al., 2014; Gutierrez-Lopez et al., 2014;
Hernandez-Santana et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2010).
3.3. Pore-size distribution
Macropores and coarse mesopores as part of the pore size dis-
tribution are essential for water infiltration into the soil and transport
within the soil. The results of the pore size distribution analysis are
shown in Table 4 and Fig. 3. Pore size distribution was significantly
affected by sampling depth for all pore size classes (Table 4, Fig. 3,
P < 0.05). The highest level of macropores were found at the first
(0–10 cm) and third (20–30 cm) depths (Table 4, Fig. 3A). Coarse
(0.076 m3 m−3) and fine mesopores (0.083 m3 m−3) were also sig-
nificantly higher in the 0–10 cm depth (Fig. 3B, C). This can be at-
tributed to higher root density of cover crops which increases porosity
and organic matter, with improved soil structure (Rachman et al., 2004;
Mudgal et al., 2010; Zaibon et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the effects of
management practices reduce with increased sampling depth because a
decrease in the amount of roots occurs with increasing soil depth.
Higher micropore values (0.369 m3 m−3) were found within the
30–40 cm depth when compared with other soil depths (Fig. 3D).
Smaller values of micropores were found near the surface; this para-
meter increased with soil depth because of increasing clay content.
Similar findings were reported by Seobi et al. (2005) and Zaibon et al.
(2016). They reported that clay content increased with sampling depth
which increased microporosity and reduced macroporosity. The

Table 3
Soil water retention by soil depths and years along with the ANOVA for measured soil water pressures. Means with different letters within a column are significantly
different at the 0.05 probability level.
Soil water pressure (kPa)

0.0 −0.4 −1.0 −2.5 −5.0 −10.0 −20 −33.0 −100 −1500

m3 m−3

Depth mean
0 to10 cm 0.496 b 0.463 c 0.443 c 0.416 c 0.388 c 0.373 c 0.346 c 0.305 c 0.269 d 0.172 d
10 to 20 cm 0.515 a 0.489 b 0.465 b 0.442 b 0.418 b 0.391 b 0.369 b 0.341 b 0.284 c 0.192 c
20 to 30 cm 0.515 a 0.484 b 0.464 b 0.442 b 0.413 b 0.395 b 0.375 b 0.340 b 0.304 b 0.231 b
30 to 40 cm 0.524 a 0.504 a 0.484 a 0.464 a 0.438 a 0.420 a 0.401 a 0.369 a 0.344 a 0.289 a

Year mean
1st 0.507 a 0.481 a 0.463 a 0.434 b 0.407 a 0.390 a 0.372 a 0.339 a 0.305 a 0.223 a
2nd 0.512 a 0.485 a 0.464 a 0.439 ab 0.415 a 0.392 a 0.370 a 0.334 a 0.298 a 0.225 a
5th 0.518 a 0.489 a 0.465 a 0.451 a 0.420 a 0.403 a 0.377 a 0.343 a 0.299 a 0.215 a

Analysis of variance P > F

Year 0.209 0.506 0.936 0.102 0.267 0.226 0.580 0.377 0.754 0.268
Depth 0.0002 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Year by depth 0.0561 0.501 0.054 0.159 0.624 0.076 0.307 0.776 0.588 0.484

The ANOVA table presents significance levels among years and by depth for the measured parameters.

250
M. Çerçioğlu, et al. Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253

Fig. 2. Cover crop management effect on soil water retention at depths of (A) 0 to 10 cm, (B) 10 to 20 cm, (C) 20 to 30 cm, (D) 30 to 40 cm. The bars indicate the LSD
(0.05) values.

Table 4 Moreover, all pore size classes (except macropores) showed same
Pore-size distribution by soil depths and years along with the ANOVA. Means significant depth effects at the 10–20 cm and 20–30 cm depths. There
with different letters within a column are significantly different at the 0.05 were no significant year effects on all pore sizes analyzed except for fine
probability level. mesopores (Table 4, Fig. 3C). Fine mesopore values (0.080 m3 m−3)
Macropores Coarse Fine Micropores were significantly greater for the second year than the first and fifth
(> 1000 μm) mesopores mesopores (< 10 μm) years of cover crop management.
(60–1000 μm) (10–60 μm) In a ten-year study conducted in Denmark with a sandy loam,
m3 m−3
Abdollahi et al. (2014) reported higher values of macroporosity using
radish as cover crop with spring barley in a no-till system compared to
Depth means no-till without cover crops. They concluded that cover crops have the
0–10 cm 0.032 a 0.076 a 0.083 a 0.305 c potential to improve conditions for air and water transport at the soil
10–20 cm 0.025 ab 0.072 ab 0.076 ab 0.341 b
surface by reducing bulk density and additions of organic matter from
20–30 cm 0.031 a 0.071 ab 0.072 ab 0.340 b
30–40 cm 0.020 b 0.066 b 0.069 b 0.369 a plant residues.
Year means
1st 0.026 a 0.073 a 0.068 b 0.339 a 4. Conclusions
2nd 0.026 a 0.070 a 0.080 a 0.334 a
5th 0.028 a 0.069 a 0.076 ab 0.343 a
This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of cover crop
Analysis of variance P ≥ F management practices on soil hydraulic properties over time (1, 2, and
Year 0.797 0.721 0.044 0.377
Depth 0.006 0.071 0.091 < 0.001
5 years after cover crop establishment). Bulk density, saturated hy-
Year by depth 0.448 0.964 0.984 0.776 draulic conductivity, soil water retention, and pore-size distribution
were compared for three years at four soil depths. Soil bulk density
The ANOVA table presents significance levels among years and by depth for the values were significantly lower for the first sampling depth compared to
measured parameters. deeper depths. Ksat values were higher within the first and second soil
depths compared with increasing depth. Soil water retention was
claypan horizon of these soils generally have fewer macropores, and greater at the 30–40 cm depth compared to other depths. Macropores,
hence much slower infiltration rates which can create higher runoff, coarse and fine mesopores were significantly higher within the first
once the layers above the claypan are saturated. sampling depth compared to other soil depths.

251
M. Çerçioğlu, et al.
Fig. 3. Cover crop management effect on soil pore-size distibutions: (A) macropores (> 1000 μm diameter), (B) coarse mesopores (60–100 μm diameter), (C) fine
mesopores (10–60 μm diameter), (D) micropores (< 10 μm diameter) as influenced by year and depth. The bars indicate the LSD (0.05) values.
The results of this study showed that Ksat values were significantly
higher five years after cover crop establisment compared with one year
and two years after cover crop establisment. However, no significant
year effects occurred for soil bulk density, water retention, and pore
size distributions with the 5th year sampling compared to the 1st and
2nd year samplings. Results indicated that cover crop management
significantly influenced saturated hydraulic conductivity. There were
some slight changes with the other properties but they were not sig-
nificantly affected by cover crops with time. The reason is probably the
variability among replicates which masked slight changes by the cover
crops for other properties over time.
Sustainable vegetative management practices on vulnerable claypan
soils require improved knowledge and a better understanding of the
long-term effects of cover crop management systems. Therefore, these
management systems which have the potential to increase soil hy-
draulic properties are encouraged.
Acknowledgements
This work funded in part through the University of Missouri Center
for Agroforestry. We thank the Soil Water Conservation Board,
Chartiton County and the Associated Electric Inc., for the access to the
study site.
252
Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253
References
Abdollahi, L., Munkholm, L.J., Garbout, A., 2014. Tillage system and cover crop effects on
soil quality: II. Pore characateristics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 78, 271–279.
Akdemir, E., Anderson, S.H., Udawatta, R.P., 2016. Influence of agroforestry buffers on
soil hydraulic properties relative to row crop management. Soil Sci. 181, 368–376.
Alagele, S.M., Anderson, S.H., Udawatta, R.P., 2018. Biomass and buffer management
practice effects on soil hydraulic properties compared to grain crops for claypan
landscapes. Agrofor. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0255-1.
Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J., Brown, J.R., 1990. Soil physical properties after 100 years
of continuous cultivation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 45 (1), 117–121.
Arriaga, F.J., Lowery, B., 2003. Soil physical properties and crop productivity of an
eroded soil amended with cattle manure. Soil Sci. 168 (12), 888–899.
Asbjornsen, H., Hernandez-Santana, V., Liebman, M., Bayala, J., Chen, J., Helmers, M.,
Ong, C.K., Schulte, L.A., 2014. Targeting perennial vegetation in agricultural land-
scapes for enhancing ecosystem services. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 29, 101–125.
Azooz, R.H., Arshhad, M.A., 1996. Soil infiltration and hydraulic conductivity under long
term no-tillage and conventional tillage systems. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76, 143–152.
Baer, J.U., Anderson, S.H., 1997. Landscape effects on desiccation cracking in an aqualf.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 61 (5), 1497–1502.
Beven, K., Germann, P., 1982. Macropores and water flow in soils. Water Resour. Res. 18
(5), 1311–1325.
Blanco-Canqui, H., Gantzer, C.J., Anderson, S.H., Alberts, E.E., 2004. Tillage and crop
influences on physical properties for an Epiaqualf. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68, 567–576.
Bonin, C., Lal, R., Schmitz, M., Wullschleger, S., 2012. Soil physical and hydrological
properties under three biofuel crops in Ohio. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B 62, 595–603.
CENR (Committee on Environment and Natural Resources), 2010. Scientific Assessment
of Hypoxia in U.S. Coastal Waters: Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal
Blooms, Hypoxia, and Human Health of the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science
and Technology, Washington, D.C.
M. Çerçioğlu, et al.
Chatterjee, A., 2013. North-central US: introducing cover crops in the rotation. Crops
Soils 46 (1), 14–15.
Dane, J.H., Hopmans, J.W., 2002. Water retention and storage. In: Dane, J.H., Topp, G.C.
(Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 4-Physical Methods. Book Ser 5. SSSA, Madison,
WI, pp. 680–688.
Fuentes, J.P., Flury, M., Bezdicek, D.F., 2004. Hydraulic properties in a silt loam soil
under natural prairie, conventional till, and no-till. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68 (5),
1679–1688.
Grossman, R.B., Reinsch, T.G., 2002. Bulk density and linear extensibility. In: Dane, J.H.,
Topp, G.C. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 4-Physical Methods. vol. 5. SSSA,
Madison, WI, pp. 201–228 Book Ser.
Gutierrez-Lopez, J., Asbjornsen, H., Helmers, M., Isenhart, T., 2014. Regulation of soil
moisture dynamics in agricultural fields using strips of native prairie vegatation.
Geoderma. 226-227, 238–249.
Hernandez-Santana, V., Zhou, X., Helmers, M., Asbjornsen, H., Kolka, R., Tomer, M.,
2013. Native prairie filter strips reduce runoff from hillslopes under row-crop systems
in Iowa, USA. J. Hydrol. 477, 94–103.
Hubbard, R.K., Strickland, T.C., Phatak, S., 2013. Effects of cover crop systems on soil
physical properties and carbon/nitrogen relationships in the coastal plain of south-
eastern USA. Soil Tillage Res. 126, 276–283.
Jacobs, A., Brye, K.R., King, R., Douglas, J., Wood, L.S., Purcell, L.C., Looper, M., 2015.
Switchgrass management practice effects on near-surface soil properties in west-
central Arkansas. Open J. Soil Sci. 5, 69–86.
Jagadamma, S., Lal, R., Rimal, B.K., 2009. Effects of topsoil depth and soil amendments
on corn yield and properties of two Alfisols in central Ohio. J. Soil Water Conserv. 64
(1), 70–80.
Jury, W.A., Gardner, W.R., Gardner, W.H., 1991. Soil Physics. John Wiley Sons, Inc., New
York.
Kaspar, T.C., Singer, J.W., 2011. The use of cover crops to manage soil. In: Hatfield, J.L.,
Sauer, T.J. (Eds.), Soil Management: Building a Stable Base for Agriculture, pp.
321–337.
Kaspar, T.C., Radke, J.K., Laflen, J.M., 2001. Small grain cover crops and wheel traffic
effects on infiltration, runoff. and erosion. J. Soil Water Conserv. 56 (2), 160–164.
Kaspar, T.C., Jaynes, D.B., Parkin, T.B., Moorman, T.B., Singer, J.W., 2012. Effectiveness
of oat and rye cover crops in reducing nitrate losses in drainage water. Agric. Water
Manag. 110, 25–33.
Keisling, T.C., Scott, H.D., Waddle, B.A., Williams, W., Frans, R.E., 1994. Winter cover
crops influence on cotton yield and selected soil properties. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant
Anal. 25, 3087–3100.
Kladivko, E.J., Frankenberger, J.R., Jaynes, D.B., Meek, D.W., Jenkinson, B.J., Fausey,
N.R., 2004. Nitrate leaching to subsurface drains as affected by drain spacing and
changes in crop production system. J. Environ. Qual. 33, 1803–1813.
Kladivko, E.J., Kaspar, T.C., Jaynes, D.B., Malone, R.W., Singer, J., Morin, X.K.,
Searchinger, T., 2014. Cover crops in the upper Midwestern United States: potential
adoption and reduction of nitrate leaching in the Mississippi River Basin. J. Soil
Water Conserv. 69 (4), 279–291.
Klute, A., Dirksen, C., 1986. Hydraulic Conductivity and Diffusivity. Laboratory Methods.
Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1-Physical and Mineralogical Methods. American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 687–734.
Lal, R., Moldenhauer, W.C., 1987. Effects of soil erosion on crop productivity. CRC Crit.
Rev. Plant Sci. 5 (4), 303–367.
Ma, Z., Wood, C.W., Bransby, D.I., 2000. Impacts of soil management on root char-
acteristics of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 18, 105–112.
Mallants, D., Mohanty, B.P., Vervoort, A., Feyen, J., 1997. Spatial analysis of saturated
hydraulic conductivity in a soil with macropores. Soil Technol. 10 (2), 115–131.
Meek, B.D., Rechel, E.R., Carter, L.M., Detar, W.R., Urie, A.L., 1992. Infiltration rate of a
sandy loam soil: effects of traffic, tillage, and plant roots. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56 (3),
908–913.
Mitchell, A.R., Ellsworth, T.R., Meek, B.D., 1995. Effect of root systems on preferential
253
Geoderma 343 (2019) 247–253
flow in swelling soil. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26, 2655–2666.
Mudgal, A., Anderson, S.H., Baffaut, C., Kitchen, N.R., Sadler, E.J., 2010. Effects of long-
term soil and crop management on soil hydraulic properties for claypan soils. J. Soil
Water Conserv. 65 (6), 393–403.
Mudgal, A., Baffaut, C., Anderson, S.H., Sadler, E.J., Kitchen, N.R., Sudduth, K.A., Lerch,
R.N., 2012. Using APEX to develop and validate physically-based indices for the
delineation of critical management areas. J. Soil Water Conserv. 67, 284–299.
NRCS, 2016. NRCS Conservation Practice Standard: Cover Crop. Available online at.
https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/MO/340_std_116.pdf.
Rachman, A., Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J., Alberts, E.E., 2004. Soil hydraulic properties
influenced by stiff-stemmed grass hedge systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68, 1386–1393.
Rachman, A., Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J., 2005. Computed-tomographicmeasurement
of soil macroporosity parameters as affected by stiff-stemmed grass hedges. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 69 (5), 1609–1616.
Rasse, D.P., Smucker, A.J., Santos, D., 2000. Alfalfa root and shoot mulching effects on
soil hydraulic properties and aggregation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64, 725–731.
Reynolds, W.D., Elrick, D.E., 2002. Falling head soil core (tank) method. Laboratory
method. In: Dane, J.H., Topp, G.C. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 4-Physical
Methods. vol. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 809–812 Book Ser.
Ribaudo, M., 2011. Reducing agriculture's nitrogen footprint: are new policy approaches
needed? Amber Waves 9, 34–39.
Sahin, H., Anderson, S.H., Udawatta, R.P., 2016. Water infiltration and soil water content
in claypan soils influenced by agroforestry and grass buffers compared to row crop
management. Agrofor. Syst. 90 (5), 839–860.
Sainju, U.M., Whitehead, W.F., Singh, B.P., 2003. Cover crops and nitrogen fertilization
effects on soil aggregation and carbon and nitrogen pools. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83,
155–165.
SAS Institute, 2015. Base SAS 9.4 Procedures Guide. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.
Schnepf, M., Cox, C., 2006. Environmental Benefits of Conservation on Cropland: The
Status of Our Knowledge, Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa.
Senaviratne, G.M.M.M.A., Udawatta, R.P., Baffaut, C., Anderson, S.H., 2013. Agricultural
Policy Environmental eXtender simulation of three adjacent row-crop watersheds in
the claypan region. J. Environ. Qual. 42, 726–736.
Seobi, T., Anderson, S.H., Udawatta, R.P., Gantzer, C.J., 2005. Influence of grass and
agroforestry buffer strips on soil hydraulic properties for an albaqualf. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 69 (3), 893–901.
Strock, J.S., Porter, P.M., Russelle, M.P., 2004. Cover cropping to reduce nitrate loss
through subsurface drainage in the northern US Corn Belt. J. Environ. Qual. 33,
1010–1016.
Udawatta, R.P., Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J., Garrett, H.E., 2008. Influence of prairie
restoration on CT-measured soil pore characteristics. J. Environ. Qual. 37 (1),
219–228.
VeVerka, J.S., Udawatta, R.P., Kremer, R.J., 2019. Soil health indicator responses on
Missouri claypan soils affected by landscape position, depth, and management
practices. J. Soil Water Conserv. 74 (2), 111–122.
Wagger, M.G., Denton, H.P., 1989. Influence of cover crop and wheel traffic on soil
physical properties in continuous no-till corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53, 1206–1210.
Wösten, J.H.M., Pachepsky, Ya A., Rawls, W.J., 2001. Pedotransfer functions: bridging
the gap between available basic soil data and missing soil hydraulic characteristics. J.
Hydrol. 251 (3–4), 123–150.
Zaibon, S., Anderson, S.H., Kitchen, N.R., Haruna, S.I., 2016. Hydraulic properties af-
fected by topsoil thickness in switchgrass and corn-soybean cropping systems. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 80 (5), 1365–1376.
Zeri, M., Hussain, M.Z., Anderson-Teixeira, K.J., DeLucia, E., Bernacchi, C.J., 2013. Water
use efficiency of perennial and annual bioenergy crops in central Illinois. J. Geophys.
Res. Biogeosci. 118, 581–589.
Zhang, X., Liu, X., Zhang, M., Dahlgren, R.A., Eitzel, M., 2010. A review of vegetated
buffers and a meta-analysis of their mitigation efficacy in reducing nonpoint source
pollution. J. Environ. Qual. 39 (1), 76–84.