LIMIT STATE DESIGN A Text Book of

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LIMIT STATE DESIGN
(A Text-book of Refinforced Concrete Structures)
IN
(SI System of Units, as per IS : 456–1978)
[for Under-graduate and Post-graduate students]
By
Dr. Ramchandra
(B.E., M.E. (Hons.), Ph.D (Roorkee), MIE
Professor
Department of Structural Engineering
M.B.M. Engineering College
University of Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
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ii Acknowledgement
Published by:
RAJINDER KUMAR JAIN
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First Edition: 2013

© Publishers
All rights are reserved with the Publishers. This book or parts thereof, cannot be reproduce, represent,
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Price: ` 350.00
ISBN: 978-81-89401-39-9
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Acknowledgement
The author highly acknowledges Bureaue of the Indian Standards for reproducing in this book
‘Tables and Clauses’ from the Indian Standard Specifications.
It is desirable that for complete detail, reference be made to the latest versions of the Standards
which are available from Indian Standards Institution, Manak Bhavan, 9, Bahadur Shah Zafar
Marg, New Delhi–11001, or from its branch offices at Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur and Chennai.
System International d’ Unites (SI System of Units)

In order to avoid the conversion of results obtained by engineers working with the foot-pound
second system (gravitational) of units in terms of centimetre-gram second absolute system of
units used by the scientists, a need of common system of units was realised. The General
Conference on Weights and Measures held at Paris in 1960 finalised the System International
d’ Unites (SI). It is an absolute system of units. The mass is considered as fundamental unit
and not the force. ISI has included a comment of transition in IS 3616–1966. ‘Recommendation
on the International System (SI) Units’ that this system has begun to replace older systems of
units in several branches of science and technology. The SI is a universal system of units and it
has been adopted in France as a legal system and it is likely to become common in many countries.
SI units have the following six basic units.
Units of length (metre, m)
The length equal to 1,650,763 ‘73 wave lengths, in vacuum, of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between 2p10 and 5d5 levels of the Krypton n atom of mass 86 known as one
metre.
Units of mass (kilogram, kg)
The mass of planium-iridium cylinder deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures and declared as the international prototype of the kilogram by the First General
Conference of Weights and Measures is called as one kilogram.
Units of time (second, s)
1131, 566, 925, 974.7 of the length of the tropical year for 1900, the year commending at 1200
hours universal time on the first day of January, 1900 is termed as one second.
Units of electric current (Ampere, A)
The constant current which flow in two parallel straight conductors of infinite length of negligible
circular cross-section and placed at a distance of one metre from each other in vacuum producing
a force 2 × 10–7 Newtons per metre length between the conductors is defined as one ampere.
Units of thermodynamic temperature (degree Kelvin, °K)
The degree interval of the thermodynamic scale on which the temperature of triple point of
water is 273.16 degrees, is known as one degree Kelvin.
Units of luminous intensity (candela, cd)
One sixtieth of luminous intensity normally emitted by one centimetre square of integral radiator
(black body) at the temperature of solidification of platinum is called as one candela.
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iv Acknowledgement
The SI units make the use of multiples and sub-multiples 1000 times or 1/ 1000 times the
unit quantity and in powers of 103 (kilo) or 10–3 (milli) in respect of still larger and smaller
quantities respectively. The lengths are measured usually in kilometre (1 km = 1000 m), metre
and millimetre (1 mm = 10–3 m). The symbols of units are not to be suffixed with s´ for plural.
The force is a derived quantity and physical law connecting the quantity to the fundamental
quantities or previously obtained derived quantities is force = mass × acceleration i.e., 1 m per
sec2 in a unit mass of 1 kg. Its unit is Newton (N). Though, the Newton is a small unit, a still
larger unit kN may be used. The intensity of force (viz., stress) due to 1 Newton over a unit area
of one metre square is known as one pascal. It is denoted by symbol, Pa. (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 106
Pa = 1 N/mm2, viz., 1 MPa= 1 N/mm2).
SI system of units have many advantages. The units are very handy. The burden of non-
decimal coefficients in foot-pound second system is avoided. It has relatively large main units
in contrast to centimetre-gram-second system. At the same time, it is closely related to
centimetre-gram-second system of units. In practice, it results in perfectly reasonable number
when the value of g = 10 m/sec2 is used instead of 9.806 m/sec2.
(Professor V.S. Mokashi, Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering, Nagpur in his paper
titled as Internation System (SI) Units and their Application to Engineering, India, Vol. 19,
March 1970 has highlighted the advantages and discussed SI units. A reference has been made
to this paper.
AUTHOR
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Preface
In this book, the author with his long teaching experience in the subject has made efforts to
present the subject matter in a way which lays emphasis on the fundamentals, keeping in view
the difficulties experienced by the students. Every basic concept, fundamental method, equation
or theory of interest to the student of reinforced concrete design has been described in a simplified
manner. SI system of units and new code IS : 456–1978 have been used entirely in the text. The
various provisions of IS: 456–1978 and concepts of ‘Limit State Design’ have been nicely
introduced to design the reinforced concrete structures and the structural members. This book
will be found useful to undergraduate and post-graduate students.
The complete text in this book has been divided in seven parts. [Part I : Introduction, Part
II : Loads and Stresses, Part III : Design of Beams (singly reinforced, doubly reinforced, flanged
and continuous), Part IV : Design of Slabs (spanning in one and two directions, circular and flat
slabs), Part V : Design of Columns, (short and long), Part VI : Design of Footings, (independent
and combined) and Part VII: Design of Other Concrete Structures (stairs, retaining walls, domes
and lintels).
A number of design problems has been solved to illustrate the theory and practice. The
chapters have been so arranged that it facilitates self-understanding of the subject during the
study. In addition to the limit state of collapse in flexure, shear or torsion, the limit state of
serviceability has also been described in detail. The readers will appreciate the presentation of
the concept of redistribution of moments.
Inspite of careful scrutiny of the manuscript, it is possible that some computational errors
are still left. The author shall be highly obliged to all those who will bring these errors in his
notice.
The author is thankful to his colleagues for their suggestions, to the publishers M/s Standard
Book House (Shri Rajinder Kuman Jain and Shri Sandeep Jain) for composing this book by
latest technology of laser print and for bringing out the same in a nice get up and short time
and to Shri Kanhaya Lal for preparing the drawings of the author’s this and various other
books.
Suggestions from the students and affectionate teachers of various Institutions shall be highly
appreciated to improve the further editionsin future.
March 2013 Ramchandra

Jodhpur
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Contents
PART I : STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING : AN OVERVIEW
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1–39

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Concrete 2
1.3 Cement 3
1.3.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (IS : 269) 3
1.4 Cement Tests 5
1.4.1 Chemical Requirements 5
1.4.2 Physical Requirements 6
1.5 Aggregates 9
1.5.1 Coarse Aggregate 9
1.5.2 Fine Aggregate 10
1.6 Other Types of Aggregates 13
1.6.1 Light Weight Aggregates 13
1.6.2 Normal Weight Aggregates 13
1.6.3 Heavy Weight Aggregates 14
1.7 Fineness Modulus of Aggregates 14
1.8 Water 15
1.9 Admixtures 17
1.9.1 Accelerating Admixtures 17
1.9.2 Retarding Admixtures 17
1.9.3 Water Reducing or Plasticizing Admixtures 18
1.9.4 Air-entraining Admixtures 18
1.10 REINFORCEMENT 19
1.10.1 General Requirements 20
1.10.2 Types of Reinforcement 20
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1.11 Storage of Materials 22

1.11.1 Cement 22
1.11.2 Aggregate 22
1.11.3 Reinforcing Steel Bars 22
1.12 Properties of Concrete 23
1.12.1 Workability 23
1.12.2 Durability 25
1.13 Methods of Design 25
1.14 Elastic (Working Stress) Method of Design 26
1.15 Ultimate Load Method 27
1.16 Limit State Method 29
1.16.1 Limit State of Collapse 31
1.16.2 Limit States of Serviceability 31
1.17 Plastic Method of Analysis and Design 32
1.17.1 A Lower Bound Method 32
1.17.2 An Upper Bound Method 32
1.18 Requirements of Design 32
1.18.1 Strength Requirements 33
1.18.2 Stability Requirements 33
1.18.3 Stiffness Requirements 33
1.19 Design Codes and Specifications 34
PART II : LOADS AND STRESSES
CHAPTER 2 LOAD AND STRESS 40–84

2.1 Introduction 40
2.1.1 Permanent Loads 41
2.1.2 Transient Loads 41
2.1.3 Exceptional Loads 41
2.2 Dead Loads (D.L.) 42
2.3 Live Loads (L.L.) 46
2.3.1 Assembly Buildings 46
2.3.2 Business Buildings 46
2.3.3 Educational Buildings 46
2.3.4 Industrial Buildings 47
2.3.5 Institutional Buildings 47
2.3.6 Mercantile Buildings 47
2.3.7 Residential Buildings 47
2.3.8 Storage Buildings 47
2.4 Wind Loads (W.L.) 54
2.5 Snow Load 55
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2.6 Seismic Loads 55

2.7 Temperature Effects 56
2.8 Shrinkage 56
2.9 Creep 59
2.9.1 Composition of Concrete 61
2.9.2 Environment 61
2.9.3 Stress-time History 62
2.10 Other Forces and Effects 64
2.10.1 Foundation Movement 64
2.10.2 Elastic Axial Shortening 64
2.10.3 Soil and Fluid Pressure 65
2.10.4 Vibrations 65
2.10.5 Fatigue 65
2.10.6 Impact 65
2.10.7 Erection Loads 65
2.10.8 Stress Concentration 66
2.11 Characteristic Loads 66
2.12 Design Loads 67
2.13 Partial Safety Factor for Loads 67
2.14 Characteristic Strength of Concrete 69
2.14.1 Increase in Strength with Age 72
2.14.2 Compressive Strength 74
2.14.3 Tensile Strength 74
2.15 Factors Influencing Strength of Concrete 75
2.15.1 Water-cement Ratio 75
2.15.2 Aggregate-cement Ratio 77
2.16 Stress-strain Relationship for Concrete 77
2.16.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete 78
2.16.2 Tangent Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete 78
2.16.2 Secant Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete 78
2.17 Characteristic Strength of Steel Reinforcement 79
2.18 Stress-strian Relationship for Steel 80
2.19 Design Strength of Materials 82
2.20 Partial Safety Factor for Strength of Materials 83
2.21 Safety of Structures in Limit State of Design 84
PART III : DESIGN OF BEAMS
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

85–266
3.1 Introduction 85
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3.2 Assumptions 86
3.3 Behaviour of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beam 89
3.4 Compression Failure of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 90
3.5 Tension Failure of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 91
3.6 Coefficients of Compressive Stress Block 91
3.7 Characteristics of Some Proposed Stress Blocks 93
3.7.1 Whitney’s Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 94
3.7.2 CP-110 Stress Block 95
3.7.3 CP-110 Simplified Stress Block 99
3.8 Balanced Beam Section 99
3.9 Under-reinforced Beam Section 101
3.10 Over-reinforced Beam Section 102
3.11 Depth of Neutral Axis 102
3.12 Percentage of Steel Reinforcement 104
3.12.1 Limiting Values of Percentage Reinforcement 105
3.12.2 For Over-reinforced Beam 108
3.13 Strain Profiles at Flexural Strength of a Beam Section 110
3.14 Graphical Solution for Stress and Strain in Steel at Failure 110
3.15 Depth of Compressive Force from Extreme Fibre on Compression 112
3.16 Moment of Resistance of Beam-section 113
3.16.1 Depth of Neutral Axis for Beam 118
3.16.2 Depth of Neutral Axis 120
3.16.3 Moment of Resistance of Beam Section 120
3.16.4 Percentage of Steel 120
3.16.5 Moment of Resistance of Beam Section (Flexural Strength) 122
3.16.6 Depth of the Neutral Axis for the Beam Section 124
3.16.7 Moment of Resistance of the Beam Section 125
3.16.8 Depth of Neutral Axis of the Beam Section 125
3.16.9 Moment of Resistance (Flexural Strength) of the Beam Section 126
3.17 Requirements of Area of Longitudinal Steel Reinforcement in Tension in Beams 126
3.17.1 Minimum Distance between Individual Bars 128
3.17.2 Maximum Distance between Main Bars in Tension 129
3.18 Cover to Steel Reinforcement in Beams 129
3.19 Effective Span for Singly Reinforced Beams 130
3.19.1 Effective Span 130
3.20 Limit of Serviceability for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 132
3.21 Effects of Deflections 133
3.21.1 Sensory Acceptability 133
3.21.2 Serviceability of Structure 133
3.21.3 Effect on Non-structural Elements 134
3.21.4 Effects on Structural Elements 134
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3.22 Methods of Controlling Deflections 134

3.22.1 Method of Sufficient Stiffness 134
3.22.2 Methods of Actual Calculation of Deflections 137
3.23 Immediate Deflections 138
3.24 Long-term Deflections 143
3.24.1 Deflections Due to Creep 143
3.24.2 Deflections Due to Shrinkage 147
3.24.3 Deflections Due to Temperature 150
3.24.4 Deflections Due to Combined Effect of Creep and Temperature 150
3.25 Necessity for Crack Control 151
3.25.1 Aesthetic Consideration 152
3.25.2 Protection against Corrosion 152
3.26 Causes of Cracking of Concrete 153
3.26.1 Cracking Due to Settlement of Plastic Concrete 153
3.26.2 Cracking Due to Volumetric Change 153
3.26.3 Cracking Due to Direct and Bending Stresses Resulting
from Applied Load or Reactions 154
3.27 Mechanism of Cracking Due to Axial Tension 154
3.28 Mechanism of Cracking Due to Flexural 157
3.28.1 No-slip Theory 159
3.29 Gergely–Lutz Equation for Crack Width 160
3.29.1 General Approach 161
3.30 Cracking at a Point Distant from a Reinforcing Steel Bar 162
3.31 Cracking Directly Over a Reinforcing Steel Bar 162
3.31.1 Long-term Cracking 164
3.32 ACI Code Recommendations for Crack Control 165
3.32.1 Permissible Crack Widths 165
3.33 Concrete Area Surrounding one Steel Bar in Tension 166
3.34 Other Serviceability Requirements 168
3.35 Slenderness Limits for Beams 169
3.36 Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 190
3.36.1 Proportions of Beam 191
3.36.2 Effective Depth of Beam, d 193
3.37 Design Aids for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 215
3.37.1 Control of Deflection 217
3.38 Limit State of Collapse in Shear 223
3.39 Distribution of Shear Stresses in Beams 223
3.39.1 Nominal Shear Stress 227
3.40 Shear Stresses in Beams of Varying Depth 227
3.41 Diagonal Tension in Homogeneous Elastic Beams 229
3.42 Beams without Shear Reinforcement 231
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3.43 Behaviour of Diagonally Cracked Beams 232

3.44 Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams 233
3.45 Reinforced Concrete Beams with Shear Reinforcement 235
3.46 Reinforced Concrete beams with Vertical Stirrups 235
3.46.1 Spacing of Vertical Stirrups 236
3.46.2 Maximum Spacing of Vertical Stirrups 237
3.46.3 Minimum Shear Reinforcement 237
3.47 Reinforced Concrete Beams with Bent-up Bars 237
3.48 Reinforced Concrete Beams with Inclined Bars (Stirrups) 238
3.49 Function of Shear Reinforcement 240
3.49.1 Truss Analogy-1 240
3.50 Critical Section for Shear Force 244
3.51 Design Shear Strength of Concrete 245
3.52 Design of Shear Reinforcement 246
3.52.1 Vertical or Inclined Stirrups 246
3.52.2 Vertical Stirrups and Bent-up Bars 247
3.53 Bond in Reinforced Concrete Beams 249
3.54 Bond Stresses 249
3.55 Development Length of Reinforcement Bars in Tension 251
3.56 Anchorage of Plain Steel Bars in Tension 252
3.56.1 Hooks and Bends 253
3.57 Curtailment of Tension Reinforcement in Beams 254
3.58 Conditions for Curtailment of Flexural Reinforcement in Tension Zone 256
3.59 Special Requirements Near Points of Zero Moment for Curtailment of
Tension Reinforcement 257
3.60 Bar Splices 259
3.60.1 Lap Splices in Tension 259
Problems 264
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF DOUBLY REINFORCED

RECTANGULAR BEAMS 267–336
4.1 Introduction 267
4.2 Depth of Neutral Axis 269
4.2.1 Tension and Compression Steel both at Yield Stress 271
4.2.2 Compression Steel below Yield Stress 273
4.3 Tension and Compression Failures 274
4.3.1 Tension Failure 274
4.3.2 Compression Failure 274
4.4 Percentage Steel Ratio 274
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4.4.1 Compression Steel at Yield Stress 275

4.5 Bending (Flexural) Strength of a Doubly Reinforced Beam 279
4.5.1 Tension and Compression Steel Bars both at Yield Stress 280
4.6 Design of Doubly Reinforced Beams 293
4.6.1 Requirement of Area of Longitudinal Steel Reinforcement 297
4.7 Design Aids for Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 304
4.7.1 Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension, Ast1 307
4.7.2 Area of additional Steel Reinforcements in Tension and Compression 307
4.8 Limit State of Serviceability for Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 309
4.9 Deflections in Doubly Reinforced Beams 310
4.9.1 Short-term (immediate) Deflection 310
4.9.2 Long-term Deflections 310
4.9.3 Slenderness Limits for Beams to Ensure Lateral Stability 319
4.10 Shear Stresses in Doubly Reinforced Beams 320
4.10.1 Nominal Shear Stress 322
4.12 Bond Stress in Bars in Compression 323
4.12.1 For Mild Steel Plain Bars in Compression 323
4.12.2 For Hysd Steel Bars in Compression 323
4.13 Development Length of Reinforcement Bars in Compression 323
4.13.1 For Plain Mild Steel Bars in Compression 324
4.13.2 For Hysd Steel Bars in Compression 324
4.14 Anchorage of Plain Bars in Compression 324
4.15 Lap Splices in Compression 324
Problems 335
CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS 337–402

5.2 Effective Width of Flange 338
5.3 Location of Neutral Axis 339
5.3.1 Neutral Axis Lies within the Flange (i.e., x u < Df) 340
5.3.2 Neutral Axis Lies Outside the Flange, (i.e., xu > Df) 341
5.2.3 Compressive Force in the Concrete in Flange Cfcu 343
5.4 Bending (Flexural) Strength of a Flanged Beam 344
5.4.1 Neutral Axis Lies within the Flange (i.e., x u < Df) 345
5.4.2 Neutral Axis Lies Outside the Flange (i.e., xu > Df) 345
5.5 Design of T-beams 360
5.5.1 Dimensions of T-beams 361
5.5.2 Effective Width of Flange of T-beams 366
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5.5.3 Total Load 366

5.5.4 Factored (Design) Load 366
5.6 Design Aids for T-beams 370
5 .7 Limit State of Serviceability for Flanged Beams 373
5.9 Shear Stress in T-beams 374
5.10 Development Length of Reinforcement Bars 375
5.11 L-Beams 381
5.12 Torsion in Plain Concrete Members 383
5.13 Torsion in Reinforced Concrete Members 385
5.14 Limit State of Collapse in Torsion 390
5.14.1 Reinforcement in Members Subject to Torsion 390
5.14.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement 390
5.14.3 Transverse Reinforcement 391
5.15 Members Without Shear Stirrups Subjected to Combined Torsion and Shear 393
5.16 Members with Shear Stirrups Subjected to Combined Torsion and Shear 394
5.17 Limit State of Collapse in Shear and Torsion Combined 394
5.17.1 Equivalent Shear 395
5.17.2 Equivalent Shear Stress 395
5.18 Distribution of Torsion Reinforcement 396
5.18.1 Transverse Reinforcement 396
5.18.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement 396
Problems 402
CHAPTER 6 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS 403–456

6.2 Effective Span 404
6.3 Critical Section for Moment 405
6.4 Coefficients for Moments for Continuous Beams 406
6. 5 Concrete Building Frames 407
6.6 Arrangement of Live Load for Bending Moment 410
6.7 Compression Steel at Support 412
6.8 Tension Steel at Support 414
6.9 Tension Steel at Centre of Span 415
6.10 Haunches in Continuous Beams 415
6.11 Extension of Reinforcement 416
6.12 Design of Continuous Beams 417
6.13 Bending of Bars 417
6.13.1 Maximum Distance for Bending up Bars 418
6.13.2 Minimum Distance for Bending up Bars 418
6.14 Shear in Continuous Beams 418
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6.15 Coefficients for Shear Force for Continuous Beams 419

6.16 Arrangement of Live Load for Shear Force 419
6.17 Limit State of Serviceability for Continuous Beams 420
6.17.1 For Simply-supported Beam 420
6.17.2 For Continuous Beams 420
6.18 Redistribution of Moments in an Ideal Elastic-plastic Materials 421
6.18.1 Redistribution of Moment 423
6.19 Redistribution of Moment in a Fixed Beam 423
6.20 Redistribution of Moments in a Two-span Continuous Beam with Concentrated
Loads at each Mid-span 428
6.21 Redistribution of Moments in Reinforced Concrete 430
6.21.1 Conditions for Redistribution of Moments : (As per IS : 456–1978) 431
6.22 Redistribution of Moment in Reinforced Concrete Fixed Beam 433
6.23 Redistribution of Moment in a Reinforced Concrete Fixed Beam
Carrying a Concentrated Load at Mid-span 438
6.24 Curtailment of Steel Bars in Continuous Beam 456
6.25 Fire Resistance 456
Problems 456
PART IV : DESIGN OF SLABS
CHAPTER 7 DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN ONE DIRECTION 457–485

7.2 Design of Slabs Spanning in one Direction 459
7.2.1 Effective Span 459
7.2.2 Estimation of Thickness of Slab 460
7.2.3 Effective Depth of Slab 460
7.2.4 Cover to Reinforcement 461
7.3 Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement 463
7.3.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete, α 463
7.3.2 Variation in Temperature 464
7.4 Limit State of Serviceability 465
7.5 Slab Continuous Over Walls 470
7.5.1 Moments at the Face of Supports 478
7.6 Design Aids for Design of Slabs Spanning in one Direction 481
7.6.1 Tables as Design Aids 481
7.6.2 Charts as Design Aids 481
7 .7 Shear in Slabs 482
7.8 Curtailment of Reinforcement in Slabs 483
7.8.1 Simply Supported Slabs 483
7.8.2 Cantilever Slabs 483
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7.8.3 Continuous One-way Slabs of Equal Spans

(Where the live loads do not exceed the dead loads) 483
7.9 Fire Resistance of Slabs 483
Problems 485
CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS 486–522

8.2 Behaviour of Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 486
8.3 Grashoff–Rankine Method 487
8.4 Restrained Slabs 490
8.5 Marcus Method 492
8.6 Pigeaud’s Method 498
8.7 Westergaard’s Method 499
8.8 IS : 456–1978 Method 502
8.8.2 Restrained Slabs 502
8.9 Tension Reinforcement for Two-way Edge-supported Slabs 504
8.10 Torsion Reinforcement for Two-way Edge Supported Slabs 508
8.11 Design of Slab Spanning in Two Directions 510
8.11.1 Estimation of Thickness of Slab 510
8.11.2 Simply Supported Slab 511
8.11.4 Main Reinforcement 511
8.11.5 Width of Strips 515
8.11.6 Effective Depth of the Slab, d 516
8.11.7 Spacing of Bars 517
8.12 Shear in Two-way Slab 520
Problems 522
CHAPTER 9 DESIGN OF FLAT SLABS 523–583

9.2 Development of Slabs 525
9.3 Elements of Flat Slabs 525
9.3.1 Column Heads 526
9.3.2 Drops 526
9.3.3 Panels 526
9.3.4 Thickness of Flat Slab 526
9.4 Statics of a Flat Slab 528
9.5 Behaviour of Flat Slabs in Bending 530
9.6 Direct Design Method 532
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9.6.1 Total Design Moment 533

9.6.2 Negative and Positive Design Moments 533
9.6.3 Distribution of Bending Moments Across the Panel Width 535
9.7 Effects of Pattern Loading 537
9.7.1 Direct Design Methods 537
9.8 Equivalent Frame Method 538
9.9 Relative Stiffness of Slabs 541
9.10 Relative Stiffness of Columns 545
9.11 Equivalent Column 549
9.12 Torsional Member 551
9.13 Loading Patterns (Equivalent Frame Method) 555
9.13.1 For Maximum Positive Moment 555
9.13.2 For Maximum Negative Moment 555
9.14 Critical Sections for Negative Design Moments 556
9.14.1 Interior Supports 556
9.14.2 Exterior Supports 557
9.15 Modification of Maximum Moment 557
9.16 Bending Moments in Panels with Marginal Beams or Walls 557
9.17 Transfer of Bending Moments to Columns 558
9.18 Moments in Columns 559
9.19 Slab Reinforcement 560
9.19.1 Spacing 560
9.19.2 Area of Reinforcement 561
9.19.3 Anchoring Reinforcement 562
9.19.4 Minimum Length of Reinforcement 563
9.20 Behaviour of Flat Slab in Shear 563
9.20.1 Beam-Type Shear (Diagonal Tension Failure) 563
9.20.2 Two-Way Shear 564
9.21 Shear in Flat Slabs 565
9.21.1 Critical Sections 565
9.21.2 Calculation of Shear Stress 566
9.21.3 Permissible Shear Stress 567
CHAPTER 10 DESIGN OF CIRCULAR SLABS 584–608

10.2 Circular Slab (Simply Supported At Edges) Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load 585
10.2.1 Radial Direction 585
10.2.2 Circumferential Direction 587
10.3 Circular Slab (Fixed at Edges) Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load 587
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10.4 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges) Carrying Uniformly Distributed

Total Load W along Circumference of a Concentric Circle 591
10.5 Circular Slab (Simpy Supported at Edges) Carrying Uniformly
Distributed Load Inside a Circle 592
10.6 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges with a Central Hole) Carrying Total
Uniformly Distributed Load W along Circumference of a Concentric Circle 593
10.7 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges with a Central Hole)
Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load 594
10.8 Circular Slab Carrying a Concentrated Load at Centre 595
10.8.1 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges) 595
10.8.2 Circular Slab (Fixed at the Edge) 597
Problems 608
PART V : DESIGN OF COLUMNS
CHAPTER 11 DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMNS 609–706

11.2 Axially Loaded Columns 610
11.3 Effective Length of Compression Members 613
11.4 Equivalent (Transformed) Cross-Sectional area of Columns 617
11.5 Radius of Gyration of a Column Section 618
11.6 Slenderness Ratio of Compression Members 619
11.7 Unsupported Length of a Compression Member 620
11.8 Lateral Ties and Spirals 622
11.9 Behaviour of Columns Under Axial Load 624
11.10 Minimum Eccentricity 628
11.11 Clear Cover to Reinforcement 628
11.12 Requirements of Longitudinal (Main) Reinforcement for Columns 629
11.12.1 Percentage of the Longitudinal Reinforcement 629
11.12.2 Number of Steel Bars 630
11.12.3 Diameter of Steel Bars 630
11.12.4 Spacing of Longitudinal Bars 630
11.12.5 Columns with Helical Reinforcement 630
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11.13 Requirements of Transverse (Lateral) Reinforcements 630

11.13.1 General Description 630
11.13.2 Arrangement of Transverse Reinforcement 631
11.13.3 Spirals (Helix) 632
11.14 Assumptions 633
11.15 Strength of Axially Loaded Short Columns and Compression Members with Lateral Ties 634
11.16 Strength of Axially Loaded Short Columns and Compression
Members with Helical (Spiral) Reinforcement 637
11.17 Design of Axially Loaded Reinforced Concrete Columns and Compression Member 645
11.18 Short Rectangular Columns Subjected to Axial Load and Uniaxial Bending 657
11.18.1 For Axial Ultimate Load without Eccentricity 659
11.18.2 For Axial Load with Minimum Eccentricity 660
11.19 Arrangement of Reinforcement for Short Rectangular Columns Subjected
to Axial Load and Uniaxial Bending 663
11.19.1 Symmetrical Arrangement of Reinforcement 663
11.19.2 Unsymmetrical Arrangement of Reinforcement 664
11.20 Analysis of Short Rectangular Columns Subjected to
Axial Loading and Uniaxial Bending 665
11.20.1 Column Section Under Pure Bending 670
11.21 Interaction (Curve) Diagrams for Design of Short Columns Subjected to
Axial Load and Uniax1al Bending 671
11.21.1 Compression Control Region 672
11.21.2 Tension Control Region 673
11.21.3 Balanced Failure 673
11.22 Short Columns Subjected to Axial Load and Biaxial Bending 675
11.23 Interaction (Failure) Surface for a Reinforced Concrete Column with Biaxial Bending 677
11.24 Load-contour Method 679
11.25 Reciprocal Load Method 681
11.26 Equivalent Uniaxial Eccentricity Method 686
11.27 Superposition Methods 686
11.28 Circular Columns Spirally Reinforced 687
Problems 705
CHAPTER 12 DESIGN OF LONG (SLENDER) COLUMN 706–758

12.2 Concentrically Loaded Slender Columns 706
12.2.1 Slenderness Limits for Column 708
12.3 Eccentrically Loaded Slender Columns 710
12.4 Behaviour of Slender Columns 717
12.4.1 Columns Bending in Single Curvature 717
12.4.2 Columns Bending in Double Curvature 721
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12.5 Correction Factor for Ultimate Curvature 722

12.6 Slender Columns Subjected to Axial and Transverse Loads 724
12.7 Behaviour of Columns in Braced Frames 728
12.8 Behaviour of Columns in Unbraced Frames 729
12.9 Exact Method of Design of Slender Columns 733
12.10 Frame Analysis Approach 733
12.11 Moment Magnifier Approach 734
12.11.1 For Single Curvature Case 735
12.11.2 For Double Curvature Case 736
12.12 Effective EI for Moment-magnifier Approach 737
Problems 758
PART VI : DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
CHAPTER 13 DESIGN OF INDEPENDENT FOOTINGS 759–825

13.2 Types of Independent Footings 760
13.3 Bearing Pressure Distribution in Soil 761
13.4 Bearing Capacity of Soil 762
13.5 Depth of Foundation 764
13.6 Thickness at Edge of Footing 765
13.7 Moment and Bending Moments in Footings 766
13.7.1 Bending Moments 766
13.7.2 Critical Sections for Bending Moment 768
13.7.3 Critical Sections for Development Length 768
13.7.4 Failure of Footing 769
13.8 Shear Forces in Footings 769
13.8.1 Permissible Shear Stress 771
13.9 Transfer of Load at Base of Column (Bearing Under Column) 771
13.8.1 Dowels into Footing 772
13.10 Basic Requirements for Columns 773
13.11 Wall Footings 774
13.11.1 Analysis of Footing Under a Masonry Wall 774
13.11.2 Analysis of Footing Under a Concrete Wall 776
13.12 Square Footing 777
13.12.1 Tension Reinforcement 779
13.13 Rectangular Footing 780
13.13.1 Tension Reinforcement 782
13.14 Stepped Footings 783
13.15 Sloped Footings 784
13.16 Circular Footing 813
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13.17 Footings on Rock 818

Problems 825
CHAPTER 14 DESIGN OF COMBINED FOOTING 826–885

14.2 Cantilever or Strap Footing 828
14.3 Continuous Strip Footings 830
14.4 Grid and Mat (Raft) Foundations 832
14.5 Rectangular Footing Supporting two Column Loads 834
14.5.1 First Approach 835
14.5.2 Second Approach 836
14.6 Trapezoidal Footing Supporting two Column Loads 837
14.7 Approximation Method of Design of Footing Supporting two Columns 839
Problems 885
PART VII : DESIGN OF OTHER CONCRETE STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 15 DESIGN OF STAIRS 886–917

15.2 Types of Stairs 887
15.3 Effective Span of Stairs 889
15.4 Distribution of Loads on Stairs 892
15.5 Loads on Stairs 894
15.6 Structural System of Stair Slab 895
Problems 917
CHAPTER 16 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS 918–986

16.2 Types of Retaining Walls 918
16.2.1 Gravity Wall 918
16.2.2 Cantilever Retaining Walls 919
16.2.3 Counterfort Retaining Walls 920
16.2.4 Buttress Retaining Walls 920
16.3 Active Earth Pressure 920
16.4 Passive Earth Pressure 923
16.5 Effect of Surcharge on Earth Pressure 923
16.6 Earth Pressures for Common Condition of Backfill 925
16.6.1 Dry Backfill 925
16.6.2 Submerged Backfill 926
16.6.3 Levelled Backfill Carrying Uniformly Distributed Surcharge 928
16.7 Forces Acting on Retaining Wall 928
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16.8 Strength of Retaining Wall 929

16.9 Stability of Retaining Wall 929
16.9.1 Overturning 930
16.9.2 Sliding 931
16.9.3 Subsidence 932
16.10 Behaviour of Cantilever Retaining Wall 934
16.10.1 Vertical Wall 934
16.10.2 Heel Slab 935
16.10.3 Toe Slab 935
16.11 Preliminary Proportions of Cantilever Retaining Wall 935
16.11.1 Width of the Base Slab 936
16.11.2 Vertical Wall (Stem) 939
16.12 Design of Cantilever Retaining Wall 940
16.12.1 Design of Heel Slab 940
16.12.2 Design of Toe Slab 940
16.12.3 Design of Vertical Wall 941
16.12.3.1 Distribution Reinforcement 941
16.12.3.2 Drainage 941
16.13 Counterfort Retaining Walls 959
16.14 Behaviour of Counterfort Retaining Walls 960
16.14.1 Vertical Wall 960
16.14.2 Heel Slab 961
16.15 Design of Counterfort Retaining Wall 961
16.15.1 Vertical Wall (Stem) 961
16.15.2 Heel Slab 963
16.15.3 Toe Slab 964
16.15.4 Counterforts 964
Problems 986
CHAPTER 17 DESIGN OF DOMES 987–1010

17.2 Definitions of Terms Related with Domes 988
17.2.1 Latitudes and Longitudes 988
17.2.2 Meridional Thrust 988
17.2.3 Hoop Compression 989
17.2.4 Hoop Tension 989
17.3 Various Loads Acting on Domes 989
17.3.1 Self-weight 989
17.3.2 Live Load 989
17.3.3 Snow Load 989
17.3.4 Wind Load 989
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17.4 Spherical Dome Carrying Uniformly Distri buted Load 990

17.4.2 Hoope Compression 992
17.5 Spherical Dome Carrying Concentrated Load at Crown 994
17.5.2 Hoop Compression 995
17.6 Design of Domes 998
17.7 Conical Dome 1005
17.7.2 Hoop Force 1006
Problems 1010
CHAPTER 18 DESIGN OF LINTELS 1011–1030

18.2 Transfer of Loads on Lintels 1011
18.3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Lintel 1017
18.3.1 Overall Depth of Beam 1017
18.3.1 Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension 1017
Problems 1030
Index 1031
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PART I : STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING : AN OVERVIEW
1 General
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural Engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with structural analysis
and structural design. Structural analysis deals with the development of suitable arrangement
of structural elements for the structures to support the external loads or the various critical
combinations of loads which are likely to act on the structures. The analysis also deals with the
determination of internal forces in the various members (viz., axial forces, bending moments
and shear forces), state of stresses or critical combination of stresses at the various points
(which includes the nature, magnitude, and direction of these stresses) and the external reactions
due to worst possible combination of the loads. The external reactions are transmitted to the
foundation. The methods of structural analysis and the principles involved in them remain
independent of the materials used for all types of structures, whether the structures are built
of plastics, timber, aluminium, steel or reinforced concrete.
Structural design deals with the selection of proper material, proper sizes, proportions and
shape of each member and its connecting details. The selection is such that it is economical and
safe. It satisfies all the stress requirements imposed by the most severe combination of loads to
which the structure is required to transmit or resist including its self-weight. The structural
design further deals with the preparation of final layout of the structure. The finished design
drawings with all partinent or controlling dimensions for all the members, parts and connections
are made. The finished design drawings are necessary for fabrication and construction.
The structural design is governed with the standard specifications. The hand-books are
used as working tools in the structural design. When the reinforced cement concrete is used for
the construction of the structures, the structural design is known as design of reinforced concrete
structures. All the structural reinforced concrete components are designed as per IS: 456–
1978, Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete. The provisions of code are thoroughly
followed, intelligently interpreted and carefully applied.
In reinforced concrete, reinforcing steel and concrete are used together with advantageous
combination of their physical and mechanical properties. The steel and concrete deform together
under the load due to the strong grip between them. The steel encased in dense concrete gets
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2 Limit State Design
protection against corrosion and direct exposure to fire. The coefficients of linear thermal
expansion and contraction of steel and concrete are practically equal. As such, the steel does
not slip from the concrete and the initial stresses in two materials remain insignificant, even if,
the ambient temperatures varies with ±100°C. Reinforced concrete is extensively used in
construction owing to its durability, weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength,
high dynamic resistance, excellent formability and relative low cost of concrete and high tensile
strength, much greater ductility and toughness of steel. Reinforced concrete is used in multi-
storey buildings, industrial buildings, thermal power stations, nuclear power stations and
reactors, hydroelectrical power plants, large span thin-walled shell structures, bunkers, tanks
and smoke stacks. Reinforced concrete is also used for highway and railway bridges, tunnels,
irrigation works, structures for underground works, etc.
1.2 CONCRETE
A carefully proportioned mixture of cement (used as binder), fine aggregate (sand) and coarse
aggregate (gravel) and water, which hardens to a stone-like mass, is called as concrete. This
hardened mass of concrete appears like stone as regards its weight, hardness and strength. A
plastic mixture (wet concrete) is formed by mixing these four ingredients. The wet concrete is
poured in forms (moulds) of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure or structural
component and it is cured to hard mass. All the four ingredients have their separate functions.
The coarse aggregates act as main filler. The fine aggregates fill in the voids in the coarse
aggregates. The coarse aggregates and fine aggregates increase the volume of material. The
cement and water act as binder. The chemical interaction of cement and water binds the
aggregate particles into a solid mass. The wet concrete is made workable by using additional
water over and above required for the chemical reaction. The wet concrete solidifies and attains
useful strength slowly. The completion of chemical reaction of cement and water needs favourable
temperature and occurs in three distinct stages of time. The freshly mixed concrete decreases
in plasticity and develops marked resistance to flow. This first stage of setting, known as initial
set takes thirty minutes to sixty minutes after the original mixing operation. After this, the
concrete becomes relatively soft solid without surface hardness. This second stage of setting,
called as final set takes five hours to six hours after the original mixing operations. There
afterwards, the concrete continues to harden and gains strength progressively and indefinitely.
The major portion of its potential hardness and strength is gained rapidly, practically within
one month after mixing.
The concrete used to be designated since long in terms of volume of cement, fine aggregate
1
and coarse aggregate used in their proportions (e.g., 1 : 2 : 4, 1 : 1 : 3, ....etc.). Now proportions
2
are specified by weight (the ingredients are in the same order : cement first, fine aggregate
next and coarse aggregate last) and the total water to be used is also mentioned. By appropriate
adjustment of the proportions of the ingredients, the concrete in a wide range of strength
properties may be obtained. An even wider variety of strength properties may be obtained by
using special cements (such as high early strength cement), special aggregates (such as light
weight or heavy weight aggregates), admixtures (such as plasticizers and air-entertaining
agents) and special curing methods (such as steam-curing). The process of controlling the
conditions of humidity and temperature in which the concrete mix is maintained from the time,
it is placed in the forms (moulds) until it is fully hardened, known as curing influences the
strength property of the concrete.
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The high compressive strength of concrete makes the concrete suitable for columns and
arches (members primarily subjected to compression. The small tensile strength of concrete as
compared with its compressive strength prevents its economical use in structural members that
are subjected to tension either entirely (e.g., the rods) or over part of their cross-section (e.g.,
beams or other flexural members). The steel bars are used to reinforce the concrete. The steel
bars completely surrounded by the hardened concrete form integral part of the structural
member. The concrete reinforced with the steel bars is known as reinforced concrete.
The combination of steel and concrete permits the almost unlimited uses of reinforced concrete.
1.3 CEMENT
Cement is a cementitious material, which has the adhesive and cohesive properties necessary to
bond inert aggregates into a solid mass of adequate strength and durability. Cement is the
most important constituent of concrete. In earlier time, crushed material from natural rocks
used be burnt and ground and used as cement. Such cement is referred as natural cement.
Water is needed for the chemical process (hydration) in which the cement powder forms soft
paste, which sets and hardens into one solid mass. As such the cements are referred as hydraulic
cements. An appropriate type of cement is used for a particular requirement. The different
types of cements are commonly made by adjustment in relative proportions of chemical
compounds and fineness. The various types of cements may be classified in three categories
(viz., Portland cements, special cements and other cements). The brief description of different
Portland cement (conforming to respective Indian Standard, referred by appropriate IS : Nos.)
used for reinforced concrete are as following.
1.3.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (IS : 269)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most commonly used cement. Ordinary Portland cement is a
finely powdered grayish material obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous material
(such as lime stone or chalk) and argillaceous material and/or other silica, alumina, or iron
oxide bearing materials (e.g., clay and shale), burning them at a clinkering temperature (1400°C
– 1450°C) and grinding the resulting clinker. The gypsum or air entraining agent is only
added after burning. Ordinary Portland cement is the basic cement commercially manufactured
in large quantities. The cement made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while hardening
and setting and the concrete has a tendency to develop cracks. In case there is no exposure to
sulphates in the soil or in underground water, the ordinary Portland cement is suitable for
plain and reinforced constructions. This cement resembles in its properties with stone quarried
at Portland, United Kingdom and as such, it is named as Portland cement. This cement was
discovered by brick-layer Joseph Aspin of Yorkshire.
Lime stone (which provides CaO), clays or shales (which furnishes silca, SiO2 and alumina
(Al2O3) are the three major and common raw materials used for the manufacture of this cement.
Two parts of calcareous material (lime stone CaCO3) and one part of argillaceous material
(clays and alumina, viz., SiO2 and A12O3) are mixed, crushed and ground in ball mills. In
addition to these, this mixture contains iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur trioxide and alkalies in
small proportions. This finely ground powder is burnt in rotary kiln to white heat and fused to
clinkers. The clinkers are cooled and ground to the required fineness. The gypsum or air
entraining agent is the only material added after the burning. The percentages of main chemical
constituents of portland cement are as under.
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Table 1.1 Chemical composition of Portland cement

S.No. Constituents Chemical formula Percentage
1. Lime Ca.O 59 – 64
2. Silica Si.O2 19 – 24
3. Alumina Al2.O3 3–6
4. Iron-oxide Fe2.O3 10 – 4
5. Magnesia Mg.O 0.5 – 4
6. Sulphur trioxide SO3 1 – 2.75
7. Alkalies (Soda and Potash) Na2O + K2O 0.5 – 1
During burning and fusion, the constituents of Portland cement form the following mineral
compounds due to chemical reaction. The reactions of these mineral compounds with water
were explained by Professors R.H. Bogue and W. Lerch in their paper titled as ‘Hydration of
Portland Cement Compounds’ published in PCA Fellowship Paper 27, August, 1934. Later on,
these mineral compounds were also called as Bogue compounds.
Table 1.2 Mineral compounds of Portland cement
S.No. Mineral compounds Conventional formula Abbreviated form
1. Tri-calcium silicate 3 CaO.SiO2 C3S
2. Di-calcium silicate 2 CaO.SiO2 C2S
3. Tri-calcium aluminate 3 CaO.Al2O3 C3A
4. Tetra-calcium alumino-ferrite 4 CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
When the cement is mixed with water, the cement paste is formed. During the process of
setting and hardening, the cement paste gradually stiffens until it becomes a solid. In setting,
the cement paste changes its plastic state to a stiff solid state and gains only small compressive
strength. In hardening, the mass becomes harder and its compressive strength increases as
hydration proceeds with time. The initial setting and the early hardening of concrete occur due
to the hydration of tri-calcium aluminate, C3A. The vigorous reaction and rapid setting effect
of C3A is checked by adding adequate amount of retardant (gypsum, CaSO4). It seems irregular
that the sulphates are used to control the setting. The sulphates are destructive to hardened
concrete. C3A provides early effect. Its maximum strengthening effect is within 24 hours. The
strengthening of concrete due to C3A continues upto 28 days only. C3A generates considerable
heat. C3A is easily affected by alkalies and salts. C3A combines with C4AF actively with water
and forms hydrated products. These products contribute moderate strength to concrete within
the few hours or days of their existence.
C3S and C2S compounds together form 70 to 75% portion of the cement. C3S hydrates rapidly
and provides early strength as well as ultimate strength. The reaction of C2S with water takes
place slowly and provides the strength after 7 days. The prolonged reaction of C3S and slow
reaction of C2S with water provide progressive increase in strength of Portland cement concrete.
The concrete resists the attacks of acids and alkalies and becomes more durable due to C3S and
C2S compounds.
The various other types of cements are
(i) Low heat Portland cement (IS : 269)
(ii) Portland Pozzolana cement (IS : 1489)
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(iii) Rapid hardening Portland cement (IS : 8041)

(iv) High strength Portland cement (IS : 8112)
(v) Portland slag cement (IS : 455)
(vi) Hydrophobic cement (IS : 8043)
(vii) Sulphate resisting Portland cement
(viii) Water-proof Portland cement
(ix) White and coloured Portland cements
(x) High alumina cements (IS : 6452)
(xi) Super sulphated cement (IS : 6909)
(xii) Quick setting cement
(xiii) Expansive cement.
These cements have been described in detail in Author’s book–Design of Concrete Structures,
Vol. 1.
1.4 CEMENT TESTS

Indian Standard Institution has recommended following specifications and tests in respective IS
(Indian Standard) codes in order to maintain the quality control of different varieties of cements.
The various laboratory tests for cement namely, fineness of cement (Dry sieve analysis method,
Blaine’s air permeability method), Soundness of cement, consistency of cement, initial and final
setting times of cement, tensile strength of cement, and compressive strength of cement have been
described in detail in Author’s book Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. 1. The cement is tested
and it is seen that the cement satisfies the following chemical and physical requirements.
1.4.1 Chemical Requirements

The chemical analysis of cement to be used is carried out as per IS : 4032–1968 (Methods of
chemical analysis of hydraulic cement) and it is seen that the cement satisfies the following
chemical requirements.
(i) The percentage loss of ignition (by mass) and percentage of insoluble residues do not
exceed the values given in Table 1.1 (chemical requirements of cements).
(ii) The percentage of lime, PL = (CaO – 0.7 SO3) and percentage of silica, alumina and
iron oxide, PSAF = (2.8 SiO2 + 1.2 Al2O3) + 0.65 Fe2O3) are determined. It is seen that the ratio
of PL and PSAF for ordinary Portland cement and rapid hardening Portland cement is not
more than 1.02 and it is not less than 0.66.
(iii) The percentage of alumina, PA and percentage of iron oxide PF are found. It is checked
that the ratio of PA and PF for ordinary Portland cement and rapid hardening Portland cement
is not less than 0.66.
(iv) The percentage of magnesia oxide and manganese present in the cement (by mass) do
not exceed the value given in Table 1.3.
(v) Total sulphuric content calculated as sulphuric anhydride, SO3 shall not exceed
percentages given in Table 1.3.
The percentage of lime for low heat Portland cement (after deducting the quantity necessary
to combine with sulphuric anhydride, SO3 present is found. It should not be more than
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[2.4 (SiO2) + 1.2 (Al2O3) + 0.65 (Fe2O3)]

It should not be less than
[1.9 (SiO2) + 1.2 (A12O3) + 0.65 (Fe2O3)]
It is to note that a symbol within a small pair of parenthesis pertains to the percentage (by
mass of total cement). The percentage contained in the insoluble residue is excluded.
1.4.2 Physical Requirements

The cement is tested for the physical requirements which include compressive strength, fineness,
heat of hydration, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.
(i) Compressive strength. At least twelve cubes (area of face 0.50 m2) are prepared with
one part of cement and three parts of Standard Leighton Buzzard Sand conforming to IS :
650–1966 by mass and water. The percentage of water mixed shall be [(Pa/4+3.0] percent by
mass, where Pa is the percentage of water needed for normal consistency. The crushing strengths
of one set of three cubes (tested in accordance to IS : 4031–1968) are found after 1 day (24 hrs)
from time of preparing cubes, and then for second set of cubes after 3 days (72 hrs), third set of
cubes after 7 days (168 hrs) and fourth set of cubes 28 days (672 hrs) are found. The average
of three values of each set tested should not be less than that given in Table 1.4 (physical
requirements of cements). This method has been described in detail in author’s book, Design of
Concrete Structures, Vol. 1.
(ii) Fineness. The fineness of cement is found in terms of specific surface i.e., the surface
per unit mass (m2/gm) of the cement. The rate of hydration and hydrolysis of cement depends
upon its fineness. Finer cement acts more quickly with water and develops high early strength.
The method of sieve and method of Blaine’s permeability as described in IS : 4031–1968 are
two methods to determine the fineness of cement. The specific area found for the cement should
not be less than the values given in Table 1.4. This method has been described in detail in
author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures, Vol, 1.
(iii) Heat of hydration. The heat of hydration for low heat Portland cement and for super
sulphate cement (calories per gm) found after 7 days and 28 days should not exceed the values
given in Table 1.4.
(iv) Setting time. The main aim of determining setting times is to find the distinction between
normal setting and quick setting types of cements and also to know the deterioration of cement
in storage. The initial and final setting times as found by Vickat apparatus and these values
for a cement should not be less than that given for that type of cement in Table 1.4. This
method has been described in detail in Author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. 1.
(v) Soundness. The main aim of finding the soundness of cement is to know the amount of
overburnt uncombined time present in the cement. Due to presence of unburnt uncombined
lime and magnesia, the volumetric changes occur in the cement. After setting of cement, these
ingredients continue to slack very slowly. The volumetric expansion is called unsoundness and
distortion, disintegration and cracks in concrete may occur. It is found by Lechatelier’s method
in accordance with IS : 4031–1968 and its value should not be more than that in Table 1.4.
This method has been described in detail in Author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures,
Vol. 1.
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Table 1.3 Chemical requirements of cements
S.No. Portland cements Special cements Other

Chemical cements
characteristics Ordinary Pozzolana Rapid Low Slag High Hydro- Super Masonry
hardening heat strength phobic sulphated
1. Ignition loss >/ 5 5 >/ 5 >/ 5 >/ 4 >/ 5 >/ 5 — —
2. Insoluble residues >/ 2 * >/ 2 >/ 2 >/ 2.5 >/ 2 >/ 2 >/ 4 —
3. Magnesia, >/ 6 6 >/ 6 >/ 6 >/ 8 >/ 6 >/ 6 >/ 10 —

(percent by mass)
4. Sulphur content 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 3 — — 6 —
(Sulphuric anhydride)
percent by mass
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5. Manganese oxide (Mn2O3) — — — — 2 — — — —
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* Percentage value = [x + 2.0(100-x)/100] where x is the actual percentage of Pozzalana.
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Table 1.4 Physical requirements of cements
Portland cements Special cements Other

S. No. Physical cements
characteristics
Ordinary Pozzolana Rapid Low Slag High Hydro- Super Masonry
hardening heat strength phobic sulphated
1. Compressive strength
min (N/mm2)
(24 his ± 0.5 hrs) — — </ 15.69 — — — — — —
(72 hrs ± 1 hr) </ 16 — </ 26.97 </ 10 </ 15.69 </ 23 </ 15.69 </ 15 —
(168 hrs ± 2 hrs) </ 22 </ 22 — </ 16 </ 21.57 </ 33 </ 21.57 </ 22 </ 2.5
(672 hrs ± 4 hrs) — </ 31 — </ 33 — </ 43 </ 30.40 </ 30 </ 5.0
2. Fineness (m2/gm) </ 0.2250 </ 0.3000 </ 0.3250 </ 0.3200 </ 0.2250 </ 0.3500 </ 0.3500 </ 0.4000 —
3. Heat of hydration
7 days (cal/gm) — — — >/ 65 — — — >/ 60 —
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28 days (cal/gm) — — — — — — —
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>/ 75 >/ 70
4. Setting time
initial (minutes) </ 30 </ 30 </ 60 </ 60 </ 30 </ 30 </ 30 </ 30 </ 90
final (minutes) >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 600 >/ 1400
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5. Soundness (mm) >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10 >/ 10
2
Tensile strength (N/mm )
6. 24 hrs </ — — </ 2 — — — — — —
72 his </ 2 — </ 3 — — — — — —
168 hrs </ 2.5 — — — — — — — __
General 9
(vi) Tensile strength. Six standard briquettes are made of one part cement and three parts
of Standard Leighton Buzzard Sand. The tensile strength of briquettes after 1 day (24 hrs),
3 days (72 hrs) and 7 days (168 hrs) immersion respectively are found. The respective tensile
strength found should not be less than the value given in Table 1.4. This method has been
described in detail in Author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. 1.
1.5 AGGREGATES
Aggregate is inert material (chemically inactive) such as sand, slag, pebbles, gravel, broken
stone, broken bricks, industrial bye products etc., which is mixed with cement and water and
concrete or mortar is prepared. The aggregate is added to cement paste to increase the bulk.
70 to 75% of volume of the hardened mass of concrete consists of aggregates. The remaining
30 to 25 percent consists of hardened cement paste, uncombined water (i.e., water not involved
in the hydration of the cement) and air voids. Aggregate must be clean, dense, hard, durable,
structurally sound, capable of developing good bond with cement, weather resistance and
unaffected by water. Sand gravel and broken stone are natural available materials most
commonly used as aggregates. Blast furnace slag (air-cooled and crushed) and broken bricks
are the artificial and processed aggregates used in concrete. Natural aggregates are generally
classified as coarse and fine aggregates. Natural materials having uniform shear strength in
all directions are ideal for use as aggregates. Other natural materials having pronounced
planes of weakness or cleavage, (e.g., slate, shale, and micaceous materials) are usually
undesirable. The aggregates used for concrete should conform to IS : 383–1970 (specifications
for coarse and fine aggregate from natural sources for concrete).
1.5.1 Coarse Aggregate

Broken stones, pebbles and gravel retained on IS : 4.75 mm sieve is called as coarse aggregate.
Coarse aggregate is prepared by crushing igneous stone (e.g., granite, gneiss), sedimentary
stone (e.g., sand stones), and metamorphic stone (e.g., crystalline lime). Coarse aggregates
prepared from very fine-grained granite stone is used for high strength concrete. Coarse
aggregates obtained from crushing of hard sand stone are also suitable for use in concrete.
Coarse aggregates made from the soft sand stone cracks when there is high degree of shrinkage
in concrete, and it should be used with care. Coarse aggregates (if prepared from close-grained
crystalline lime stone) is also suitable for use in plain cement concrete. Coarse aggregate made
from broken bricks is also used for plain cement concrete only. It makes the concrete weak in
strength. In structural concrete, the reinforcement is likely to be rusted when the broken brick
aggregates are used. Coarse aggregates are separated in two or three size groups for use in
concrete for large and important constructions. Each size group of aggregate is separately
weighed according to grade charts and then combined to result in densely packed concrete.
For construction of less importance, aggregates brought from the pits or river beds (called as
all-in-aggregate) are directly used.
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1.5.2 Fine Aggregate

Sand and any other aggregates which pass through IS : 4.75 mm sieve is called fine aggregate.
Sand is brought from lakes, pits, rivers and sea-shores. Sand is thoroughly washed so that
there remain no clay films over the surface of the aggregate. It prevents adhesion of cement to
the aggregate. Clay and silt are fine materials which pass through 75-micron IS : sieve. Clay
and silt materials (if present) will increase water content. Dust is also detrimental material to
concrete. As such the fine aggregates should be free from dust, organic impurities, and silts.
Chlorides (present in sea-shore sand) cause efflorescence and rusting and corrosion of
reinforcement in structural concrete.
In order to prepare strong concrete, angular grained sand (having good interlocking property)
is used. Round grained particles of sand lack in interlocking property.
In order to prepare the concrete to have good strength, weather resistance and durability,
the aggregates are closely packed. For this reason, the gradation of particle sizes of the aggregates
is of considerable importance.
1.5.2.1 Grading of Aggregates

Gradation of particle sizes of the aggregate vary with the nature and course of material and
the requirements in this respect depend upon the type of structure. The particle sizes of fine
and coarse aggregates are properly graded. Use of well graded aggregates reduces the air
voids. The cement fills up the air voids of fine aggregates. The cement and sand both together
fill up the air voids of the coarse aggregate.
The finishing, workability and uniformity of concrete are considerably affected by the grading
of fine aggregates. In the grading of fine aggregates, most of the natural sands of this country
are divided into four zones as given in IS : 383–1970. Following square hole perforated plate
type and fine mesh wire cloth type IS : Sieves are used:
(i) Square hole perforated plate type IS : Sieves
80 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31.5 mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm,
6.3 mm, 4.75 mm.
(ii) Fine mesh wire cloth type IS : Sieves
3.35 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600-micron, 300-micron, 150-micron, 75-micron.
Natural sands correspond to one or the other out of these four zones. Sands which may fall
in grading zone — I, II or III and IV are used in concrete. Typical good sands fall in gradine
zone-II. However, finer or coarser sand may be used with suitable adjustments in the ratio of
quantities of coarse to fine aggregate. If a lean concrete mix is desired, the coarse sand falling
in grading zone-I should be avoided. Very fine sands falling in grading zone-IV should not be
used.
Single size coarse aggregates (ungraded) used in concrete may have nominal size of 63 mm,
40 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm and 10 mm. The grading limits for single size coarse aggregate
are given in Table 1.5 (a) as per IS : 383–1970. Coarse aggregates of two or more sizes (Graded
coarse aggregates), 40 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm and 12.5 mm mixed together give densely packed
aggregates. The graded limits for graded aggregate are given in Table 1.5 (b) as per IS : 383–
1970.
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General 11
Table 1.5 (a) Grading limits for single-sized coarse aggregate of nominal size (IS: 383–1970)
IS : Sieve Percentage passing
Designation 63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm
80 mm 100 — — — — —
63 mm 85–100 100 — — — —
40 mm 0–30 85–100 100 — — —
20 mm 0–5 0–20 85–100 100 — —
16mm — — — 85–100 100 —
12.5 mm — — — — 85–100 100
10 mm 0–5 0–5 0–20 0–30 0–5 85–100
4.75 mm — — 0–5 0–5 0–10 0–20
2.36 mm — — — — — 0–5
Table 1.5 (b) Grading limits for graded coarse aggregate of nominal size (IS : 383–1970)
IS : Sieve Percentage passing
Designation
40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm
80 mm 100 — — —
63 mm — — — —
40 mm 95–100 100 — —
20 mm 33–70 95–100 100 100
16 mm — — 90–100 —
12.5mm — — — 90–100
10 mm 10–35 25–55 30–70 40–05
4.75 mm 0–5 0–10 0–10 0–10
2.36 mm — — — —
The grading limits for fine aggregates are given in Table 1.6. Grading zone-I corresponds to
coarse sands. Grading zone-II corresponds to typical good sands. Grading zone-Ill corresponds
to little fine sands and grading zone-IV corresponds to very fine sands.
The grading limits for all-in-aggregates are given in Table 1.7.
1.5.2.2 Impurities in Aggregate

In order to have good strength, durability and weather resistance, the surface of aggregate is
kept free from impurities such as iron pyrites, coal, mica, shale, loam, silt, clay, alkali, soft
fragments, sea shells, organic matter and other and other deleterious (harmful) materials,
which may weaken the bond with cement paste; and that no unfavourable reaction takes place
between the aggregate and cement. Use of aggregate containing reactive silica (such as, chert
and chalcedony) should be avoided. Weak aggregate (obtained from soft lime stone, soft sand
stone or other porous stone) should not be used for concrete in sea water. Table 1.8 gives the
limits of impurities as per IS : 383 –1970.
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Table 1.6 Grading Limits for fine aggregate (IS : 383–1970)

I.S. Sieve Percentage passing
Designation Grading Grading Grading Grading
Zone-I Zone-II Zone-III Zone-IV
10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90–100 90–100 90–100 95–100
2.36 mm 60–95 75–100 85–100 95–100
1.18 mm 30–70 55–90 75–100 90–100
600 micron 15–34 35–59 60–79 80–100
300 micron 5–20 8–30 12–40 15–50
150 micron 0–10 0–10 0–10 0–15
Table 1.7 Grading Limits for all-in-aggregates (IS : 383–1970)

IS : Sieve Percentage passing (Nominal size)
Designation 40 mm 20 mm
80 mm 100 —
40 mm 95–100 100
20 mm 45–75 95–100
4.75 mm 25–45 30–50
600 micron 8–30 10–35
150 micron 0–6 0–6
Table 1.8 Limits of Deleterious Materials percentage limits by weight

Deleterious Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
substances
Crushed Uncrushed Crushed Uncrushed
Coal, lignite 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Clay lumps 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Material passing 3.00 3.00 15.00 3.00
75 micron sieve
Soft fragments — 3.00 — —
Shale — — — 1.00
Total limit 5.00 5.00 2.00 5.00
1.5.2.3 Size of Aggregate

For mass concrete (such as in dams) and plain concrete, the maximum size of coarse aggregate
may be 200 mm and 63 mm respectively.
Plums above 160 mm and upto any reasonable size may be used in plain concrete work upto
a maximum limit of 20 percent by volume of concrete. The plums should be distributed uniformly.
The plums should be placed at depths 150 mm or more from the surface.
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General 13
For reinforced concrete work, the nominal size of coarse aggregate should be as large as
1
possible within the specified limits but in no case, it should be greater than th of the minimum
4
thickness of the member, and it should be possible that the concrete can be placed without any
difficulty so as to surround all the reinforcement thoroughly and fill the corners of forms (moulds)
and honeycomb pockets are avoided. The largest possible size and properly graded aggregates
are used, which reduce the water demand. A lower maximum size of aggregate is adopted for
high compressive strength.
The nominal maximum size of aggregate is usually limited to 5 mm less than the minimum
clear cover to the reinforcement. The minimum clear cover specified in IS : 456–1978 for columns
of dimensions more than 200 mm and for columns of minimum dimension 200 mm are 40 mm
and 25 mm, respectively. As such, the nominal sizes of coarse aggregates adopted are (40 – 5 =
35 mm) and (25 – 5 = 20 mm), respectively. The minimum clear cover recommended in IS :
456–1978 for beams is 25 mm. Hence, the nominal size of coarse aggregate used is (25 – 5 = 20
mm).
In the solid slabs, the minimum cover mentioned is 15 mm. Therefore, the nominal size of
coarse aggregate used is (15 – 5 = 10 mm).
1.6 OTHER TYPES OF AGGREGATES

Some unusual and unprocessed aggregates such as blast furnance slag, pumice, calcined clay,
diatomaceous silica, asbestos, sawdust, vegetable fibre such as seaweed and others are used for
thermal insulating and acoustical concretes.
Slag and crushed overburnt brick or tile aggregates may be found suitable with regard to
strength, durability and free from harmful materials and effects may be used for secondary
members. Such aggregates should not contain more than 1% of sulphates and should not
absorb more than 10% of its own mass of water.
The structurally used aggregates are classified as light weight, normal weight and heavy
weight aggregates.
1.6.1 Light Weight Aggregates

Expanded shales, clays, slates, slags, pelletized fly ash aggregates are light in weight because
of porous and cellular structure of the individual aggregate particle. Such structure is obtained
by gas or steam formation in processing the aggregates in rotary kilns at high temperatures
(commonly in excess of 1000°C. Light weight aggregate is further distinguished in three classes
namely low density (having a unit weight 8 kN/m3 and used for insulation) moderate strength
aggregates (having unit weight 9–10 kN/m3 and chiefly used as fill) and over light weight
(having unit weight 14.40–19.20 kN/m3).
1.6.2 Normal Weight Aggregates

Usual aggregates described in Art. 1.5 are referred as normal weight aggregates. IS : 383–
1970 classifies the normal aggregates on the basis of particle shape and surface textures of the
aggregates as in Table 1.9 (a) and (b).
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Table 1.9 (a) Classification of aggregate based on particle shape (IS : 383–1970)
Classification Description Examples
Rounded Fully waterworn, or completely River or sea shore gravels; desert,
shaped by attrition. seashore and wind-blown sands.
Irregular or partially Naturally irregular or partly shaped Pit sands and gravels; land or dug
rounded by attrition, and having rounded flints; cuboid rock.
edges.
Angular Having well defined edges. Crushed rocks of all types; talus,
scress.
Flaky Usually angular whose thickness Laminated rocks.
is small relative to width and length.
Table 1.9 (b) Classification of aggregate (Based on surface texture)

Surface Texture Example
Glassy Black flint

Smooth Chert, slate, marble, some rhyolite
Granular Sand stone, colites
Crystalline
Fine Basalt, trachyte, keratophyte
Medium Delerite, granophyte, granulite, micro-granite,
some lime stone, many dolomites
Coarse Gabbro, gneiss, granite, granodiorite, syenite
Honeycombed and porous Scoriae, pumice, trass
1.6.3 Heavy Weight Aggregates

For nuclear reacter and similar installations, heavy weight aggregate are essentially needed
for shielding against gamma and X-ray radiation. For special purposes, (e.g., counter-weights
of lift bridges) the heavy weight aggregates are used. Heavy iron ores or barite (barium sulphate)
rock crashed to suitable sizes are used as heavy weight aggregates. Steel in the form of scrap,
punchings or shots (as fines) are also used. Unit weight of heavy concretes with natural heavy
weight aggregates is 32 kN/m3. In case, ores are used as fines only and steel for coarse aggregate,
unit weight is 53 kN/m3.
1.7 FINENESS MODULUS OF AGGREGATES

Fineness modulus of an aggregate is an index number used to indicate the average size of
particles in the aggregate. The fineness modulus is found as the sum of percentage of the
masses of aggregate retained on a set of ten IS : sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75
mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron and 150 micron) and divided by one hundred. It is commonly
abbreviated as F.M. Its value is an index of the average surface area of the aggregate.
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General 15
Aggregates of different particle-size distribution may have similar fineness moduli. For
aggregates of a specific type, it is reasonably certain that the aggregates of similar fineness
moduli will, (if used in similar quantities) produce concrete of similar plasticity. It is worthwhile
to see the fineness modulus of the aggregate. The change in concrete-making quality of
aggregate from a particular source may be seen readily from the fineness modulus.
It may be desired to obtain a specific fineness modulus, p for an aggregate mix of fine and
coarse aggregates. The fineness moduli of fine and coarse aggregates p1 and p2 are found by
passing the aggregates separately through set of nine standard sieves. The quantity by mass,
m of fine aggregate to be mixed with one part of coarse aggregate is found by
⎛ p − p⎞
m = ⎜ 2 ...(1.1)
⎝ p − p1 ⎟⎠
1.8 WATER
Water is needed for chemical process (hydration) in which the cement powder forms a soft
paste, which sets and hardens into one solid mass. In the chemical process involved in setting
and hardening, heat (known as heat of hydration) as liberated. For complete hydration of a
given quantity of cement, quantity of water equal to 25 percent of that of cement, by mass is
needed. In addition to this, water is also required for wetting the surface of aggregate and for
distributing the cement paste evenly so that every particle of coarse and fine aggregates is
coated and brought into intimate contact with each other. Water acts as lubricant. As water is
added, the plasticity and fluidity of mix (i.e., workability) increases, but the strength decreases
because of the larger volume of voids created by free water. Water is also required later on for
curing the concrete after it is casted in moulds. Thus, water has both chemical and physical
functions. Water used for drinking is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete.
Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from such materials which are
harmful to concrete or steel. Oils, acids, alkalies, salts, sugar, organic and inorganic materials
if present in quantities more than their permissible quantities given in Table 1.10 (as per IS :
456–1978) are injurious for concrete or steel.
Table 1.10 Permissible limits for solids (If present in water)
Substances Maximum Permissible Limits
(mg per litre)
Organic 200
Inorganic 3000
Sulphates (SO4) 500
Chlorides (Cl)
(i) (For plain concrete) 2000
(ii) (For reinforced concrete) 1000
Suspended matter 2000
Marsh waters, mine and colliery waste waters and several industrial waste waters are not
likely to meet the requirements of IS : 456, and therefore, should be used only after careful
consideration. Mineral oil (not mixed with animal or vegetable oils) in concentrations more
than 2 percent by mass of cement may decrease the concrete strength by more than 20 percent.
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Acids and alkalies (if present) shuld not exceed in their concentrations as their maximum
permissible values as per IS : 456.
(i) To neutralise 200 ml sample of water, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, it should
not require more than 2 ml of 0.1 normal NaOH.
(ii) To neutralise 200 ml sample of water, using methyl orange as an indicator, it should
not need more than 10 ml of 0.1 normal HCl.
Sodium and potassium carbonates and bicarbonates affect the setting time of cements. In
case, these salts are present in excess, the strength of concrete reduces. Calcium and magnesium
carbonates are generally insoluble in water and therefore, these salts do not remain present in
significant extents. However, their bicarbonates axe soluble in water. Contents of such salts
should not exceed 400 ppm.
Sodium chlorides (if present) do not have any harmful effects and its contents should not
exceed 20,000 ppm. Magnesium chlorides also do not have any harmful effects. Its contents
even upto 40,000 ppm do not influence the strength of concrete. Calcium chloride upto 2
percent by mass of cement accelerates setting and hardening. Total quantity of chlorides as
chloride-ions (as Cl and not as Cl2 in the concrete at the time of placing should be limited to
0.15 percent. The chloride ions are responsible for corrosion of embedded metal in concrete.
Sodium sulphates (if present) do not have harmful effects and its contents should not exceed
10,000 ppm. Magnesium sulphates also do not have harmful effects. Its contents even upto
40,000 ppm do not influence the strength of concrete. Total amount of soluble sulphates (referred
as SO3 and not as SO4 followed in conventions used in cement chemistry) in the concrete at the
time of placing should be limited to 4 percent by mass of cement. The concentration of sulphates
expressed as SO3 in soil and in underground water should not exceed those given in IS : 456
(Appendix-A).
Sugar if present in water may not have any adverse effect on strength of concrete so long as
its contents do not exceed 500 ppm. However, it is likely that the setting time is affected due to
presence of sugar.
Organic material such as, algae if present in water may cause large reduction in the strength
of concrete.
For plain cement concrete, the sea water containing upto 35000 ppm salts (including sodium
chloride and other salts) may be used for mixing and curing under unavoidable circumstances.
However, in reinforced concrete, sea water should not be used. Sea water contains harmful
salts. Sea water may cause corrosion of the reinforcement. Concrete prepared by mixing sea
water will show efflorescence.
In remote areas and in areas where available water from some sources is not used for domestic
purposes. The suitability of such water remains doubtful. In such cases, the compressive strength
and initial setting are found. Salts of zinc, copper and lead and in particular, sodium sulphide
may cause a considerable reduction in strength. These substances are not listed in that of
harmful materials. In case contents of these salts present are very little, then, such water may
be used.
In order to determine the compressive strength and initial setting time sample of water is
taken from the water proposed to be used for concrete, however, the seasonal variation is kept
in view. This sample of water is not treated other than envisaged in the regular supply of
water proposed for use in concrete. A clean container previously rinsed out with similar water
is taken to store the sample of water.
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General 17
At least three cubes of 150 mm size are prepared from the sample water. Average 28 days,
compressive strength of these cubes is found. It should not be less than 90 percent of the
average of strength of three similar cubes prepared with distilled water.
The initial setting time with sample water and appropriate cement shall not be less than 30
minutes. At the same time, it should not differ ±30 minutes for same cement and distilled
water.
The pH value of water shall generally be not less than 6.
1.9 ADMIXTURES
An admixture is an extra component added to the main components of concrete mix during
mixing in order to create a special property or to neutralize one or more normal characteristic of
the fressh or hardened concrete or to correct some deficiency of the mixtures to improve the
workability, to accelerate or retard setting and hardening, to aid in curing, to improve durability,
to add colour and to give other properties. Some admixtures have established beneficial effects.
These admixtures are manufactures products and have consistent behaviour. Some admixtures
are industrial waste products and have little sale values and their performance as concrete
ingradients is inconsistent. The claims for such admixtures should be examined carefully. The
distinguished admixtures may be arranged in four main groups (i) accelerating admixtures (ii)
retarding admixtures (iii) water-reducing or plasticizing admixtures and (iv) air-entraining
admixtures.
1.9.1 Accelerating Admixtures

In order to increase the early strength development, accelerating admixtures are added. These
admixtures react chemically with one or more constituents of ordinary Portland cement. These
admixtures facilitate the early removal of form work. These admixtures are also used to reduce
the required period of curing and to accelerate the concreting in cold weather and repairs.
Calcium chloride, fluosilicates and tri-ethanolmine are commonly used as accelerating
admixtures for ordinary Portland cement
If calcium chloride is used during warm weather or in heated concrete, the settling is
accelerated to large extent and impairs finishing. The heat of hydration also increases to a
degree that causes cracking. It aggravates the dry shrinkage of hardened concrete and it
increases expansion created due to alkali-aggregate reactivity.
1.9.2 Retarding Admixtures

In order to slow down the rate of setting of ordinary Portland cement, the retarding admixtures
are mixed. These admixtures also react chemically with one or more constituents of ordinary
Portland cement. Retarding admixtures are useful in hot water concreting, for avoiding cold
joints in mass concrete works and for special treatment of concrete surfaces. Starches and
cellulose products, sugars and hydroxyl-carboxyl acids and their salts (e.g., sodium tartrate)
are generally used as retarding admixtures Except sugars and carbohydrates, many of these
retarding admixtures reduce water requirements.
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1.9.3 Water Reducing or Plasticizing Admixtures

In order to permit more workability for a given water-cement ratio or alternatively to retain
the workability while reducing water content, plasticizing admixtures (simply called as
plasticizers) are added. Plasticizers and so called super plasticizers are used increasingly,
particularly for high strength concretes because these admixtures allow considerable water
reduction while maintaining high slumps needed for proper placement and compaction of
concrete. Super plasticizers are also suitable where an extremely high workability is desired
(e.g., where the concrete is to be pumped).
There admixtures act mechanically during the mechanical life of the concrete. They provide
cohesion and plasticity to poorly workable mixtures and act in two ways. Least significantly,
there are fillers of small voids. Most importantly, there are spacers. They mechanically separate
aggregate particles and reduce internal friction.They provide space for more cement paste and
more surface areas to be wet by cement paste. Because of their small size, they stiffen and add
skeletal structure to the paste. As such, the bleeding of water and sedimentation of cement are
reduced.
Lignosulphanate salts are the basic ingradients in these water-reducing admixtures. These
contain sugar due to which retardation may occur. Alternatively a refined sugar reduced product
may be used which will avoid excessive retardation. Polyhydroxy compounds are also basic
ingradients of these admixtures. These compounds are sensitive to over-dosing, in which case,
excessive retardation may be caused.
Superplasticizers are based on synthesized condensates (e.g., melamine formaldehyde and
napthalene sulphonate-formaldehyde). In order to be totally effectively, it is ensured that
super plasticizers give high fluidity to concrete. At the same, it is seen that these admixtures do
not cause undesirable side effects such as bleeding and segregation.
1.9.4 Air-entraining Admixtures

In order to improve the workability and durability, air-entraining admixtures are added to
intentionally entrain a controlled quantity of air in the form of small (microscopic) bubbles
without considerably altering the setting or hardening of the concrete. These dispersed minute
bubbles are stabilized so that they cannot excape or collapse. These admixtures are chiefly
resistant to freezing and thawing (i.e., resistance to frost damage) and reduce sagregation
during placing. These admixtures decrease the density of concrete because of increased void
ratio and thereby strength is also reduced ; however this reduction can be partially offset by
decreasing mixing water without loss of workability. At present, air-entraining admixtures are
most important and most widely used admixtures. Air entraining admixtures are chiefly used
in pavements, but these are also used for structures, particularly for exposed components.
The quantity of air-entrained in concrete depends on the quantity of such admixtures and
as well as on other factors also. Animal and vegetable oils and fats, natural wood resins and
their sodium salts (e.g., vinsol resin) and alkali salts of sulphated and sulphonated organic
compounds are mainly used as air-entraining admixtures.
Water reducing admixtures known as surfactants are also used. Surfactants need not
necessarily produce-stable form of bubbles.
Pozzolona is also used as admixture, where its physical property such as fineness is important
as compared to its chemical reactivity. Fly ash (a finely divided material) is also used as mineral
admixture. Fly ash may be added only when the concrete mixtures are deficient in fines.
When, fly ash is used, the water demand is increased and strength of concrete is reduced.
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General 19
1.10 REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is a term from military and police organisations. It means to increase the existing
strength by additional force. Concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension.
M aterial in com p ressio n
C o m p re ssio n stress
N N e utral axis A
C ra ck
B e am M aterial in com p ressio n Ten sile stre ss
section
b en ding stre ss d istribu tio n diag ram
(i) P lain co ncrete b e am b ea m
M aterial in C o m p re ssio n
C o m p re ssio n stre ss
N N e utral axis C ra ck A
B e am R e in force m en t Ten sile stre ss

section b en ding stre ss d istribu tio n diag ram
(ii) R e in fo rced co n cre te b ea m
(a ) S im p ly supp orted be a m s
M aterial in tension Ten sile stre ss
N C ra ck M aterial axis A
B e am M aterial In com pression C o m p re ssio n stre ss

section b en ding stre ss d istribu tio n diag ram
(i) P lain co ncrete b e am
M aterial in tension Ten sile stre ss
N C ra ck N e utral axis A
M aterial In com pression C o m p re ssive stress

B e am
section (ii) R e in fo rced co n cre te b ea m b en ding stre ss d istribu tio n diag ram
(b ) C a ntile ver b ea m s
Fig. 1.1
A simply supported plain concrete beam subjected to loads acting downward carries bending
compressive stresses in the material above neutral axis and bending tensile stresses in the
material below neutral axis as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) (i). Since, concrete is weak in tension, its
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load-carrying capacity is controlled by allowable stresses in tension and it is seen that the load-
carrying capacity is very small. In case, steel bars are embedded in concrete close to the tension
face as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) (ii), the beam becomes a reinforced concrete beam and its load
carrying capacity is very much increased. It becomes as high as about 20 times of that of the
plain concrete beam. The original or existing strength of plain concrete beam is increased by
additional tensile strength by using steel bars as reinforcement. Hence, in general, in reinforced
concrete beams, the concrete resists the compressive force and longitudinal steel bars resist
tensile force. Fig. 1.1 (b) (i) and (ii) show plain and reinforced cantilever beams.
In case plain concrete columns are used, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) it is seen that their load
carrying capacity is also small, though the concrete carries
A xia l
lo ad
A xia l
lo ad
compression only. In case the steel bars are embedded in the
column of same size, of columns as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b), since
the steel also has high compressive strength, the original
(existing) load carrying capacity of plain cement concrete column
R einforce m e nt in com p ressio n
is very much increased by providing additional strength by

using steel bars. The columns become reinforced concrete
columns. Thus, reinforcement is also used for resisting
compressive forces. The cross-sectional dimensions of columns
R einforce d co ncre te co lu m n
and compression members may be reduced, if desired.

Steel is a high strength material as compared with concrete.
P lain co ncre te co lu m n
The compressive yield strength of ordinary reinforcing steel bars

is about 25 times the compressive strength of structural concrte
and the tensile strength of steel bars is about 70 times the tensile
strength of concrete. However, steel is a high cost material as
compared with concrete. Two materials are best used in
combination of their physical and mechanical properties.
1.10.1 General Requirements

E levatio n For most effective reinforcing action, there should be a sufficient
E levatio n
strong bond between the hardened concrete and steel bars and
two materials deform together and there is no relative movements
between them. Concrete surrounding the reinforcing steel bars
P lan P lan provides excellent corrosion protection and fire resistance. The
(a ) (b )
co-efficients of linear thermal expansions of steel (0.000012 °C)
Fig. 1.2 and concrete (0.000011 °C) are practically equal and there is no
differential thermal deformations between them. The steel bars
must be free from loose mill scales, loose rust, and coats of paints, oil, grease mud or other
coatings which may destroy or reduce the bond.
1.10.2 Types of Reinforcement

Following types of steel plain, deformed and cold-twisted bars; hard-drawn wire fabrics and
rolled steel sections conforming to respective Indian Standards codes are used for reinforcing
the structural concrete.
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General 21
1.10.2.1 MildS Steel and Medium Tensile Bars Conforming to IS : 432 (Part I) 1982
Mild steel (grade I) bars are plain round and hot-rolled are most commonly used for reinforcing
the conrete. These bars have plain surface and have sufficient bond with concrete. These bars
need hooks and bends at their ends for anchorages. These bars are bent easily and are weldable.
These bars are manufactured in 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 mm nominal size (with 255 N/mm2 as
yield stress and 412 N/mm2 as ultimate tensile stress). These bars are also produced in 22, 25,
28, 32, 36, 40, 45 mm nominal size (with 236 N/mm2 yield stress and 412 N/mm2 as ultimate
tensile stress). Mild steel (grade II) bars are manufactured in the above mentioned nominal
sizes (with 231 N/mm2 as yield stress and 373 N/mm2 as ultimate tensile stress) and from
22 mm to 50 mm nominal sizes (with 211 N/mm2 as yield stress and 373 N/mm2 as ultimate
tensile stress). Medium tensile steel bars are manufactured in above nominal sizes upto
200 mm (with 353 N/mm2 as yield stress and 538 N/mm2 as ultimate tensile steel stress) and
from 22 mm to 40 mm nominal sizes (with 348 N/mm2 as yield stress and 538 N/mm2 as ultimate
tensile stress) and 45 mm and 50 mm nominal sizes (with 323 N/mm2 as yield stress and 538
N/mm2 as ultimate tensile stress).
1.10.2.2 Hot Rolled Deformed Bars IS : 1139–1966

These bars are also most commonly used for reinforcing the concrete. The yield stress for this
quality of steel is 412 N/mm2 and the ultimate tensile stress is 15 percent higher than the
measured yield stress.
1.10.2.3 Cold-twisted Bars Conforming to IS : 1786–1979

Cold-twisted bars are usually mild steel bars. The yield point of this quality of steel is eliminated
by cold working. Generally, twisting under controlled conditions results in a higher yield stress
H e ig ht of
S p acin g (pitch) d efo rm atio ns
(a ) b
b = w id th o f lo ng itud in al ga p D e form a tio n s

H e ig ht of de form a tion s
S p acin g (pitch)
b
(b )
θ
θ = A n gle be tw een D e form a tio n s

d eform a tions a nd a xis of ba r H e ig ht of de form a tion s
(c)
D e form a tio n s
Fig. 1.3 Cold-twisted deformed bars
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and consequently higher permissible (working) stress. These bars have lugs, ribs or deformations
on the surface, so that the bond strength with concrete is very high (at least 40 percent more
than that of plain bar of the same size). Because of high yield stress (415 N/mm2) and
deformations, this variety of steel is commonly referred as high yield strength deformed
bars (briefly referred as HYSD bars). Cold-twisted bars are manufactured in 6, 8, 10, 12,
16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 50 mm nominal sizes. Cold-twisted bars are also
produced with high yield stres of 500 N/mm2. These two varieties of this steel are referred as Fe
415 and Fe 500, respectively. Fe 415 variety of this steel is very commonly used. Because of
high bond with concrete, these bars do not need hooks and bends at their ends for anchorage.
Cold-twisted deformed bars are shown in Fig. 1.3.
1.10.2.4 Hard-drawn Steel Wire Fabrics Conforming to IS : 1566–1982

Hard-drawn steel wire fabrics are occasionally used for reinforcing floor slabs, flat and shell
roof etc. These are also used as secondary reinforcement in developing fire resistance and in
some precast concrete like pipes. Square-mesh and oblong-mesh are also made by welding wire
fabrics. Square-mesh fabrics have wires of the same size and spacing in both directions. Oblong-
mesh fabrics have transverse wires that are smaller and more widely spaced than the main
longitudinal wires.
1.10.2.5 Rolled Steel Made from Structural Steel Conforming to IS : 226–1975

Mild steel bars of grade-I with all nominal sizes mentioned above and grade-II with nominal
sizes upto 20 mm have the chemical composition of steel conforming to IS : 226–1975.
1.11 STORAGE OF MATERIALS

Materials such as cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, steel and other construction materials
are stacked and stored at site as per general guidance specified in IS : 4082–1977. Following
instructions briefly described may be followed for storing the above mentioned materials.
1.11.1 Cement
Cement bags are stored in dry and water proof sheds on platforms raised about 0.2 m above
ground level and about 0.30 m clear-off the walls. These cement bags are taken and used in
order to which these are received. Hydrophobic cement may be stored for long period.
1.11.2 Aggregate
Fine and coarse aggregates are stacked separately on hard surface or on platforms. It is seen
that these aggregates do not intermix.
1.11.3 Reinforcing Steel Bars

The steel bars are stacked about 0.15 m above the ground level. Bars of different classification,
size and lengths are stored separately. Cement wash (coat) is applied to bars stored for long
period or stored in coastal areas.
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General 23
1.12 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The various tests for concrete, namely, slump test, compaction factor test, compressive strength
test and flexural strength tets have been described in author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures,
Vol. I.
Various properties of concrete relating to its strength have been described in Art. 2.14. Other
most important properties of concrete are workability (for concrete in its fresh state) and
durability (for concrete in its hardened state). These two properties of concrete are described
here as following.
1.12.1 Workability
Workability of concrete is scientifically defined as that property of concrete which decides the
quantum of useful internal work necessary to produce full compaction. IS : 6461 (Part-VII)–
1973 defines workability is that property of freshly mixed concrete which determined the ease
and homogenity with which it can be mixed, placed in the formwork, compacted and finished.
A fresh concrete should satisfy number of requirements. A concrete mix should be stable (viz.,
it should not segregate during transportation and compaction). The tendency of bleeding (excess
of water coming up and resulting in small pores in concrete) should be minimum. The concrete
mix should be cohesive and mobile sufficient to be placed around the reinforcement. It should
be possible to cast into the required shape. A concrete mix may be placed easily in large sections
with minimum reinforcement. At the same time, it is difficult to place concrete mix in thin
sections with heavy reinforcement. The proper and thorough compaction of mix concrete should
be possible in placing the concrete and with the available facilities of compaction. Sometimes, it
is difficult to compact by hand. In that case, the concrete mix may be compacted satisfactorily
by mechanical vibrator. The workability of a concrete mix may be controlled by measurement
of water.
The workability of a fresh concrete mix may be measured by different methods (viz., by
carrying out slump test, compacting factor test, and Vee-Bee test).
1.12.1.1 Slump Test

A slump test is essentially a measure of consistency or the wetness of a concrete mix. A vessel
having the shape of frustum of a cone and open at the both ends is placed on a flat surface and
filled with freshly mixed concrete in four layers of equal thickness. Each layer is compacted by
25 strokes with a standard tampering rod 16 mm in diameter and 600 mm in length. The vessel
is carefully raised so that the concrete filling is not disturbed. Free concrete is allowed to subside
or settle. A vertical settlement of concrete mix noted in mm is called as slump.
A concrete mix used for road work or mass concrete needs a slump (20–30) mm or (25–30)
mm, respectively. Whereas for beam and slabs, and for columns and retaining wall, the values
of slump adopted are (50–100) mm, and (75 to 150) mm, respectively. For vibrated concrete a
slump of (12 to 25) mm is adopted. A slump of (25 to 125) mm shows that the concrete mix is
having medium to high workabilities. A slump of zero shows that the concrete mix is very stiff.
It does not indicate any difference in concrete of different workabilities.
In slump test, the apparatus and test procedure are simple. As such, this test is widely used
for concrete works. This method has been described in detail in author’s book, Design of Concrete
Structures, Vol. I.
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1.12.1.2 Compacting Factor Test

Compaction factor test depends on the definition of workability expressed as internal work.
The compability, (that is, the quantum of work necesary to compact the given mass of concrete)
is an important aspect of workability. An indirect procedure is used in this test to measure the
workability. The degree of compaction obtained is found for known quantum of work.
Two conical hoppers with quick release doors at the bottom of each hopper placed one above
the other are used. The concrete mix is filled in the uppermost hopper and its door is opened
and the concrete falls in the middle hopper. The door of middle hopper is also opened and the
concrete is allowed to fall in a third cylindrical vessel. The concrete mass, m1 in third vessel is
measured. Later on, the concrete in third cylindrical vessel is filled in 50 mm layers and compacted
each time and its mass, m2 is again found. The ratio of (m1/m2) termed as compaction factor is
determined.
The compactor factors of 0.9 and 0.8 show that the concrete mixes have medium and low
workability. This method is more accurate and used in laboratory conditions. However, it is not
suitable for the concrete mix having very low workability (i.e., a compaction factor of 0.7 and
below. This method has been described in detail in author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures,
Vol. I.
1.12.1.3 Vee-bee Test

The stiff concrete mixes having low or very low workability is tested by Vee-bee test. In this
test, the advantage is, a similar treatment is given to the concrete mix, as it would receive in
actual practice. In this test, an index (termed as Vee-bee time defined as the time taken for the
concrete surface to uniformly adhere to the glass disc or rider of the apparatus) is found. It is
observed by visual inspection.
Table 1.11
Values of workability
Degree of
Conditions of placing workability Slump Compaction Wee-bee
factor time
Concrete in shallow sections with Very low — 0.75 – 0.80 20 – 10 sec
vibration
Concrete in lightly reinforced Low — 0.80–0-85 10–5 sec
sections with vibrations
Concrete in lightly reinforced Medium 5 – 75 mm 0.85–0.92 5 – 2 sec
sections without vibration or for 20 mm
heavily reinforced sections with aggregate
vibration
Concrete in heavily reinforced High 75 – 125 mm Above —
sections without vibration for 20 mm 0.92
aggregate
( Note. For smaller aggregate the slump values will be lower.
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General 25
A source of error is introduced in this test, due to difficulty of establishing the end point. If
the time is very short (2 to 5) seconds, it becomes more difficult. This test is not suitable for
concrete mixes of high workability having a value of slump as 75 mm or above.
The quantity of water, the material and mix proportions of aggregate and the environmental
conditions are the various factors which influence the workability of a fresh concrete mix. The
workability increases with increase in quantity of water. Coarse aggregate of large size gives
higher workability as the total surface area and particles interference reduce. Use of fine sand
with corresponding increase in specific surface area needs more water for the same workability.
For some conditions of placing of concrete, the concrete mix may have values of workability
measured in accordance with IS : 1199–1959, in the range given in Table 1.11. This method
has been described in detail in Author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. I.
1.12.2 Durability
Durability of concrete is defined and interpreted as its resistance to deteriorating influences
which may be negligence present inside the concrete itself or which are inherent in the
environment in which the concrete is placed. Sometimes, the ingradients of concrete may have
deleterious material and it is not known before hand. And sometimes, it may not be imagined
that the concrete is likely to place in harmful environment. Under such circumstances, the
problems use to arise for durability of concrete.
External forces (weathering, attack by natural or industrial liquids and gases, bacterial
growth, etc.) or internal forces (harmful alkali aggregate reactions, volume change due to non-
compatibility of thermal and mechanical properties of aggregate and cement paste, presence of
sulphates and chlorides in ingradients of concret reduce the durability of concrete.
The possibility of corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete increases when the moisture or air
enters the concrete. It leads to an increase in volume of steel. The concrete cover may crack and
spill.
Concrete may be made durable by following specified limits in IS : 456–1978 for maximum
water-cement ratio, minimum cement content, cover thickness, type of cement and quantity of
chlorides and sulphates in concrete etc. By following the specified limits taken together, a
dense, workable and placeable concrete may be prepared. The concrete will also have as low as
permeability as possible.
1.13 METHODS OF DESIGN

There are three basic methods for the design of reinforced concrete structures and structural
members, namely working stress method, ultimate load method and limit state method. All the
three methods use certain common basic assumptions e.g., the distribution of strain across a
section is considered as linear and the strength of concrete in tension is usually neglected
(except in certain cases in the design of liquid containing structures). Other assumptions differ
from method to method.
In 1900, the working stress method of Coignet and Tedesco became commonly accepted. In
this method, the straight line (elastic) theory was the conventional method of design for the
other materials. The straight-line distribution of stress led to mathematical simplification. The
tests had also shown that the use of elastic theory with carefully adopted values for the allowable
working stresses led to a structure displaying satisfactory behaviour at the service loads. This
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method has an adequate margin of safety against collapse. Thus, this theory has been the
basis of design of reinforced concrete structures and the structural members for many years.
The method of analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures and the structural members
should be such that, it satisfies functional, aesthetic and economic requirement in the most efficient
manner. It should be capable of predicting the realistic behaviour of structures when subjected to
various design loads and gives satisfactory design which remains safe and serviceable throughout
its life.
The ultimate strength theories, e.g., Thullie’s flexural theory of 1897 and the parabolic stress-
distribution theory of Ritter in 1899 remained the basis for the several of the early studies of
reinforced concrete members. Recently, there has been renewed interest in ultimate strength
theory as a basis of design. The practical experience of more than half a century and laboratory
tests have vastly enhanced the knowledge of the behaviuor of the structural concrete. The
deficiencies of the working stress method (elastic theory) became evident. It became increasingly
apparent that a method of design should be based on the actual inelastic properties of the
concrete and steel. Thus, the ultimate strength method of design became accepted as an
alternative to working stress method in the building codes for reinforced concrete of the American
Concrete Insitutute (ACI) in 1956 and of the United Kingdom in 1957.
These three methods for the design of reinforced concrete members have been described in
subsequent Sections.
1.14 ELASTIC (WORKING STRESS) METHOD OF DESIGN

The working stress method is deterministic in nature. In this method, the behaviour of the
structure is assumed to act as linearly elastic body under the action of service loads.
The elastic (working) stress method of design of reinforced concrete member is also known
as elastic method of design or modular ratio method. The method of elastic design of a structure
is defined as a method which limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure
upto a certain load at which the maximum stress in extreme fibre reaches the characteristic
strength of material in bending. This method is a conventional method of design and in use
since early 1900’s. The behaviour of structure is considered under working or service loads
only. It is assumed that both concrete and steel behave perfectly elastically and the relationship
between stress and strain is linear. It is also assumed that there is no slip between the concrete
and the reinforcing steel bars (i.e., there exists a perfect grip or adhesion between concrete and
steel). The strain in steel, εs and strain in concrete, εc at the level where the concrete completely
surrounds the steel bars are equal. Therefore,
εs = εc(σp/Es) = (σc/Ec)
or σs = εc . (Es/Ec) = m . σc ...(1.2)
where σs and σc are the stresses in steel bar and concrete, respectively and Es and Ec are
moduli of elasticity of steel and concrete respectively. The ratio of Es and Ec is modular ratio
and it is denoted by m.
The structures are analysed by the linear elastic theory and the members are proportioned
such that the stresses in concrete and steel resulting from the normal service loads are within
the specified limits (limits of allowable or working or permissible presses). The allowable stresses
are only some fractions of the failure stresses of the material. The allowable stresses are adopted
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General 27
as fixed proportions of the yield strength of the material; e.g., for compression in bending, it is
assumed 0.45 times the cylindrical strength of the concrete.
Concrete responds reasonably elastically upto compression stresses not exceeding about half
its strength. Steel remains elastic practically upto the yield stress. The normal service loads are
the maximum loads, which are likely to arise in normal use throughout the life-time of the
structure. The factor of safety accounts for unpredictable over loads. The bending moment and
other forces that act on statically indeterminate structures are calculated assuming linear-
elastic behaviour.
The working stress method of design has many difficulties and deficiencies. This method is
physically unreal and unnecessarily, it leads to conservative design. The maximum stress may
occur at one critical section in the structure and the safety is being evaluated for a very local
effect, whereas the structure may take higher loads. The linear stress-strain relationship for
reinforced concrete structure assumed is not correct. The degree of safety against collapse
varies with the end conditions and type of loading. The elastic analysis gives moments and
shears generally on the safe side, but their use involves at least a philosophical inconsistency.
Although the width of cracking is not usually calculated, but it should be noted that the influence
of the cracking of some of the members and the influence of joints where beam and column
have a common section may modify the usual (based on members with a constant EI, often
based on gross concrete section) calculated moments more than most designers realize. There is
no simple way to account for different degree of various kinds of loads. Commonly the dead
load (gravity load due to self-weight of the structural elements and the permanently
attachments) is known more correctly. But the live loads as prescribed in code may have known
and variable distribution. The creep and shrinkage, which are time-dependent effects on a
strucuture are not easily accounted for by the elastic calculations of the stresses. The stress in
concrete is not proportional to strain upto its crushing strength. The inherent safety provided
remains unknown.
1.15 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD

There are two principal drawbacks in the working stress method, the distribution of stress over
a section at failure differs markedly from that under service loads. And the sections having
large cross-sectional area of compression steel are uneconomic as the complete section fails
under the collapse or ultimate load before the full strength of its components is utilised. The
ultimate load method came in practice in 1957 to overcome the shortcomings of working stress
method.
In the ultimate load method of design, the reinforced concrete structures are designed to
have the required ultimate load carrying capacity with appropriate load factors for the operating
loads and the structural members are designed to develop the corresponding ultimate strength
with appropriate load factors. In case of statically determinate structures, the ultimate load
carrying capacity is controlled by the ultimate strength of the section subjected to the critical
combination of loads and moments. However, in case of statically indeterminate strucutres,
the load carrying capacity of the structure does not come to an end by failure of one section.
The redistribution of moments take place as a result of formation of plastic hinges. The methods
of determining the collapse mechanism of an indeterminate structure for different combination
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of ultimate loads and for the given properties of the structure and its members are not covered
by code IS : 456–1964. In ultimate load method, the service loads are raised by multiplying by
load factors to get the ultimate loads. The structures are analysed for the ultimate loads. The
non-linear behaviour of the structure and non-linear stress-strain relationship are considered.
The method of ultimate design of a structure is defined as a method which limits the structural
usefulness of the material of the structure upto ultimate load. The ultimate load method of
analysis is also called as method of limit analysis. It is a means of assessing the ultimate
(collapse) load of a structure.
In ultimate strength design of reinforced concrete structures and the structural members,
besides the common assumptions, it is further assumed that at ultimate strength, stresses and
strains are not proportional and the distribution of compressive stress in a section subjected to
bending is non-linear. The diagram of compressive concrete stress distribution may be assumed
a rectangle, trapezoidal, parabola or any other shape which results in ultimate strength in
reasonable agreement with test. The maximum fibre stress in concrete does not exceed 0.68
times ultimate cube strength of concrete in compression. The members are proportioned such
that they are capable of carrying without failure the critical load combinations. It is ensured
that there is ample of safety against increased in super imposed service loads. The strains under
under working loads should not be so large as to cause excessive cracking.
The reinforced concrete structural members are designed considering the inelastic strains to
arrive the ultimate (maximum) strength (i.e., the concrete at maximum strength and usually
the steel at yielding) when the ultimate load, equal to the sum of each service load multiplied
by its respective load factor is applied to the structure. The bending moments and forces,
developed at the ultimate load are found assuming linear-elastic behaviour of the structure
upto the ultimate load. Alternatively, the bending moments and forces developed are obtained
by considering the redistribution of action that may occur because of the non-linear relationships
that exist between the actions and deformations in the members at high loads.
Many ultimate load theories came in practice. Different idealised stress-strain curves have
been assumed in different theories. Whitney’s ultimate load theory became most popular due
to simplification. The actual parabolic compressive stress distribution from neutral axis upto
the extreme fibre in compression in bending was replaced by rectangular stress distribution
diagram. The areas of two stress distribution diagrams were considered equal and the line of
action of resultant compressive force through centre of gravity was kept unaltered.
The trend towards the ultimate load design continued for some of the reasons as below:
At high loads, the reinforced concrete sections behave inelastically. The ultimate strength of
the members cannot be reliably predicted by the elastic theory as inelastic strains are not
considered. A more rational selection of the load factors may be made in the ultimate strength
design. For exactly known values of the loads, a low factor may be used (e.g., in dead loads and
for less certain loads (e.g., live loads), a higher load factor is used.
The stress-strain relationship for concrete is non-linear. It is also time dependent. The creep
strains for concrete under constant sustained loads may be many times the initial elastic strain.
The creep strains cause a substantial redistribution of stress in reinforced concrete. The reserve
strength is utilised in the ultimate strength design. The high strengh reinforcement is efficiently
used in the ultimate strength. The ductility of the structure in the post-elastic range may be
evaluated in the ultimate strength design.
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General 29
The ultimate load method of design has serious limitations and drawbacks. This method
cannot predict the response of the structure to service loads. The serviceability considerations
are equally important as strength requirements. Excessive deflections and cracking are the
common causes of damage in reinforced concrete structures and the structures may become
unserviceable and unsafe. The variations which are likely to occur in the loads and in the
strength of materials are not considered in this method.
1.16 LIMIT STATE METHOD

In view of the problems, deficiencies and drawbacks of the working stress method and ultimate
load method, the limit state design concepts looked very attractive. The Limit State Design is
a design procedure which aims to achieve both acceptable service load behaviour and sufficient
strength. The brief history of development of this method is as follows :
In as early as 1930, the limit state philosophy received thought in Soviet Union. Professor
Zalesove, A.S. [Methods of Design for Reinforced Concrete Structures Used in the USSR, Journal
of American Concrete Institute, Vol. 70, No. 10, October, 1973, (pp. 682–686)] pointed out that
the limit state approach was embodied in the Russian Code in 1954. Professor Baker, A.L.L.
[Discussion of a Paper by Rome et al, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 44, No. 4, April, 1966, (pp.
127)], stated that except for absolutely unforeseenable events, a zero probability of failure is
demanded from the designer. Professors Rome, R.E., Cranston, W.B., Best, B.S. published a
paper titles as New Concepts in the Design of Structural Concrete, the structural Engineer Vol.
43, No. 12, December, 1965, (pp. 399–403). Professor Freudenthal, A.M. [Safety and Probability
of Structural Failure, Transactions, ASCE Vol. 121, 1956, (pp. 1337–1375)] and [The Safety of
Structures, transactions, ASCE, Vol. 112,1947, (pp. 125)] stated that the difference between
safe and unsafe design is in the degree of risk considered acceptable, not in the delusion that
such a risk may be completely eliminated.
A probabilistic approach for the structural safety, taking into consideration the expected
variations in load and strength, was introduced, first time, in the stuctural design in the aircraft
industry in the late 1940’s. A composite international body of research workers and practising
designers, namely ‘European Committee of Concrete, CEB’, was set up in 1953 with the object
of providing a sound philosophy of design, together with recommendations on the detailed
aspects of design based on experimental and theoretical research.
In 1964, the European Concrete Committee held in Paris, gave its recommendations to produce
International Code of Practice for Reinforced Concrete. A concept of limit state design was
introduced. It was proposed that the reinforced concrete structures be designed with reference
to several limit states. The most important limit states were strength at ultimate load (viz.,
limit state of collapse), deflections and crack widths at service load (viz., limit states of
serviceability). This approach is gaining acceptance in many countries.
Professor Cornell, C.A. [A Probability-based Structural Code Journal of the American Concrete
Institute, Vol. 66, December, 1969, (pp. 974–985)] proposed a code format for necessary safety
factor in the structural design. Professor Kemp, K.O., [Concept of Structural Safety, Civil
Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol. 68, February, 1973, (pp. 132–141)] extended
valid reasons for the application of classical reliability theory, in its present form.
According to the International Standard Organisation (TC 98, 1973), it is not commonly
needed that the structures should be designed to withstand effects of exceptional events like
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wars. The frequency of accidents or earthquakes is also ill-defined. The risk associated with
such events is limited.
In 1974, Profesor Ang. A.H.S. and Cornell also pointed out that the probability of an adverse
event or failure is virtually unavoidable. It was proposed that the failure should be interpreted
with respect to some predefined limit state. Professors Ellingwood, B.R., and Ang. A.H.S. [Risk-
Based Evaluation of Design Criterion, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No.
9, September, 1974, (pp. 1771–1788)] developed the methods to illustrate the quantitive analysis
of uncertainties and showed the effect of these uncertainties on the level of risk.
The International Standards Organisation aiming at unification of different methods of
structural calculations and ensuring safety of structures has recommended a semi-probabilistic
limit state method. On the basis of these recommendations, code of practice for design of reinforced
concrete structures, BS 5337, CP 110, IS : 456–1978 incorportated the philosophy of the limit
state.
The limit state design is design process which aims to ensure that the structure being designed
will not become unfit for the use for which it is needed during its design life (120 years) and
which it was designed (International Standard Organisation, TC 98–1973).
The structure may reach a condition at which it becomes unfit for use for one of many
reasons (e.g., collapse or excessive cracking) and each of these conditions is referred to as a
limit state. In limit state design each limit state is examined separately in order to check that it
is not attained. Assessment of whether a limit state is attained may be made on a probabilistic
basis. Each limit is examined in order to check whether there is an acceptable probability of it
not being achieved. Different acceptable probabilities are associated with the different limit
states. In fact, the partial safety factors and design criteria (which are described later) are chosen
to give similar levels of safety and serviceability to those obtained at present. However, typical
levels of risk in the design life a structure are taken to be 10–6 against collapse and 10–2 against
unserviceability occurring. Thus the chance of collapse occurring is remote and much less than
the chance of the serviceability limit state being reached.
The limit state design principles have been agreed internationally and set out in International
Standard IS : 2394 [16]. A limit state is a condition beyond which a structure or a part of a
structure would become less than completely fit for its intended use. Two limit states are
considered in code IS : 456–1978.
The limit state method of design is completely new concept. This method used a new approach
of statistical probability. A structure at collapse may attain a limit state due to overload and
excessive weakening of the materials at any critical section. The load and the materials are the
two factors which vary to considerable extent. The statistical probability of load and the materials
may be estimated which will limit the load and the state of the material.
In our country, more recently, it has been recognised in IS : 456–1978, Section-5, that the
reinforced concrete structural members are designed by method of limit state. In this method,
the best features of ultimate strength and working stress methods are combined.
The method of limit state design of a structure is defined as a method which limits the
structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load at which acceptable
limit of safety and serviceability are applied so that the failure of structure does not occur. In
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this method, a structure is designed to withstand safely all loads liable to act on it throughout
its life. Therefore, the collapse of structure will not take place. The design also satisfies the
serviceability requirements (such as, limitations on deflection and cracking). As such, the failure
of a structure will not occur due to excessive deflection, cracking, etc. The acceptable limits
applied for saftey and serviceability requirements before failure of a structure takes place is
termed as a limits state. A limit state is state at which one condition relating to a structure
attains a limiting or critical value. A limit state is reached when the loads or actions of a
structure are such that their effects (i.e., stresses in the members, or deflections or deformations
of the structure or member) exceed a specified critical value.
The design of structure is based on the characteristic values for applied loads and strength
of materials. The variations in the values of loads to be supported and the strength of materials
are considered while deriving their characteristic values. A condition is specified, for the loads,
so that the collapse of structure does not occur. Such a conditions is called as limit state of
collapse. Other conditions are specified for the serviceability, so that, the failure of structure
does not take place.
1.16.1 Limit State of Collapse

The limit state of collapse corresponds to the maximum load-carrying of the structure or a
section of the structure.
The maximum load carrying capacity is found either from loss of equilibrium of a part or the
complete structure when treated as a rigid body or from rupture of one or more critical sections,
or by transforming the structure into a mechanism or from buckling due to elastic or plastic
instability or overturning or elastic, plastic or creep deformation or cracking which may lead to
change of geometry. The resistance of member cross-section to bending, shear, torsion and
axial loads at any section shall be more than the respective value at section developed due to
the probable most unfavourable combination of the loads on the structure applying the
appropriate partial safety factors for loads.
1.16.2 Limit States of Serviceability

The limit state of serviceability corresponds to excessive deformations, wide cracking or excessive
vibration making the structure unserviceable.
It is dangerous to design the reinforced concrete members by the ultimate strength method
of design. Although, the adequate load factor is considered, the cracking and the deflections at
the working loads may be excessive. In case, the stresses in steel are high or the distribution of
bars is bad, there may be excessive cracking. In case the depth of sections is small, (i.e., the
members are shallow, which are possible in ultimate design), the deflections shall be critical.
This method denotes a condition beyond which a loss of utility or cause for public concern may
be expected.
The design of structure is checked and it is seen that the excessive deformation with respect
to normal use of structure, or premature or excessive cracking or excessive displacement
(deflection) with loss of equilibrium or excessive vibration does not occur due to maximum load
found above.
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In this book, the strength and serviceability approach of IS 456–1978 code (Seciton
5) is adopted throughout the text. This method considers the real behaviour of reinforced
concrete. This method is considered as most logical and it provides a revolutionary design
approach. Therefore, this method has been emphasized for the design of all the structural
members throughout this book. The method of limit state of design as such is still in the
development stage in United States. A number of countries in Europe have moved in this
direction.
1.17 PLASTIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The method of plastic analysis and design of a structure is defined as a method which limits the
structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto ultimate load. This method has been
simply touched here in order to describe the redistribution of moments in Chapter 6 ‘Design of
Continuous Beams’. The plastic method of analysis is also referred as Limit Analysis.
In the elastic analysis, it is always possible to calculate the value of a single load needed to
produce a specific stress at a particular point in a structure. In the limit analysis, it is often not
possible to obtain a unique value for the collapse load of a structure. It is always to state that
the collapse load is between two values known as lower and upper bounds of the collapse load.
For certain structures, coincidential lower and upper bounds values are equal and therefore,
the unique value of collapse load is found. However, it is not the general case. Two distinct
types of analysis within the limit analysis are as following.
1.17.1 A Lower Bound Method

The lower bound method provides a value of the collapse load which one is either less than or
equal to the correct value of collapse load. A lower bound to the collapse load is the load
corresponding to any statically admissible stress (or the stress resultant) field which no where
voilates the yield criterion. A statically admissible stress field is one in which everywhere the
equilibrium conditions are satisfied for the structure. It means that the section strength at
each point of the structure should not be exceeded. It is also important to note that neither
deformations in any form nor stiffness are mentioned while considering lower bound method.
It is safe method to determine the value of collapse load.
1.17.2 An Upper Bound Method

An upper bound method provides a value of collapse load which is either more than or equal to
the correct value of collapse load. The procedure for the determination of an upper bound
value to the collapse load may be considered in terms of assuming a valid collapse mechanism
and equating the internal plastic work to the work done by the external loads. An upper bound
method is unsafe method for calculating the collapse load for the highly in determinate
structures.
1.18 REQUIREMENTS OF DESIGN

The structures and the structural members are designed to satisfy the three basic requirements,
viz., strength, stability and stiffness.
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1.18.1 Strength Requirements

According to the strength requirements, all the sections of the structures and the structural
members should have its actual strength, which must be large enough to resist, with some
margin to spare, the structural effects of all foreseen loads and forces that occur during the
construction and use throughout the life of the structure, without failure or other distress. The
structural members are so proportioned, (i.e., the dimensions of concrete sections and
reinforcement are selected), so that, the strength of members are sufficient to resist forces
resulting from even certain imaginary overload stages (significantly above loads expected
actually to occur in service).
1.18.2 Stability Requirements

According to the stability requirements the structures and structural members are safe guarded
against overturning and sliding (horizontal forward movement). Live loads having favourable
effect are not considered for these purposes. The possibility of soil being permanently or
temporarily removed is also kept into consideration.
1.18.2.1 Overturning
The stability of a structure as a whole against overturning is verified so that the restoring
movement is more than the sum of 12 times the maximum overturning due to characteristic
dead load and 1.4 times the maximum overturning moment due to the characteristic imposed
loads. In cases, where the dead loads provide the restoring moments, only 0.9 times the
characteristic dead load are considered. The restoring movement due to imposed loads (live
loads) are not considered. The anchorages or counter weights provided for overchanging
members (during construction and service) should be such that static equilibrium remains
even when the overturning moment is doubled.
1.18.2.2 Sliding
The factor of safety against sliding of structures should be more than 1.4 under the most
adverse combination of the applied characteristic forces. In this case only 0.9 times the
characteristic dead load should be considered. IS : 1904–1978 states that the factor of safety
against sliding of structures which resist lateral forces (e.g., retaining walls) should be more
than 1.5 when dead load, live load and earth pressures are considered together with wind or
seismic forces. When the dead load, live load and earth pressures are only considered, the
factor of safety should be more than 1.75.
1.18.3 Stiffness Requirements

In order to meet the stiffness requirements for the structure as a whole and for the structural
members, the limitations for deflections are specified. The deflection of the structure or part
thereof should not adversely affect the appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or
partitions. The relative stiffnesses of structural members are found for the analysis of
indeterminate structures. IS : 456–1978 permits three assumptions, for calculating the relative
stiffnesses of members. The moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete section may be found on
the following basis.
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l The gross cross-section of a member neglecting the reinforcement may be used. It may
be used for convenience and but it is not reasonable.
l The transformed or equivalent section (viz., cross-sectional area of concrete plus the
area of steel reinforcement transformed by using modular ratio) may be used. It is most
rational.
l The cracked section (viz., area of concrete in compression plus the area of reinforcement
transformed as equivalent area by using modular ratio) is used. It is also rational, when
the section is a cracked section.
1.19 DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS

The construction of concrete structures involves four parties, viz., the owners, the designers,
(engineers and architects), the fabricators and the constructors. The acceptable standard of
quality of materials and workmanship in fabrication are defined in the specifications. The
designers prepare three types of specifications, viz., project specifications, material standards
and design codes. The object of drafting specifications and preparing codes is to achieve economy
in the use of materials and the cost of construction without sacrificing the safety. The project
specifications describe complete information about the owner’s and the engineer’s requirements
for the completed structures. The material standards describe the quality of materials and
their economic use. The design codes incorporate the following :
1. General guidance as regards the various loads
2. Working (allowable) stresses
3. Methods of design and structural analysis and procedures
4. Generally accepted uniformly throughout the country.
For complex and time consuming formulae and provisions of designs, the tables are included
in the code, which reduce the design calculations. Various professional associations, institutes
and government agencies prepare codes and specifications.
United States does not have an official or national code governing institutes. The responsibility
for preparing and maintaining design specifications rests with various professional groups,
trade associations and technical institutes. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) has long
been a leading institute and it has published the widely recognized ‘Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete’. It serves as a guide in the design and construction of reinforced
concrete buildings. The American Concrete Institute also publishes important journals and
standards, as well as recommendations for the analysis and design of special structures such as
tanks. Most of highway bridges in the United States are designed according to the requirements
of AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) bridge
specifications. The design of railway bridges is done according to specifications of AREA (American
Railway Engineering Association) Manual of Railway Engineering.
In United Kingdom, the design of reinforced concrete is based largely on British Standards
and BS codes of practice. The structural use of concrete (CP 110 : Parts 1, 2 and 3), the structural
use of normal reinforced concrete in buildings (CP 114), the structural use of concrete for
retaining aqueous liquids (BS 5337), steel concrete and composite bridges (BS 5400), Part 2 :
Specifications for loads, Part 4 : Design of concrete bridges, loading (CP 3 : Chapter V)...etc. are
British Standards and Codes in practice. In addition to these, National Building Regulations
and the London Building (Constructional) By-laws are also used.
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In India, Indian Standard Institute (Bureau of Indian Standards), Indian Road Congress
(IRC) and Ministry of Railways and Railway Board have prepared and published various
codes and specifications. IS : 456–1953 (Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and
Reinforced Concrete for General Building Construction) was published in 1953. This code was
then revised in 1957 and referred as IS : 456–1957. It was again revised and issued in 1964 as
IS : 456–1964, under modified title Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete. The
scope of use of this code was thus enlarged. This code mainly deals with the working stress
method. The ultimate load method of design is also given in its Appendix B. For the design of
reinforced concrete structural members and the structures, following the working stress method,
reference may be made in Author’s book Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. I. The present
revision IS : 456–1978 was published to bring further classifications and modifications in the
light of experience gained and the rapid development in the field of concrete technology. SI
units have been used in this code and number of important changes were also incorporated.
The working stress method of design is given in this code in Section 6, and the limit state
method of design is given in Section 5. In this book, the reinforced concrete structural
members and the structures have been designed following the limit state method of
design. The limit state method is a rationalisation of the ultimate load method. The limit state
method of design gives more economical design as compared to the working stress method.
The various Indian Standards for aggregates and apparatus for testing aggregates, cements,
cement sampling and cement tests, concrete, concrete design and construction and concrete
testing and for reinforcement have been grouped and listed as below. The special publications
for reinforced concrete are also listed.
AGGREGATES AND APPARATUS FOR TESTING AGGREGATES

1. 9103–1979 Admixtures for concrete
2. 383–1970 Aggregates, coarse and fine, from natural sources for concrete
3. 5640–1970 Method of test for determining aggregates impact value of
soft coarse aggregates
4. 2430–1986 Methods for sampling of aggregates for concrete
5. 2386 (Part 1)–1963 Methods of test for aggregates for concrete (Particle size and
shape)
6. 2386 (Part 2)–1963 Estimation of deleterious materials and organic impurities
7. 2386 (Part3)–1963 Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and buckling
8. 2386 (Part 4)–1963 Mechanical properties
9. 2386 (Part 5)–1963 Soundness
10. 2386 (Part 6)–1963 Measuring mortar making properties of fine aggregates
11. 2386 (Part 7)–1963 Alkalies aggregates reactivity
12. 650–1966 Standard sand for testing of cement
13. 9377–1979 Apparatus for aggregate impact value
14. 9376–1979 Apparatus for measuring aggregate crushing value and ten
percent fines value
15. 10079–1982 Cylindrical metal measures for use in tests of aggregate and
concrete
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16. 10070–1982 Machine for abrasion testing of coarse aggregate

17. 10086–1982 Moulds for use in tests of cement and concrete
18. 3812 Part III Fly ash for use as fine aggregate for mortar and concrete
19. 2430–1969 Methods of sampling of aggregates for concrete
20. 6925–1973 Methods of test for determination of water soluble chlorides
as concrete admixtures.
CEMENTS, CEMENT SAMPLING AND CEMENT TESTS

1. 4845–1968 Definitions and terminology relating to hydraulic cement
2. 6452–1972 High alumina cement for structural use
3. 8112–1976 High strength ordinary Portland cement
4. 3535–1986 Hydraulic cements, methods of sampling
5. 4031–1968 Hydraulic cement, physical tests for, methods
6. 8043–1978 Hydraulic Portland cement
7. 4032–1985 Method of chemical analysis of hydraulic cement
8. 8229–1986 Oil-well cement
9. 269–1976 Ordinary and low heat Portland cement
10. 1489–1976 Portland– Pozzolana cement
11. 8041–1978 Rapid hardening Portland cement
12. 455–1976 Slag cement, Portland
13. 650–1966 Standard sand for testing of cement
14. 6909–1973 Super sulphated cement
15. 8042–1978 White Portland cement
16. 5514–1969 Apparatus used in Lechatelier’s test
17. 11262–1985 Clorimeter for determination of heat of hydration of hydraulic
cement
18. 5536–1969 Constants flow type air–permeability apparatus (Lea and
Nurse Type)
19. 11263–1985 Cylinder measures for determination of air content of
hydraulic cement mortar
20. 10078–1982 Jolting apparatus used for testing of cement
21. 10890–1984 Planetary mixer used in tests of cement and Pozzalana
22. 5516–1969 Variable flow type air–permeability apparatus (Blaine type)
23. 10510–1983 Vee-bee consistometer
24. 10080–1982 Vibrator machine
25. 5513–1976 Vicate apparatus
26. 7509–1974 Thermal insulating cements (Type 750)
27. 7510–1974 Thermal insulating cements (Type 350)
28. 2645–1975 Integral cement water proofing compounds
29. 5724–1970 Methods of tests for thermal insulating cement
30. 4031–1968 Method of physical test for Hydraulic cement.
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CONCRETE, CONCRETE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION,

AND CONCRETE TESTING
1. 7861–1975 Extremate weather concreting, code of Practice
(A) 7861 (Part 1)–1975 Recommended practice for hot weather concreting
(B) 7861 (Part 2) Recommended practice for cold weather concreting
2. 6461 (Part 1)–1973 Glossary of terms relating to cement concrete
3. 6241–1971 Methods of test for determination of stripping value of road
aggregate
4. 7325–1974 Apparatus for determining constituents or fresh concrete
5. 9399–1979 Apparatus for flexural testing of concrete
6. 9459–1980 Apparatus for use in measurement of length change of
hardened cement paste, mortar and concrete
7. 5515–1983 Compaction factor apparatus
8. 7320–1964 Concrete slump test apparatus
9. 456–1978 Plain and reinforced concrete code of practice
10. 1343–1980 Prestressed concrete
11. 10262–1982 Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design
12. 9012–1978 Recommended practice for short creting
13. 9284–1979 Abraison resistance of concrete method test
14. Autoclaved cellular concrete products
METHODS OF TEST
6441 (Part 1)–1972 Determination of unit weight or bulk density and moisture
content
6441 (Part 2)–1972 Determination of drying shrinkage
6441 (Part 4)–l 972 Corrosion protection of stress reinforcement in autoclave
cellular concrete
6441 (Part 5)–1972 Determination of compressive strength
6441 (Part6)–1973 Strength, deformation and cracking of flexural members
subjected to bending
— short duration loading test
6441 (Part 7)–1973 Strength deformation and cracking of flexural members
subjected to bending sustained to bending sustained loading
6441 (Part 8)–1973 Load tests for flexural members in diagonal tension
6441 (Part 9)–1973 Jointing of autoclaved cellular concrete elements
15. 8142–1976 Determining setting time of concrete by penetration resistance
test
16. 9013–1978 Making, curing and determining compressive strength of
accelerated cured concrete test specimens, method
17. 3085–1965 Permeability of cement mortar and concrete method of test
18. 2514–1963 Concrete vibrating tables
19. 7246–1974 Recommendations for use of table vibrators for consolidating
concrete
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20. 5816–1970 Method of test for splitting tensile strength of concrete cylinders
21. 2770 (Part I)–1967 Methods of testing bond in reinforced concrete
22. 516–1959 Method of test for strength of concrete
23. 4925–1968 Concrete Mixing and Rotating Plant
24. 1791–1968 Batch type concrete mixer
25. 5891–1970 Hand Operated Concrete Mixers
26. 5892–1970 Concrete transit mixers and Agitators
27. 2505–1968 Concrete vibrators immersion type
28. 2506–1964 Screed Board Concrete Vibrators
29. 3558–1966 Code for Practice for use of immersion vibrations for
consolidating concrete
30. 5452–1969 Autoclaved cellular concrete board
31. 5751–1970 Precast concrete copies blocks
36. 2185–1967 Hollow Cement Concrete Blocks
37. 6041–1971 Code of Practice for construction for autoclaved cellular
concrete block masonry
38. 6042–1969 Code of Practice for construction of light weight concrete block
Masonry
39. 2572–1963 Code of practice for construction of hollow concrete block
Masonry
40. 456–1978 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete
41. 3370 (Part I to VI) Code of Practice for Concrete Structures for the storage of
liquids
42. 7861–1971 Code of Practice for extreme weather concrete
43. 785–1964 Reinforced concrete poles for overhead power and
telecommunication lines
44. 2193–1962 Prestressed Concrete street lighting columns
45. 1332–1959 Reinforced Concrete street lighting columns
46. 2905–1966 Methods of test for poles for overhead power and
telecommunication lines
47. 1199–1959 Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete
48. 6003–1970 Intended wire for prestressed concrete
49. 1343–1960 Code of Practice for Prestressed Concrete
50. 10262–1982 Recommended guidelines for concrete mix–design
REINFORCEMENT
1. 1786–1966 Cold twisted steel bars for concrete reinforcement
2. 1139–1966 Hot rolled mild steel, medium tensile steel and high yield
strength deformed bars for concrete reinforcement
3. 432–1982 Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars and hard
Part 1, Part 2 drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement
Part 1. Steel bars
Part 2. Hand drawn
steel wire.
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General 39
4. 1566–1982 Fabric for concrete reinforcement Hard drawn steel wire

5. 5525–1969 Reinforcement for detailing of reinforcement in reinforced
concrete works
6. 2502–1963 Code of practice for bending and fixing of bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
7. 6006–1983 Uncoated stress relieved strand for prestressed concrete
8. 6003–1983 Indented wire for prestressed concrete
9. 1785–1983 Plain and Hard drawn steel wire for prestressed
Parts 1, 2 concrete
10. 6461 Part (3)–1972 Glossary of terms relating to cement concrete Part 3.
11. 1786–1985 High strength deformed steel bars and wires for Concrete
Reinforcement
12. 2090–1983 High tensile steel bars used in prestressed concrete
13. 10790–1984 Part–I Methods of sampling of steel prestressed and reinforced
concrete
10790–1984 Part–1 Prestressing
10790–1984 Part–2 Reinforcing
LOADS
IS : 875–1987 Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than Earthquake)
for Buildings and Structures
1. IS : 875 (Part–1) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1987 Dead Loads–Unit Weight of Building Materials and Stored
Materials
2. IS : 875 (Part–2) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1987 Imposed Loads
3. IS : 875 (Part–3) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1987 Wind Loads
4. IS : 875 (Part–4) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1987 Snow Loads
5. IS : 875 (Part–5) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1987 Special Loads and Load Combinations
In addition to above codes, Bureau of Indian Standards have published following Special
Publications (SP) which are useful as explanations for various provisions of codes and as an
aid to design concerning to this subject.
1. SP : 22 (S and T)–1982, Explanatory Handbook on Codes for Earthquake Engineering
(IS : 1893–1984 and IS : 4326–1976)
2. SP : 23–1982, Handbook of Concrete Mixes
3. SP : 24–1983, Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standards for Plain and Reinforced
Concrete, (IS : 456-1978).
4. SP : 25 (S and T)-1984, Handbook on Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings.
5. SP: 34 (S and T)-1987, Handbook on Concrete Requirement and Detailing.
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PART II : LOADS AND STRESSES
2 Loads and Stresses
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic aim of a structural engineer is to design the structures and structural members
which satisfy the functional and structural aspects. Both the aspects are inter-related. The
functional aspect takes into consideration the purpose for which the structure is designed and
built-up. This aspect includes the determination of amount and arrangement of space necessary
for the structure. The structure is able to perform satisfactorily the service for which it is designed.
The functional aspect includes the determination of location and arrangement of operating
utilities, special equipment, machinery or other features, incident to the proper functioning of
the structures. The preliminary layout of the structure is made. The preliminary layout of
structure is useful in determining the type of structure to be used, the general size, shape and
arrangement of the various parts of the structure. The approximate dimensions of structures
are established. These dimensions are used for the structural design.
In the structural aspect, it is ensured that the building or the structure is structurally safe,
strong, durable serviceable throughout its life time, aesthetically good in appearance and
economical. The safety of structures means that the structures should not fail under the loads
unless exceeded by a given margin technically termed as overload safety factors, the serviceability
means that the structures serve throughout their service life in both appearance and comfort.
That is, the cracking (if any) and the deflections due to the working loads should not be in
excess of their values specified in the code. The design should give the saving of materials used
(that will provide economy). Many structures are built to shelter human beings and to protect
them from the forces of nature. Occupants of the buildings or the structure should feel safe
with regard to their lives and properties. The safety of many individuals at one time depends
on the structural safety of the structures. The structures are designed between two limits viz.,
the structural safety and economy.
A substantial economy in cost of a structure is obtained by appropriate choice of structural
systems (for example, load bearing walls, frames, shear walls and their various combinations).
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Loads and Stresses 41
All the sections of the structures should have strength at least equal to the structural effects
of design loads and forces that occur during the construction and use. All the loads should be
taken into consideration which a building or a structure would be required to bear. The term
load includes both applied forces and imposed deformations, such as those caused by restraint
of movements due to changes in temperature. The nominal loads are very similar to those
which appear as working loads. A structure may be required to withstand any loads out of the
various loads or the combination of the various loads. These loads include overhead and other
cranes, equipments etc., in industrial buildings, occupancy etc., in buildings; vehicles on bridges;
water in hydraulic structures; loose materials for bins and bunkers and so on. For the purpose
of determining the maximum stresses in any structure or a structural member, the various
loads which are likely to act on the structure are given below:
1. Dead load 2. Live load (Imposed load)
3. Wind load 4. Snow load
5. Seismic load 6. Temperature effects
7. Shrinkage 8. Creep
In addition to the above loads and effects, following forces and effects are also considered
while designing the structures if these are liable to affect materially the safety and serviceability
of the structures.
1. Foundation movements
2. Elastic axial shortening
3. Soil and fluid pressure
4. Vibrations
5. Fatigue
6. Impact (Dynamic effects)
7. Erection loads
8. Stress concentration effect due to point load and the like.
The nominal loads are divided into three groups namely permanent, transient loads and
exceptional loads.
2.1.1 Permanent Loads

Permanent loads are defined as dead loads, superimposed dead loads, loads due to filling
materials, different settlement and loads derived from the nature of the structural material. In
concrete structures, it refers to shrinkage and creep.
2.1.2 Transient Loads

All loads other than the permanent loads referred to above are transient loads. These loads
include wind loads, temperature effects, exceptional loads, erection loads, etc.
2.1.3 Exceptional Loads

These loads include the loads due to otherwise unaccounted effects, such as earthquakes, stream
flows, ice packs, etc.
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2.2 DEAD LOADS (D.L.)

The dead loads (viz., the self-weight of the structural members), super-imposed dead loads and
loads due to filling materials are referred as permanent loads.
Dead loads are loads which are constant in magnitude and fixed in position throughout the
life time of the structure. Dead loads in a building comprises the self weight of the structure
and all other super-imposed loads (viz., all permanent constructions and installations including
weight of walls, partitions, floors, and roofs). The self-weight of the structure being unknown
in the beginning of the design, it is assumed by the designer in the light of experience and
thumb rules and formula available. The super-imposed dead loads are determined for the
various materials specified for the construction and unit-weight of materials. The unit weights
of plain concrete made with sand and gravel or crushed natural stone aggregate may be taken
as 24 kN/m3 and 25 kN/m3, respectively. On completion of design, total dead load is calculated
and checked with the dead load assumed for design and the design is revised, if necessary.
Table 2.1 gives the unit-weights of materials used in building construction. The dead loads are
also called as permanent loads as regards to the duration of their action.
Table 2.1 Unit weight of building materials, building parts and components IS : 875 (PART-I ) –
1987 (Extracts from Tables I and II of IS : 1911–1967, Schedule of unit-weight of materials)
No. Materials Nominal size or thickness Weight/mass
kN kg per
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Building Materials
l. Asbestos : Natural — 29.8 3040 m3
Raw 5.90 to 8.85 600 to 900 m3
2. Asbestos cement sheeting
corrugated (146 mm) 6 mm 0.118 to 12 m2
6 mm 0.130 13.3 m2
Semi-corrugated (240 mm) 6 mm 0.118 to 12 m2
6 mm 0.127 13 m2
Plain 5 mm 0.09 9.16 m2
3. Bitumen — 0.102 10.4 m2
4. Boards (cork)
Compressed 10 mm 0.04 4 m2
Ordinary 10 mm 0.02 2 m2
5. Bricks, chips and
broken bricks :
Fine — 14.2 1450 m3
Coarse — 9.9 1010 m3
6. Brick dust (Surkhi) — 9.9 1010 m3
7. Bricks (Engineering) — 12.2 2160 m3
8. Cement :
Ordinary and Aluminious — 14.10 1440 m3
Rapid hardening — 12.55 1280 m3
Contd.
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Table 2.1 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
9. Plain cement concrete
with sand and gravel or
crushed natural stone — 22 to 23.5 2240–2400 m3
10. Reinforced cement concrete
sandstone aggregate with—
1 percent steel — 22.75–2420 2310–2470 m3
2 percent steel — 23.25–24.80 2370–2530 m3
5 percent steel — 24.80–26.50 2530–2700 m3
11. Glass — 24.384 2480 m3
Glass bricks — 24.304 2480 m3
Window glass and 24.304 2480 m3
looking glass 24.304 2480 m3
Sheet 2.0 mm 0.049 5.0 m3
2.5 mm 0.062 6.3 m3
3.0 mm 0.074 7.5 m3
4.0 mm 0.098 10.0 m3
5.0 mm 0.123 12.5 m3
5.5 mm 0.134 13.7 m3
6.5 mm 0.167 17.0 m3
12. Gypsum :
Mortar — 11.75 1200 m3
Powder — 1389–1725 1410–1760 m3
13. Iron :
Pig — 70.60 7200 m3
Gray cast — 68.95–69.90 7030–7130 m3
White cast — 7430–7570 7530–7720 m3
Wrought — 75.50 7700 m3
14. Mastic asphalt 10 mm 0.215 22 m2
15. Metal sheeting
Galvanised steel sheets
(plain and corrugated)
Case 1 1.60 mm 0.131 13.31 m2
1.25 mm 0.104 10.50 m2
1.00 mm 0.084 8.60 m2
0.80 mm 0.069 7.03 m2
0.63 mm 0.056 5.70 m2
Case 2 1.60 mm 0.129 13.16 m2
1.25 mm 0.102 10.41 m2
1.00 mm 0.083 8.45 m2
0.80 mm 0.067 6.88 m2
0.63 mm 0.054 5.55 m2
Contd.
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Table 2.1 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Case 3 1.60 mm 0.128 13.01 m2
1.25 mm 0.101 10.26 m2
1.00 mm 0.081 8.30 m2
0.80 mm 0.066 6.73 m2
0.63 mm 0.053 5 40 m2
Case 4 1.60 mm 0.127 12.94 m2
1.25 mm 0.100 10.19 m2
1.00 mm 0.081 8.22 m2
0.80 mm 0.065 6.66 m2
0.63 mm 0.052 5.32 m2
16. Mortar :
Cement — 2040 2080 m3
Lime — 1570–1805 1600–1840 m3
17. Plaster :
Cement — 20.40 2080 m3
Lime — 17.25 1760 m3
18. Soils and gravels
Alluvial ground (undisturbed) — 15.60 1600 m3
Clay (dry and lump) — 10.20 1040 m3
Dry, (compact) — 14.10 1440 m3
Damp, (compact) — 17.25 1760 m3
Clay (wet and compact) — 20.40 2080 m3
Undisturbed — 18.85 1920 m3
Undisturbed bed gravelly Earth — 20.40 2080 m3
Dry — 13.85–18.05 1410–1840 m3
Moist Gravel — 15.70–19.60 1600–2000 m3
Loose — 15.70 1600 m3
Rammed — 18.85 – 21.20 1920–2160 m3
19. Stone :
Agate — 25.50 2600 m3
Aggregate — 15.70–18.85 1600–1920 m3
Basalt — 27.95–29.05 2850–2960 m3
Granite — 25.90–27.45 2640–2800 m3
Lime — 23.55–25.90 2400–2640 m3
Marble — 26.70 2720 m3
Sandstone 27.45 2800 m3
Contd.
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Table 2.1 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
20. Tiles clay : Mangalore pattern —
21. Timber :
Hard wood (e.g., Babul) — 6.27–9.41 640–960
Light wood (e.g., Fir) — 3.92–4.71 400–480
Medium (e.g., Deodar) — 4.71– 6.7 480–640
Building Parts and Components

22. Ceiling (on wire netting) 10 mm 0.265 27 m3
23. Flooring :
Asphalt 10 mm 0.22 22 m2
Terrazo paving 10 mm 0.24 24 m2
24. Roofing :
Allahabad tiles
(including battens)
Single — 0.83 85 m2
Double — 1.67 170 m2
Country tiles (with battens)
Single — 0.69 70 m2
Double — 1.18 120 m2
Mangalore tiles with battens — 0.64 65 m2
(tiles with mortar) — 1.08 110 m2
Slates (on battens) — 0.34 – 0.49 35–50 m2
Glazed with aluminium
alloy bars for span
upto 3 m 6.4 mm 0.19 195 m2
Glazed with lead covered
steel bars at
0.6 m centres 6.4 mm 0.25 – 0.28 26 – 29 m2
25. Wall :
Engg. bricks (in masonry) — 23.55 2400 m3
Stone (masonry)
Granite ashlar — 25.90 2640 m3
rubble — 23.55 2400 m3
Lime ashlar — 25.70 2560 m3
Marble dressed — 26.5 2700 m3
Sand stone — 22 2240 m3
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2.3 LIVE LOADS (L.L.)

Live loads are the loads which vary in magnitude and/or in positions. Live loads are also
known as imposed or transient loads. Live loads include any external loads imposed upon the
structure when it is serving its normal purpose. Live loads are assumed to be produced by the
intended use of occupancy in buildings including distributed, concentrated, impact and vibration
and snow loads. Live loads are expressed as uniformly distributed static loads (U.D.L.). Live
loads include the weight of materials stored, furniture and movable equipments. For buildings
in most cities, the loads imposed on floors, stairs and roofs are specified in codes. For design
purpose, certain live loads on floors have been assumed by many countries and which are
almost in agreement. Some efforts have been made at the international level to decide live
loads on floors and these have been specified in the International Standards 2103 (Imposed
floor loads in residential and public buildings and 2633 (Determination of imposed floor loads
in production buildings and warehouses). These codes have been published in the International
Organisation of Standardization.
Code IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987 defines the principal occupancy for which a building or part
of a building is used or intended to be used. The buildings are classified according to occupancy
as under as per IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987. An occupancy shall be deemed to include subsidiary
occupancies which are contingent upon.
2.3.1 Assembly Buildings

The assembly buildings including any building or part of a building where groups of people
gather together for amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar
purposes (e.g., theatres, motion picture houses, assembly halls, city halls, marriage halls,
townhalls, auditoria, exhibition halls, museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums, restaurants, places
of worship, dance halls, club rooms, passenger stations and terminals of air, surface and other
public transportation services, recreation piers and stadia, etc.).
2.3.2 Business Buildings

The business buildings include any building or part of a building, which is used to conduct
business (other than that covered in 6) for maintaining of accounts and records for similar
purpose, offices, banks, professional establishments, court houses, and libraries shall be classified
in this group so far as principal function of these is to deal with public business and the keeping
of books and records.
The office buildings are primarily used for office purposes, (e.g., purpose of administration,
clerical work, handling money, telephone and telegraph operating and operating and operating
computers, calculating machines). The clerical work includes writing, book-keeping, sorting
papers, typing, filing, duplicating, punching cards or tapes, drawing of matter for publication
and the editorial preparation of matter for publication).
2.3.3 Educational Buildings

The educational buildings include any building used for school, college or day-care purposes
involving assembly for instructions, education or recreation and which is not covered in 1).
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2.3.4 Industrial Buildings

The industrial buildings include any building or a part of a building or structure in which
products or materials of various kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed like
assembly plants, power plants, refineries, gas plants, mills, diaries, factories, workshops, etc.
2.3.5 Institutional Buildings

Institutional buildings include any building or a part thereof, which is used for purpose, such
as medical or other treatment in case of persons suffering from physical and mental illness,
disease or infirmity; care of infants, convalescents of aged persons and for penal or correctional
detention in which the liberty of the inmates is restricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily
provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants. These include hospitals, sanitoria, custodial
institutions or panel institutions (e.g., jails, prisons and reformations).
2.3.6 Mercantile Buildings

These buildings include building or a part of a building which is used as shops, stores, market
for display and sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail. Office, storage and service facilities
incidental to the sale of merchandise and located in the same building shall be included under
this group.
2.3.7 Residential Buildings

The residential buildings include any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided
for normal residential purposes with or without cooking and dining or both facilities (except
building covered in 5). These buildings include one or multi-family dwellings, apartment houses
(flats), lodging or rooming houses, restaurants, hostels, dormitories and residential hotels.
The dwellings include any building or part occupies by members of single/multi-family units
with independent cooking facilities. These also include apartment houses (flats).
2.3.8 Storage Buildings

The storage buildings include any building or part of building used primarily for the storage or
sheltering of goods, wares or merchandize, (e.g., warehouses, cold storages, freight depots,
transity sheds, store houses, garages, hangers, truck terminals, grain elevators, barns and
stables).
The imposed loads are the loads assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy
of a building, including the weight of movable partitions, distributed loads, concentrated loads,
loads due to impact and vibration, and dust load but excluding wind, seismic, snow and other
loads due to temperature changes, creep, shrinkage, differential settlement, etc. The imposed
loads are the largest loads those probably will be produced by the intended use or occupancy,
but shall not be less than the equivalent minimum loads specified in Table 2.2 subjected to any
reductions allowed by code IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987.
The floors are investigated for both the uniformly distributed loads (UDL) and the corresponding
concentrated loads specified in Table 2.2 and designed for the most adverse effects but these shall
not be considered to act simultaneously. The concentrated loads specified in Table 2.2 may be
assumed to act over an area of 0.3 m × 0.3 m. However, the concentrated loads may not be
considered where the floors are capable of effective lateral distribution of this load.
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Table 2.2 Imposed floor loads for different occupancies (As per IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987)
Sl. Occupancy Classification Uniformly Concentrated
No. Distributed Load
Load (UDL)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
(a) Dwelling houses: (kN/m 2) (kN)
(i) All rooms and kitchens 2.0 1.8
(ii) Toilet and bath rooms 2.0 —
(iii) Corridors, passages, staircases 3.0 4.5
including fire escapes and store rooms
(iv) Balconies 3.0 1.5 per metre run
concentrated at the
outer edge
(b) Dwelling units planned and executed
in accordance with IS : 8888–1989*
only :
(i) Habitable rooms, kitchens, toilet 1.5 1.4
and bathrooms
(ii) Corridors, passages and staircases 1.5 1.3
including fire escapes
(iii) Balconies 3.0 1.5 per metre run
concentrated at
outer edges
(c) Hotels, hostels, boarding houses,
lodging houses, dormitories, residential
clubs :
(i) Living rooms, bed rooms and 2.0 1.8
dormitories
(ii) Kitchens and laundries 3.0 4.5
(iii) Billiards room and public lounges 3.0 2.7
(iv) Storerooms 5.0 4.5
(v) Dining rooms, cafeterias and 4.0 2.7
restaurants
(vi) Office rooms 2.5 2.7
(vii) Rooms for indoor games 3.0 1.8
(viii) Baths and toilets 2.0 —
(ix) Corridors, passages, staircases 3.0 4.5
including fire escapes, lobbies —
as per the floor serviced (excluding
stores and the like) but not less than
Contd.
* Guide for requirements of low income housing.
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Table 2.2 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
(x) Balconies Same as rooms to which 1.5 per metre run
they give access but concentrated at the
with a minimum of outer edge
4.0
(d) Boiler rooms and plant room — to be 5.0 6.7
calculated but not less than
(e) Garages:
(i) Garage floors (including parking 2.5 9.0
area and repair workshop) for
passenger cars and vehicles not
exceeding 25 kN gross weight,
including access ways and ramps
— to be calculated but not less than
(ii) Garage floors for vehicles not 5.0 9.0
exceeding 40 kN gross weight
(including access ways and ramps)
— to be calculated but not less than
2. EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
(a) Class rooms and lecture rooms (not 3.0 2.7
used for assembly purposes)
(b) Dining rooms, cafterias and restaurants 3.0* 2.7
(c) Offices, lounges and staff rooms 2.5 2.7
(d) Dormitories 2.0 2.7
(e) Projection rooms 5.0 —
(f) Kitchens 3.0 4.5
(g) Toilets and bathrooms 2.0 —
(h) Store rooms 5.0 4.5
(i) Libraries and archives :
(1) Stack room/stack area 6.0 kN/m2 for a 4.5
minimum height of
2.2 m + 2.0 kN/m2 per
metre height beyond
2.2 m
(2) Reading rooms (without separate 4.0 4.5
storage)
(3) Reading rooms (with separate storage) 3.0 4.5
(j) Boiler rooms and plant rooms—to be 4.0 4.5
Contd.
* Where unrestricted assembly of persons is anticipated, the value of UDL should be increased to 40 kN/m2.
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Table 2.2 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
(l) Corridors, passages, lobbies, staircases 4.0 4.5
including fire escapes — as per the floor
services (without accounting for storage
and projection rooms) but not less than
(m) Balconies Same as rooms to 1.5 per metre run
which they give access concentrated at the
but with a minimum of outer edge
4.0
3. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS 2.0 1.8
(a) Bed rooms, wards, dressing rooms,
dormitories and lounges
(b) Kitchens, laundries and laboratories 30 4.5
(c) Dining rooms, cafeterias and 3.0* 2.7
restaurants
(d) Toilets and bathrooms 2.0 —
(e) X-ray rooms, operating rooms, general 30 4.5
storage areas — to be calculated but not
less than
(f) Office rooms and OPD rooms 2.5 2.7
(g) Corridors, passages, lobbies and 4.0 4.5
staircases including fire escapes — as
per the floor services but not less than
(h) Boiler rooms and plant rooms—to be 5.0 4.5
(i) Balconies Same as the rooms to 1.5 per metre run
4.0
4. ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS
(a) Assembly areas :
(i) with fixed seals** 4.0 —
(ii) without fixed seats 5.0 3.6
(b) Restaurants (subject to assembly), 4.0 4.5
museums and galleries and
gymnasia
(c) Projection rooms 5.0 —
(d) Stages 5.0 4.5
(e) Office rooms, kitchens and laundries 3.0 4.5
(f) Dressing rooms 2.0 1.8
(g) Lounges and billiards rooms 2.0 2.7
Contd.
* * With fixed seats. implies that the removal of the sealing and the use of the space for other purposes is
improbable. The maximum likely load in this case is, therefore, closely controlled.
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Table 2.2 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
(h) Toilets and bathrooms 2.0 —
(i) Corridors, passages, staircases 4.0 4.5
(j) Balconies Same as rooms to 1.5 per metre run
4.0
(k) Boiler rooms and plant rooms 7.5 4.5
including weight of machinery
(l) Corridors, passages subject to loads 5.0 4.5
greater than from crowds, such as
wheeled vehicles, trolleys and the like.
Corridors, staircases and passages in
grandstands
5. BUSINESS AND OFFICE BUILDINGS
(see also 3.1.2)
(a) Rooms for general use with separate storage 2.5 2.7
(b) Rooms without separate storage 4.0 4.5
(c) Banking halls 3.0 27
(d) Business computing machine rooms 3.5 4.5
(with fixed computers or similar equipment)
(e) Records/files store rooms and storage space 5.0 4.5
(f) Vaults and strong room — to be calculated 5.0 4.5
but not less than
(g) Cafeterias and dining rooms 3.0* 2.7
(h) Kitchens 3.0 2.7
(i) Corridors, passages, lobbies and staircases 4.0 4.5
including fire escapes — as per the floor
serviced (excluding stores) but not less than
(j) Bath and toilet rooms 2.0 —
(k) Balconies Same as rooms to 1.5 per metre run
4.0
(l) Stationary stores 4.0 for each metre of 9.0
storage height
(m) Boiler rooms and plant rooms — to be 5.0 6.7
(n) Libraries see See Sl. No. (2)
Contd.
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Table 2.2 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
6. MERCANTILE BUILDINGS
(a) Retail shops 4.0 3.6
(b) Wholesale shops — to be calculated but not 6.0 4.5
less than
(c) Office rooms 2.5 2.7
(d) Dining rooms, restaurants and cafeterias 3.0† 2.7
(e) Toilets 2.0 —
(f) Kitchens and laundries 3.0 4.5
(g) Boiler rooms and plant rooms — to be 5.0 6.7
(h) Corridors, passages, staircases including 4.0 4.5
fire escapes and lobbies
(i) Corridors, passages, staircases subject to 5.0 4.5
loads greater than from crowds, such as
wheeled vehicles, trolleys and the like
(j) Balconies Same as rooms to 1.5 per metre
which they give access concentrated at
4.0
7. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
(a) Work areas without machines/equipment 2.5 4.5
(b) Woric areas with machinery/equipment *
1. Light duty 5.0 4.5
⎫ To be calculated
2. Medium duly ⎬ 7.0 4.5
but not less than
3. Heavy duty ⎭ 10.0 4.5
(c) Boiler rooms and plant rooms — to be
calculated but not less than 5.0 6.7
(d) Cafeterias and dining rooms 3.0† 2.7
(e) Corridors, passages and staircases 4.0 4.5
(f) Corridors, passages, staircases subject 5.0 4.5
to machine loads, wheeled vehicles — to be
(g) Kitchens 3.0 4.5
(h) Toilets and bathrooms 2.0 —
Contd.
* The loading in industrial buildings (workshops and factories) varies considerably and so three loadings under
the terms ‘light’, ‘medium’ and ‘heavy’ are introduced in order to allow for more economical designs but the
terms have no special meaning in themselves other than the imposed load for which the relevant floor is
designed. It is, however, important particularly in the case of heavy weight loads, to assess the actual loads to
ensure that they are not in excess of 10 kN/m2; in case where they are in excess, the design shall be based on
the actual loadings.
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Table 2.2 Contd.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
8. STORAGE BUILDINGS*
(a) Storage rooms (other than cold storage) 2.4 kN/m2 per each 7.0
warehouses — to be calculated based on metre of storage height
the bulk density of materials stored but with a minimum of
not less than 7.5 kN/m2
(b) Cold storage — to be calculated but 50 kN/m2 per each 9.0
not less than metre of storage height
with a minimum of
15 kN/m2
(c) Corridors, passages and staircases 4.0 4.5
including fire escapes — as per the
floor serviced but not less than
(d) Corridors, passages subject to loads 5.0 4.5
greater than from crowds, such as
wheeled vehicles, trolleys and the like
(e) Boiler rooms and plant rooms 7.5 4.5
* For various mechanical handling equipment which are used to transport goods, as in warehouses, workshops,
store rooms, etc., the actual load coming from the use of such equipment shall be ascertained and design
should cater to such loads.
( Note 1. Where no values are given (in this Table) for concentrated load, it may be assumed that the tabulation
distributed load is adequate for design purposes.
( Note 2. The loads specified in Table 2.2 are equivalent uniformly distributed loads on the plan area and
provide for normal effect of impact and acceleration. These loads do not take into consideration special
concentrated loads and otfier loads.
( Note 3. Where the use of an area or floor is not provided in the Table 2.2, the imposed load due to the use and
occupancy of such an area shall be determined from the analysis of the loads resulting from :
(i) weight of the probable assembly of persons; (ii) weight of the probable accumulation of equipment and
furnishing; (iii) weight of the probable storage materials; and (iv) impact factor, if any.
While designing columns, abutments, piers, walls, their supports and foundations, the live
loads on floors are reduced as in Table 2.3 as per IS : 800–84.
Table 2.3 Percent reduction of total live load
Number of floors carried by member Percent reduction in total live load on
under consideration all floors above the member under
consideration
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 or more 40
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Reduction in live load shall not be made in the case of warehouses, garages and other
buildings used for storage purposes and for factories and workshops designed for 5 kN/m2.
However, above reductions are made for buildings such as factories and workshops designed
for a live load more than 5 kN/m2 provided that the loading assumed for any column, etc., is
not less it would have been if the floors had been designed for 5 kN/m2 with no reduction.
As per IS : 875–1984, where a single span of beam or girder supports not less than 50 m2 of
floor at one general level, the live load may be reduced in the design of beam or girder by 5
percent, for each 502 supported, subjected to a maximum reduction of 25 percent. This reduction
or that given in Table 2.3, whichever is greater, may be taken into account in the design of
columns, supporting such a beam. These reductions are not applicable for the floors used for
storage purposes, in the weight of any plant or machinery which is specifically allowed for.
2.4 WIND LOADS (W.L.)

The wind loads are the transient loads. Relative to the surface of earth, the air remains in
motion. The difference in solar and terrestrial radiations setting up irregularities in temperatures
(which give rise to convection either upwards or downwards) is the primary cause of wind.
Near the surface of earth, the vertical component of atmospheric motion is small as compared
to its horizontal component. This horizontal component of atmospheric motion is referred as
wind. The force due to wind is called as wind load. The wind load acting over a structure
depends on the velocity of wind and the shape and size of the exposed structural member.
The velocity of wind depends on the origins in which the structure is erected, the height of
the structure, and the shelter afforded by the buildings or hills in the neighbourhood. The
wind velocities are either measured by anemometers or found from anemographs which are
installed at meteorological observatories at heights varying from 10 m to 30 m. During cyclonic
storms, thunderstorms, dust storms or vigorous monsoons, the velocity of wind may be more
than 80 kmph. In our country, the cyclonic storms rapidly weaken after crossing the coasts and
move as depressions inland. Sometimes, the velocity of wind may even be more than 120
kmph. In general, it may not exceed 60 to 70 kmph.
Usually at any time, the wind used to be steady. However, the velocity of wind recorded at
any locality may be extremely variable. Sometimes, the guests of small duration (say, few
seconds) cause locally increased in air pressure and momentary decreased in air pressure
elsewhere and the walls, panels and the roof sheeting may be more seriously influenced.
However, because of inertia of the building, there may not be appreciable increase in stress in
the main structural component of the building.
The intensity of wind pressure is given by
p = k.v2
where p = pressure due to wind in kN/m2
v = velocity of wind in kmph
k = a coefficient (adopted as 0.00006)
The wind pressure is expressed in terms of basic wind pressure (defined as equivalent static
pressure in the direction of flow of wind). Our country has been divided into a number of
zones, and maps have been prepared for wind pressure including and excluding winds of short
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durations. The basic wind pressure acting (in kN/m2) at any height over structure may be
noted from these maps given in IS : 875–(Part 3)–1987. Upto a height of 30 m, the wind
pressure is considered to act uniformly. Above 30 m height, the wind pressure increases.
2.5 SNOW LOAD

The snow loads are also referred as exceptional loads. IS : 875–(Part 4)–1987 may be used to
note values of snow loads.
The snow load depends upon latitude of the place and atmospheric humidity and accordingly
snow fall at the place (if any). The snow load acts vertically and it is expressed in kN per square
metre of plan area. Actual load due to snow depends upon the shape of roof and its capacity to
retain the snow. When actual data for snow load is not available, snow load is assumed as
0.0025 kN/m2 per mm depth of snow. It is likely that there may be total snow load or partial
snow load. One-half of the roof may carry design snow load and the remaining half may carry
half the design snow load. When the slope of roof is more than 50°, the snow load is not
considered. It is likely that snow pockets may be formed and in that case, it is considered.
The roof is designed for actual snow load or the live loads, which is more severe.
2.6 SEISMIC LOADS

The seismic loads are also referred as exceptional loads.
It becomes essential to consider seismic loads in the design of structures, if the structure is
situated in the seismic areas. The seismic areas are the regions which are geological young and
unstable parts and which have experienced earthquakes in the past and are likely to experience
earthquakes in future. The Himalayan region, Indo Gangetic Plain, Western India, Cutch
and Kathiawar are the places in our country which experience earthquakes frequently.
Sometimes, these earthquakes are violent also. Seismic loads are caused by the shocks due to
earthquakes. The earthquakes range from small tremors to severe shocks. The earthquake
shocks cause movement of ground, as a result of which the structure vibrates, which may be
resolved into three perpendicular directions. One horizontal direction dominates over other
two directions. In some cases, structures are designed for horizontal seismic forces only and in
some cases, horizontal and vertical both the components are considered. The seismic accelerations
for the design may be arrived at from seismic coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of
acceleration due to earthquakes and acceleration due to gravity. Our country has been divided
into seven zones for determining seismic coefficients. The seismic coefficients have also been
recommended for different types of soils for the guidance of designers. IS : 1893–1975 (Indian
Standard Recommendations for Earthquake Resistance Design of Structures) may be referred
for the actual design, for guidelines for earthquake resistant construction of buildings. IS :
4326–1976 may be also consulted.
For less important and relatively small structures, certain construction rules and precautions
are observed, and the analysis for earthquake forces is not required. For buildings upto 40 m
in height, the seismic coefficient method is used for estimating the earthquake forces. For
building from 40 m upto 90 m height, it is advised to have model analysis. However, for
earthquake zones I to III the seismic coefficient may also be used. For tall buildings of height
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more than 90 m, for zones I and II, the analysis may be carried by model analysis. For other
zones, detailed dynamic analysis should be done, which one is based on expected ground motion.
2.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

The temperature effects are considered as transient loads. IS : 875–(Part 5)–1987 may be used
to note the values.
Similar to other materials, concrete expands with increase in temperature and contracts
with decrease in temperature. The range of variation in temperature varies from localities to
localities, season to season and day to day. The objectionable cracks may occur in concrete due
to contraction in concrete combined with the effect of shrinkage. Occasionally, large and harmful
stresses may develop due to deformations because of temperature changes. The coefficient of
thermal expansion and contraction depends on type and quantity of cement, the type of
aggregate, the relative humidity and the size of sections. For calculating stresses and
deformations due to change in temperature, the coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction
may be adopted satisfactorily as 0.0001) mm/mm per °C. As per IS : 456–1978, the values of
coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction for concrete for quartz, sand stone and granite
aggregate are 1.2 to 1.3 × 10–5, 0.9 to 1.2 × 10–5 and 0.7 to 0.95 × 10–5, respectively. And those
for basalt and limestone aggregate are 0.8 to 0.95 × 10–5 and 0.6 to 0.9 × 10–5, respectively.
2.8 SHRINKAGE
The shrinkage of concrete occurs due to loss of moisture by evaporation. The strains due to
shrinkage are independent of the conditions of stress in concrete. In case, the concrete is
restrained, the strains due to shrinkage may result in cracking of concrete. It will result in
deflection of the structural members to increase with time.
Figure 2.1 shows the increase in strains due to shrinkage with time. The shrinkage occurs at
a decreasing rate with time. The total strains due to shrinkage vary largely, being generally in
range 0.0002 to 0.0006 and sometimes as much as 0.0010.
S h rin kag e strain
T 0 — Tim e at w hich co ncrete is su b jecte d

S h rin ka ge stra in
to dryin g en viro nm en t
T0 Tim e
Fig. 2.1 Shrinkage curve for concrete
To a large extent, the shrinkage is a reversible phenomenon. In case, the concrete is saturated
with water after shrinkage has occurred, the concrete expands to almost its original volume.
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Alternating volume changes of concrete may occur due to alternating dry and wet conditions.
The fluctuating deflections occur partly due to phenomenon of shrinkage. For example, concrete
bridges exposed to seasonal changes each year.
As a rule, the concrete that exhibits a high creep also displays high shrinkage. The composition
of concrete and the environment are the factors which influence the magnitude of the strains
due to shrinkage. Empirical methods for estimation of strains due to shrinkage have been
proposed in the ACI Committee 209 [Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature in Concrete
Structures, ‘Designing for the Effects of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature in Concrete
Structures’ SP-27, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp 51–93)] and CEB-FI
[International Recommendations for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures, Comité
Européen du Bénton-Fédération Internale de 19 Précontrainte, Paris 1970, (English translation
available from Cement and Concrete Association, London, (pp. 88)]. ACE approach is described
as below.
The unrestrained strains due to shrinkage at any time t is given by
εsh = εshu. St .Sh.Sth. Ss.Sf.Se.Sc ...(2.1)
where, these eight coefficients are described as below.
1. Ultimate strain due to shrinkage, εshu. There is wide variation in the value of εshu.
In the ACI Committee 209 review, it was seen to be in the range 0.000415 to 0.000107, with
mean values of 0.00080 for moist-cured concrete and 0.00073 for the steam-cured concrete. In
absence of more exact data for the concrete to be used, the mean values may be used.
2. Time of shrinkage coefficient. (a) For moist-cured concrete, the time of shrinkage
coefficient may be expressed as under: (at any time after 7 days)
⎡ t ⎤
St = ⎢ ...(2.2)
⎣( 35 + t ) ⎥⎦
where t is the time in days from age of 7 days. The values of time shrinkage coefficients are as
under for different times.
Time Values of St
1 month 0.46
3 months 0.72
6 months 0.84
1 year 0.91
5 years 0.98
(a) For steam-cured concrete, time of shrinkage coefficient may be expressed as under: (at
any time after 3 days)
⎡ t ⎤
St = ⎢ ⎥ ...(2.3)
⎣ (55 + t ) ⎦
where t is the time in days from age 1 to 3 days. The values of time shrinkage coefficients are
as under for different times.
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To account for shrinkage from greater ages than given in the table, the difference may be
calculated using either of the two expressions given in the table for any period after that time.
For example, the shrinkage for moist-cured concrete between say, 1 month and 1 year would
be equal to the 7 days to 1 year shrinkage minus the 7 days to 1 month shrinkage. It is
assumed in the foregoing procedure that the moist-cured concrete has been cured for 3 to 7
days. For the shrinkage of moist-cured concrete from 1 day, the shrinkage requires to be
multiplied by 1.2 ; a linear interpolation between 1.1 at 1 day and 1.0 at 7 days may be used.
3. Relative humidity coefficient, sh. (a) For [40 < (Humidity = H) < 80 percent)
sh = 1.4 – 0.01 H ...(2.4)
(b) For [80 < (Humidity = H) < 100 percent]
sh = 3.0 – 0.03 H ...(2.5)
The values of coefficients, sh for different percentage of relative humidity are as under:
Relative humidity, H percent Values of sh
40 1.00
60 0.80
80 0.60
100 0.00
4. Minimum thickness of member coefficient, ssh. For 152.4 mm thickness of the
structural member, the value of sth is 100 and for 228.6 mm the value of sth is 0.84.
5. Slump of concrete coefficient, ss . The values of coefficient, ss for different values of
slump are as below :
Slump Value of ss
50.8 mm 0.97
68.58 mm 1.00
76.20 mm 1.01
101.60 mm 1.05
127 mm 1.09
6. Fine coefficients, sf . The values of coefficients, sf for different values of fines by
weight are as under:
Fines by weight (percent) Values of sf
40 0.86
50 1.00
70 1.04
7. Air content coefficient, se . The values of coefficient, se are 0.98, 100 and 103 for 4
percent, 6 percent and 10 percent, respectively.
8. Cement content factor, sc .The values of factor, sc for different contents of cement
are as follows:
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Contents of cement (kg/m3) Values of factor (sc)

223 0.87
334.45 0.95
418.06 1.00
557.42 1.09
Total shrinkage of concrete depends upon the ingredients of concrete (cement, aggregates
water), size of the member and atmospheric conditions. For a given atmospheric conditions, the
total shrinkage is very much influenced by the total quantity of water present in the concrete
at the time of mixing.
The quantity of water in any workable concrete mix used to be more than that required for
hydration. The large quantity of water evaporates in time from the concrete surfaces exposed
to air. The rate of drying and total drying of concrete depends on the ambient temperature and
humidity. The concrete shrinks in volume as it dries. The shrinkage in concrete is probably due
to the capillary tension, (which develops in the remaining water in concrete). Shrinkage continues
in concrete at reducing rate for several months. Shrinkage damages concrete in several respects.
When the shrinkage is not properly controlled, unsightly and harmful cracks develop in concrete
(e.g., in slabs and beams). In indeterminate structures, large and harmful stresses may develop
in concrete.
Unit water content in the fresh concrete is the main factor, which ascertains tne extent of
final shrinkage. In order to reduce the shrinkage, the content of water in the fresh concrete
may be reduced. The content of water may be kept minimum compatible with the required
workability. Further, the shrinkage may be controlled to the beneficial extent by prolonged
and careful curing.
The shrinkage of concrete is influenced to a very small extent by the cement content.
The extent of shrinkage also depends upon water absorption property of the aggregate. The
shrinkage in concrete having less water absorptive aggregate (e.g., granite and lime stone) is
even half or still less than that in concrete having more water absorptive aggregate (e.g., some
sandstones and slates). The extent of shrinkage is also more in some light weight aggregates
because of porosity.
The approximate value of total shrinkage strain for design for ordinary concrete is taken
0.0003 mm/min.
2.9 CREEP
Professor Rusch, H [Researches towards a General Flexural Theory for Structural Concrete,
Journal ACI, Vol. 57, No. 1, July, 1960, (pp 1–28)] conducted long term loading tests on
unconfined concrete. It was observed that the sustained load compressive strength is
approximately 80 percent of the short-term strength. The short-term strength is the strength
of an identically old and identically cast specimen, that is loaded to failure over a period of ten
minutes when the specimen under sustained load has collapsed. In practice, the strengths of
concrete considered in the design of structure are usually based on the anticipated short-term
strength at 28 days, The decrease in strength due to long term loading will be atleast partly
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offset by the property of concrete to attain a higher strength at greater ages. The strains due to
creep due to long-term loading cause modification in the shape of the stress-strain curve.
Professor Rusch obtained some curves as shown in Fig. 2.2 for various rates of loading. These
curves show with a reducing rate of strain, the value of maximum stress attained gradually
reduces but the descending branch of curve falls less rapidly, the strain (at which the maximum
stress is reached) is increased.
1 .0
S tr a in ra
te 0 .0 0
1 /1 0 0 days
0 .75
0 .0
R a tio o f con crete stre ss to
01
/d a
y
cylind rical stre ng th
0 .50
C ylind rical stre ng th
= 20 .7 N /m m 2 0 .0
01
a t 5 6 d yas /h r
0 .0
01
/m
in u
te 0 .25
0 .00 1 0 .00 2 0 .00 3 0 .00 4 0 .00 5 0 .00 6 0 .00 7

S train in co nce te (m m /m in)
Fig. 2.2 Stress-strain curves for concrete with various rates of axial compressive loading
Figure 2.2 shows that the stress-strain relation of concrete is function of time. A gradual
increase in strain with time occurs in the concrete under stress because of creep deformations
of the concrete. The total creep strain may be several times as large as the initial elastic strain.
Generally, the creep has very small effect on the strength of a structure, but it will result a
redistribution of stress in reinforced concrete members at the service load deflections. Creep
deformations are beneficial in some cases for example, stress in concrete due to differential
settlement of structures are decreased due to creep. The creep in tension also delays shrinkage
cracking in concrete. Figure 2.3 shows the deformation due to creep under constant axial
compressive stress.
Figure 2.3 shows that the creep proceeds at a reducing rate with time. In case, the load is
removed, the elastic strain is immediately recovered. However, this recovered elastic strain is
less than the initial elastic strain because the elastic modulus increases with time. The elastic
recovery is followed by the creep recovery, which is a small proportion of the total creep strain.
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S p ecim e n lo ad ed L oa d
con stan tly re m o ved
E lastic recove ry
C re ep
re co very
C re ep
D e fo rm ation
P e rm an en t
d efo rm atio n
E lastic
d efo rm atio n
Tim e
Fig. 2.3 Creep curve for concrete with constant axial compression
The experiment tests show that the creep strain occurring over a given period is proportional to
the applied stress, provided level of stress is not high. The composition of the concrete, the
environment and the stress-time history are the factors which influence the magnitude of strain
due to creep as below.
2.9.1 Composition of Concrete

Aggregate type and proportions, cement type and content, water-cement ratio and additives
are the constituents which form the composition of concrete. The type of aggregate may have
marked influence on creep because of different absorption and elastic properties of the
aggregates. The use of sandstone aggregates may result in twice the creep strain than for a
lime stone aggregate [Reference : A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete; Pitman, London, 1963,
(pp 532)]. Volumetrically, the aggregates are more stable than the cement paste. Hence, an
increase in aggregate content leads to a decrease in creep strains. The creep in concrete increases
due to an increase in the water-cement ratio, an increase in the cement content and high air
entrainment.
2.9.2 Environment
The shape and size of member and humidity are largely influenced by the environment. The
ambient relative humidity has a significant influence on creep. When the relative humidity is
high, the strains due to creep are low. In case the water loss from the member is restricted, the
creep shall be reduced, hence the shape and size of the member affect the magnitude of the
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occurring creep. The creep is reduced in large members since the outside regions of a large
member restricts the water loss from the internal regions of the member. The affect of size and
shape of concrete may be represented by the ratio of volume to surface area or by effective
thickness.
2.9.3 Stress-time History

At the stage of first loading and time under loading are factors which describe the stress-time
history. The high strains due to creep results due to loading at an early age and there is a
marked decrease in strain due to creep in case there is increase in age at first loading. The
strains due to creep increase with duration of loading.
The strains due to creep may be calculated from the several empirical methods. ACI Committee
209 [Prediction of Crinkage, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures,
Designing for the Effects of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature in Concrete Structures, SP-27,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971 (pp 51–93)] suggested most widely used methods.
CEB-FIP [International Recommendations for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Structures, Comité Européan du Béton-Fédération Internale de la Précontrainte, Paris, 1970–
(English translation available from Cement and Concrete Association London, (pp 88)] also
suggested most widely used methods. The methods give the creep coefficient of the concrete,
Ccp as a function of the dependent variables, where Ccp is the ratio of strain due to creep, εcp to
initial elastic strain, εi (that is Ccp = (Ccp/εi). Allowance is not made for the type of aggregate in
either methods. The approach suggested in ACI Committee 209 is described hereunder. The
approach is based on comprehensive review of the literature. The problem is essentially a
statistical one. The scatter of test data and actual values may indicate significant variation
from the mean values proposed.
The creep coefficient for normal height, sand light weight and all light weight concrete
(using both moist and steam curing and types I and III cement) may be expressed as under:
Ccp = Cu . Kt . Ka. Kh. Kth. Ks. Kf. Ke ...(2.6)
where these eight coefficients are as follows :
1. Ultimate creep coefficient, Cu . There is wide variation in the values of Cu. The
values of Cu was seen to be in the range of 1.30 to 4.15 with an average value of 2.35. In
absence of more exact data for the concrete, the average value of Cu may be used.
2. Time under load coefficient, Kt . It is expressed as follows :
t 0.6
Kt = ...(2.7)
10 − t 0.6
where t is the time in days after application of load. For t = 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 1
year and 5 years, the values of K, are 0.44, 0.60, 0.69, 0.78 and 0.90, respectively.
3. Age when loaded coefficient, Ka
(a) For moist-cured concrete
Ka = 1.25 J E–6.118 ...(2.8)
(For 7, 10, 30 and 90 days, the values of K a are 1.00, 0.95, 0.83 and 0.74, respectively).
(b) For steam-cured concrete
Ka = 1.13 ti–0.095 ...(2.9)
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where t i, is the age of concrete in days when the load is first applied (For 1 to 3, 10, 30 and 90
days, the values of K a are 1.00, 0.90, 0.82 and 0.74, respectively).
4. Relative humidity coefficient, Kh . It is expressed as below :
Kh = (1.27 – 0.0067 H) ...(2.10)
(for H more than 40 percent)
(For H, less than or equal to 40, 60, 80 and 100 percent, the values of Kh are 1.00,0.87, 0.73
and 0.60, respectively).
5. Minimum thickness of member coefficient, Kth . For the thickness of member 152.4
mm or less, the value of K th is unity. And for the thickness of member 305 mm, the value of Kth
is 0.82.
6. Slump of concrete coefficient, Ks . The values of Ks for different values of slump of
the concrete are as below :
Values of slump Value of Ks
50 mm 0.95
85.8 mm 1.00
76.2 mm 1.02
101.6 mm 1.09
127 mm 1.16
7. Fines coefficient, Kf . The values of fines coefficients are as under:
Fines by weight Values of
percent Kf
30 0.95
50 1.00
70 1.05
8. Air content coefficient, Ke .The values of air content coefficients are as under :
Air (percent) Values of Ke
Upto 6 1.00
7 1.09
8 1.17
For cement contents between 278.71 kg/m3 and 444.75 kg/m3, the cement content may not
be taken into consideration.
Rate and duration of loading have the pronounced effect on the behaviour of the concrete.
Concrete creeps under the effect of long-time loading. Creep is defined as continue deformation,
over considerable length of time under additional to elastic contraction exhibited by slow
concrete, sustained (constant) stress or load. The creep in concrete depends on applied stress,
age of concrete at loading and duration of loading. The deformations due to creep in concrete is
proportional to the magnitude of the applied stress. Low strength concretes show more creep as
compared to high strength concretes. With passage of time, the deformations due to creep
continue at reducing rate. After 2 to 5 years time, the deformations due to creep cease.
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Characteristic values of creep, expressed in deformation per unit length, for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete
loaded at 28 days with sustained stress of 4 N/mm2 are 0.0003 and 0.0006 at one year.
Besides the magnitude of applied stress, the creep also depends upon average ambient relative
humidity. As the part of reduction in volume under sustained load is caused due to evaporation
of free pore water in the surrounding atmosphere. Type of cement and aggregate, age of concrete
when first loaded and concrete strength are some important factors which influence the extent
of creep.
The effect of creep of concrete is not often considered directly in reinforced concrete design. It
is, however, taken into consideration when determining the deflections according to the rigorous
method by modifying the elastic modulus of concrete.
Shrinkage and creep do not normally affect the ultimate strength of a reinforced concrete
section. However, the shrinkage and creep affect the deflection of structures at working loads.
For normal purposes, the ratios of span/depth recommended in IS : 456–1978 take into
consideration the shrinkage and creep in beams and slabs. Shrinkage and creep are not likely
affect the strength of columns designed by the ultimate strength methods. For tall frames
(more than 30 storeys), the shrinkage and creep combined with axial shortening are likely to
substantially change the forces in columns and beams.
The ratio of ultimate creep strain (excluding elastic strain) in the elastic strain at the age of
loading is called as creep coefficient. As per IS : 456–1978, the values of creep coefficients at 7
days’, 28 days’ and 1 years’ age of loading are 2.2, 1.6 and 1.1, respectively.
2.10 OTHER FORCES AND EFFECTS

In addition to the loads described in Arts. 2.2 to 2.9, following forces and effects are also considered
while designing the structural components and the structures in case these are likely to influence
significantly the safety and the serviceability of the structure.
2.10.1 Foundation Movement

Settlement, average tilt and angular distortions may occur due to movement of foundation.
Angular distortion is angular change due to differential (unequal) settlement. Major cracks in
buildings occur mainly due to differential settlement (viz., angular distortion). IS : 1904–1978
(code of practice for structural safety of buildings : shallow foundations) gives the allowable
values of total settlement, differential settlement and angular distortion. The superstructures
may accommodate themselves to the movements without harmful distortions in case these
deformations are within the specified limits. In practice, the foundations are designed such
that the angular distortion is limited instead of resisting the forces developed by the differential
settlement.
2.10.2 Elastic Axial Shortening

In tall buildings carrying service loads, the columns and beams become curved due to presence
of end moments in addition to the axial forces.
The difference between curved (original) length of the member and its chord length is known
as axial shortening. The effect of elastic axial shortening is taken into account along with the
effects of shrinkage and creep in tall buildings having 30 storeys or more height.
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2.10.3 Soil and Fluid Pressure

The soil and fluid pressure exerted by the soil or water or both is taken into consideration on
the basis of established theory in the design of structures or parts of the structures (e.g., basement
floors and walls). Allowance is also made for the surcharge due to stationary or moving loads.
The lateral soil pressure on slender structural members, such as pillars which rest in sloping
soils is calculated by taking the width of member twice its actual width. In general, the relieving
pressure of soil in front of the structural member concerned is not considered. IS : 875 –(Part
5)–1987 may be used to note details for this effect.
2.10.4 Vibrations
In general, the concrete structures carry service loads. To comply with the limitations for the
deflections, stiffeners are provided such that the further consideration of vibration is not
necessary. However, in case, columns support crane girders, the effect of vibration is taken
into account.
2.10.5 Fatigue
The phenomenon of decrease of resistance (strength) of material due to repeated applied stresses
is known as fatigue. Due to repeated stresses, the structural members are subjected to either
variation of stresses or reversal of stresses (i.e., fluctuation of stresses), which may result in
fatigue failures. The members may be subjected to low cycle fatigue or high cycle fatigue.
In low cycle fatigue, the number of reversal of stresses is not large. The failure mechanisms
are similar to those as under static loading. The strength and ductility of the material are not
badly influenced.
In high cycle fatigue (viz., proper fatigue), the fluctuation of stresses occurs millions of cycles.
Considerably small stresses (as compared to yield stress) may cause failure of the structure or
a structural member. The degree of fatigue differs for direct compression, direct tension and
bending. Fatigue due to tensile stress controls fatigue of concrete in bending. Proper fatigue
may have its significant effects on the widths of cracks and on deflections, which may increase
by 20 to 25 percent compared to equivalent static load. IS : 875 (Part 5)–1987 may be used to
note the details.
2.10.6 Impact
Effect of sudden hit of machinery during its movement, precast structural members during
their handling or dynamic effect of moving loads is called as impact. It is possible that lift
trucks may strike the columns. Impact in such cases should be avoided. As a measure of
protection, the rails may be provided to surround the columns during the phase of construction.
Accidental impacts should also be avoided. Sometimes, the impact factors are used and the
fraction of live loads in bridges are considered as impact loads. IS : 875 (Part 5) –1987 may be
used to note the details.
2.10.7 Erection Loads

During construction and erection of a structure, construction materials are stored on the floors
and equipments needed for erection are also brought. The structure is to carry the weight of
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such items and loads caused due to the operation of such equipments. All such loads are called
as erection loads. The stresses due to erection loads may be opposite in nature from those the
structural members carry during actual working. The proper provisions (e.g., temporary bracings)
shall be made to take care of all such stresses likely to develop during erection. IS : 875 (Part 5)
– 1987 may be used to note the details.
2.10.8 Stress Concentration

At the points of application of concentrated loads, abrupt changes in cross-section, re-entrant
angles, opening in slabs, the stresses are far above their average value, and it is referred as
stress concentration. In the design of concrete structures and the structural members, the
concentration of stress is properly taken into consideration.
2.11 CHARACTERISTIC LOADS

The term characteristic loads is introduced to provide for the inherent variability associated
with the assessment of maximum loads. This term represents reasonably upper or lower limits
to expected range of pattern of loads. The characteristic loads are defined as those values of
loads which have an accepted probability of their not being exceeded during the life of the
structure. Ideally, these loads are evaluated from the mean load with a standard deviations
from this value. The characteristic loads are denoted by W ck . [W ck = W + 1.64 S].
As per IS : 456–1978, the term characteristic load means that value of load which has a 95
percent probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure. That is, there is only
5 percent chance of being exceeded as shown in Fig. 2.1. The value of characteristic load may
be found.
Wck = W + 1.64 S ...(2.11)
where W is the arithmetic mean load of the sample and S is the standard deviation.
5 pe rcen t
9 5 p erce nt
Fre qu en cy
( W c k = W + 1 .6 4 S )
W 1 .64 S
W A rith m e tic m ea n loa d S = S tan da rd de via tio n

L oa ds
Fig. 2.4 Characteristic strength load Wck
However, since loads are not yet expressed in such statistical terms, the dead loads are worked
out on the basis of IS : 875 (Part I) – 1987 (incorporating IS : 1911–1967), schedule of unit
weights of building materials. The live loads are worked out on the basis of IS : 875 (Part II)–1987
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(incorporating IS : 875–1964, Code of practice for structural safety of buildings : Loading standards,
twelfth reprint–1985). The wind loads are evaluated on the basis of IS : 875 (Part III) – 1987
(incorporating IS : 875–1964). The seismic forces are noted from IS : 1893–1975 (criterion for
earthquake resistant design of structures. The actual maximum load may be more than the
characteristic load due to the following reasons.
In actual construction, there may be lack of dimensional accuracy. As a result of this, the
loads may be higher or smaller loads. In turn, it may increase the load effect on critical sections.
In analysis and proportioning of structure, the approximations and simplifying assumptions
are made. As a result of this, the calculated values of forces, moments or stresses in the structures
are affected.
Due to effect of creep, shrinkage and temperature, the load on a member may be increased.
Such effects are ignored for normal buildings as allowed in the code.
At present, there is insufficient data to permit loads to be evaluated in a similar fashion to
material, (i.e., in statistical terms). However, in absence of such data, the dead loads calculated
on the basis of IS : 875 (Part 1)–1987 (viz., IS : 1914–1967), live loads determined on the basis
of IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987 (viz., IS : 875–1984), wind load computed on the basis of IS : 875
(Part 3)–1987 (viz., IS : 875–1984) and the seismic loads found on the basis of IS : 875 (Part
4)–1987 (viz., IS : 1893–1975) are accepted as the characteristic loads.
2.12 DESIGN LOADS

The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by a partial safety factor
for loads, γfL as below, thus enabling the bending moments and shear forces for which the
member is to be designed, to be calculated.
W d = W ck . γfL ...(2.11)
where W d = design load
Wck = characteristic load
γfL = partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loads and the limit state being
considered.
The design loads correspond to limit state of collapse. The bending moments and forces
subsequently calculated will represent those occurring at collapse. The sections are designed
accordingly.
2.13 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR FOR LOADS

The partial safety factor for loads is denoted by γfL. This factor is needed to find the design load
from the characteristic load as discussed in Art. 2.12. The values of partial safety factor, γfL for
loads are listed in Tables 2.4 (a) and (b) for the limit state of collapse and limit states of
serviceability as per IS : 456–1978.
Table 2.4 (a) Values of partial safety factor, γfL for loads (for limit state of collapse)
Load Values of partial
combination safety factors, γf for loads
DL LL WL
DL + LL 1.5 1.5 —
DL + WL 1.5 or — 1.5
DL + LL + WL 1.2 1.2 1.2
( Note 1. This value is to be considered when stability against overturning or stress reversal is critical.
( Note 2. While considering the effects of earthquake, EL is substituted for WL.
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Table 2.4 (b) Values of partial safety factor, γfL for loads (for limit states of serviceability)
Load Values of partial
combination safety factors, γf for loads
DL LL WL
DL + LL 1.0 1.0 —
DL + WL 1.0 — 1.0
DL + LL + WL 1.0 0.8 0.8
( Note 1. While considering the effects of earthquake, EL is substituted for WL.

( Note 2. For limit of serviceability, the values of gfL given in this table are applicable for short term effects.
While assessing the long term effects due to creep, the dead load and that part of the live load likely to be
permanent may only be considered.
The partial safety factor for loads γfL is a function of two other partial safety factors, namely,
γf1 and γf2. γf1 takes into consideration the possibility of unfavourable deviation of the loads
from their nominal values, γf2 takes into consideration the reduced probability that various
loadings acting together will all attain their nominal values simultaneously. The values of γf1
and γf2 are not given in the code separately.
The value of γfL is dependent upon type of loading, number of loadings acting together and
importance of the limit state. As regards type of loading is concerned, it is obviously greater for
highly variable loading such as vehicle loading than for a reasonably well controlled loading
such as dead load. In the former case, there is a greater chance of an unfavourable deviation
from the nominal value. As regards number of loadings acting together, the value of a particular
load decreases as the number of other loads acting with the load under consideration increases
because of the reduced probability of all of the loads attaining their nominal values
simultaneously. As regards, the importance of the limit state, the value of a particular load is
more when considering the limit state of the collapse than when considering the limit state of
serviceability because it is essential to have a smaller probability of the former being reached.
A uniform value of partial safety factor for loads of 1.5 is specified by IS : 456–1978 for the
load combination (DL + LL) when the collapse is to be considered. The code panel decided to
adopt this value on the following basis :
1. For ensuring the desired margin of safety against collapse, with respect to the combined
effects of dead and live loads taken together, instead of providing distinct factors for dead load
taken separately. This is conformity with the recommendation of the European Concrete
Committee [CEB/FIP, International recommendations for the design and construction of concrete
structures, 1970, Principles and Recommendations (English Edition), Cement and Concrete
Association, London].
2. The designs are based on ‘elastic analysis’ of the structure. One analysis shall be
sufficient for the limit state of collapse as well as the limit state of serviceability when (DL + LL)
is considered; the design moments are found simply through a multiplications by a suitable
constant; and
3. Sometimes a lower factor, say 1.4 is suggested for the dead load and a higher one, say
1.6 for the live load, the ostensible justification being that more is known about the magnitude
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of dead load and therefore, a lower factor of safety will be appropriate for that. However, there
is some evidence [Ferry Borges (J) and Csotanheta (M) ‘General recommendations derived
from the basic studies on the structural safety’, ‘Final Report. Symposium on Concepts of Safety
of Structures an Methods of Design’, 1969, London] that a uniform factor for (DL + LL) ensures
a better degree of safety. IS : 456–1978 recommends a uniform factor for the combination (DL
+ LL), also to simplify the design procedure.
Where the stability against overturning may become critical, the unfavourable case
corresponding to the application of the minimum value of dead load should be considered. IS :
456–1978 specifies γfL = 0.9 for the dead load for the following reasons :
(i) The size of the member may be smaller than the nominal values shown in drawings ;
and
(ii) The densities of materials may be less than those assumed in design calculations.
A load combination of (DL + LL + WL) is specified, where, there is only a smaller probability
that all the imposed loads will reach their characteristic values simultaneously, and this is
reflected in the reduced value of γfL. It is unlikely that both wind loads and earthquake forces
will occur simultaneously. It is sufficient to consider each of them in turn, in combination with
dead load and live load. The reduced live load as per IS : 1893–1975 is to be used when (DL +
LL + EL) are combined.
In Tables 2.4 (a) and (b), the load combination (DL + LL) is most likely to control the design
of ordinary buildings. The load combination (DL + WL) is most likely to govern the design of
chimneys and cooling towers where the lateral loading (wind or earthquake) is the primary
imposed load.
The values of partial safety factors for loads keep considerations for unusual increase in
loads beyond that used for evaluating characteristic values, unforeseen distribution of stress
and inaccurate assessment of effect of loading.
2.14 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

A concrete mix is prepared by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water.
When these ingredients of concrete are mixed in different proportions, the concrete mixes so
prepared shall have different strengths. The strength of a concrete mix is specified as
characteristic strength of concrete and it is denoted by kck. The characteristic strength of
a concrete mix is defined as the compressive strength of 150 mm cube at 28 days expressed in
N/mm2 below which not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall as shown in
Fig. 2.5. The different concrete mixes are graded and each mix is identified by its grade
designation. In the designation of a concrete mix, a letter M is used to denote the mix and a
number is specified, which is numerically equal to characteristic strength at 28 days. M 15, M
20, M 25. M 30, M 35 and M 40 are six grades of concrete used for reinforced concrete works.
The characteristic compressive strengths, fck of these six grades are given in Table 2.5 as per IS
: 456–1978. The characteristic strength may be obtained as under:
fck = f 1.64 S ...(2.12)
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5
p ercen t
Freq ue ncy
o f re su lts
( f ck = f – 1.6 4 S )
f S tren gth
f ck = ( f – 1.64 S )
S = S tan da rd de viatio n
f A rith m e tic m e an stre ng th
Fig. 2.5 Characteristic strength fck
The strength of concrete and the imposed load that is likely to act over a specified area
cannot be provided with certainty. Such variables are referred to as random variables in the
theory of probability. The behaviour of random variables is described by its probability law
which may be characterised in a number of ways. The most common procedure is through the
probability distribution of random variables. The Norman or Gaussian probability distribution
shown in Fig. 2.3 is used in limit state of design. It is expressed by the following expressions
⎡ 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎢ − 0.5 f − f ⎥
⎜ s ⎟ ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎝ ⎠
f(u) = .e ⎣ ⎦ ...(i)
s. 2π
(∞ < x < ∞)
where, x = arithmetic mean
s = standard deviation
–2 –1 +1 +2
S S
Fig. 2.6 Normal distribution curve
M15 and M20 grades of concrete are used for the beams (flexural members). These grades of
concrete are also used for columns. M25 and M30 grades of concrete are used for water storage
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structures. M35 and M40 grades of concrete are used for prestressed concrete. It is to note that
M5 and M7.5 are used for lean concrete bases and simple foundations for masonry walls. It is
not necessary to design M5 and M7.5 mixes.
Table 2.5 Grades of concrete (Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days, fck )
Grade designation fck (N/mm2)
M15 15
M20 20
M25 25
M30 30
M35 35
M40 40
It is preferred to design the proportions of all the ingredients for all the grades of concrete
mix. However, nominal mix concrete (viz., proportions or quantities by mass of materials)
as specified in IS : 456–1978 may be used for concrete of grades M 5, M 7.5, M 10, M 15 and
M20 as in Table 2.6.
The normal distribution is listed in standard mathematical hand books in the form of
standardized variable z, such that z = (x – x´)/s, that is,
1 2
f (z) = . e − 0.5z ...(ii)
2π
The area under the curve may be found by numerically integrating the above expression
within appropriate limits. From the standard tables for the curve, it may be seen that 95
percent of the area lies between –1.64 and +∞. This mean that there is only a 5 percent
probability that a result will fall below ( f – 1.64 s).
The normal distribution curve is symmetrical about the vertical-axis passing through (z = 0)
⎛ 1 ⎞
and its highest point is at ⎜ 0.1 ⎟ . This curve is concave downward between (z = ±1) and
⎝ 2π ⎠
concave upward for values of Z outside this range. The total area under the curve and z-axis is
unity.
– 1.6 4 +1 .6 4
1 1 z
(S D = 1 a nd M ea n = 0 )
Fig. 2.7 Standardised normal variable
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For calculating fck, it is known that

⎛ f − fck ⎞
z = ⎜ s ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ ⎠
For 5 percent probability that is for the value of 0.05 from tables z = 1.64.
⎛ f − fck ⎞
1.64 = ⎜ s ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ⎠
where, fck is the characteristic strength, f is the mean strength and s is the standard deviation.
Table 2.6 Proportions for nominal mix concrete
Ingredients of concrete Grade of concrete
M5 M 7.5 M 10 M 15 M 20
1. Dry aggregate total quantity (sum of 800 625 480 350 250
masses of fine and coarse aggregate)
in kg by masses per 50 kg of cement
2. Proportions of fine and coarse Generally 1 : 2 but subject to an upper limit of
aggregates by mass 1 : 1 12 and lower limit of 1 : 2 12
3. Water quantity per 50 kg of 60 45 34 32 30
cement (litres)
The proportions of fine to coarse aggregates are adjusted from upper limit to lower limit
progressively as the grading of fine aggregates becomes finer and the maximum size of coarse
aggregate becomes larger. Graded coarse aggregates are used. For an average fine aggregate,
the proportions are 1 : 1 12 , 1 : 2 12 and 1 : 2 12 for maximum size of aggregates 10 mm, 20 mm
and 40 mm respectively.
As an appropriate guidance, the nominal mix proportions by volume for M 10, M 15 and M
20 grades are 1 : 3 : 6, 1 : 2 : 4 and 1 : 1 12 : 3 respectively and nominal maximum size of
aggregate is 20 mm. The nominal mix concrete is used for works for minor nature in which the
strength of concrete is not critical.
The strength of concrete and other properties may be adjusted to some extent during its
manufacture. As such, the concrete is considered as an ideal material for foundation and other
large or complicate parts of the structures those must be rigid and resistant to compressive
forces.
The various properties of concrete related with its strength are as following.
2.14.1 Increase in Strength with Age

The strength of a fresh concrete mix (after mixing appropriate quantity of water and beginning
of hydration) increases with time in days. The strength of concrete at any age, may be expressed
by an approximate formula
t
ft = . f28 ... (2.13)
(a + b .t )
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where f28 is the strength of concrete at 28 days and t is the time in days, a and b are empirical
constants and their values are approximately 4.7 and 0.833, respectively. The strength of
concrete after 3 days, 7 days or 14 days or at any age in days may be found using above
formula. The increase in strength for concrete mix prepared by using ordinary portland cement
is shown in Fig. 2.8.
1 50
C om pressive stre ng th
1 20
90
N /m m 2
60
30
0
0 3 7 14 28
A g e (D ays)
S tren gth a ge re la tion sh ip
(M 15 concrete m a de w ith po rtlan d ce m e n t wa ter-ce m en t ra tio = 0 .5 5)
Fig. 2.8
The increase in strength in concrete mix prepared using different types of cements is shown
in Fig. 2.9. The rate of gain of initial strength for different cements is different. However, the
strength of concrete at later ages tend to become similar, except that with high alumina cement.
80
70
C om re ssive stren gth
60
H ig h A lum in a ce m en t
50
R a pid h arde ning
N/m m 2
40
p ortlan d ce m en t
30
20 O rd in ary
p ortlan d
10 L ow h ea t
p ortlan d C e m e nt
0
11 1 31 7 3 28 90
84 2 4 A g e (da ys)
S tren gth – a ge re la tio nships
fo r con crete 1 : 2 : 4 by w e ig ht m ad e w ith differe n t con te nts
Fig. 2.9
(Source : Orchard, D.F., Concrete Technology Vol. 1, Fourth edition, 1979 Published by Applied Science
Publishers Limited, London).
As in characteristic strength of concrete, a cube of 150 mm size is prepared and its compressive
strength is found by crushing the cube after 28 days. Sometimes, when the test results for 28
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days, strength of concrete mix is found to be lower than that specified, the concrete mix may be
approved for use for construction (e.g., in foundation and lower columns in multistorey buildings)
where the structure or structural member will not receive its full design load/stress within a
period of 28 days after the casting of concrete. The concrete gains sufficient strength due to
continuing of hydration of cement by the time full loads are applied.
In case, full design load/stress is expressed to be applied after 1 month or 3 months, the
characteristic compressive strength of concrete mix (M 16, M 20,...) may be increased by
multiplying by age factor 10 or 110, respectively and in case, the load/stress is expected to be
applied after 6 months or 12 months, then, this strength may be increased by multiplying by
the age factors 1.15 or 1.20, respectively.
However, in case, high alumina cement is used for concrete mix, its strength is not increased
for age or period of loading as such a mix gains its major strength in the beginning itself. In
case the members are subjected to lower direct load during construction, such members are
checked for stresses resulting from combination of direct load and bending during construction.
This increase in permissible stresses is also applicable to bending, shear and direct compression
etc.
2.14.2 Compressive Strength

Concrete is a non-uniform materials. It is non-uniformly stressed when it is subjected to external
loads. The stresses in a cube in compression test concentrate at the harder particles having a
higher modulus of elasticity. The stresses also concentrate near pores and voids in a concrete
cube. The stresses at one pore overlap with those at an adjacent hole. As a result of this, an
axially loaded concrete cube carried compressive stresses parallel to the direction of load
(longitudinal direction) tensile stresses in the (lateral direction). The concrete cube in compression
test fails due to lateral rupture of the concrete. As the load increases, the microscopic cracks
develop throughout due to the bond failure, and these cracks merge into visible cracks parallel
or at small angle to the direction of load and the cracks open up and finally the cube fails
completely.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete is treated to be the most important property.
It may be found easily by crushing a standard size cube of 150 mm or cylindrical specimen. The
compressive strength is often used as an index of overall quality of concrete. In general, many
desirable properties of concrete (e.g., shear and tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, bond,
impact, abrasion resistance, durability, ...etc.) may be related to the compressive strength. The
quality of concrete is usually specified in terms of compressive strength at the age of 20 days.
2.14.3 Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete depends upon the strength of hardened cement (bond strength
between the cement and aggregate grains). The tensile strength of concrete may be enhanced
by increasing the cement content, reducing the water-cement ratio and using broken stone
with rough surfaces. The tensile strength (both flexural and split tensile) is closely related to
the compressive strength of concrete. However, there is no direct proportionality between them.
As the compressive strength of concrete increases, tensile also increases but at a reducing rate.
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The flexural tensile strength of concrete corresponds to modulus of rupture (the moment at
first crack) which is needed for calculating the deflection of beams. The flexural tensile strength
of concrete may be estimated from the compressive strength from the following formula as per
456–1978.
fcr = 0.7(f ck)1/2 ...(2.14)
where fcr is the flexural tensile strength of concrete and fck is the characteristic compressive
strength of concrete.
The split tensile strength is found by splitting concrete cylinders by application of the
compressive line load along two lines diametrically opposite to each other. The splitting tensile
strength of concrete is considered while calculating the shear strength of beams with unreinforced
webs, and in the design of cylindrical liquid containing structures. It is also taken into account
in the design of slabs.
The tensile strength of concrete is more sensitive to insufficient curing than the compressive
strength. It is possibly because of the serious effects of non-uniform shrinkage as in flexural
test beams. The value of ratio of tensile strength and compressive strength of air cured concrete
is low as compared to that of concrete cured in water. The grading of aggregate also affects the
ratio of these two strengths.
2.15 FACTORS INFLUENCING STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The compressive strength of concrete depends upon characteristics of cement, water-cement
ratio, characteristic and proportions of aggregate, age, degree of compaction, efficiency of curing,
temperature during curing period, etc. The effect of age and characteristics and contents of
cement have been discussed in Art. 2.14. The water-cement ratio and aggregate cement ratio
are most important factors which influence the compressive strength of concrete. The influence
of each factor on the strength of concrete is as following.
2.15.1 Water-cement Ratio

Water is needed for the chemical processes (viz., hydrolysis and hydration) which occur
simultaneously during the chemical reaction of cement and water. Hydrolysis is defined as the
change of compound into others as a result of the chemical action of water. Whereas, hydration
is the combination of material with water. When water is mixed with cement to form a soft
paste, it gradually stiffens and it becomes one solid mass. This process is termed as setting and
hardening. In setting, the cement stiffens and gains adequate rigidity to support an arbitrary
specified pressure. In hardening, the cement continues to gain further strength for a long
time. The water in the paste dissolves the material at the surfaces of the cement grains and
forms a gel. This gel gradually increases in volume and stiffens. The process of hydration
continues to proceed deep and deep into the cement grains, at decreasing speed, with continued
stiffening and hardening.
As a result of research sponsored by Portland Cement Association and performed at Lewis
Institute, in 1918. Professor Duff A. Abrahm reported that the compressive strength of concrete
at a given age and under normal temperature depends primarily on water-cement ratio. The
water-cement ratio is defined as the weight of water to be used for mixing (correction for
absorption of water by aggregate is made) to weight of cement for concrete mix. The compressive
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strength of concrete is more when the water-cement ratio is small. Professor Abrahm enunciated
this as law of water cement ratio and with given concrete materials and conditions of test, the
quantity of mixing water used determines the strength of concrete, so long as the mix is of
workable plasticity. This law is expressed by Eqs. 2.15 and 2.16.
CS = K 1 / (K 2)w/c ...(2.15)
or loge (CS) = loge K 1– (w/c) loge K 2 ...(2.16)
where CS is the compressive strength and (w/c) is the water-cement ratio of a fully compacted
concrete mix by weight, and K1 and K 2 are the empirical constants. In day to day practice, the
constants K1 and K2 are not found. However, the relationships between the compressive strength
and water-cement ratio are adopted. These relationships are assumed to be valid for a wide
range of conditions. The values of constants K1 and K2 depend upon age of concrete, character
of cement and aggregate, climatic condition, etc. Figure 2.10 shows the relationship for
compressive strength of concrete and water-cement ratio for ordinary Portland cement and
rapid hardening Portland cement for fully compacted concrete and time of curing in days.
90
80
1 ye a r
3 m on ths
70
60
C rush in g stren gth o f co ncrete N /m m 2
2 8 d ays
7 da ys
50
3 da ys
1 da y
40
30
20
10
0
0 .3 0 .4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 .8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Fre e w ater/ce m nt ratio by m ass
In de x o rdina ry P o rtla nd cem e nt
ra pid h a rde ning P o rtlan d ce m e nt
Fig. 2.10 Crushing strength and water cement ratio relationship for fully compacted concrete
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According to Professor H. Rusch (Researches towards a general flexural theory for structural
concrete, Journal of ACI. Vol. 32, No.1, July 1960), the quantity of water needed for complete
hydration of a given quantity of cement is equal to 25 per cent of that of cement by weight. In
order to provide the mobility for the water in the cement paste during process of hydration, an
additional 10 to 15 percent is added. Thus, the total minimum water-cement ratio becomes
about 0.35 to 0.40 by weight. Any amount of water above 25 percent required for the chemical
reaction produces pores in the cement paste.
2.15.2 Aggregate-cement Ratio

The physical properties of aggregates (e.g., strength, surface texture, particle shape, flakiness
and elongation indices, maximum size, grading, deleterious ingredients, etc.) influence the
compressive strength and workability of the concrete. Neville, A.M. (Properties of Concrete,
1972 Edition, published by Pitman) has written that as long as the workability of concrete is
maintained at a satisfactory level and the water-cement ratio is kept constant, the compressive
strength of concrete increases with increase in aggregate-cement ratio. It is not correct for
high-strength concrete mixes of lower workability or in such situations where due to increase
in aggregate-cement ratio, the workability is decreased to such an extent that the fresh concrete
cannot be placed properly and compacted thoroughly.
Macintosh, J.D., Concrete Mix Design, 1966 Second-edition. Cement and Concrete Association,
London) has mentioned that there is small increase in comprehensive strength (in high-strength
mixes of low workability) with a decrease in aggregate-cement ratio provided the water content
in the mix is also proportionately decreased.
2.16 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR CONCRETE

The compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete is shown in Fig. 2.11. The rate of loading
has pronounced effect on the behaviour of concrete. Professor H. Rusch has published stress-
strain curves at various strain rates in his paper. Research towards a general flexural theory
for structural concrete, in Journal of ACI. Vol. 32, No. 1, July 1960 and it is seen that
f c'
Tan ge nt m od ulus a t 0 .5 f c'

S tress in con cre te
In itial m od u lus tan ge nt at o rig in

0.5 f c'
S e can t m o du lu s at 0 .5 f c'
0 0 .00 1 0 .00 2 0 .00 3 0 .00 4

S train in co ncre te
Fig. 2.11 Ultimate strain varies from 0.003 to 0.004 stress-strain diagram for concrete
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the curves are concentric. In case a specimen is loaded with slow application of loading (0.001
mm/mm per day), the internal disintegration of the material is less pronounced and that with
relatively fast loading (0.001 mm/mm per minute), the internal disintegration of material is
more pronounced. The maximum strength reached is somewhat smaller at slow rate of strain
and somewhat more at fast rate of loading.
Initial modulus of elsticity (modulus of elasticity), tangent modulus and secant modulus of
concrete may be noted from Fig. 2.11. These modulii of elasticity of concrete may be defined as
following.
2.16.1 Modulus of Clasticity of Concrete

The modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression, Ec is the ratio of unit stress expressed as
N/mm2 to the elastic deformation mm/mm of gauge length. It is the slope of the initial straight
portion of the stress-strain curve. It is also termed as initial modulus. It is tangent at the
origin. The modulus of elasticity varies with the strength. It is primarily influenced by the
elastic properties of aggregate and to a lesser extent by the conditions of curing and the age of
concrete, the mix proportions, type of cement, rate of loading and type and size of specimen.
The concrete exhibits some permanent set even under small loads. In different codes, the various
definitions are given for the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity for structural
concrete is assumed as per IS : 456–1978 as follows :
Ec = 5700.(fck)1/2 ...(2.17)
2
where Ec is the short term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm and fck is the characteristic
cube strength of concrete in N/mm2.
2.16.2 Tangent Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Tangent modulus of elasticity of concrete denoted by Ec´, described the total strain in concrete
(including creep) and it is a variable quantity. In Fig. 2.5, it is defined as the slope of the curve
at any given point
⎛ df ⎞
Ec´ = ⎜ ...(2.18)
⎝ dε c ⎟⎠
where dfc is small increase in stress for small increase in strain dε.
2.16.2 Secant Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

In some codes, in design calculations, an average quantity termed as secant modulus of elasticity,
Ec´ is used. It is defined as the slope of the chord drawn through a point on the stress-strain
curve corresponding to a given stress. It is also a variable quantity. It is smaller than the initial
tangent modulus of elasticity.
When the concrete is compressed in one direction, it expands in the direction transverse to
that of applied stress. The ratio of transverse strains to longitudinal strain is termed as Poisson’s
ratio. It depends some what on strength, composition and other factors. The value of Poisson’s
ratio for concrete for small stresses is about 0.15 to 0.20.
A stress-strain curve as shown in Fig. 2.12 has been accepted as design stress-strain curve
for concrete in IS : 456–1978. The peak stress occurs at a strain of about 0.002.
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From zero strain to 0.0020 strain, the curve is parabolic. The parabolic part of the curve
may be represented by the expression
⎡ ⎛ε ⎞ 2
⎛ε ⎞ ⎤
fc = fd ⎢2 ⎜ c ⎟ − ⎜ c ⎟ ⎥ ...(2.19)
⎢ ⎝ εd ⎠ ⎝ εd ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where fd = 0.446 fck and εd = 0.002.
⎡ 2⎤
Therefore, fc = 0.446fck ⎢2 ⎛ εc ⎞ − ⎛ εc ⎞ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0.002 ⎠ ⎝ 0.002 ⎠ ⎥⎦
fc = 0.446 fck × 1000 [e c – e c2 ] ...(2.20)
f ck
P a rab o lic cu rve

C ru sh in g stress in con crete N /m m 2
0 .67 f ck
0 .67 f ck
γm
0 .00 05 0 .00 15 0 .00 25 0 .00 35

0 .00 0 0 .00 1 0 .00 2 0 .00 3 0 .00 4
S train in co ncre te
Fig. 2.12 Design stress – strain diagram for concrete
From 0.0020 strain to 0.0035 strain, the stress remains constant. The visible cracks in the
concrete does not occur until the strain attain the value of 0.0035. For the purpose of design (in
limit state method) the compressive strength of concrete in the structures is assumed to be 0.67
fck. For the material strength, a partial factor of safety, rms = 1.5 is applied in addition to this. The
maximum compressive stress in concrete for design purpose becomes 0.67 fck/1.5 = 0.446 fck.
2.17 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT

At present the concept of characteristic strength for steel reinforcement has not been included
into any relevant Indian Standard.
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As per IS : 456–1978, the characteristic strength of steel reinforcement shall be assumed as

the minimum value of yield stress, below which not more than 5 percent of the test material
may be expected to fall.
In case, any quality of steel does not show the distinct value or position of yield, IS : 456–
1978 recommends that the characteristic strength of steel reinforcement shall be equal to 0.2
percent proof stress (in the case of cold-worked steel bars) specified in the relevant Indian
Standard specifications below which not more than 5 percent of the test materials may be
expected to fall.
2.18 STRESS-STRIAN RELATIONSHIP FOR STEEL

Yield stress, fy (generally identical in tension and compression) and modulus of elsticity, Es of
steel are two main characteristics of reinforcing steel bars. The yield stress, fy for reinforcing
steel bars is quoted as the characteristic strength of steel. For all types of reinforcing steel bars,
the value of modulus of elasticity, Es is adopted as 2 × 105 N/mm2. The shape of stress strain
curve and particularly of its initial portion has significant influence on the performance of
reinforced concrete members.
For mild steel, the stress is proportional to the strain upto yield stress and there after the
strain increases at constant stress as shown in Figure 2.13. Figure 2.13 shows an elastic portion
followed by a yield plateau. A yield plateau is a horizontal portion of curve where the strain
continues to increase at constant stress. For further increase in strain, the stress begins to
increase again, though at a slower rate. This phenomenon is known as strain-hardening. In
idealised stress-strain curve. Figure 2.13, the portion of curve beyond strain hardening is
dropped from the complete shape of stress-strain curve. The portion of stress-strain curve which
shows upper yield stress is also dropped in order to simplify the calculation in the analysis.
fy
fy fy
1 .15
S tre ss n /m m 2
εs = 0 .11 pe rcen t
εp = 1 2 to 1 5 = εs = 1 .5 %
ε
εp
S train
ε = 2 x 10 5 N /m m 2
Fig. 2.13 Idealised stress-strain diagram for mild steel
The mild steel has a definite yield point. The partial factor of safety for strength of material
is 1.15. Therefore, a stress of (fy/1.15) = 0.87 fy, is used for the mild steel. The elastic strain in
steel varies (along a straight line) is directly proportional to stress 0.87 fy. The elastic strain
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upto 0.87 fy is 0.11 percent (viz., 0.0011). Therefore plastic strain commences at constant stress
0.87 fy represented by a horizontal line. The 5 50
plastic strain εp is about 12 to 15 times the elastic
strain, εs. The plastic strain extends upto 15 per 5 00 5 00
cent (viz., 0.015). 4 50 5 00

Heat treatment and hardening by drawing 1 .15
4 15
increase the strength of hot-rolled reinforcing 4 00
4 15
steel several times. Heat treatment includes 3 50 1 .15
hardening (heating to 800°C – 900°C
S tress n/m m 2
temperature and rapid cooling) followed by 3 00
partial tempering (heating to 300°C – 400°C 2 50

temperature and slow cooling. In hardening by
drawing, hot-rolled reinforcing steel is drawn 2 00
until the stress exceeds the yield stress. Cold
1 50
drawing or cold working changes the crystal
lattice and the reinforcing steel hardens. The 1 00
cold worked reinforcing steel bars have
50
artificially raised yield stress.
Figure 2.14 shows stress-strain curves for 0
0 .00 1 0 .00 2 0 .00 3 0 .00 4 0 .00 5
cold-worked steel as accepted by IS : 456–1978. S train
In de x D esign curve
The cold worked high strength steel bars do not Ch ara cteristic curve
have a definite yield point. The characteristic Es = 2 x 10 5 N /m m 2
strength refers to 0.2 percent proof stress. The Fig. 2.14 Stress - strain diagram for
hysd (Cold - Worked) steel
design yield stress (or 0.2 percent proof stress
of steel), fyd = fy/rms (with rms = 1.15, fyd = fy/1.15 = 0.87fy). As per IS : 456–1978, therefore
the stress-strain curve is defined as given below :
Stress Inelastic stress Stress Inelastic strain
0.80 fy Nil 0.95 fy 0.0007
0.85 fy 0.0001 0.975 fy 0.0010
0.90 fy 0.0003 1.000 fy 0.0020
There are two grades of cold worked bars Fe 415 with fy = 415 N/mm2 and Fe 500 with fy =
500 N/mm2. Figure 2.14 shows stress-strain curves for two grades of steel.
The ductility property of steel is of great importance for the behaviour of reinforced concrete
structures under load. The ductility of reinforcing steel is expressed in terms of percentage
elongation. It is also measured by percentage reduction of area. The reinforcing steel is very
ductile. An excessive reduction in the difficulty may result in brittle fracture under load.
In cold deformed steel, the stress remain proportional upto a stress 0.8 fy. After this, the
stress strain curve becomes non-linear and reaches the yield stress at a strain of [(fy/Es) +
0.002]. After this, the strain increases further and the stress remains constant.
The partial factor of safety for the material strength of steel is same as that of mild steel, viz.,
115 the design stress is equal to (fy/1.15) = 0.87 fy. In design stress-strain curve, the relationship
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remains straight line upto 0.8 × 0.87 fy. Beyond this, the relationship is non-linear and the
design stress reaches 0.87 fy at strain of [(0.87fy /Es) + 0.002].
The values of strains and stresses at different levels from strain-stress diagrams. Figure 2.9
for steels Fe 415 and Fe 500 are given in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Strain-stress values for steels (Fe 415 and Fe 500)
fy = 415 fy = 500
Stress Strain Stress Strain Stress
levels (N/mm 2) (N/mm 2)
0.870 fyd 0.001777 313.96 0.00207 378.26
0.885 fyd 0.001866 319.37 0.00217 384.78
0.900 fyd 0.001956 324.78 0.00226 391.30
0.950 fyd 0.00242 342.83 0.00277 413.04
0.975 fyd 0.002856 351.85 0.003775 429.91
1.000 fyd 0.0038 360.87 0.00417 434.78
The design parameters for Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500 reinforcing steel bars as given in
Table 2.8.
The different notations for different parameters are as under:
εsy = strain of steel at yield
εstu = strain of steel at ultimate load (as given by the tensile test of steel sample)
εst.max = maximum strain in steel in tension
εst.min = minimum strain in steel in tension
εstd = minimum strain in steel in tension failure prescribed by the code to ensure
ductility
ηb = factor for neutral axis at the balanced failure with ε1 = 0.0035, εst = εsy.
ηmax = factor for neutral axis at the balanced failure modified for ductillity
ηmin = factor for neutral axis at tension failure with ε1 = 0.0035, εst = εst.max.
Table 2.8 Design parameters for Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500 Steel (Es = 2 × l05 N/mm2)
Type of steel Parameters
reinforcement
fy
fy (N/mm2) εsy εstd εstu εst.mx ηb ηmax ηmin
1.15 Es
Fe 250 250 0.0011 0.0011 0.0031 0.2000 0.0200 0.76 0.53 0.15
Fe 4l5 415 0.0018 0.0038 0.0038 0.1450 0.0145 0.48 0.48 0.19
Fe 500 500 0.0022 0.0042 0.0042 0.1200 0.0120 0.46 0.46 0.23
2.19 DESIGN STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

In limit state design, the strength actually needed for each limit state is called the design
strength of the material for that limit state. It is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength
by the partial factor for strength γms appropriate to that material and that limit state. That is
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1
Design strength = × characteristic strength
γ ms
fck
or fds = ... (2.21)
γ ms
where,
fck = characteristic strength of the material
γms = partial safety factor appropriate to the material and the limit state being
considered.
The global factor of safety or overall factor of safety has little physical meaning. It is defined
as the product γms. γfL. The value of this factor depends on the social and economic consequences
of the limit state being reached. Indirectly its value is given through the values assigned to γms
and particularly γfL. The limit state of collapse needs a higher factor than a serviceability state
such as excessive deflection.
2.20 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR FOR STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The partial safety factor for strength is denoted by γms. For the limit state of collapse, while
assessing the strength of a structure or structural member, the values of partial safety factor
for strength for concrete should be taken as should be taken as 1.5 and that for the steel is
taken as 1.15. For limit state of collapse, these values are tabulated in Table 2.9 (a).
Table 2.9 (a) Values of partial safety factor, γms for strength (for Limit State of Collapse)
Values of partial safety factor, γms for strength of materials
Concrete Steel
1.5 1.15
For limit state of serviceability, these values are tabulated in Table 2.9 (b).
Table 2.9 (b) Values of partial safety factor, γms for strength (Limit of Serviceability)
Values of partial safety factor γms for strength of materials
Concrete Steel
Deflection 10 10
Cracking 13 10
The partial safety factor, γms for the strength of materials is introduced for the limit state
design. These values take into consideration the importance of the limit state and the differences
between the strengths of the materials as tested and those of the materials of the structure or
structural members. A higher value of γms is recommended for concrete as it may be expected
that the actual strength of the concrete in the structure may deviate from that found from the
tests by an amount more than that may be expected for concrete, owing to several construction
operations, such as transportation, placing, compacting and curing of concrete.
In case of steel reinforcement, the value of partial safety factor for strength, γms, is equal to
1.15. It considers the reduction in the strength of the cross-section of the member as a result of
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inaccurate position of steel. It also considers the reduction in the strength of the steel bars due
to manufacturing defects, such as deviation from the nominal diameter.
It is to note that the values of y ms are 1.0 for both concrete and steel. Therefore, the material
properties, such as modulii of elasticity, specific creep and shrinkage, which are relevant to the
assessment of deflection, are those associated with the characteristic strengths of the materials,
because in this particular case, the design strengths are identical to the characteristic strengths.
For the analysis of structures, it may be necessary to find the elastic constants, such as Ec,
the modulus of elasticity. Irrespective of the limit state being considered during the analysis,
the characteristic strength of concrete is used in the expression for Ec, and the factor γms should
not be introduced.
When the properties of concrete other than compressive strength are found from cube test
results, the factor γms should be applied to get the values. In case, the tensile strength of
⎛ f ⎞
concrete is taken as ft the design tensile strength should be ⎜ t ⎟ .
⎝ γ ms ⎠
The values of partial safety factors for material strength taken into consideration the possibility
of deviation of the strength of the material, the deviation from sectional dimensions and the
accuracy of the calculation procedure. The values of γms = 1.5 for concrete and γms = 1.15 for
steel. It is because greater ratio is expected in strength of concrete than in steel.
2.21 SAFETY OF STRUCTURES IN LIMIT STATE OF DESIGN

Various national and international committees working with the aim to provide a rational and
sound design philosophy, have recommended a semi-probabilistic limit state method. First time,
the probabilistic concepts are explicitly embedded in the design. It is assumed that the statistical
distribution of loads and material strengths are available. The characteristic values for both
loads and material strengths are then selected with acceptable probabilities against higher
loads and lower strengths, respectively. The practice of using single global factor of safety has
been replaced by probability-based partial safety factors, one for loads and another for material
strengths the design values are derived from characteristic values through the partial safety
factors.
The partial safety factors for loads vary with the degree of seriousness of the particular limit
state being reached, probability of two or more loads occurring together and the reliability of
structural theory being used. Whereas, the partial safety factors for material strength takes
into consideration the difference between the strength of controlled specimen and the material
in the prototype structures. With these modifications in loads and the material strengths, safety
of structure is determined for relevant limit of states.
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PART III : DESIGN OF BEAMS
Design of Singly
3 Reinforced Rectangular
Beams
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The beams are defined as the structural members subjected to transverse loads that cause
bending moments and shear forces along their length. The plane of transverse loads is parallel
to the plane of symmetry of the cross-section of the beam and it passes through the shear
centre, so that the simple bending of beam occurs. The bending moments and shear forces
produced by the transverse loads are called as internal forces. The beams are called as simply
supported, overhanging, cantilever, fixed and continuous depending upon the nature of supports
and end conditions. The cross-section of most simple reinforced concrete beams are rectangular
in shape.
Plain concrete beams are inefficient as flexural members. The tensile strength of such beams
in bending is very small as compared to their compressive strength. As such the plain beams
fail on the tension side at small loads much earlier than the strength of concrete in compression
side is fully reached. The reinforced concrete beams are non-homogeneous. These beams are
made of entirely two different materials (viz., cement concrete and steel). These beams differ
considerably in their internal action from those made of homogeneous materials, (such as,
steel, timber or any other structural material). The fundamental principles involved in the
analysis are however, essentially the same. In the reinforced beams, the steel reinforcing bars
are placed on the tension side as near the extreme tension fibre as it is necessary for fire and
corrosion protection of the steel. The reinforced concrete beams in which the steel reinforcement
is placed only on tension side, are known as singly reinforced beams. In singly reinforced
beams, the tension developed due to bending moment is mainly resisted by the steel reinforcement
and the compression is resisted by the concrete alone. In the simply supported beams as shown
in Fig. 1.1 (a) (ii), the steel bars are placed near the bottom face (tension side) and in cantilever
beams as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b) (ii), the steel bars are placed near top face (tension side). A joint
action of concrete and steel in reinforced concrete design is assumed in case there is no relative
slip between them. The steel bars are perfectly gripped by the surrounding concrete.
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In reinforced concrete beams, in addition to the effects of shrinkage and creep and of loading
history, there are uncertain effects of the cracking of the concrete in the tension zone. During
the past several decades, there has been a gradual move in design from elastic stress calculations
to ultimate strength methods. For example, the ultimate strength design for beams was
introduced into both the American and British design codes in 1950’s and the limit state design
procedures in current British practice make specific requirements for the ultimate design
calculations.
The pronounced interest in the ultimate strength design of structural members dates back
only 30 to 40 years. Its beginning may be traced further back than the concepts of elasticity. In
Europe, the origin of systematic thought regarding ultimate flexural strength of beams was
due to G. Galilei. Professor G. Galilei’s work [Galilei, G. Dialogues concerning two new sciences
(translated by H. Crew and A. de Salviyo) Macmillan, New York, 1914] was published as early
as in 1638.
In this chapter, the singly reinforced beams have been designed by following the method of
limit state of collapse (flexure) and their design have been checked by the limit state of
serviceability, (viz., deflection and cracking etc.).
3.2 ASSUMPTIONS
The design for the limit state of collapse in flexure is based on the following assumptions. These
assumptions are valid for shallow beams (span to depth ratio more than 2.5).
1. At any cross-section, the sections which are plane prior to the loading (bending) remain
plane after loading (bending). In other words, the strains vary linearly with distances from
the neutral axis.
It means that the transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the beam are plane and normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam before the loads are
applied to the beam. These sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after
loads are applied.
Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete beam is loaded close to
failure, this assumption is not absolutely correct. However, the deviations are usually minor.
The results of theory based on this assumption check well with extensive test information.
This assumption of linear strain distribution, which implies that the plane sections remain
plane, is not exactly correct, but it is justifiable for all practical purposes. Professors Evans,
R.H. and Kong, F.K., in their paper ‘strain distribution in composite prestressed concrete beams,
published in Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, 58, No. 684, July 1963 (pp 871 – 2)
and No. 685, August 1963 (pp 1003–5) have given a critical review.
2. The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035
in bending.
The specified strain is the strain at which the section reaches its maximum moment capacity
as seen in stress-strain diagram for concrete (Fig. 2.7). The value of such a strain is liable to
large variations depending upon rate of deformations, loading time, grade of concrete, shape of
the cross-section, the percentage of reinforcement. The value specified in code is 0.0035 will
give conservative results in most of the cases of pure bending. The maximum concrete
compressive strain has a specified value 0.0035 at the instant of collapse. The strains in concrete
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Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 87
at a distance of (that is, at the centroid of steel reinforcement) from the top of the beam may be
obtained immediately from Fig. 3.1 (b). The relationship between the strain in reinforcement
steel bars and that in the adjacent concrete depends on the bond between the concrete and
steel. The strain in tension steel is given by the condition of compatibility as
εs =
(d − x u ) (0.0035) ...(3.1a)
xu
3. The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain
in concrete may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any other shape
which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results. An idealised
stress-strain curve for concrete for flexural compressive stress as shown in Fig. 2.7 is recommended
in IS : 456–1978. For the design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete in structure
shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength. In addition to this, the partial
safety factor for strength of the material, rms = 1.5 shall be applied. Therefore, the design
strength of concrete shall be 0.67fck/1.5 = 0/446 fck.
It is to note that, for the stress-strain curve, Fig. 2.7, as given in IS : 456–1978, the design
stress block parameters are as following.
The area of stress block is equal to 0.36 fck . x u and the depth of centre of compressive force
from the extreme fibre in compression is 0.42 xu as shown in Fig. 3.1. Where fck is the
characteristic strength of the concrete and x u is the depth of neutral axis.
The stress distribution in the compression zone in concrete may be obtained by using the
stress-strain curve of concrete, Fig. 3.1 (b) and (c) as per IS : 456–1978. The stress distribution
diagram Fig. 3.1 (c) is a combination of a rectangle and a parabola. This diagram is called as
stress block. The maximum compressive stress in concrete is equal to [(0.67 fck/rms) = (0.67fck/
rms) = (0.446 fck)]. This stress is related to fck. by a factor 0.67. This factor is introduced to
consider an observed fact. The apparent strength of concrete in the compression zone of beam
or column at failure is approximately 0.85 times the cylinder strength of the same concrete or
0.67 times the cube strength (since cylinder strength is approximately equal to 0.8 times the
cube strength). The design strength is equal to 0.67 fck/rms = 0.67fck/1.5 (as rms = 1.5).
This assumption refers to an idealised stress distribution for the concrete in compression
(i.e., for the concrete above the neutral axis, viz., shaded portion, in Fig. 3.1(a). The stress
distribution diagram, Fig. 3.1(c) is generally referred to as the stress block. The stress/strain
block in ultimate flexural strength analysis in the stress/strain curve drawn with the horizontal
axis for the stress/strain.
4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
5. The stresses in the steel bars used for reinforcement are derived from the representative
stress-strain curve for the type of steel used (Fig. 2.8 for mild steel and Fig. 2.9 for Hysd steel).
For design purpose, the partial safety factor for the strength of material, rms equal to 1.15 is
⎛ fy ⎞
applied. Therefore, ⎜ = 0.87fy.
⎝ 1.15 ⎟⎠
For mild steel, the stress-strain curve has definite yield point. Therefore, it is approximated
by two straight lines as shown in Fig. 2.8 (as given in IS : 456–1978). This diagram may also
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be used for hot-rolled deformed bars conforming to IS : 1139–1966 and hot rolled steel made
from structural steel conforming to IS : 226–1975.
0 .00 35
εc u 0 .44 6 f u k
b
0 .0 02
3 Xu C cu 0 .42 X u
7
4 X
u
N A N A N 7 A
3
= 0.42 85 7
7
@ 0 .4 3
D 4
= 0 .57 14 3
7 @ 0 .57
jd = ( d – 0.42 X u )
d (d – X u )
T su
εs y1 T s u = 0.87 f y , A s t , C c u = 0 .36 F c k .b. X u
εs y1 [ (0.8 7 f y /E s ) + 0 .00 2 0]
(a ) R e ctan gu la r b ea m sectio n (b ) S train d ia g ram (c) S tress d istrib u tio n diag ram
Fig. 3.1
The cold twisted steel and hard drawn steel wire conforming to IS : 1566–1982 do not have
a definite yield point, as it may be seen in the representative stress-strain diagram as shown in
Fig. 2.9.
6. The maximum strain in tension in steel bars used for reinforcement, εst.max, in the
section at failure should not be less than specified in IS : 456–1978 as below :
(εsy1 = εst.max) </ [(fy/1.15 Es) + 0.002]
(εsy1 = εst.max) >/ [(0.87 fy/Es) + 0.002] ...(3.1b)
where
εst.max = maximum strain in tension in steel bars
fy = characteristic strength of steel, and
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2 × 105 N/mm2)
1. For mild steel, Fe 250
εsy1 = [(250/1.15 × 2 × 105) + 0.0020]
= 0.003087 @ 0.0031
2. For Hysd steel, Fe 415
εsy1 = [(415/1.15 × 2 × 105) + 0.0020] = 0.0038
εsy1 = [(500/1.15 × 2 × 105) + 0.002] = 0.00417
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It is to note that the limiting values of the depth of neutral axis for different grades of steel
and maximum strain in tension in steel based on the above assumptions are as shown in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Steel fy (N/mm2) (x u.max/d) εsy1
Mild steel, Fe 250 250 0.53 0.0031
0.531*
Hysd, Fe 415 415 0.48 0.0038
0.479*
Hysd, Fe 500 500 0.46 0.00417
0.456*
*These values are as per SP: 16–1980). These have been derived in Art 3.8.
This assumption is made to ensure ductile failure (that is, the reinforcement in tension at
the critical section is to undergo a certain degree of inelastic deformation prior to the failure of
concrete in compression.
⎛ fy ⎞
In IS : 456–1978, the first term for maximum strain ⎜ corresponds to the strain at
⎝ 1.15Es ⎟⎠
the yield stress, fy for the mild steel and other types of steels having definite yield point.
The cold twisted steel allowed in IS : 456–1978 does not have a well defined yield point and
the yield stress fy is taken as the conventional value of 0.2 percent proof stress.
The second term 0.002 in maximum strain is added so that there is sufficient yielding of steel
before failure at constant stress.
The assumptions (2) and (6) control the maximum depth of neutral axis in flexural members.
The maximum depth of neutral axis is found directly from the strain diagrams considering
similar triangles
xu. max 0.0035
= ... (3.2a)
d (0.0035 + ε st . max )
where, from Eq. 3.1(b),
εst.max = [(0.87fy/Es) + 0.0020]
3.3 BEHAVIOUR OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM

The behaviour of plain concrete beams and the behaviour of reinforced concrete beams, so long
as (i) the stresses remain elastic and the section of the beam remains uncracked and (ii) the
stresses remain elastic and the section of beam becomes cracked have been discussed in the
Author’s book, Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. I. The development of cracks and their
further progation upward near the supports and near the middle portion of the beam have also
been discussed there.
The distribution of strains and stresses, when the load reaches close to the ultimate load are
shown in Fig. 3.1 (b) and (c). Eventually, the carrying capacity of the beam is reached. The
failure of beam may be caused in one of the two ways either in compression or in tension.
The compression failure and the tension failure of the beam have been discussed in the next
articles, (viz, Arts 3.4 and 3.5).
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3.4 COMPRESSION FAILURE OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

In order to assess the true behaviour of the section, the assumption (viz., the stress-strain curve
for concrete, defining the magnitude and the distribution of compressive stress is known) is
necessary. The strains in the compressed concrete are proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis. The shape of the stress-strain curve Fig. 2.8 indicates the shape of the compressive
stress block at various stages of loading. The changes in the shape of the stress block as the
bending moment at a beam section increases are shown in Fig. 3.2.
When the total compressive force in the concrete multiple by the lever arm (distance between
the line of action of compressive force and that of tensile force) is maximum, the section of beam
reaches maximum moment of resistance (i.e., its flexural strength). For the rectangular beam
section of width, b and effective depth d, the total compressive force becomes (C = 0.36fck. b . xu)
and the internal lever arm is (d – 0.42 x u), where x u is the depth of neutral axis.
o a b cd
O1 O2 O3 O4
S train N e utral axe s

p rofile s d
Tsu Tsu
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
d1 c1 b1 a 1 o 1
(a ) R e in force d concre te be am E le m en t (b ) C o m p re ssive stre ss d istribu tio n in con crete
(S tra in d ia gram s) (S tre ss d ia gram s)
Fig. 3.2. Strain and Stress distribution in compressed concrete
In case the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement bars is large or the normal cross-
sectional area of steel reinforcement bars of high strength is provided, the compression strength
of the concrete will be exhausted prior to the steel bars start yielding. In such a case, the depth
of neutral axis increases considerably. It causes an increase in the compressive force. The
failure of concrete in compression occurs by crushing. The strains in concrete become so large
that the integrity of the concrete is disrupted. Yet the exact criteria for the occurrence are not
known. But, it is seen that the rectangular beams fail in compression when the strains in
concrete attain the values of about 0.003 to 0.004. The crushing failure of concrete is sudden.
It is of an explosive nature and occurs without warning. Therefore, in case the beams are
overloaded, the failure is made to initiate (by keeping the dimensions of beam in such a manner
failure) by yielding of the steel bars rather than by crushing of the concrete.
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3.5 TENSION FAILURE OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

In case the cross-sectional area of the steel bars provided for reinforcement is moderate or
small, at some value of the load, the steel bars will attain their yield point. The tensile force in
steel bars remains constant at 0.87 × Ast . fy even with the increase of loading. A slight additional
load causes large plastic elongation of the steel bars. At that stress, the steel bars yield and
stretch by a large amount. The tension cracks in the concrete, which were developed at lower
stresses widen visibly. These cracks propagate upwards with the simultaneous significant
deflection of the beam. When this happens the distribution of the compressive stress in concrete
becomes distinctly non-linear, the strains in resulting in an increase in the mean stress in the
compressive stress block. Because, equilibrium must be maintained in the internal forces, the
depth of neutral axis reduces, that is slightly increase in lever arm and moment of resistance
the remaining compression zone of the concrete increase to such a degree that crushing of the
concrete (the secondary compression failure) begins at a load only slightly larger than that
which caused the steel bars to yield. The carrying capacity of moderately reinforced beams is
effectively determined from the attainment of the yield point.
Such a yield failure of the steel bars is referred as the tension failure of the beams. The
tension failure of the beam is gradual. The cracks widen and lengthen and the marked increase
in deflection is seen.
3.6 COEFFICIENTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRESS BLOCK

The behaviour of singly reinforced beam has been discussed in Art. 3.3 and its compression
failure has been described in Art. 3.4. The coefficients of compressive stress block at the section
of maximum moment may be taken as k1, k2 and k3 as shown in Fig. 3.3 (a).
For a rectangular beam section of breadth, b and the effective depth, d, the total compressive
force becomese
Ccu = k1 .(k3 fck . xu . b) ...(i)
The internal lever arm
jd = (d – k2 . x u) ...(ii)
where, x u is the depth of neutral axis.
In order to determine the magnitude of these coefficients, k1, k2 and k3, a great deal of
research has been made. Professors E. Hognestad, N.W. Hanson, and D. Mc Henry [‘concrete
stress distribution in ultimate strength design’ Journal ACI, Vol. 52, No. 6, December 1955
(pp. 455–479)] and Professor H. Rusch [‘Versuche zur Festigkeit der Biegedruckzone’ Bulletin
No. 120, Deutscher Ausschuss fur stahlbeton, Berlin, 1955 (pp. 94)] conducted most notable
work consisting of short term tests. The special specimens (called as Portland Cement Association
test specimen) were used and tests were conducted and the test region of the specimen was
loaded eccentrically. The depth of neutral axis (fibre of zero strain) was maintained at the
bottom face of the specimen throughout the test. The stress distribution in the compression
zone of a member with flexure was simulated.
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k 3 f ck 0 .85 fc '
k2 xu 0 .5 a
C cu a
C cu =
C cu a cts a t ce ntroid 0 .85 f c '. b.a . 0 .5 a

o f com p ressive
Xu stre ss d istribu tio n
d iag ra m
C cu = ( k 1 . k 3 . k ck . x u . b )
N e utral axis
(a ) A ctu al stre ss d istribu tio n (b ) W h itne y's eq uiva le nt re ctan gu la r
stress block
Fig. 3.3 Distribution of compressive stress in compression zone (rectangular concrete beam section)
The internal and external forces and moments were equated. The stress-strain curve for the
concrete in the specimen was also obtained. The stress-strain curves for the concrete were also
found from the axially loaded cylinders and these were seen to be similar to the stress-strain
curves for the concrete in the specimen. For higher strength concrete, however, the maximum
stress attained in the specimens at the flexural strength k3 . fc´ was slightly less than the
cylinder strength. The strain in concrete εc was also found from the tests. The values determined
for the stress block coefficients of concrete with sand-travel aggregates varied with the cylinder
strength, fck. These quantities correspond to the maximum values of k1, k3 obtained in each
test. These values are noted in Table 3.2.
From Portland Cement Association test (briefly called as PCA test) specimen test finding, it is
seen that the stress-strain curve for the concrete in axial compression has a striking similarity
to that found from eccentrically load specimen referred above. It has been questioned from
time to time. Professors Sturman, G.M. Shah, S.P. and Winter, G. [‘Effect of Flexural Strain
Gradient on Micro-cracking and Stress-Strain Behaviour of Concrete’ Journal ACI, Vol. 62,
No. 7, July 1965, (pp. 805–822)] conducted tests on eccentrically and axially loaded specimens.
It was seen that the peak of the curve for the eccentrically load specimens occurred at 20
percent higher stress. For axially loaded specimen, the peak of curve was at 50 percent higher
strain. A significant effect may not be due to the presence of a strain gradient. But if anything,
it may result in an improvement in the properties of the stress block. It may be noted that the
appearance of longitudinal crack in the compression zone is delaid due to the presence of strain
gradient.
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Table 3.2 Stress block coefficients at the flexural strength of rectangular sections
(Found by PCA test on unconfined specimens)
Cylinder strength Coefficients Strain
fc (N/mm 1 ) k1 k2 k3 εc
13.8 0.86 0.48 1.03 0.0037
20.7 0.82 0.46 0.97 0.0035
27.6 0.79 0.45 0.94 0.0034
34.5 0.75 0.44 0.92 0.0032
41.4 0.71 0.42 0.92 0.0031
48.3 0.67 0.41 0.93 0.0029
IS : 456–1978 specified k1 = 0.8071748, k2 = 0.42 and k3 = 0.446 with fck as the characteristic
strength of the concrete.
3.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME PROPOSED STRESS BLOCKS

A large number of ultimate strength theories have been proposed, since, the beginning of this
century. Professor Evans, R.H. [The plastic theories for the ultimate strength of reinforced
concrete beams’, Journal ICE, 21, December 1943, (pp. 98–121)] has described these different
theories. As per these theories, the stress block assumed essentially differed only in the shape.
In case, the characteristics of the stress blocks are expressed in general term, the ultimate
equations may then be derived from the principles of mechanics.
0 .9 0 .00 38
k 3 fc u
k2 xu
0 .8 0 .00 36
xu
0 .7 εc u
0 .00 34
a nd k3 εc u
0 .6 0 .00 32
0 .5 0 .00 30
k2
0 .4 0 .00 28
20 30 40 50 60
C u be streng th f c k (N /m m 2 )
Fig. 3.4 Characteristics of Hognestad et al stress block
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1. Professors Hognestad, E. Hanson, N.W., and Mc Henry, D. [Concrete stress distribution

in ultimate strength design, Proc. ACI, 52, No. 4, December, 1955, (pp. 455–80) have described
two relevant characteristics of the stress block. In general flexural theory, in Art. 3.6, the
properties of the concrete stress block have been expressed in terms of characteristic coefficients
k1, k2 and k3, as shown in Fig. 3.4 ACI-ASCE Committee 327 [Ultimate strength design, Proc.
ACI 52, No. 5, January, 1956 (pp. 505–24)], and Professor Hognestad, E., [Fundamental
concepts in ultimate load design of reinforced concrete members, Proc. ACI, 48, No. 10, June
1952, (pp. 809–32)] have done much research to study the characteristics of the stress block.
Professors Mattock, A.H., Kriz, L.B. and Hognestad, E [Rectangular concrete stress block
distribution in ultimate strength design, Proc. ACI 57, No. 8, February 1961, (pp. 875–928)]
and Professor Rusch, H [Research towards a general flexural theory for structural concrete,
Proc. ACI 57, No. 1, July, 1960, (pp. 1–28)] have also carried much research work to study the
characteristics of the stress block. Professors Hognestad et al research work in particular had a
significant influence an American and indirectly, British thinking. The concrete cube strengths
have been found from the cylinder strength, fck using conversion factor of 0.8. The results of
Professors Hognestad et al works were summarized in Fig. 3.4. From Fig. 3.4, it is seen that the
ultimate strain, εcu varies with the concrete strength. For simplicity, in current American and
British design codes, it is assumed that εcu has definite value irrespective of the concrete strength.
3.7.1 Whitney’s Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block

Professor Whitney, C.S. [‘Plastic Theory of Reinforced Concrete Design’, Proceedings ASCE,
December, 1940 Transaction ASCE, Vol. 107, 1942, (pp. 251–326)] has suggested that the
actual shape of the stress block- in compression in concrete may be replaced by an equivalent
rectangular stress block as shown in Fig. 3.3 (b) as a means of simplification. This equivalent
rectangular stress block is also referred as fictitious rectangular stress block. For the purpose
of finding the flexural strength only, the magnitude (k 1 k3) and the position (k 2) of the concrete
compression force required to be known. It was achieved for the equivalent rectangular stress
block. This simplification greatly facilitates the calculations. The concept of an equivalent
rectangular stress block, which was pioneered by Whitney (as referred above) is being used in
both CP110 and the ACI code [ACI Committee 318, ‘Building Code Requirements for
Reinforcement Concrete (ACI 318–77), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1977, (pp. 1–28)]
in practice.
The equivalent rectangular stress block has a mean of 0.85 times the cylinder strength, fc′
(viz., 0.85 fc′ ) and of such a depth xu′ that the area of 0.85 fc′ . xu′ was equal to that of the
actual stress block (i.e., have the same magnitude), then the centroids of the two blocks were
very nearly at the same level (i.e., line of action of compressive force). The depth xu′ of Whitney’s
block is not directly related to the neutral axis depth, x u. The depth of neutral axis x u was found
from the strain distribution. The value of xu′ is to be calculated from the condition of equilibrium.
Let b be the width of rectangular beam and Ast be the reinforcement in tension.
From condition of equilibrium, the total compressive force, ccu is equal to the total tensile
force, Tsu. Then,
0.85 fc′ . b . xu′ = Ast . σst ...(i)
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where σst is the stress in steel in tension at collapse. Therefore (σst = fy)
Ast . fy
x u′ = ... (ii)
0.85 fc´ . b
fy
or x u′ = p.d ... (3.2 b)
0.85 fc´
⎛A ⎞
where p = ⎜ st ⎟ is the ratio of area of steel in tension to area of rectangular beam of
⎝ bd ⎠
effective depth, d.
The ultimate moment of resistance may be obtained by taking the moment of compressive
force in concrete about the centre of the reinforcement in tension. Therefore,
Mu = Ccu . (d – 0.5 xu′ )
Mu = 0.85 fc′ . b . xu′ . (d – 0.5 xu′ ) ...(3.3)
or, by taking the moment of tensile force about the line of action of the compressive force.
Therefore,
Mu = Tsu . (d – 0.5 xu′ )
Mu = Ast . fy (d – 0.5 xu′ ) ...(3.4)
In case, the steel bars used as tension reinforcement, do not have a definite yield point,
Whitney suggested that in Eqs. (3.2 to 3.4), fy may be taken as the stress corresponding to a
strain of 0.0040.
From Eq. 3.2 (b), it is seen that xu′ increases with percentage ratio of steel, p. In case, the
value of p exceed the balanced value, a primary compression failure occurs and Eq. 3.4 shall
not be applicable. Professor Whitney has proposed that, where, xu′ as given by Eq. 3.2 (b)
exceeds 0.536 d (which is his experimental found value for a balanced failure), then, for design
purpose, xu′ should be taken as 0.536 d and Mu is calculated from Eq. 3.3.
At present, Professor Whitney’s method is rarely used directly in design practice. However,
this method has great Historical significance.
3.7.2 CP-110 Stress Block

An idealized stress block used in CP-110 for ultimate strength calculations in design is shown
in Fig. 3.5 (a). The stress-strain curve for concrete as shown in Fig. 2.6 is used with concrete
partial factor of safety for material, rms, adopted as 1.5. It is further assumed in CP-110 that
the ultimate strain in concrete is constant at εcu = 0.0035 and the parabolic stress block ends at
1
(f ) 2
strain ε0 = cu . The values of coefficients k3 and k2 are found in the following two steps :
5000
Step 1. Area of stress block (Fig. 3.4 a)
= area of rectangle + area of parabola
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2
= (0.45 fcu) (x u – x0) + × base × height
3
2
= (0.45fcu) . (x u – x0) + × 0.45 fcu × x0
3
2
= (0.45 fcu) [(x u – x0) + . x0 ]
3
1
= (0.45 fcu) [xu – x] ... (i)
3 0
ε0
Since, x0 = . xu , and
ε cu
1
(fck ) 2
εcu = 0.0035 and ε0 =
5000
Substituting these values in the expression (i)
0 ⎡ 1 ε ⎤
= (0.45 fcu) ⎢ xu − . xu ⎥
⎣ 3 ε cu ⎦
1
⎡ 1 (fcu ) 2 1 ⎤
= (0.45 fcu) . x u ⎢1 − . × ⎥
⎢ 3 5000 0.0035 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1
⎡ (fcu ) 2 ⎤
= 0.45 ⎢1 − ⎥ f .x ... (ii)
⎢ 52.5 ⎥ cu u
⎣ ⎦
0 .45 f c u 1 /2
εc u
( fcu )
k 3 fcu εo = 0 .00 35
5 00 0
(k2 . xu )
C e ntroid
xu xu
x 0 εεo x u x0
cc u cu
x0
P a rab o lic
(a ) S tress block (b ) S tress distrib ution (c) S tress block sim plified
(C P -11 0) d iag ra m C P -11 0
Fig. 3.5 Stress block for ultimate limit states
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Area of stress blook (Fig. 3.5 a)

⎡ (f )1 2 ⎤
k3 fcu . x u = 0.45 ⎢1 − cu ⎥ fcu . x u
⎢ 52.5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (f )1 2 ⎤
Therefore, k3 = 0.45 ⎢1 − cu ⎥ ...(3.5)
⎢ 52.5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Step 2. Moment of stress block may be taken about the top of the block (Fig. 3.4 a)
= area of rectangle × distance to its c.g. + area of parabola × distance to its c.g.
(xu − x0 ) 2
= 0.45 fcu . (xu – x0) + base × height × dist.
2 3
= 0.45 fcu.
(xu − x0 )2 + 2 × 0.45 f ⎛ 3 ⎞
cu× x0 × ⎜ xu − x0 + x0
2 3 ⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎡ ( x − x )2 2 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎤
u 0
= 0.45fcu . ⎢ + × x 0 × ⎜ xu − x 0 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 3 ⎝ 8 ⎠⎥
⎦
⎡ x2 ⎛ 2
u x0 ⎞ 2 ε0 ⎛ 5 ε0 ⎞ ⎤
= 0.45 fcu . ⎢ 1 − + × . x . x 1 − ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎜⎝ xu ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 ε cu ⎟⎠ ⎥
u u
3 ε cu
⎣ ⎦
ε0 x0 ⎛ε ⎞
Since, x 0 = . xu , i.e., = ⎜ 0⎟
ε cu xu ⎝ ε cu ⎠
⎡1 ⎛ 2
ε ⎞ 2 ε ⎛ 5 ε ⎞⎤
= 0.45 fcu.x u2 ⎢ ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ + 0
. 1− 0 ⎥
⎢2 ⎝ ε cu ⎠ 3 ε cu ⎜⎝ 8 ε cu ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡1 1 ⎛ ε ⎞ 2 2 ε 2 ε0 5 ⎛ ε0 ⎞ ⎤
2
0 0
= 0.45 fcu.x u2 ⎢ + − + − . ⎥
⎢ 2 2 ⎜⎝ ε cu ⎟⎠ 2 ε cu 3 ε cu 12 ⎜⎝ ε cu ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡1 2
1 ⎛ ε0 ⎞ 1 ε0 ⎤
= 0.45 fcu.x u2 ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎥
⎢2 12 ⎝ ε cu ⎠ 3 ε cu ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
1 ⎡ ⎛ε ⎞ ⎛ ε0 ⎞ ⎤
= 0.45 fcu.x u2 ⎢6 + 0 − 4 ⎥
12 ⎢ ⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠ ⎥
cu cu
⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ 2 ⎤
1 2 ε0 ⎞
= (0.45 fcu.x u ) ⎜ 2 −
⎢ + 2 ⎥
12 ⎢⎝ ε cu ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
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⎡⎛ 1 2 ⎤
2⎞
=
1 2 ⎢⎜
(0.45 fcu.x u ) ⎢ 2 −
( fcu ) ⎟ + 2⎥⎥ ... (iii)
12 ⎜⎝ 17.5 ⎟⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
From the expression (ii) area of the stress block
⎡ (f )1 2 ⎤
= 0.45 ⎢1 − cu ⎥ fcu . x u ...(iv)
⎢ 52.5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Taking moment of area of the stress block about top and equating with the expression (iii)
1
⎡ (fcu ) 2 ⎤
k2 . xu = 0.45 ⎢1 − ⎥ f .x
⎢ 52.5 ⎥ cu u
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 2 ⎤
1 ⎢ (fcu ) 2 ⎞
= 2
(0.45 fcu . x u ) ⎢2 − ⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⎥⎥
12 ⎜⎝ 17.5 ⎟⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 2 ⎤
2⎞
⎢2 − ⎜ (fcu ) ⎟ + 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ 17.5 ⎟ ⎥
1 ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
k2 = .
12 ⎡⎛ (f ) 2 ⎞ ⎤1
⎢⎜1 − cu ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜⎝ 52.5 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ 1 2 ⎤
2⎞
⎢ 2 − (fcu ) + 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ 17.5
⎟
⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
k2 = 1
... (v)
⎡ (f ) 2 ⎤
4 ⎢3 − cu ⎥
⎢⎣ 17.5 ⎥
⎦
Alternatively
Area of stress block . k2 xu
⎛x ⎞ 0.45 fcu . x0
= 0.45 fcu . xu ⎜ u ⎟ − (x u – x 0)
⎝ 2⎠ 3
ε0
where x0 = from Fig. 3.4 (b)
εcu
⎡ 1 2⎤
⎢2 − (fcu )
2
⎥+2
⎢ 17.5 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Therefore, k2 = ... (3.6)
⎡ (f ) 1 2 ⎤
4 ⎢3 − cu ⎥
⎢⎣ 17.5 ⎥
⎦
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3.7.3 CP-110 Simplified Stress Block

CP-110 states that the ultimate resistance moment may be found by assuming stress block of
intensity of stress 0.4 fcu extending from the compressive force to neutral axis, Fig. 3.5 (c) as an
alternative to the stress block, Fig. 3.4 (a). The characteristic ratios of this simplified stress
block are
k 3 = 0.4 and k 2 = 0.5
It is to note that the stress intensity 0.4 fcu includes an allowance for the partial factor of
safety for the material strength, rms.
3.8 BALANCED BEAM SECTION

A beam section is called as balanced section in case, the cross-sectional area of steel bars
provided as reinforcement in the beam section, is such that the maximum compressive strain in
bending in concrete attains εcu simultaneously as the strain in steel reaches, εsy1 (corresponding
to its specified yield strength in steel), that is, the strain distribution at collapse is as shown in
Fig. 3.6 (b).
A singly reinforced rectangular beam section of breadth, b and the effective depth, d is as
shown in Fig. 3.6 (a). The beam section is balanced as shown in strain diagram, Fig. 3.6 (b).
From the strain diagram, Fig. 3.6 (b),
xu ( d − xu )
= ...(i)
εcu ε sy
xu ⎛ εcu ⎞
Therefore, = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.7)
d ⎝ εcu + ε sy ⎠
0 .00 35
b εcu
xu
N A N A
d d
(d – x u )
εsy 1
εsy 1 = [( f y /1 .1 5 E s )+ 0 .00 2]
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te (b ) S train d ia gra m
b ea m se ctio n
Fig. 3.6 Balanced beam section
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As per assumption in limit state of collapse, the maximum strain in concrete at the outermost
compression fibre at collapse, εcu is taken as 0.0035. Substituting this in Eq. 3.7.
xu 0.0035
= ...(3.8)
d 0.0035 + ε sy1
⎡⎛ f y ⎞ ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1.15 Es ⎠ ⎥⎦
xu 0.0035
= ...(3.9)
d ⎡ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
⎢0.0035+ ⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1.15 Es ⎠ ⎦
For balanced section

xu x
= u. max ...(3.10)
d d
The limiting values of x u are found as below.
(i) For mild steel, Fe 250 (εs = 2 × 105 N/mm2)
fy = 250 N/mm2, and εsy = 0.0031
Substituting in Eq. 3.8
xu. max ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.53 ...(i)
d ⎝ 0.0035 +0.0031 ⎟⎠
(ii) For Hysd steel, Fe 415 (εs = 2 × 105 N/mm2)
fy = 415N/mm2 and εsy = 0.00380
Substituting in Eq. 3.8,
xu. max ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.48 ...(ii)
d ⎝ 0.0035 +0.00380 ⎟⎠
(iii) For Hysd steel, Fe 500 (εs = 2 × 105 N/mm2)
fy = 500 N/mm2, and εsy = 0.00417
Substituting in Eq. 3.8,
xu. max ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.46 ...(iii)
d ⎝ 0.0035 +0.00417 ⎟⎠
These values of (xu.max/d) = 0.53, 0.48 and 0.46 have been specified for steel Fe 250, steel Fe
415 and steel Fe 500 respectively, (Table 3.1), in code IS : 456–1978.
Therefore, a balanced section is defined for design purposes as one in which the steel
stress reaches the design strength (fy/rms) = (fy/1.15) = 0.87 fy, simultaneous as the concrete
reaches the strain 0.0035.
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3.9 UNDER-REINFORCED BEAM SECTION

A beam section is called as under-reinforced in case the cross-sectional area of steel bars
provided as reinforcement in the beam section is such that the ratio of p = (As/bd) is less than
that for balanced section, pB, it will be seen that as the bending moment is increased the strain
in stress εs reaches the value εsy1, while the strain in concrete, εc remains still below the ultimate
value (εcu = 0.0035) as shown in Fig. 3.7 (b) for under-reinforced beam (xu/d) is less than
(x u.max/d).
In an under-reinforced beam the steel (Mild steel or Hysd-steel which have a definite value
of yield, fy), the steel yields prior to the crushing of the concrete in compression. Since, the
crushing of concrete does not occur, (the collapse of beam does not occur), until, the strain in
concrete at the extreme fibre in compression attains, εcu. The beam section continues to resist
increasing applied moment. The neutral axis shifts upward. The value of lever arm jd = (d –
0.42 x u) increases to somewhat while the value of total compressive force in concrete remains
unaltered. At collapse, the strain distribution diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 3.7 (b).
An under-reinforced beam fails by large strains in steel bars and therefore by extensive
cracking of the concrete and by substantial deflection. An ample warning of the impending
failure is reflected due to the ductility of such a beam. For economy and this reason, the beams
are usually designed as under-reinforced. It is good practice to keep the cross-sectional area of
steel bars provided as reinforcement sufficiently small.
εcu < 0 .00 35

εcu
b
xu
N A N A
d d
(d – x u)
εsy 1
εsy 1 = [( f y /1 .1 5 E s )+ 0 .00 2]
b ea m se ctio n
Fig. 3.7 Under Reinforced beam section
The under-reinforced beam section is also defined for the purpose as one in which the
stress in steel, fs reaches the design strength 0.87fy, however, the strain in concrete, εc remains
less than ultimate strain in concrete εcu = 0.0035.
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3.10 OVER-REINFORCED BEAM SECTION

A beam section is called as over-reinforced in the cross-sectional area of the steel bars provided
as reinforcement in the beam section is such that the ratio of steel p = (As/bd) is more than that
for the balanced section, pB, it will be seen that the strain in concrete will reach the ultimate
value εcu = 0.0035 (and hence the beam will fail) prior to the strain in steel reaches εsy1 = [(fy/
1.15 Es) + 0.0020].
The distribution of strain at collapse is as shown in Fig. 3.8 (b). For over-reinforced beam
section, (xu/d) is more than x u.max/d.
The crushing failure of an over-reinforced initiates in the concrete. However, the strain in
steel remains still relatively low, (i.e., εs < [(fy/1.15ES) + 0.0020]. In the crushing failure of
concrete, the deflection of beam remains small and there is no extensive cracking in tension
zone. Often, the crushing failure is explosive and sudden. It occurs with little or no warning.
The over-reinforced beam section is also defined for design purpose as one in which the
strain in concrete, εc reaches the strain εcu = 0.0035, however the stress in steel, fs remains less
than the design strength 0.87fy.
0 .00 35
b εc u
xu
N A
d d
( d – x u)
εs εs < εs y1
εs y1 = [( f y /1 .1 5 E s ) + 0 .0 02 ]
be am section
Fig. 3.8 Over-reinforced beam Section
3.11 DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS

The depth of neutral axis, x u of a singly reinforced rectangular beam as shown in Fig. 3.1
subjected to ultimate load may be found from the principle of equilibrium of the beam section
as follows :
Total compressive force in concrete in compression zone, Ccu may be determined from
Fig. 3.1(c). Let the total compressive force in concrete be Ccu. Area of the stress block = area of
rectangle + area of parabola.
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⎛2 ⎞
= (base × height) + ⎜ base × height⎟
⎝3 ⎠
2
= [0.46 fck (x u – 0.57 xu) + × 0.446 fck . (0.57fck]
3
= [0.19178 fck . xu + 0.16948fck.x u)
= 0.36126 fck . xu ...(i)
⎛ Area of stress block ⎞
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ = 0. 36 fck ...(ii)
u
The right of the expression (ii) may be considered as an average stress over the concrete
block. As per dimensional analysis, the units of right side is N/mm2. The compressive force in
concrete
Ccu = Average stress × Area of portion of concrete in compression
∴ Ccu = 0.36 fck . (b . xu)
Ω 0.36 fck . xu (As specified in code)
Therefore,
Ccu = 0.36 fck . xu . b ...(iii)
Total tensile force in steel bars provided as reinforcement at ultimate (collapse) load
⎛ fy ⎞
Tsu = area of steel bars in tension × ⎜
⎝ rms ⎟⎠
⎛ fy ⎞ ⎛ fy ⎞
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 1.15 ⎟⎠
ms
Therefore,
⎛ fy ⎞
Tsu = Ast . ⎜
⎝ 1.15 ⎟⎠
or Tsu = 0.87 Ast . fy ...(iv)
The beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, from the principle of equilibrium the total
compressive force, Ccu in concrete in compression zone is equal to total tensile force in steel bars
in tension. Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu ...(v)
From the expressions (ii) and (v)
0.36fck . xu . b = 0.87 Ast . fy ...(vi)
Depth of neutral axis for the singly reinforced rectangular beam, Fig. 3.1
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜
⎝ b. d ⎟⎠ × d ...(vii)
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xu ⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
= ⎜ ...(3.11)
d ⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ bd ⎟⎠
The limiting values of the depth of neutral axis, x u for the singly reinforced beam section
using mild steel, Fe 250, Hysd steel, Fe 415 and Hysd steel, Fe 500 have been calculated as x u
= 0.53d, x u = 0.48d and x u = 0.46d, respectively, in Art. 3.2 (stating the various assumptions in
limit state of collapse in flexure) and recorded in Table 3.1. These values have also been specified
in IS : 456–1978.
3.12 PERCENTAGE OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT

In case of singly reinforced rectangular beam of width, b and effective, d and area of steel
reinforcement in tension, Ast, the ratio of area of steel reinforcement to the cross-sectional area
of concrete beam, bd is called as the ratio of steel reinforcement. It is denoted by p. Then,
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st ⎟ ...(3.12)
⎝ b.d ⎠
It is also called as percentage steel reinforcement, p. Then,
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st ⎟ × 100 ...(3.13)
⎝ b.d ⎠
The ratio of steel reinforcement may be found by considering the equilibrium of the beam
section and equating total compressive force in concrete, Ccu and total tensile force in tension,
Tsu at ultimate load (i.e., at collapse in flexure). From Art. 3.11, and the expressions (ii) and
(iii). Total compressive force in concrete
Ccu = 0.36 fck . xu . b ...(i)
Total tensile force in steel reinforcement
Tsu = 0.87 Ast . fy ...(ii)
The beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu
0.36 fck . xu . b = 0.87 fy Ast
⎛ 0.87fy ⎞ Ast
or xu = ⎜
⎝ 0.36fck ⎟⎠ b
xu ⎛ 0.87fy ⎞ Ast
and = ⎜ ⋅ (iii)
d ⎝ 0.36fck ⎟⎠ bd
Substituting p = (A st/bd),
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ xu
p = ⎜ ⎟⋅ ...(3.14)
⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ d
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ xu
and p = ⎜ ⎟ × 100 × d ...(3.15)
⎝ 0.87 f y ⎠
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From Eq 3.8, for the balanced section
xu ⎛ εcu ⎞ ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
d ⎝ εcu + ε sy1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.0035 + ε sy1 ⎠
Therefore, for, Balanced beam section, the percentage ratio of steel, (p = pB)
⎡⎛ 0.36 f ⎞
ck
⎛ ε
cu
⎞⎤
pB = ⎢⎜
0.87 f ⎟ × 100 × ⎜ ε + ε ⎟ ⎥ ...(3.16)
⎣⎢⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ cu sy1 ⎠ ⎦
⎥
⎡ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
where, εsy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1.15 Es ⎠ ⎥⎦
For Under-reinforced beam section
(p < pB), and ...(3.17)
For Over-reinforced beam section
(p > pB) ...(3.18)
However, in limit state of collapse in flexure, the design and use of over reinforced beams is
not allowed.
3.12.1 Limiting Values of Percentage Reinforcement

The limiting values of percentage reinforcement, p for the mild steel, Fe 250, Hysd steel, Fe
415 and Hysd steel, Fe 500 may be derived as under:
1. For mild steel, Fe 250
From IS : 456–1978, (xu.max/d) may be noted.
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.53 ...(iv)
And for balanced section of beam

⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ...(v)
From the expression (iii),

⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎛ Ast ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 0.36 fck ⎟⎠ ⎝ bd ⎠
Therefore, from the expressions (iv) and (vi)
⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎛ Ast ⎞
⎜⎝ 0.36 f ⎟⎠ ⋅ ⎜⎝ bd ⎟⎠ = 0.53
ck
⎛ 0.53 × 0.36 fck ⎞

pB = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.19)
⎝ 0.87 × fy ⎠
⎛ 0.53 × 0.36 f ⎞
ck
pB = ⎜ ...(vii)
⎝ 0.87 × 250 ⎟⎠
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⎛ Ast ⎞ ⎛ 0.53 × 0.36 f ⎞

ck
pB.lim = ⎜⎝ bd ⎟⎠ × 100 = ⎜ × 100
⎝ 0.87 × 250 ⎟⎠
pB.lim = 0.087724 fck ...(3.20)
And from Eq. 3.20
⎛ pB . lim . fy ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠ = 0.087724 × 250 = 21.931
ck
(a) For M 15 grade of concrete, (fck = 15 N/mm2)

pB.lim = 0.087724 × 15 = 1.316
(b) For M 20 grade of concrete, (fck = 20 N/mm2)
pB.lim = 0.087724 × 20 = 1.7545
(c) For M 25 grade of concrete, (fck = 25 N/mm2)
pB.lim = 0.087724 × 25 = 2.193
(d) For M 30 grade of concrete, (fck = 30 N/mm2)
pB.lim = 0.087724 × 30 = 2.632
⎛ xu.max ⎞
From IS : 456–1978, ⎜ may be noted
⎝ d ⎟⎠
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.48 ... (viii)
And for the balanced section

xu x
= u. max ...(ix)
d d
From the expression (iii)
xu ⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎛ Ast ⎞
= ⎜ .⎜ ⎟ ... (x)
d ⎝ 0.36 fck ⎟⎠ ⎝ bd ⎠
From the expressions (viii) and (x)
⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ Ast
⎜⎝ 0.36 f ⎟⎠ . bd = 0.48
ck
⎛ 0.48 × 0.36 fck ⎞

pB.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.87 × fy ⎠
Ast ⎛ 0.48 × 0.36 fck ⎞

or pB.lim = × 100 = ⎜ × 100
bd ⎝ 0.87 × 415 ⎟⎠
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or pB.lim = 0.04786 fck ... (3.21)

(a) For M 15 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.04786 × 15 = 0.718
(b) For M 20 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.04786 × 20 = 0.957
From Eq. 3.21
pB .lim. fy
= 0.04786 × 415 = 19.862
fck
(c) For M 25 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.04786 × 25 = 1.196
(d) For M 30 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.04786 × 30 = 1.436
3. For Hysd Steel, Fe 500
⎛ xu. max ⎞
From IS : 456–1978 ⎜ may be noted
⎝ d ⎟⎠
xu. max
= 0.46 ...(xi)
d
And for balanced section
xu x
= u. max ...(xii)
d d
xu ⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎛ Ast ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(xiii)
d ⎝ 0.36 fck ⎟⎠ ⎝ bd ⎠
From the expressions (xi) and (xiii)
⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ Ast
⎜⎝ 0.36 f ⎟⎠ . bd = 0.46
ck
⎛ 0.46 × 0.36 fck ⎞

pB.lim = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.22)
⎝ 0.87 × fy ⎠
⎛ 0.46 × 0.36 fck × 100 ⎞

and pB.lim = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 0.87 × 500
pB.lim = 0.0381 fck ...(3.23)
(a) For M 15 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.0381 × 15 = 0.572
(b) For M 20 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.0381 × 20 = 0.762
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(c) For M 25 grade of concrete

pB.lim = 0.0381 × 25 = 0.953
(d) For M 30 grade of concrete
pB.lim = 0.0381 × 30 = 1.143
From Eq. 3.23
pB .lim. fy
fck = 0.0381 × 500 = 19.05
These values of pB.lim for the different grades of concrete and steel have been listed in Table
3.3 (a).
Table 3.3 (a) Values of pB.lim
Values of pB.lim
Grades of concrete Mald steel, Fe 250 Hysd steel, Fe 415 Hysd steel, Fe 500
M15 1.316 0.718 0.572
1.320* 0.720* 0.570*
M20 1.755 0.956 0.762
1.760* 0.960* 0.760*
M25 2.193 1.196 0.953
2.200* 1.190* 0.940*
M30 2.632 1.436 1.143
2.640* 1.430* 1.130*
* These values have been noted from SP : 16–1980. The values are derived from Eqs. 3.20, 3.21 and 3.23 for
three different grades of steel.
⎛ pB .lim. fy ⎞
The values of ⎜ ⎟⎠ have been listed in Table 3.3 (b)
⎝ fck
⎛ pB .lim. fy ⎞
Table 3.3 (b) Values of ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ fck
Values of fy (N/mm2)
⎛ pB .lim. fy ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ 250 415 500
fck
21.931 19.862 19.05
21.970* 19.820* 18.870*
* These values are as per SP : 16–1980). These are derived from Eqs.3.20, 3.21 and 3.23.
3.12.2 For Over-reinforced Beam

Occasionaly, the capacity of existing construction (beam) is reviewed. It becomes necessary to
determine the flexural strength of an over-reinforced beams. The stress in steel remains less
than yield stress at flexure failure. So long as the stress in steel, fs remains less than fy,
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⎛ fy ⎞
εs = ⎜ ...(xiv)
⎝ 1.15 Es ⎟⎠
⎛ A ⎞
From Eq. 3.14 ⎜ p = st ⎟
⎝ bd ⎠
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ xu
p = ⎜ ⎟⋅
⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ d
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ xu
p = ⎜ ⎟⋅ (Q fs < fy) ...(xv)
⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ d
Substituting for fs,
⎡ 0.36 fck ⎤ ⎛ xu ⎞
p = ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟ ...(xv)
⎣ 0.87 (1.15 Es × ε s ) ⎦ ⎝ d ⎠
⎡ 0.36 fck ⎤ ⎛ xu ⎞
or εs = ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟ ...(3.24)
⎣ 0.87 (1.15 Es ) ⋅ p ⎦ ⎝ d ⎠
xu ⎛ ε cu ⎞
and = ⎜ ...(xvi)
d ⎝ ε cu + ε s ⎟⎠
Substituting from Eq. 3.24
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎡ εcu ⎤
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎢ ⎥ ...(3.25)
⎢ εcu + ⎛⎜ xu ⎞⎟ ⎛ 0.36 fck 1⎞
× ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 0.87 × 1.15 Es p ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
⎡ 0.36 fck 1 ⎤ ⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞
⎢ × ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ + εcu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − ε cu = 0 ...(3.26)
⎣ 0.87 (1.15 E s ) p ⎦ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d⎠
⎡ 0.87 (1.15 Es ) ⎤
Let k = ⎢ ⎥ ,then, Eq. 3.26 reduces as below
⎣⎢ 0.36 fck ⎦⎥
2
l ⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛x ⎞
+ ε cu ⋅ ⎜ u ⎟ − ε cu = 0
p . k ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎝ d⎠
2
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ + p ⋅ k ⋅εcu ⋅ ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ − p ⋅ k ⋅εcu = 0 ...(3.27)
⎛ xu ⎞ p ⋅ k ⋅ε cu
and ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = – [(p.k.εcu)2 + p.k. εcu]1/2 ...(3.28)
2
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⎛x ⎞
The value of neutral axis factor ⎜ u ⎟ may be calculated from Eq. 3.28 as all others values
⎝ d⎠
are known. Therefore, the value of neutral axis, xu may be determined for over-reinforced
beam section.
3.13 STRAIN PROFILES AT FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF A BEAM SECTION

In case, the percentage ratio of steel in a beam section, p is equal to pB, the beam section is
called as balanced section. In case, p is less than pB, the beam section is called as under-
reinforced section. Similarly, when p is more than pB, the beam section is called as over-reinforced
section. The type of failure that occurs, depends upon whether p is less than or more than pB.
The strain profiles at a section at the flexural strength for three different percentages of steel
are shown in Fig. 3.9.
E xtre m e fib re εc u
in com p ressio n
x u < (x u ) B
x u = (x u ) B O1
x u > (x u ) B Tesio n failu re
O fs = fy. p < p B
B a la nced
fa ilure
d
O2 fs = fy . p = p B
C o m p re ssio n
fa ilure
fy
εs < , (f < f )
Es s y
C e ntre o f ste el εs p > pB
b ar in ten sio n εs y1 ⎡⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
ε sy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.00 2 ⎥
⎣⎝ 1 .1 5 E s⎠ ⎦
εs > εs y1
⎡⎛ 0 .8 7 fy ⎞ ⎤
ε sy1 = ⎢⎜
⎝ E ⎟ + 0 .00 2 ⎥
⎠
⎣ s ⎦
Fig. 3.9 Strain profile at flexural strength
3.14 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION FOR STRESS AND STRAIN IN STEEL AT FAILURE

From Fig. 3.1 (c), the stress distribution block for singly reinforced beam of width b, and effective
depth, d, the area of stress block may be determined by considering its rectangular and parabolic
two portions separately. The area of stress block diagram
= area of the rectangular portion + area of the parabolic portion
⎛2 ⎞
= (base × ht. of rectangular portion) + ⎜ × base × height of parabolic portion⎟
⎝3 ⎠
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⎛2 ⎞
= (0446 fck × 0.43 xu + ⎜ × 0.446 fck × 0.57 xu ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
⎡ 2 ⎤
= 0.446 fck ⎢0.43 + × 0.57 ⎥ ⋅ xu
⎣ 3 ⎦
= 0.446 × 081 fck . xu
= 0.36126 fck . xu
Ω 0.36 fck . xu ...(i)
Total compressive force in concrete in compression zone
Ccu = 0.36 fck . b . xu ...(3.29)
Total tensile force in steel in tension
T m = Ast . fs ...(3.30)
The beam section is in equilibrium.
Ccu = Tsu
∴ 0.36 fck . xu . b = Ast fs
⎛ 0.36 fck × b ⎞
or fs = ⎜ ⎟⎠ . xu ...(ii)
⎝ Ast
⎛ Area of stress ⎞
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ = 0.36 fck
u
= average stress
Ccu = (Average stress)* (Area of concrete in compression)
From Fig. 3.1 (b) strain diagram
⎛ ε
cu ⎞
xu = ⎜ .d ...(iii)
⎝ ε cu + ε s ⎟⎠
Substituting this in the expression (ii)
⎡ bd ⎛ ε cu ⎞ ⎤
fs = ⎢0.36 fck ⋅ ⎥ ...(iv)
⎣ Ast ⎜⎝ εcu + ε s ⎟⎠ ⎦
⎛A ⎞
Substituting for ⎜ st ⎟ = p, then
⎝ bd ⎠
⎡ 0.36 fck ⎛ ε cu ⎞ ⎤
fs = ⎢ ⋅⎜ ⎥ ...(3.31)
⎣ p ⎝ ε cu + ε s ⎟⎠ ⎦
In the limit of collapse, the values of fs and εs in a beam at the ultimate load, must satisfy
Eq. 3.31 and the stress fs – strain εs must also satisfy stress/strain diagram for the respective
steel. As such, the needed value of fs may be obtained graphically from stress-strain diagram as
shown Fig. 3.10 and by solving Eq. 3.31 simultaneously.
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S tress/strain cu rve
Fig. 3.10 Graphical solution for fs and εs at failure
3.15 DEPTH OF COMPRESSIVE FORCE FROM EXTREME FIBRE ON COMPRESSION

From Fig. 3.1 (c), the stress at the extreme fibre in compression for the singly reinforced
rectangular beam of the width, b and the effective depth, d is 0.446 fck. The compressive force
from the extreme fibre is x . The stress block for the compressive stress over compression zone
consists of two portions (viz., rectangular portion and the parabolic portion). From the expression
(i), Art. 3.14, the area of the stress block
= 0.36 fck . xu ...(i)
The moment of this area about the extreme fibre
= 0.36 fck . xu. x
⎡⎛ 0.43 ⎞
= ⎢⎜ 0.446 fck × 0.43 xu × × xu ⎟
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
+ ⎜ .0.446 fck × 0.57 xu ⎟ . ⎜ 0.43 + × 0.57⎟ xu ⎥
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ (0.43)2 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
= 0.446fck . xu2 ⎢ + × 0.57 × ⎜ 0.43 + × 0.57 ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 3 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎦⎥
= 0.446fck . x u2 [0.09245 + 0.38 × 0.644]
= 0.446fck . xu2 × 0.3371
⎛ 0.15033 fck . xu2 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.4176 x u
⎜ 0.36 f . x
⎝ ck u ⎠
x = 0.42 xu ...(3.32)
It is to note that x has been specified in IS : 456–1978 as 0.42 x u.
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3.16 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF BEAM-SECTION

A singly reinforced rectangular beam of width, b and the effective depth, d is shown in Fig.
3.1 (a). Total compressive force in concrete in compression zone Ccu, from Eq. 3.29.
Ccu = 0.36fck . b . xu ...(i)
Total tensile force in steel in tension, Tsu, from Eq. 3.30
fy
Tsu = Ast .
rms
fy
= Ast . = 0.87fy ...(ii)
1.15
The beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, these two forces are equal and act in the
opposite direction at a distance, jd apart.
Q Ccu = Tsu
0.36fck.xu.b = 0.87fy . Ast
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 fy . Ast ⎞
As in Eq. 3.11 ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ...(iii)
⎝ 0.36 fck . bd ⎟⎠
These two forces, Ccu and Tsu form a couple. The flexural strength of the beam section as in
limit state of collapse in flexure may be found by taking moment of compressive force, Ccu
about the line of action of the tensile force, Tsu. Therefore,
Mu1 = Csu . jd
= [(0.36 fck.b.x u) (d – 0.42 xu)]
xu x
= [(0.36fck.b. .d) (d – 0.42 . u .d)]
d d
⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎛ 0.42 xu ⎞ 2⎤
M u1 = ⎢0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟⎠ ⋅ bd ⎥ ...(3.33)
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎦
The flexural strength of the beam section as in limit state of collapse in flexure may also be
found by taking the moment of tensile force, Tsu about the line of action of the compressive
force, Ccu. Therefore,
Mu2 = Tsu . jd
= [(0.87 fy . Ast). (d – 0.42 xu)]
⎡ ⎛ 0.42 xu ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.87 f y . Ast . ⎜⎝ d – . d⎟ ⎥
⎣ d ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎛ 0.42 xu ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.87 f y . Ast . ⎜⎝1 – .d ...(3.34)
⎣ d ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
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In Eqs. 3.33 and 3.34, the term (d – 0.42 x u) = (d – 0.42 x u/d). d is called lever arm for the
moment of resistance of the beam section. The ratio of the lever arm to the effective depth, d is
called the lever arm factor.
⎡ ⎛ xu ⎞ ⎤
⎢ d − 0.42 ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ .d ⎥
⎢ ⎥ = d . l ⎛⎜1 − 0.42 xu ⎞⎟
⎢ d ⎥ d⎝ d⎠
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ x ⎞
j = ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ ...(3.35)
⎝ d⎠
⎛x ⎞
It is to note that the ratio ⎜ u ⎟ has already been defined with Eq. 3.26 as a neutral axis
⎝ d⎠
factor.
The area of steel bars provided as reinforcement, Ast may be determined as under: from Eq.
3.34
⎛ ⎞
⎜ Mu ⎟
Ast = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.36)
⎜ 0.87 f ⎛1 – 0.42 xu ⎞ . d ⎟
y ⎜
⎜⎝ ⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
⎛ Mu ⎞
or Ast = ⎜ ⎟ ... (3.37)
⎝ (0.87 f y ).( j.d ) ⎠
where, from Eq. 3.35
j = lever arm factor
⎛ x ⎞
j = ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟
⎝ d⎠
From Eq 3.34
⎛ x ⎞
Mu2 = 0.87fck Ast . ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ d ...(iv)
⎝ d⎠
From Eq 3.11
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 f y . Ast ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 0.42 f . bd ⎟ ... (v)
⎝ ck ⎠
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ f y . Ast ⎞ ⎛ 0.36 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 0.42 f . bd ⎟ ⎜⎝3 0.87 Ω 0.42⎟⎠ .... (vi)
⎝ ck ⎠
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Substituting this in the expression (iv)
⎡ ⎛ f y . Ast ⎞ ⎤
( ⎝
)
Mu2 = ⎢ 0.87 f y . Ast . ⎜1 – ⎥
fck . bd ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
...(3.38)
⎣⎢
⎡ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
or
⎢⎣
( ⎝
)
Mu2 = ⎢ 0.87 f y . Ast . ⎜1 – p. ⎟ ⎥
fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
...(3.39)
1. For balanced beam section

⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu.max ⎞
For the balanced section of a beam, ⎜ u ⎟ = ⎜ , that is, p = pB = pB.lim. The strain in
⎝ d⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠
concrete at its extreme fibre in compression, in limit state of collapse in flexure,
εcu = 0.0035 ...(vii)
The strain in steel in tension
⎡⎛ f y ⎞ ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.0020 ⎥ ...(viii)
⎣⎢⎝ 1.15 Es ⎠ ⎦⎥
The moment of resistance of the beam of balanced section from compression side, [substituting
⎛ xu ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = (xu.max/d)], that is, the limiting value of moment of resistance
xu. max ⎛ xu. max ⎞ 2

Mu.1 = 0.36 fck .
d ⎜⎝1 − 0.42 d ⎟⎠ . bd ...(ix)
The moment of resistance of the beam from tension side

⎛ xu. max ⎞
Mu.2 = 0.87 fy. Ast ⎜1 − 0.42 .d ... (x)
⎝ d ⎟⎠
and, Mu.1 = Mu.2 ...(xi)
Limiting values of moment of resistance of the beam section
⎛ xu. max ⎞
From IS : 456–1978, the limiting value of ⎜ is equal to 0.53 for mild steel. From the
⎝ d ⎟⎠
expression (ix)
Mu.1 = Mu.lim = 0.36fck . (0.53) . [1 – 0.42 × 0.53] . bd2
Mu.lim = 0.1483fck.bd2 ...(xii)
For Hysd steel, Fe 415 from IS : 456–1978,
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.48
Mu.lim = 0.36fck . (0.48). [1 – (0.42 × 0.48)] . bd2

Mu.lim = 0.1380fck.bd2 ...(xiii)
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For Hysd steel, Fe 500 from IS : 456–1978,

⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.46
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck. (0.46). [1 – (0.42 × 0.46)].bd2

Mu.lim = 0.1336 fck.bd2 ...(xiv)
The values of Mu.lim from the expressions (xii), (xiii) and (xiv) may be listed in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 (a) Limiting values of moment of resistance for balanced section of beam
Type of Steel Reinforcement Mu.lim = Mu.B (N-mm)
Mild steel Fe 250 0.1483 fck.bd2
* 0.1490 fck.bd2
Hysd steel Fe 415 0.1380 fck.bd2
* 0.1380 fa.bd2
Hysd steel Fe 500 0.1336 fck.bd2
* 0.1330 fck.bd2
* These values are as per SP: 16–1980.
In case, the values of fck for M 15, M 20, M 25 and M 30 are substituted in above. Table 3.4 (a),
⎛ M u. lim ⎞
the values of ⎜ ⎟ may be found and listed as in Table 3.4(b)
⎝ bd2 ⎠
⎛ M u.lim ⎞
Table 3.4(b) Limiting values for factors of moment of resistance ⎜ in N/mm2 for singly
⎝ bd 2 ⎟⎠
reinforced rectangular beam
fy (N/mm2)
250 415 500
15 2.24 2.07 2.00
20 2.98 2.76 2.66
25 3.73 3.45 3.33
30 4.47 4.14 3.99
2. For Under-reinforced beam section

⎛x ⎞ ⎛x ⎞
For the under-reinforced beam section ⎜ u ⎟ is less than the ⎜ u.max ⎟ and the percentage of
⎝ d⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
steel, p is less than the (pB = pB.lim). The design stress in steel bars used as reinforcement shall
⎛ fy ⎞
be ⎜ = 0.87fy. The strain in steel bars at limit state of collapse in flexure will exceed
⎝ 1.15 ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ε sy1 = ⎜ + 0.0020 ⎥ . The moment of resistance of the under-reinforced beam section shall
⎣⎢ ⎝ 1.15 Es ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
be found from the tension. Therefore,
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Mu.2 = Tsu . lever arm

or Mu.2 = Tsu . (d – 0.42 xu)
⎛ xu .d ⎞
or Mu.2 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎜ d − 0.42 ...(i)
⎝ d ⎟⎠
x .
or Mu.2 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎛⎜1 − 0.42 u d⎞⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ d ⎠
From Eq. 3.11
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 f y . Ast ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜
⎝ 0.36 fck . bd ⎟⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎜ f y . Ast
⎟
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎛ 0.36 ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ 0.87 ⎟⎠ fck . bd ⎟⎠
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ f y . Ast ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ... (iii)
⎝ 0.42 fck . bd ⎟⎠
Substituting this in the expression (ii),
⎛ f y . Ast ⎞
Mu.2 = 0.87 fy.Ast ⎜1 − d ... (3.40)
⎝ f . bd ⎟⎠
ck
3. For Over-reinforced beam section

⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu. max ⎞
In the over-reinforced beam section ⎜ u ⎟ is more than ⎜ and the percentage ratio of
⎝ d⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu.max ⎞
steel p is more than (pB = pB.lim). In case, ⎜ u ⎟ is greater than ⎜ , the limiting value of
⎝ d⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠
beam section, the beam section in redesigned.
Example 3.1 A singly reinforced rectangular beam is 400 mm wide. The effective depth of
the beam section is 560 mm and its effective cover is 40 mm. A steel reinforcement consisting of
4 mild steel 18 mm diameter has been used in the beam section. The grade of concrete is M 15.
Locate the neutral axis of the beam section.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 15. From IS : 456–1978, the characteristic strength of
the concrete, fck = 15 N/mm2. The mild steel reinforcement has been used therefore,
fy = 250 N/mm2
Total compressive force in concrete in compression zone at ultimate load, from Eq. 3.29 [also,
from the expression (iii), Art. 3.11]
Cc.u = 0.36 fck . b . xu ...(i)
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Total tensile force in steel in tension reinforcement, the expression (ii), Art. 3.11
Tsu = 0.87 Ast.fy ...(ii)
Area of steel reinforcement
π
Ast = 4 × 182 = 1017.87 mm2 ...(iii)
4
3.16.1 Depth of Neutral Axis for Beam

In order to locate the neutral axis, equate compressive force in concrete in ompression, Ccu and
the tensile force in steel bars provided as reinforcement, since, the beam section is in equilibrium.
Ccu = Tsu
0.36 fck.xu.b = 0.87 fy Ast
⎛ 0.87 f y . Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ... (iv)
⎝ 0.36 fck . b ⎟⎠
For mild steel, fy = 250 N/mm2
⎛ 0.87×250× 1017.87 ⎞
∴ xu = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 0.36×15×400
xu = 102.494 mm ...(v)
From IS : 456–1978, for mild steel Fe 250
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.53
x u.max = 0.53 × 560 mm

x u.max = 296.8 mm
Since, x u. is less than x u.max the beam section is under-reinforced as shown n Fig. 3.7. The
depth of neutral axis for the beam section.
xu = 102.494 mm
Example 3.2 In Example 3.1, the bending moment at a transverse section of a beam is 105
kN-m. Determine the strains at the extreme fibre of concrete in compression and steel bars
provided as reinforcement in tension. Also determine the stress in steel bars.
Solution From Example 3.1, the depth of neutral axis, x u is equal to 102.494 mm. Since, x u
is less than xu.max, the beam section is under-reinforced. An under-reinforced beam section is
shown in Fig. 3.7.
For the mild steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
The strain in steel bars, Fig. 3.7 (b)
⎡⎛ f y ⎞ ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.0020 ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 1.15 Es ⎠ ⎦⎥
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⎡ 250 ⎤
or εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.0020 ⎥
⎣1.15 × 2 × 105 ⎦
or εsy1 = 0.003086 @ 0.0031
From Fig. 3.7 (a), the strain in concrete, εcu may be found as under.
εcu ε sy1
=
xu ( d − xu )
xu
εcu = . ε sy1
( d − xu )
102.494
or εcu = × 0.0031
(560 − 102.494)
or εcu = 0.000694
The bending moment acting at a transverse section
M = 105 kN-m
The beam section is under-reinforced.
Therefore, (Ast = 1017.87 mm2)
Mu = fs Ast.(du – 0.42 x u)
Mu = fs × 1017.87 × (560 – 0.42 × 102.494)
105 × 106
fs = N/mm2
1017.87 × 516.95
fs = 199.548 N/mm2
Example 3.3 In Example 3.1, the strain in concrete at the extreme fibre in compression, εcu
is 0.000694 and the tensile stress in bending in steel bars is 199.548 N/mm2. Determine the
depth of neutral axis. Also determine the moment of resistance (flexural strength) of the beam
section.
Solution The strain in concrete at the extreme fibre in compression
εcu = 0.000694 ...(i)
From Example 3.1, the beam section is under-reinforced. Therefore, the strain in steel bars
in tension
⎡ fy ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
⎣1.15 Es ⎦
For mild steel, Fe 250
fy = 250 N/mm2
Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
⎡ 250 ⎤
∴ εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
⎣1.15 × 2 × 105 ⎦
εsy1 = 0.003086 Ω 0.0031 ...(ii)
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3.16.2 Depth of Neutral Axis

From Fig. 3.77 (b), (d = 560 mm)
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ εcu ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ε + ε ⎟
⎝ cu sy1 ⎠
⎛ 0.000694 ⎞
∴ xu = ⎜⎝ × 560 mm
0.000694 + 0.0031 ⎟⎠
or xu = 102.435 mm
3.16.3 Moment of Resistance of Beam Section

From Example 3.1, the beam section is under-reinforced as shown in Fig. 3.7. Therefore, the
moment of resistance of the beam section
Mu = Tsu.lever arm
or Mu = Ast.fs.jd
or Mu = 1017.87 × 199.548 (d – 0.42 x u)
⎛ 1017.87 × 199.548 ⎞
or Mu = ⎜ ⎟⎠ (560 – 0.42 × 102.435)
⎝ 106
or M u = 105 kN-m
beam section is 560 mm. Determine the percentage of steel and the cross-sectional area of
reinforcement for the beam section. The grade of concrete is M15. The grade of steel is (i) mild
steel, Fe 250, and (ii) Hysd, Fe 415. 20 mm diameter steel bars have been used as the reinforcement.
Solution From the expressions (ii) and (iii), Art. 3.11, total compressive force in concrete
Ccu = 0.36 fck.b. xu ...(i)
Total tensile force in steel bars provided as reinforcement
Tsu = 0.87Ast . fy ...(ii)
Ccu = Tsu
0.36fck. b . xu = 0.87Ast.fy
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 f y Ast ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 0.36 f . bd ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
ck
3.16.4 Percentage of Steel
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st ⎟ × 100 ...(iv)
⎝ b.d ⎠
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ x
∴ p = ⎜ ⎟ × 100 × u
⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ d
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From Eq. 3.8, for the balanced section as shown in Fig. 3.6
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ εcu ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ εcu + εsy1 ⎠
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟ ... (vi)
⎝ 0.0035× εsy1 ⎠
(i) For Mild Steel, Fe 250
fy = 250 N/mm2, and Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
⎡ fy ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
⎣1.15 Es ⎦
⎡ 250 ⎤
or εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
5
⎣1.15 × 2 × 10 ⎦
or εsy1 = 0.00308 @ 0.0031 ...(vii)
Therefore,
xu ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.53
d ⎝ 0.0035 + 0.0031 ⎟⎠
For M 15, fck = 15 N/mm2, the percentage of steel for balanced section, from the expression (v)
⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ x
pB = ⎜ ⎟ × 100 × u
⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ d
⎛ 0.36 × 15 ⎞
or pB = ⎜ × 100 × 0.53
⎝ 0.87 × 250 ⎟⎠
or pB = 0.087724 × 15 percent
pB = 1.31586 percent
Cross-sectional area
Ast ⎛ 1.31586 ⎞
Since = ⎜
bd ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
⎛ 1.31586 × 400 × 560 ⎞

Ast = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 100
Ast = 2947 53 mm2
(ii) For Hysd Steel, Fe 415
fy = 415 N/mm2, and Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
⎡ fy ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
⎣1.15 Es ⎦
⎡ 415 ⎤
or εsy1 = ⎢ + 0.002 ⎥
⎣1.15 × 2 × 105 ⎦
or εsy1 = 0.0038 ...(viii)
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For the balanced section
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ εcu ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ε + ε ⎟
⎝ cu sy1 ⎠
xu ⎛ 0.0035 ⎞
or = ⎜⎝ 0.0035 + 0.0038 ⎟⎠ Ω 0.480
d
Percentage of steel for the balanced section as shown in Fig. 3.6
⎛ 0.36 × fck ⎞ ⎛x ⎞
pB = ⎜ ⎟ × 100 × ⎜ u ⎟
⎝ 0.87 × fy ⎠ ⎝ d⎠
⎛ 0.36 × f
ck ⎞
or pB = ⎜ × 100 × 0.48
⎝ 0.87 × 415 ⎟⎠
or pB = 0.04786 fck
or pB = 0.04786 × 15 percent
p B = 0.718 percent
Cross-section area
⎛ Ast ⎞ ⎛ 0.718 ⎞
⎜⎝ bd ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝
100 ⎟⎠
0.718
Ast = × 400 × 560 mm2
100
Ast = 1608.32 mm2
Example 3.5 In Example 3.4, determine the moment of resistance (flexural strength) of the
beam section when (i) mild steel Fe 250 reinforcement is used, (ii) Hysd steel Fe 415 is used.
Solution From Example 3.4, the grade of concrete is M 15. The section of beam in a balanced
section. For balanced section,
For Mild Steel, Fe 250 from IS : 456–1978
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ = 0.53 ... (i)
⎝ d ⎟⎠
For Hysd Steel, Fe 415 from IS : 456–1978
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ = 0.48 ... (ii)
⎝ d ⎟⎠
3.16.5 Moment of Resistance of Beam Section (Flexural Strength)

For balanced beam section, Fig. 3.6, the moment of resistance may be found from the compression
side and so also from the tension side. Moment of resistance from compression side
Mu.1 = Ccu × lever arm
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or Mu.1 = Ccu × jd
or Mu.1 = [(0.36 fck.xu .b) × (d – 0.42 x u)] ...(iii)
Width of beam section
b = 400 mm
Effective depth of beam section
d = 560 mm
(i) For mild steel, Fe 250
xu
= 0.53
d
xu = 0.53 × 560 = 296.8 mm
0.42 x u = 0.42 × 296.8 = 124.656 mm
(d – 0.42 xu) = (560 – 124.656) = 435.344 mm
For M 15 grade of concrete
fck = 15 N/mm2
Substituting these values in the expression (iii)
⎡ 0.36 × 15 × 296.8 × 400 × 435.344 ⎤
Mu.1 = ⎢ 1000×1000 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
or Mu.1 = 279.0938 kN-m
From the tension side, the moment of resistance of beam section
Mu.2 = Tsu × lever arm
or Mu.2 = 0087fy Ast × jd
or Mu.2 = [(0.87 fy. Ast) × (d – 0.42 x u)]
From Example 3.5, for mild steel, Fe 250
Ast = 2947.53 mm2
⎡ 0.87 × 250 × 2947.53 × 435.344 ⎤
Mu.1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000×1000 ⎦
Mu.2 = 279.0937 kN-m
(ii) For Hysd steel bars, Fe 415, from IS : 456–1978
xu
= 0.48
d
xu = 0.48 × 560 = 268.8 mm
0.42 x u = 0.42 × 268.8 = 112.896 mm
(d – 0.42 xu) = (560 – 112.896) = 447.104 mm
fck = 15 N/mm2
Substituting these values in the expression (iii)
⎡ 0.36 × 15 × 268.8 × 447.104 × 400 ⎤
Mu.1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000×1000 ⎦
or Mu.1 = 259.592 kN-m
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From the tension side, the moment of resistance of beam section

or Mu.2 = 0.87 fy Ast × jd
or Mu.2 = 0.87 fy Ast × (d – 0.42 x u)
From Example 3.5, for Hysd steel, Fe 415
Ast = 1608.32 mm2
Therefore,
0.87 × 415 × 1608.32 × 447.104
Mu.2 =
1000×1000
or Mu.2 = 259.626 kN-m
It is to note that the flexural strength for balanced beam section as shown in Fig. 3.6 found
from compression side and that obtained from the tension side are equal.
beam is 560 mm and its effective cover is 40 mm. The steel reinforcement in the beam section
consists of 4 mild steel bars, 18 mm diameter. The grade of concrete is M 15. Determine whether
the beam section is under-reinforced. Also determine the flexural strength of the beam.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 15. From IS : 456–1978, the characteristic strength of
the concrete, fck = 15 N/mm2. The mild steel reinforcement has been used. Therefore, fy = 250
N/mm2. Total compressive force in concrete in compression zone at ultimate load from Eq. 3.29
(also, from the expression (iii) Art. 3.11)
Ccu = 0.36 fck . xu . b ...(i)
Total tensile force in steel bars in tension reinforcement
Tcu = 0.87 fy Ast ...(ii)
Area of the steel reinforcement
π
Ast = 4 × × 182 = 1017.87 mm2 ...(iii)
4
3.16.6 Depth of the Neutral Axis for the Beam Section

Since, the beam section is in equilibrium, the total compressive force in concrete in compression
Ccu is equal to the total tensile force in the steel bars in tension reinforcement, Tsu.
Therefore, (for mild steel, fy = 250 N/mm2)
Ccu = Tsu
0.36 fck . xu . b = 0.87 fy Ast
⎛ 0.87 fy Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜
⎝ 0.36 fck . b ⎟⎠
⎡ 0.87 × 250 × 1017.87 ⎤

or xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.36 ×15 × 400 ⎦
or x u = 102.494 mm ...(iv)
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From IS : 456–1978
xu. max
= 0.53
d
x u.max = 0.53 × 560 = 296.8 mm ...(v)
The depth of neutral axis, x u is less than the depth, x u.max. Therefore, the beam section is
under-reinforced as shown in Fig. 3.7.
3.16.7 Moment of Resistance of the Beam Section

The beam section is under-reinforced. Its flexural strength (viz., the moment of resistance is
calculated from tension side. That is, by taking the moment of tensile force about the line of
action of the compressive force. Therefore, Fig. 3.1
Mu..2 = Tsu. × lever arm
Mu..2 = 0.87 fy Ast × jd
or Mu..2 = 0.87 fy Ast × (d – 0.42xu) ...(vi)
Substituting the values of different known terms
⎡ 0.87 × 15 × 102.494 × 400 × (560 – 0.42 × 102.494) ⎤
Mu. 2 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 ×1000 ⎦
or Mu.2 = 0.535 × 516.953 kN-m
Mu. 2 = 276.57 kN-m
Example 3.7 A singly reinforced beam is 400 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 560
mm and its effective cover is 40 mm. The steel reinforcement in the beam section consists of
4 Hysd-steel bars, Fe 415, 18 mm diameter. The grade of concrete is M 15. Determine whether
the beam section is under-reinforced. Also determine the flexural strength of the beam section.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 15. Therefore, fck = 15 N/mm2. Hysd steel bars, Fe 415
are used. Therefore, fy = 415 N/mm2. Total compressive force in concrete in compression at
ultimate load, from Eq. 3.29 [also, from the expression (iii), Art 3.11]
Ccu = 0.36 fck.b.xu ...(i)
Tsu = 0.87 fy Ast ...(ii)
Area of the steel bars (Hysd, Fe 415)
Ast = 4 × j × 182 = 1017.87 mm2 ...(iii)
3.16.8 Depth of Neutral Axis of the Beam Section

Since, the beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, total compressive force in concrete in
compression, Ccu and total tensile force in the steel bars in tension reinforcement, Tsu and
equal.
Ccu = Tsu
0.36 fck.b.xu = 0.87 fy × Ast
⎛ 0.87 × fy × Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜
⎝ 0.36 f . b ⎟⎠
ck
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⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 1017.87 ⎞

xu = ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
⎝ 0.36 ×15×400
xu = 170.14 mm
From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel bars, Fe 415
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.48
x u.max = 0.48 × 560 = 268.8 mm

The depth of neutral axis, xu for the beam section is less than the depth x u.max. Therefore, the
beam section is under-reinforced, as shown in Fig. 3.7.
3.16.9 Moment of Resistance (Flexural Strength) of the Beam Section

The beam section is under-reinforced. Its flexural strength (moment of resistance) is found by
taking the moment of tensile force, Tsu about the line of action of the compressive force, Ccu.
From Fig. 3.1,
Mu.2 = Tsu . × lever arm
or Mu.2 = 0.87 fy Ast × (d – 0.42 × xu)
(d – 0.42 xu) = (560 – 0.42 × 170.14) mm
= 488.54 mm.
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 1017.87 × 488.54 ⎞
Mu.2 = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 1000 ×1000
Mu.2 = 179.54 kN-m.
3.17 REQUIREMENTS OF AREA OF LONGITUDINAL

STEEL REINFORCEMENT IN TENSION IN BEAMS
In case of singly reinforced rectangular beam of width, b, effective depth, d, and area of steel
reinforcement in tension, Ast the ratio of area of steel to the cross-section of beam is determined
from Eq. 3.12
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ b.d ⎠
and, the percentage ratio of steel reinforcement is found from Eq. 3.13
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st ⎟ × 100 ...(ii)
⎝ b.d ⎠
By equating total compressive force, Ccu in concrete in compression zone and total tensile
force, Tsu in steel bars in tension (as the beam section is in equilibrium), p is obtained as under :
⎛ 0.36 fck x ⎞
From Eq. 3.15, p = ⎜ × 100 × u ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 0.87 fy d⎠
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xu ⎛ ε cu ⎞
From Eq. 3.8, = ⎜ ...(iv)
d ⎝ ε cu + ε s ⎟⎠
Substituting this in the expression (iii)
⎡⎛ 0.36 fck ⎞ ⎛ ε cu ⎞ ⎤
p = ⎢⎜ ⎟ × 100 × ⎜ ⎥ ...(v)
⎢⎣⎝ 0.87 fy ⎠ ⎝ ε cu + ε s ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
From the expression (v) above the percentage of steel reinforcement may be calculated by
knowing fck , fy, εcu and εs. Therefore, the area of steel bars provided as reinforcement in tension
may be determined knowing width, b and the effective depth, d. That is,
p
Ast = × b.d ...(vi)
100
The area of steel reinforcement may also be obtained in case the moment resistance, Mu.2 is
known as in Eq. 3.34, as below :
Mu.2 = 0.87fy Ast (d – 0.42 x u)
⎡ M u.2 ⎤
Mu.2 = ⎢ ⎥ ...(3.41)
⎢⎣ 0.87 fy . ( d – 0.42 xu ) ⎥⎦
where,
(d – 0.42 xu) = lever arm
xu = depth of neutral axis
The area of steel provided is kept slightly less than that calculated from Eq. 3.41, so that the
beam section remain under-reinforced. 16 mm, 18 mm, 20 mm and 22 mm diameter bars are
commonly used and arranged symmetrically about the vertical centre line of the beam cross-
section. The bars of diameter more than 25 mm may also be used if necessary. The area of steel
provided should be more than the minimum and less than the maximum limits specified in IS
1456–1978 (described below).
Minimum reinforcement in tension. The minimum reinforcement in tension shall not
be less than given by Eq. 3.42 :
( Ast ).min 0.25

= ... (3.42)
b . d fy
where fy is the characteristic (yield) strength of reinforcement in N/mm2. For mild steel fy, is 250
N/mm2 and for hysd steel Fe 415 and Fe 500, the values of fy are 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2,
respectively.
For mild steel
0.85
(Ast).min = × bd (0.34 percent)
250
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For hysd steel Fe 415

0.85
(Ast).min = × bd (0.2048 percent)
415
Sometimes for architectural or other purposes, the cross-sections of beam are kept larger
than those necessary for the considerations of strength alone. The area of steel calculated for
such beams for the requirement of strength will be very small. The strength of such beam by
considering the beam section as cracked becomes even less than that for corresponding plain
concrete section determined from its modulus of rupture. In such beams, the failure takes place
suddenly. In order to avoid such eventuality, it is necessary to provide area of steel more than
minimum.
Maximum reinforcement in tension. The maximum area of reinforcement in tension
shall not exceed 0.04 . bD (viz., 4 percent of the cross-section, so that practical difficulties in
placing and compacting of concrete may not arise. In the singly reinforced beams, it may not
become necessary to use 4 percent of reinforcement.
Side face reinforcement. When the overall depth of beam becomes more than 750 mm,
the side face reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces of the beam section as shown
in Fig. 3.11 (b) to take into consideration the crack width limitation and lateral buckling of the
web in beam. The side face reinforcement shall not be less than 0.1 percent of the web area and
shall be distributed equally in two faces at a spacing. S not to exceed 300 mm or web thickness
whichever is less.
Spacing of reinforcement. In order to ensure proper placement of concrete around the
main reinforcement bars and to achieve full surface contact between the bars and the concrete
(viz., to get maximum bond strength, it is necessary to maintain a certain minimum distance
between adjacent bars. The air pocket likely to be left below the bars are to be avoided.
3.17.1 Minimum Distance between Individual Bars

The clear horizontal distance between two adjacent parallel main reinforcing bars as shown in
Fig. 3.11 (b) shall be not less than maximum of the following :
(i) The diameter of the bar (in case the diameters are equal)
(ii) The diameter of larger bar (in case the diameters are unequal), and
(iii) 5 mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate.
The nominal maximum size of the aggregate is usually kept 5 mm less than the minimum
cover to the reinforcement (viz., 25 mm minus 5 mm). As such aggregates having a nominal
size of 20 mm are generally considered satisfactory.
Wherever possible, the horizontal distance between adjacent bars, Fig. 3.11 (b) is provided
more than the minimum specified above. In case needle vibrators are used for compaction of
concrete, this horizontal distance between group of bars may be reduced to two-third the nominal
maximum size of the coarse aggregate provided that the sufficient space is left between the
groups of bars to enable the vibrator to be immersed.
Sometimes, the bars of main reinforcement are placed in two or more layers as shown in
Fig. 3.11 (b) when the bars cannot be accommodated in one layer. In such a case, the bars are
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arranged vertically in line. The minimum clear vertical distance between the bars as shown in
Fig. 3.11 (b) shall be not less than the maximum of the following :
(i) 15 mm
2
(ii) The maximum rd size of aggregate
3
(iii) The maximum diameter of main bar.
3.17.2 Maximum Distance between Main Bars in Tension

When the beams are exposed to mild or moderate environment, the surface width of cracks
should not, in general, exceed 0.3 mm, the maximum horizontal distance between adjacent
bars for the exposed to normal internal or external conditions, shall not exceed beams that
specified in IS : 456-1978 (described as under).
The horizontal distance between two adjacent parallel reinforcement bars, or group of bars,
near the tension face of a beam shall not exceed 300 mm, 180 mm or 150 mm for the characteristic
strength of steel as 250 N/mm2, 415 N/mm2 or 500 N/mm2 respectively, where the percentage
of redistribution to or from section is zero.
In addition to the design of beams for bending strength and main reinforcement, the shear
strength, transverse reinforcement and development length considerations (discussed later)
are also made.
3.18 COVER TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

In order to provide adequate protection to steel against fire and corrosion due to harmful
elements present in the atmosphere, a certain thickness of concrete cover is provided outside of
the outermost surface of the steel reinforcement bars. Thus, there remains concrete all around
the steel bars.
Cover to reinforcement. The cover to reinforcement at each end along the length of the
beam shall be not less than 25 mm, nor less than twice the diameter of such bar. The cover to
reinforcement measured from outermost surface of main reinforcement (also referred as clear
cover) as shown in Fig. 3.11 (a) upto surface of concrete in tension, shall be not less than 25
mm, nor less than the diameter of such bar. When the concrete surface remains exposed directly
to the ground or weather, the harmful elements (e.g., some chemicals, acids, vapour, salts,
sulphurous smoke etc.) are likely to damage the concrete, the clear cover recommended above
is further increased between 15 mm and 50 mm. The reinforced concrete beams may remain
totally immersed in sea water. In such a case, the clear cover shall be 40 mm more than specified
above. In case, the reinforced concrete beam remains periodically immersed in sea water, the
clear cover shall be 50 mm more than the specified above. For concrete of grade M 25 and
above, the additional thickness of cover specified above is made half. However, in all such
cases, the concrete cover shall not exceed 75 mm.
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b b
S > 3 00 m m
> web S
th ickne ss
S D > 7 50 m m
S
V.S .
C .C E .C
S .C . S .C .
H .S .
C .C . = C lear co ver S .C . = S ide cover
E .C . = E ffective co ve r H .S . = H o rizon ta l sp acin g
= (C .C . + φ /2 ) V.S . = Ve rtica l sp acin g
(a ) (b )
Fig. 3.11
The cover to reinforcement measured from centre of main reinforcement upto surface of
concrete in tension as Shown in Fig. 3.11 (a) is called effective cover. The side cover to
reinforcement measured from outermost face of reinforcement bar upto side face as shown in
Fig. 3.11 (b) shall be not less than 25 mm nor less than the diameter of bar.
The overall depth of beam, D is found by adding effective cover (say, 40 mm + φ/2 @ 50 mm)
to the effective depth and then rounding upward to the nearest 5 mm, 10 mm or 20 mm. As a
result, the actual effective depth, d is obtained by subtracting effective cover from overall
depth of beam, D.
3.19 EFFECTIVE SPAN FOR SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS

For determining the maximum bending moment and maximum shear force occurring at any
sections, the effective span in needed.
3.19.1 Effective Span

(i) For simply supported beams, the effective span of a beam that is not constructed integrally
with its supports is adopted as below :
Effective span = Clear span + Effective depth
ES = C.S. + d ...(3.43)
Effective span = Centre to centre of supports ...(3.44)
Before the design of beam is done, the size of beam is not known. In the beginning, the
effective depth, d is assumpted depending upon intensity of loads and length of spans. The
effective depth of beam is assumed as one-tenth (1/10)th of span for beams to carry light loads
and beams of moderate span and one-eighth (1/8)th of span for beams to carry heavy loads
and beams of long span. In order to find the effective span from Eq. 3.44 the widths of supports
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at the two ends of the beam are assumed as 300 mm to 600 mm. The effective span for simply
supported beam shall be minimum of the values calculated from Eqs. 3.43 and 3.44.
For cantilever beams, the effective span is taken as the length from free end of the cantilever
to the face of support (viz., clear projection) plus half its effective depth. That is,
1
ES = Clear projection + d ...(3.45)
2
Example 3.8 A singly reinforced beam is 400 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 560
mm and its effective cover is 40 mm Hysd steel reinforcement, Fe 415 shall be provided. The
grade of concrete is M 15. The beam section is to be kept under-reinforced. The flexural strength
of beam is 180 kN-m. The depth of neutral axis of the beam section is 170 mm. Determine the
area of steel reinforcement.
Solution The beam section is to be under-reinforced as shown in Fig. 3.7 the flexural strength
(moment of resistance) of the beam section is controlled from tension in steel. (Depth of neutral
axis, x u = 170 mm)
or Mu.2 = 0.87fy Ast× jd
or Mu.2 = 0.87fy .Ast × (d – 0.42 xu)
From Eq 3.41
⎡ M u.2 ⎤
Ast = ⎢ 0.87 f .(d − 0.42x d ) ⎥ ...(i)
⎣⎢ y u ⎦⎥
Moment of resistance of the beam section
Mu.2 = 180 kN-m ...(ii)
Hysd steel reinforcement, Fe 415 shall be used
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(iii)
Substituting these values in the expression (i)
180 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × (560 – 0.42 × 170)
⎡ 180 × 106 ⎤ 2
Ast = ⎢ 0.87 415 488.6 ⎥ = 1020.36mm
⎣ × × ⎦
Four bars 18 mm diameter Hysd steel Fe 415, may be provided. Area of steel reinforcement
provided
π
Ast = 4 × × 182 = 1017.88mm2
4
slightly less than 1020.36 mm2.
Alternatively. The area of steel reinforcement, Ast may also be determined as follows. The
grade of concrete is M 15. Therefore, fck = 15 N/mm2. Hysd steel, Fe 415 shall be used. Therefore
fy = 415 N/mm2. Total compressive force in concrete in compression at the ultimate load from
Eq. 3.29 [also from the expression (iii), Art. 3.11]
Ccu = 0.36 fck . b . xu ...(iv)
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Tsu = 0.87 fy . Ast ...(v)
C = Tsu
0.36 fck . b. xu = 0.87 fy . Ast
⎛ 0.36 fck . b . xu ⎞
Ast = ⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(vi)
⎜ 0.87 fy
⎝ ⎠
Substituting the values from above,
⎛ 0.36 × 15 × 400 × 170 ⎞ 2
Ast = ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
⎝ 0.87 × 415
Ast = 1017.03 mm2
It is to note that these two values are practically equal. Four bars 18 mm diameter Hysd
steel Fe 415 may be provided. Area of steel reinforcement provided
π
Ast = 4 × × 182 = 1017.88mm2 .
4
3.20 LIMIT OF SERVICEABILITY FOR SINGLY REINFORCED

RECTANGULAR BEAMS
In the limit state of collapse, the members are assumed to be at a state of hypothetical
overload for the purpose of analysis and design. Only miniscule fraction of beams will ever
attain such loading. The beams are ensured to have proper margin of safety against collapse in
bending (or shear or due to inadequate bond and anchorage of the reinforcement. The efficient
design procedures enable the engineers to satisfy the requirements of the limit state of collapse.
The limit state of serviceability of the concrete structures or structural members (beams)
provide important design considerations. It is seen that the performance of the members in
normal service at loads (those actually expected to act) is satisfactory. The serviceability includes
the deflection and cracking behaviour of the reinforced concrete members at service loads. The
deflection of a reinforced concrete structure or any part of a structure (i.e., a structural member)
must not adversely influence the appearance or efficiency of the structure. Similarly, any
cracking of the concrete also must not adversely affect its appearance or durability.
The excessive flexural deflection and excessive flexural cracking are currently two phenomena
which are normally considered in the limit state of serviceability in the design. The deflection
due to full service loads may be excessively large or long term deflections due to sustained loads
may cause damage. The enough wide tension cracks in the beams may be visually disturbing
or may even allow serious corrosion of reinforcing steel bars. The excessive deflections, extensive
cracking or excessive crack width result in poor serviceability. The corrosion of steel reinforcement
and poor weathering or wearing properties may be normally avoided by proper controls in
mixing and placing.
ACI Committee 435, Deflection of concrete structures, [Publication SP 43, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1974, (pp. 636)], ACI 435, Allowable deflection, {Proceedings, ACI, 65, No.
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6, June, 1968, (pp. 433–44)], ACI Committee 224, Causes, Mechanism and control of cracking
in concrete, [Bibliography No. 9, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp. 102)], ACI
Committee 222, corrosion of metals in concrete, [SP 49, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1975, (pp. 136)] deal with the phenomena, their limits, their cause and corrosion of metals
relating the serviceability and their limits. The acceptable limits for deflections and crack widths,
some simple design rules (which under normal circumstances will ensure that deflections and
crack widths are within such limits) and the analytical methods for determining the values of
deflections and crack widths shall be studied in the subsequent articles. It is assured that the
cracks associated with flexure of the reinforced concrete beams are narrow and well distributed
and the short and long term deflections at loads upto the level of service loads are within the
allowable limits.
The serviceability studies are made based on elastic theory and the following simplified
assumptions are made.
The plane sections remain plane after bending. In other words, the strains vary linearly
with distances from the neutral axis. The stresses in steel and concrete are proportional to the
strains. The concrete in tension zone is considered fully cracked upto the neutral axis. That is,
there is no tensile stress exists in the concrete in tension zone. The modular ratio of concrete, m
is found as (Es/Ec).
3.21 EFFECTS OF DEFLECTIONS

The present trend in design is to use concrete and steel of higher strengths and limit state of
design has been introduced. As a result of these, the design of more slender members has
become possible. Modern building structures often lack substantial walls and partitions. The
non-structural elements are prone to damage caused by deflections of the structural members.
Therefore, the control of the deflections of flexural members under service loads is getting more
importance.
ACI Committee 435, ‘Allowable Deflections’, [Journal of ACI, Vol. 65, No. 6, June 1968, (pp.
433–444)], in its report, classifies the effects of deflections under four broad headings as under.
3.21.1 Sensory Acceptability

A personal judgement leads to sensory acceptability. It depends upon the social background of
the person using the structure. The sagging of beams and drooping of the cantilevers are the
visual effects. The vibrations due to dynamic effects of live or wind load are the tactile effects
(which are perceptible by touch). The noise from vibrations are auditory effects (which relate to
the sense of hearing). These effects are all sensory effects (which may be realized by senses). It
is difficult to establish deflection limits on sensory acceptability. These effects vary with personal
opinion.
3.21.2 Serviceability of Structure

The intended use of roof surfaces is to drain water and of the floors is to remain plane. The
members support sensitive equipment. These are related with the serviceability limits. It is
easy to define deflection limits on serviceability.
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3.21.3 Effect on Non-structural Elements

The walls, partitions, ceilings, doors, windows, ventilators etc. are the non-structural elements.
The deflections must not exceed specified limits, in which case, these are likely to damage the
walls, partitions and ceilings. The movement of the operating elements (doors, windows and
ventilators should not be prevented by the deflections. As well as the deflections due to gravity
and lateral loads, the thermal and shrinkage effects are also important. Depending upon the
type of non-structural elements and the methods of their installations, the deflection limits are
specified.
3.21.4 Effects on Structural Elements

The deflections causing the instability (e.g., in arches, shells or long columns), the deflections
causing a change in the stress system (such as, a change in the bearing area due to rotation at
the end of a beam) and deflections causing dynamic effects that increase stresses (that is, the
resonant vibrations due to moving loads are the effects on the structural elements.
The behaviour of structures are assumed for the purpose of design. The limits are specified
for the deflections such that the deflects do not alter the assumed behaviour of the structure.
In case, it is possible, the effects of deflections on the structural behaviour may also be included
in the design elements.
3.22 METHODS OF CONTROLLING DEFLECTIONS

The structural deflections are normally vertical displacements or horizontal displacements or
both.
ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements in Reinforced Concrete, [ACI 318–71,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp. 78)] has specified following two methods for
controlling the deflections.
3.22.1 Method of Sufficient Stiffness

The deflections may be controlled by ensuring that the reinforced concrete members have
sufficient stiffness to limit the deflections at the service loads. IS : 456–1978 specifies limits to
control deflections and in order to ensure serviceability. IS : 456–1978 recommends the limits
over final deflections in terms span. The deflection of beam shall not exceed the following
limits.
The final deflection due to all loads (including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage)
measured below as the cast level of floors, roofs and other horizontal members should not
normally exceed span/250. This limitation is based on limitation on crack width.
Part of the deflection (including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage) occurs
after the erection of partitions and the application of finishes should not normally exceed span/
350 or 20 mm whichever is less.
IS : 456–1978 code recommends that the above limits on vertical deflections of beam may be
considered to be satisfied provided that the span to depth ratios specified therein are not exceeded.
The basic values of span to effective depth ratios have been arrived by considering fully elastic
simply supported rectangular beam carrying uniformly distributed load w per unit length. The
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maximum bending moment, M occurs at the centre of beam of effective span, L. Let the
permissible stress in concrete in bending in compression be σcbc. The beam section may resist
the bending moment M as under
D2 wL2
M = σabc · Z = σcbc · b = ...(i)
6 8
∴ w = 8. σcbc.b.
( D / L )2 ...(ii)
6
The maximum deflection of beam occurring at the centre
5 ⎛ wL4 ⎞
y max = ⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(iii)
384 ⎜⎝ EI ⎠
From the expressions (ii) and (iii)
ymax 5 σcbc ⎛ L ⎞
= × × ...(iv)
L 24 E ⎝⎜ D ⎠⎟
L ⎛y ⎞
or = K1 . ⎜ max ⎟ ...(v)
D ⎝ L ⎠
24 E
where K1 = .
5 σ cbc
In design, it is usual to comply with deflection limits specified by IS : 456–1978 by a straight
forward procedure of limiting the ratio of the span to the effective depth. These limits are
finalised from the studies of Professor Beeby, A.W. Modified Proposals for Controlling Deflections
by Means of Ratios of Span to Effective Depth, Cement and Concrete Association London,
1971, (pp 19), and Professors Neville, A.M. Houghton-Evans, W. and Clask, C.V., Deflection
Control by Span/Depth Ratio, Magazine of Concrete Research, 29 No. 98, March, 1977, (pp.
31–41).
This method is an indirect method. It is simple and satisfactory in many cases when the
spans, loads, and load distributions and member sizes and the proportions fall in the usual
range. It is only in exceptional cases that the actual deflections are calculated and compared
with the limiting values. This is practical procedure. It is also recommended in CP 110. It is
based on experience.
The deflection of beam remains limited to a given fraction of span, in case span/depth ratio
that is, span/thickness ratio is constant for a given elastic material. IS : 456–1978 specifies the
basic values of span to effective depth ratios (instead of overall depth) for the following limits of
span.
The lengthy calculations are involved in determining the actual deflections. The serviceability
limit state is often satisfied by observing the limits specified. The basic span to depth ratio is
based on the theoretical study made by Cement and Concrete Association, London in a typical
beam of span 9 m with one percent tension steel Hysd Fe 415.
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For rectangular beams and slabs

(i) For spans upto 10 m
For cantilever beams ... 7
For simply supported beams ... 20
For continuous beams ... 26
(ii) For spans above 10 m
Above specified values are multiplied by 10/span in metres except for cantilever beams for
which the actual calculations for deflection should be made.
The basic values of ratios of span to effective depth are modified depending on the area of
steel reinforcement in tension as the deflection of beam is influenced by reinforcement and the
service stress. The area of steel for tension reinforcement is taken at the centre of span of
simply supported beam and at the support of span of cantilever beams. Above specified basic
values are multiplied by multiplication factor, m (referred as modification factor in code). The
value of multiplication factor, m is found for curves for different grades of steel as shown in
Fig. 3.12 (reproduced from code IS : 456–1978).
2 .0
1 .6
Fe 2 50
1 .2
M o difica tion facto r
Fe 4 15
0 .8
Fe 5 00
0 .4
0 .0
0 .0 0 .4 0 .8 1 .2 1 .6 2 .0 2 .4 2 .8
P e rcen tag e of tensio n reinforce m e nt
Fig. 3.12 Fe 250 (Mild Steel) Fe 415 HYSD steel, Fe 500 HYSD Steel Modification
(Multiplication) factor for tension reinforcement
It is difficult to predict accurately the deflections of reinforced concrete beams and other
members. However, it is possible to estimate the deflections within margin of error of about ±20
percent. For most practical purposes, it is sufficiently accurate. The deflections may be
determined in two steps, namely, (i) the immediate deflection that occurs at first loading, and
(ii) the additional deflection that occurs with time, because of creep and shrinkage of the concrete.
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3.22.2 Methods of Actual Calculation of Deflections

In case, the member sizes and proportions do not fall in the usual ranges, or the beams and
one-way slabs are attached to the partitions or other constructions likely to be damaged by
large deflections, or do not meet the minimum thickness requirements, then, it becomes essential
to calculate actual deflections and to compare those calculated values with specific limitations
which may be imposed by special requirements or by codes.
The designer may use a smaller thickness, if calculations demonstrate that the service load
deflections are less than than specified in Table 3.3. Table 3.5 is a simplification of the extensive
range of limitations that would be necessary to cover all types of construction and conditions of
loading. It is assumed that the deflections likely to influence the strength of the structural
elements have been taken into consideration in the design of the structures.
Table 3.5 Maximum allowable calculated deflections
(Reference : ACI Committee 318, ‘Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318–
71), American Concrete Institute, Detroit. 1971 (pp. 78)
S. No. Types of Deflections to be Deflection
deflections considered limitations
1. Flat roofs not supporting or attached Immediate deflection due to live Span/180*
to non-structural elements likely to load.
be damaged by large deflections.
2. Floors not supported or attached to Immediate deflection due to live Span/360
non-structural elements likely to be load.
damaged by large deflections.
3. Roof or floor construction supporting That part of the total deflection Span/480**
or attached to non-structural which occurs after the attachment of
elements likely to be damaged by the non-structural elements, the sum
large deflections. of long term deflection due to all
sustained loads and the immediate
deflection due to any additional live
load.
4. Roof or floor construction
supporting or attached to the
non structural elements not likely
to be damaged by large deflections. Span/240†
* This limit is not intended to safeguard against ponding. The ponding should be checked by suitable
defection calculations.
** This limit may be exceeded if inadequate measures are taken to prevent the damage to supported or
attached elements.
† But not greater the tolerance provided for the non-structural elements. This limit may be exceeded if
camber is provided so that the total deflection minus the camber does not exceed the limitation.
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3.23 IMMEDIATE DEFLECTIONS

The deflections caused by the service loads acting over the beams are called as immediate
deflections. These deflections may be calculated using the usual elastic theory. The elastic
deflection of a beam is a function of loads, spans support conditions and in addition to these, it
is also function of the geometrical properties of the beam section. The elastic deflection may be
expressed as
f (loads, span, supports)
∆ = ...(i)
E.I .
where, EI is the flexural rigidity and f (loads, span, supports) is a function of the particular
load, span and arrangement of supports.
The actual moment-curvature relationship (M – φ relationship) for an under-reinforced beam
is highly non-linear. In the elementary mechanics, it is assumed that the elastic relationship is
linear and therefore, it is also assumed that the moment curvature relationship is also linear.
Therefore
⎛ M ⎞
φ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ E .I ⎠
The expression (ii) is very convenient for the calculation of the deflection. This expression for
curvature, φ is doubly integrated (that is, integrated twice) by some computational means such
as the familiar moment area theorem. This theorem states that the deflection of a point on
a member, measured from the tangent at another point on the member is equal to the moment
of the (M/EI) diagrams between those two points, taken about a point, the whose deflection is
being determined. From theory of simple bending, it is known that
M E
=
I R
M I
or = =φ ...(iii)
EI R
The moment area theorem may be restated as a (more useful theorem) curvature-area
theorem : the deflection of a point on a member, measured from the tangent at another point
on the member is equal to the moment of the curvature diagram between the two points, taken
about the point the deflection of which is being calculated.
For example, the deflection at the centre of a simply supported beam with span, l and the
flexural rigidity, EI, carrying a uniformly distributed load per unit length
5 ⎛ w. l4 ⎞
∆ = .⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(iv)
384 ⎜⎝ EI ⎠
This deflection for a simply supported beam is 5 times of that of a beam with the equal load
but fully restrained against rotation at both the ends (i.e., for a beam fixed at both the ends).
In case, the ends of a beam are continuous, as these are in most reinforced concrete beams, it is
necessary to consider the decrease in deflection due to end rotation. In order to include the
effect of end restraint, it is usually sufficiently accurate to determine the deflection at the
centre of a simply supported beam and to subtract from this, the opposite deflection resulted by
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the average of the negative moments at the two ends. In case, M1 and M2 are moments at the
ends, the average moment, Mav = 0.5 (M1 + M2). The deflection to be subtracted from the simple
beam deflection is (Mav . l2 / 8 EI).
The flexural rigidity of the beam section may be found, by considering the value of Young’s
modulus of Elasticity, Ec, for the structural concrete may be taken as
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2 N/mm2 ...(v)
The moment of inertia, I depends upto the extent of cracking that has occurred in the beam.
In case, the maximum moment in a beam is so small that the tension stress in the concrete is
not more than the modulus of the rupture, fr, no flexural tension will develop. The complete
uncracked section is than available for resisting stress and providing the rigidity. The moment
of inertia I may be adopted as Ig, where, Ig is moment of inertia of the uncracked gross-section
about the centroidal axis, neglecting the transformed area of the reinforcement.
At higher loads, the value is large enough and the tensile stress exceeds the modulus of
rupture of the concrete, fr, and the flexural tensile cracks will develop at discrete intervals
along the member.
Due to cracking, the moment of inertia of the section is reduced. For the lightly reinforced
section, the reduction in the value of moment of inertia is more as compared to that for heavily
reinforced section. At cracked section the moment of inertia Icr is calculated based on the cracked
section transformed to the concrete area. In between the cracks, the concrete carries some
tension because tension is transformed from the steel to the concrete by bond and enough
length is needed for the tensile stress in the concrete to attain the modulus of rupture, fr before
the concrete cracks again the beam section continues to stiffen due to tension carried by the
concrete between the cracks. The deflection of beam is under estimated in case, the gross-
moment of inertia based in the gross cross-section is used. It is over estimated in case, the
moment of inertia based on the cracked section is used. In a cracked section, an effective moment
of inertia, Ie is used. Its value shall be between those found from uncracked and cracked section.
In addition to this, in case shear stresses τv.cv and the web reinforcement is used to resist
them, the diagonal cracks may exist at the service loads. In the region of flexural cracks, the
position of the neutral axis varies. Directly at each crack, it is located at the level calculated for
the cracked, transformed section. Midway between cracks, it dips to a location closer to that
determined for the uncracked transformed section. Correspondingly, flexural-tension crack
causes the effective moment of inertia to be that of the cracked transformed section in the
immediate neighbourhood of flexural-tension cracks and closer to that of the uncracked
transformed section mid-way between the cracks with a gradual transition between these
extremes.
It is observed that the value of the local moment of inertia varies in those proportions in
which the bending moment exceeds the cracking moment of the section:
⎛ fr.I g ⎞
Mcr = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ yt ⎠
where,
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the tension face and
fr = modulus of the rupture.
The exact variation of I depends on the shape of moment diagram and on the crack pattern
and it is difficult to find out. The exact deflection calculation becomes impossible.
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However, extensively documental studies [Reference : D.E. Branson, Deformation of Concrete

Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977, (pp. 446)] have shown that deflection ∆ic, occurring
in a beam after the maximum moment, Ma has attained and exceeded the cracking moment,
Mcr may be calculated by using an effective moment of inertia, Ie, that is
⎛ f ⎞
∆ic = ⎜ E .I ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ c e⎠
where,
3 ⎡ ⎛ M ⎞3 ⎤
⎛ M cr ⎞ cr
Ie = ⎜ ⎟ g ⎢1 – ⎜
I + ⎟ ⎥ .I cr ≤ I g ...(3.46)
M
⎝ a ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ M a ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked
Equation 3.46 may be more simply written as
⎡⎛ M 3 ⎤
⎞
Ie = ⎢⎜ ⎟
⎢⎝ M a ⎠
cr
( I g – Icr ) + I cr ⎥⎥ ...(3.47)
⎣ ⎦
Ma = Maximum moment in the member at loading
stage considered
It is to note that (Mcr/Ma) is the most important. Ma is not too far different from Mcr. Use of Ie
gives the immediate deflection for elastic deflection. Equation 3.47 is also recommended by ACI
Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, [(ACI 318–77), American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp. 78)].
Ig
Ie
I cr
0 1 2 3 4
( M a / M cr )
Fig. 3.13 Effective Moment of inertia, Ie and moment ration (Ma /Mcr) diagram
The moment of inertia Ig and Icr are two limits for Ie found from Eq 3.47 and it gives a
transition expression that depends on the extent of cracking. In case, (Ma/Mcr) becomes large,
the value of Ie rapidly tends towards Icr. Professor Branson, D.E [Instantaneous and Time-
Dependent Deflection of Simple and Continuous Reinforced Concrete Beams, HPR Report
No. 7, Part 1, Alabama Highway Department, Bureau of Public Roads, August, 1963, (1965),
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(pp 1–78)] developed Eq. 3.47 as an empirical expression. It is shown to give good accuracy.
The value of Ie may be treated as being proportional to the slope of the secant line to the
appropriate point on the load deflection curve above the load at first cracking. For the continuous
beams, the moment of inertia may be taken as the average of Ie values obtained for the positive
and negative moment regions.
The effective moment of inertia, Ie and the ratio (Ma/Mcr) [the reciprocal of the moment ratio
used in Eq. 3.46] may be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.13. It may be observed from Fig. 3.13 that
for (Ma/Mcr) less than unity, (i.e., for the values of maximum moment Ma less than the cracking
Mcr), the effective moment of inertia, Ie is equal to gross moment of inertia, Ig (viz., Ie – Ig) when
the values of maximum moment Ma increases, the values of Ie tends to approach closer to Ie .
The effective moment of inertia, Ie is practically equal to the critical moment of inertia, Ic for
values (McMcr) = 3 or more.
The grown of deflections with increasing moment for a typical simple span beam and use of
Eq. 3.46 may be explained as shown in Fig. 3.14. In case the bending moments not more than
Mcr, the deflections are almost proportional to moments. The crack begins at deflection calculated
from ∆i, = (f/Ec.Ig) with M = Mcr. When the bending moments are more, the effective moment of
inertia, le becomes progressively smaller as it is seen in Eq. 3.46 and the deflections are determined
from ∆i, = (f/Ec.Ie ) for the load level under consideration. Let M1 and ∆1 be the bending moment
and the deflection at the level of dead load, respectively. Similarly, let M2 and ∆2 be the moment
and the deflection at the level of the service load. The line Ec . Icr represents an upper bound for
deflections (except that at loads somewhat more than the service loads at which the non-linear
response of steel or concrete or both causes a further non-linear increase in deflections) in the
moment deflection diagram.
E c Ig E c I cr
N o n-lin ea r
m aterial ran g e
M a xim o m m om e nt M a
M2
M1
E c Ie 2
M cr
E c Ie 1
O
O ∆1 ∆2
D e fle ctio n ∆
Fig. 3.14 Deflection of reinforced concrete
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It is to note that the increase in deflection (∆2 – ∆1) due to live load causing increase in
moment (M2 – M1) may be calculated in two steps. In step one, the deflection ∆2 due to live load
and dead load may be calculated. In step second, the deflection ∆1 may be calculated for the
dead load alone. Both these values are calculated using appropriate value of effective moment
of inertia, Ie.
It is tedious to calculate the effective moment of inertia, specially in case of cracked transformed
section. A number of useful design tables that enable the determination of the values of Icr for
rectangular and T-sections are available in ACI Design Handbook, Volume 1, [ACI Committee
340, Design Handbook in Accordance with the Strength Method of ACI 318–71 Vol. 1,
Publication SP-17(73) American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, (pp 403)]. These tables and
charts have been prepared from the moment-curvature relationship
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ εc ⎞
φ = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ec .I cr ⎠ ⎝ kd ⎠
⎛ M .kd ⎞
Icr = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.48a)
⎝ Ec.εc ⎠
The immediate (viz., short-term) deflection may be calculated by the usual methods of elastic
deflections using the short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete and an effective moment of
inertia, Ie as recommended by code IS : 456–1978 : (subjected to Icr < le < Igross)
I cr
Ie = ...(3.48b)
⎡ M cr z ⎛ xu ⎞ bw ⎤
⎢1.2 – M . d ⎜1 – d ⎟ . b ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
where
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked section
Mcr = cracking moment of the section
( fcr . I gr )
=
yt
fcr = modulus of rupture of concrete
Igr = moment of inertia of the gross-section about the centroidal axis, neglecting the
reinforcement
yt = distance from the centroidal axis of gross-section, neglecting the reinforcement
to the extreme fibre in tension
M = maximum moment under service loads
z = lever arm, that is obtained by elastic theory (d – x/3)
xu = depth of neutral axis (that is, obtained by elastic theory)
d = effective depth
b w = breadth of the web
b = breadth of the compression face.
⎛I ⎞
It is to note that the ratio of ⎜ eff ⎟ is more than or equal to unity and Ieff is less than or equal
⎝ I cr ⎠
to Igr.
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3.24 LONG-TERM DEFLECTIONS

In case, the loads are sustained over long period of time, the initial deflections of the reinforced
concrete beams increase significantly, due to the effects shrinkage and creep. As the time
proceeds, the rate of additional deflections reduces these additional deflections may be two to
three times as large as the immediate deflections. In deflection calculations, these additional
deflections due to shrinkage and creep are usually combined. In general, the effects of creep
dominates, (i.e., the long-term deflections due to creep in concrete are commonly more than the
sum of the deflection from the other effects and therefore these are of primary interest). However,
for some type of members, the shrinkage deflections are more. Therefore, these should be
considered separately.
3.24.1 Deflections Due to Creep

The effects of creep deformations in concrete results is a shortening of the compressed portion
of the concrete section and these are directly proportional to the compressive stresses upto and
beyond the service load range. These deformations increase asymptotically with time. For the
same stress, these deformations are more for low strength concrete than for high strength
concretes. The ratio of additional time dependent strain to initial elastic strain is given by the
creep coefficients, Ccu.
Figure 3.15 shows the situation in a reinforced concrete beam section subjected to creep of
concrete. Figs 3.15 (b) and (c) show the strain and stress distribution diagrams at first load and
after long term loading. The concrete in reinforced concrete beam creeps under sustain loads.
Whereas the steel bars provided as reinforcement does not creep. Due to sustained loads, the
initial strain, εi at the top face of the beam increases due to creep by εi. However, the strain in
steel, εs essentially remains unaltered. As a result of this, the strain distribution diagram rotates
about a point at the level of the steel (rather than about the cracked elastic neutral axis). As a
result of creep, the neutral axis shifts down.
⎛ φcp ⎞ ⎛ ε cp ⎞
And ⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ < ⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠ ...(i)
i i
εi εc p fc i
b fc p
φi A t first
lo ad in g
kd
N N e utral axis A A fter lo ng -tim e
C ra cke d lo ad in g
e lastica lly d
Ast
(a ) R .C .C . B ea m (b ) S train d ia gra m (c) S tresses a nd fo rces

Fig. 3.15 Effect of concrete creep on curvature
( Note. [Source : ACI Committee 435, Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members, Journal of ACI,
Vol. 63, No. 6, June 1966, (pp. 637–674)].
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The expression (i) indicates that the usual creep coefficients could not be applied to the
initial curvature, φi to obtain creep curvatures, φcp and thereby the deflections.
Due to shifting of the neutral axis associated with the creep, the position is further complicated.
It results in increase in the compression area. The compressive stress needed to develop a given
resultant compressive force, Cu to equilibrate the tensile force, Tsu = Ast . fs is less than before,
as compared to the situation in a creep test of a compressed cylinder, for the creep in beam
occurs at a gradually reducing stress. With the new shifted downward neutral axis, the internal
lever arm between the two forces (compressive and tensile) is less. It needs an increase in both
resultants for a constant moment. Therefore, it will need small increase in stress, and hence
strain, in the steel, and the strain in steel εs is not constant as it was originally assumed.
It is essential in practice to determine additional, time dependent deflection of beams due to
creep using a simplified approach.
In one approximate method, the effective modulus of elasticity of concrete is used for
determining the immediate plus creep deflection.
The effective modulus of elasticity of concrete is obtained as under:
The inelasticity of concrete is a major difficulty in the application of elastic theory to reinforced
concrete. The modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the level of stress and the time of
1
loading. The modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec = 5700 ( fck ) 2 found from short-term loading
tests, gives the secant modulus of elasticity at approximately 0.5 fck. For slow loading rates, the
value of modulus is reduced because of creep strains. For an applied stress, which does not
exceed about 0.5 fck, the creep strain that occurs over a given period is almost proportional to
the applied stress. Therefore, the strain due to creep under constant compressive stress may be
expressed as below :
⎛ fci ⎞
εcp = ⎜ ⎟ .Ccp ...(i)
⎝ Ec ⎠
or εcp = εi.Ccp ...(ii)
⎛f ⎞
where, εi = ⎜ ci ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ Ec ⎠
= elastic strain
εcp = strain due to creep
Ccp = coefficient of creep (empirical factor)
The coefficient of creep depends on the age of concrete on loading, the duration of loading,
the concrete mix proportions, the thickness of the member, and humidity. The values of Ccp are
2.2, 1.6 and 1.1 for periods of 7 days, 28 days and one year. Because of linear assumption, Ccp
is independent of the level of stress. Total strain shall be
⎡⎛ fc ⎞ ⎛ fc ⎞⎤
εtotal = ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ .Cϕ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ Ec ⎠ ⎝ Ec ⎠ ⎦⎥
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fc
or εtotal =
Ec
(
1 + cϕ )
or εtotal = εi (1 + cϕ) ...(iv)
The effective secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete including creep,
⎛ f ⎞ ⎡ Ec ⎤
EEC = ⎜ c ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥ ...(v)
⎝ εtotal ⎠ ⎣⎢ (1 + Ccp ) ⎦⎥
where, EEC is effective modulus of elasticity of concrete, and, it is used to relate stress and
strain when the creep coefficient is known, (normally under assumed constant stress condition).
Code of Practice IS : 456–1978 recommends that the deflection due to creep and due to
permanent loads, ∆cp.(perm) may be obtained from the following expression:
∆cp.(perm) = ∆i.cc.(perm) – ∆i.(perm)
where,
∆i.cc.(perm) = initial plus creep deflection due to permanent loads
obtained using an elastic analysis with an effective
modulus of elasticity, EEC as per the expression (v)
above
∆i.(perm) = short-term deflection due to permanent load using,
EC
⎛ EC ⎞
EEC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.49)
⎝ 1 + Ccp ⎠
(It is to note that this expression is also recommended by Code of Practice IS : 456–1978)
where
EEC = modulus of elasticity at the instant of loading,
and
Ccp = creep coefficient of the concrete.
The creep coefficient of concrete is defined as the ratio of creep strain εcp to the initial elastic
strain, εi .
The combined deflection (viz., initial short-term deflection plus long term deflection due to
creep) is determined by elastic analysis using effective modulus of elasticity.
∆ = ∆i + ∆cp ...(i)
∆cp = (∆ + ∆i) ...(ii)
In this method, it is evident that the deflection due to creep ∆cp is equal to the immediate
deflection, ∆i multiplied by the creep coefficient, Ccp. That is
∆cp = Ccp . ∆i ...(iii)
The strain and stress distributions for a reinforced rectangular beam section is shown in
Figs. 3.15 (b) and (c), respectively, immediately on the application of the service load and after
the long-term loading.
Under constant bending moment, the creep in concrete results in significant increase
compressive strain at the extreme fibre, an increase in the depth of neutral axis, and a decrease
in the compressive stress in concrete. The tensile stress in the steel bars provided in tension
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increases slightly as the leave arm is decreased. The ratio of curvature due to creep, φcp to
immediate curvature may be written from Fig. 3.15
⎛ εi ⎞
φc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ki .d ⎠
⎛ε +ε ⎞
(φcp + φi) = ⎜ i cp ⎟ ...(v)
⎜ kcp .d ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ εi + εcp εi ⎞
φcp = ⎜⎜ k .d − k .d ⎟⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ cp i ⎠
⎛ εi + εcp ε ⎞
⎜⎜ − i ⎟
φcp
⎝ kcp .d ki .d ⎟⎠
= ...(vii)
φi (εi / kid )
φcp ⎡ εi ki d εcp ki .d ⎤
or φi = ⎢ k .d . ε + k .d . ε – 1⎥
⎣⎢ cp i cp i ⎥⎦
φcp ⎡⎛ εcp k ⎞ ⎛
i i k ⎞⎤
or φi = ⎢⎜⎜ ε . k ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜1 – k ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ i cp ⎠ ⎝ ⎥
cp ⎠ ⎦
φcp
or φi = kr.Ccu ...(3.50)
where,
εi and εcp = immediate and creep strains in extra fibre of concrete
in compression
ki.d and k cp. d = immediate and eventual depths of the neutral axis
Ccp = creep coefficient
kr = a factor
⎛ k ⎞
It is to note that the factor k r is less than unity as it is seen from analysis that ⎜ i ⎟ is less
⎝ kcp ⎠
⎛ ε cp ⎞
than unity. Also, the ratio ⎜ is less than Ccu because of the redistribution of compressive
⎝ εi ⎟⎠
stress resulting from creep. Therefore, the curvature due to creep shall be less than the immediate
curvature.
Professor Banson [in his paper titled as Instantaneous and Time-Dependent Deflections of
Simple and Continuous Reinforced Concrete Beams, published in HPR Report No. 7, Part 1,
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Alabama Highway Department, Bureau of Public Roads, August, 1963,1965, (pp. 1–78)] has
suggested that the deflection due to creep may be determined from
∆cp = kr.Ccu.∆i ...(3.51)
where, kr is the same type of factor as defined in Eq 3.50. This factor takes into consideration
the effect of redistribution of compressive stress due to creep and additional progressive cracking
due to creep loading. For singly reinforced beam, the value of kr = 0.85 (i.e., the area of
reinforcement in compression, Asc = 0). Above suggestion of Branson is also supported in ACI
Committee 435, [Deflection of Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members, Journal ACI Vol. 63, No.
6, June 1966, (pp. 637–674)].
The values of creep coefficient, Ccp may be evaluated using existing data. Reference may be
made in ACI Committee 209, [Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature in Concrete
Structures, SP, Design for the Effects of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature in Concrete
Structures, SP–27, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp 51–93)] and CEB-FIP
[International Recommendations for the Design and Construction of Concrete Structures, Comitè
Europèan du Beton/Fèdèration International de la Prècontrainte, Paris (English Edition
published by the Cement and Concrete Association, London), 1970, (pp. 80)] and ACI Committee
435.
It is to note that an accurate analysis including the effect of variable loading is extremely
difficult as the data on the creep strain-time characteristics of the concrete, and the loading
history are needed. In case, such data are available, the rate-of-creep method [Reference :
Ross, A.D. Creep of Concrete under Variable Stress, Journal ACI, Vol. 54, No. 9, March, 1958
(pp. 739–758) or the super position method [Reference : Mc Henry. D, A New Aspect of Creep in
Concrete and its Application to Design, Proceedings American Society for Testing and materials,
Vol. 43, 1943, (pp. 1969–1984).
3.24.2 Deflections Due to Shrinkage

According to ACI Code procedures, the shrinkage deflection is not determined separately, but
it is combined with creep deflections. There are circumstances where a separate and more
accurate calculation of shrinkage deflection is necessary, specially for thin, lightly loaded slabs.
The shrinkage in concrete results in shortening of the member. It is mainly resisted by the
tensile stresses in reinforcing steel in the concrete. The shrinkage in concrete develops
compressive stress in the longitudinal reinforcement in beams and slabs. The compressive stress
equilibrates tensile stress in concrete.
The reinforced concrete beams have symmetrical reinforcement and symmetrical sections
get uniform strain. Therefore, the curvature due to shrinkage does not occur.
However, the reinforced concrete beams have the reinforcement which one is not
symmetrically placed (i.e., the reinforcement is unsymmetrical) with respect to the centroid of
concrete, non-uniform distribution of the strains occur due to shrinkage and the shrinkage
produces curvature and corresponding deflection. The deflection shall be in the same direction
as those produced due to loads, as the reinforcement is mainly provided on the side of the
member subjected to flexural tension.
In an unsymmetrically reinforced concrete member, the curvature due to shrinkage of
concrete may be determined by the method of fictitious tensile force [Reference may be
made in Branson, D.E., Deformation of Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977,
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(pp. 546)]. A member cross-section with Ast, area of steel reinforcement in tension at an effective
depth, d from the top surface is shown in Fig. 3.16. Temporarily, it is assumed that the steel
and the concrete are separated as shown in Fig. 3.16 (b), so that the concrete assumes its free
shrinkage strain εsh. A fictitious compressive force Tsh = Ast . εsh.Es is applied to the steel, (there
is no reinforcement in compression) at the centroid of all the bars, a distance, e below the
centroid of the concrete, so that the shortening of steel will exactly equal to the free shrinkage
strain of the concrete. Figure 3.16 (c) shows the recombined section with equilibrating tension
force, Tsh. A moment, Tsh.e is produced. The curvature due to shrinkage corresponding to this
moment.
φsh = Tsh.eg/EI ...(i)
U n it le ng th
φsh
d εs h
D
d 2
Ast D
T sh T T T
sh sh sh
(a ) R .C .C . b ea m section (b ) S train d ue to free (c) C u rvatu re d ue to
sh rin kag e sh rin ka g e sh rin ka g e
Fig. 3.16 Shrinkage curvature of reinforced concrete element
The analysis is complicated due to the effects and concrete cracking and creep. From the
experimental data, it is seen that the good results are obtained using e g and Ig for the uncracked
gross concrete section and using a reduced modulus of concrete Ecr = 0.5 Ec to consider creep.
Therefore,
φ sh = 2Tsh.eg/EcIg ...(3.52)
Instead of method of fictitious tensile force, the empirical methods are also used to determine
curvature due to shrinkage, based on simple and reasonable proportion that the curvature due
to shrinkage is a direct function of the free shrinkage and percentage of steel reinforcement
and inverse function of the depth.
In singly reinforced beam, the bond between the concrete and steel bars restrains the shrink-
age. The shrinkage remains restrained at reinforcement face and it remains unrestrained at
the unreinforced face (i.e., the compression face of concrete with compression reinforcement).
It results in curvature and deflection of beam. The curvature
(εsh – εs )
φsh =
d
ε sh ⎛ εs ⎞
or φsh = ⎜⎝1 – ε ⎟⎠
d sh
ε sh
φsh = Csh . ...(i)
d
⎛ εs ⎞
where, Csh = ⎜⎝1 – ε ⎟⎠ ...(ii)
sh
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The value of Csh depends upon the area of steel reinforcement in tension.
The corresponding deflection in the member may be obtained by any convenient means
such as the moment—area or conjugate beam method in general, In case the percentages of
steel and eccentricities are constant along the span. The deflection, ∆sh resulting from curvature
due to shrinkage may be found from
∆sh = K sh . φsh . l2 ...(3.53)
The deflection due to shrinkage may be calculated by moment area method. The (M/EI)
diagram, which one is also curvature diagram for shrinkage may be drawn. The deflection due
to shrinkage is found as under :
(A) For Cantilever beam
∆sh = moment φsh diagram between two end points, about
support. The curvature diagram is rectangular over
complete span
∆sh = (φsh . l).(l/2)
∆sh = 0.5 φsh . l2 ...(i)
(B) For simply supported beam
∆sh = moment of φsh diagram between the centre and the
support about the support. The curvature diagram is
a rectangular over complete span
⎛ 1⎞ 1
∆sh = ⎜ φsh . ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ 4
∆sh = 0.125 φsh . l2 ...(ii)
(C) For beam with one end fixed and other end simply supported. The distance of
point of contra-flexure from fixed support may be determined by equating the moment about
point of contra-flexure as zero. Therefore,
⎛ l ⎞
x = ⎜l – ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
The distance between the point of contra-flexure and the point of maximum deflection is
determined by equating the slope at that point to zero.
φsh . x – φsh . x1 = 0
x = x 1 = (l – l/2) (Q φsh = 0)
The deflection at the point of max. deflection
∆sh = 0.086 φsh . l2 ...(iii)
(D) For the fixed beam. From symmetry, the tangent deflection curve at the centre is
horizontal. Therefore the point of contra-flexure is at a distance (l/4) from support
∆sh = 0.063 . φsh . l2 ...(iv)
The values of coefficient K sh from above four expressions may be listed as follows :
For cantilever beams Ksh = 0.500
For simple spans Ksh = 0.125
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For continuous beams

interior spans Ksh = 0.065
end spans Ksh = 0.090
continuous at one Ksh = 0.086
For beams (fully restrained against
rotation at both the ends) and
fully continuous member. Ksh = 0.063
(It is to note that Eq. 3.53 and above values are also recommended in Code of Practice IS :
456–1978).
When the curvature due to the shrinkage varies along the span, the deflections may be
obtained from first principles or approximated using a weighted average value φsh. The code of
practice IS : 456–1978 recommends Eq. 3.53 for calculating the deflection due to shrinkage.
3.24.3 Deflections Due to Temperature

Differential temperatures varying from top to the bottom of a member produce deflections in
the member. The strain varies from such variations (assumed to vary linearly with depth by
replacing φsh in Eq 3.53 by α ∆T/d
where α = 5.5 × 10–6 per °F
∆T = temperature differential in degrees Fahrenheit
The presence of the reinforcement has little influence on curvature and deflections resulting
from differential temperature (as the thermal coefficient for the steel is very close to that for
concrete.)
3.24.4 Deflections Due to Combined Effect of Creep and Temperature

According to ACI code procedure, the deflection due to creep and shrinkage (viz., due to combined
effect of two) is to be determined.
In 1960, Professors Yu, W.W., and Winter, G. [Instantaneous and Long-Time Deflections of
Reinforced Concrete Beams under Working Load, ACI Journal 57, No.1, July, 1960 (pp. 29)]
evaluated proper multipliers (as listed in Table 3.6) to be used in terms of duration of loading
for singly reinforced beams also. These multipliers give the additional (not the total) deflection
when applied to an initial deflection determined from the cracked section, Icr. ACI Code, 1983,
used essentially these multipliers.
Table 3.6 Multipliers for additional deflection (Due to creep plus shrinkage)
Duration of loading Multiplier
1 month 0.53
3 months 0.95
6 months 1.17
1 year 1.42
3 years 1.78
5 years 1.95
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Professor Branson, D.E. [Design Procedures for Computing Deflections, ACI Journal 65,
No. 9, September, 1968, (pp. 730)] suggested the values of multipliers (as listed in Table 3.7) to
give the additional deflection for either normal or light-weight concrete with original deflections
based on effective moment of inertia, Ieff , for unusual cases (particularly for very shallow
members such as canopies) or when very early application of load is necessary, it is suggested
that shrinkage and creep deflections be considered separately. The choice of appropriate
shrinkage and creep coefficients be made by the designer. ACI Committee 435 on deflections
reported the suggestions made by Professor Branson.
Table 3.7 Values of multipliers (Due to shrinkage plus creep)
Multipliers
Relative concrete strength at 28 days
Humidity (17.24 to 27.58) N/mm2 more than 27.58 N/mm 2
Age when loaded ≤ 7 days 14 days ≥ 28 days ≤ 7 days 14 days ≥ 28 days
100 percent 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.7
70 percent 3.0 2.0 1.5 2.5 1.8 1.2
50 percent 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.5 2.5 1.5
( Note. For 1 month or less, a 25 percent value may be used

For 3 months or less, a 50 percent value may be used
For 1 year or less, a 75 percent value may be used
For 5 years or more, a 100 percent value may be used
50 percent humidity values may normally be used for relatively lower humidities, as in a
heated building.
In the past, for creep approximation, the designers have commonly used a reduced modulus
(or sometimes called the sustained or effective modulus). In effect, this is in equivalent to
assume Ec effectively reduced to Ec/2 or Ec/2.5. This was a crude approximation.
ACI Committee 209, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Tempetation Effects in Concrete
Structures, Designing for Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Structures, ACI Publication SP-
76, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1982, (pp.193–300)] includes an excellant treatment
of all the factors affecting time-dependent deformations.
3.25 NECESSITY FOR CRACK CONTROL

The tensile strength of concrete is low. Therefore, all the reinforced concrete beams crack.
Commonly, the cracks occur at load well below the service loads, and possibly even earlier to
loading due to limited shrinkage. The cracks due to bending due to loads is not only inevitable,
but, it is actually necessary for the reinforcement to be used effectively. Normally, the resistance
of concrete in tension is neglected. The structures designed with small stresses in steel at the
service load serve their intended function with very limited cracking. In many cases, the cracks
are not visible at all because many members are not subjected to their complete service load
and therefore, the concrete has some tensile strength. However with, higher stresses in steel,
particularly as a result of the use of high-strength steel, some cracks may be expected at the
service loads. Earlier to the formation of flexural cracks, stress in steel is not more than modular
ratio, in times stress in surrounding concrete. When the stress in concrete is close to its modulus
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of rupture, fr about 3.447 N/mm2, the stress in steel may be 27.58 N/mm2, which is very low to
be effective as reinforcement.
In well designed beams, the cracks due to bending are very fine. These cracks are called as
hair line cracks. These cracks are not visible to the casual observer. These cracks allow little, if
any corrosion of the reinforcement. When the loads are gradually increased above the loads
corresponding to the cracking, the number and width of the cracks also increase. At service
load level, a maximum width of crack of about 0.254 mm is typical, when the loads are further
increased, the widths of cracks also increase further, though the number of cracks remains
more or less stable.
The cracking of concrete is a random process. It is highly variable. It is influenced by many
factors. Present methods of predicting the widths of cracks are based primarily on test
observations. Most expressions that have been developed, predict the probable maximum width
of the crack. It usually means that about 90 percent widths of the cracks in the member are
below the calculated value. It is described in ACI Committee 224 [Control of Cracking in
Concrete Structures, Concrete International Vol. 2. No. 10, October, 1980 (pp. 35–76)] that the
isolated cracks exceeding twice the calculated width may sometimes occur. It is necessary that
the cracking of a reinforcement concrete should not spoil the appearance of the structure and
should not head to corrosion of the reinforcement. These two requirements are as under.
3.25.1 Aesthetic Consideration

The maximum size of a crack that may be treated nondetrimental to the appearance of a
member or non-conductive to the feelings of alarm, depends on the position, length, width,
illumination, and the surface texture of the crack. The influence is also exterted by the soil
background of the users and the type of structure also. It is difficult to set the limits on aesthetic
acceptability, because of the variability of personal opinion. The maximum width of the crack
that will neither damage a structure’s appearance nor create public alarm, is probably in the
range 0.254 mm to 0.381 mm. However, larger widths of cracks also remain tolerable.
3.25.2 Protection against Corrosion

The embedded reinforcing steel bars get good protection against corrosion from Portland Cement
Concrete. High alkalinity of this concrete mainly provides the protective value. In case, the
chemical agents as carbon di-oxide (producing carbonic acids) penetrate to the concrete
surrounding the steel bars, the alkalinities shall be first neutralized and therefore, the corrosion-
inhibiting properties decrease chlorides from deicing salts, sea spray, and so on, are also extremely
active corrosion agents. In case, the permeability of concrete is low, the penetration of corrosion
agents is resisted. The rate of diffusion of corrosion agents to the steel bars is mainly influenced
by the factors, permeability of concrete, the thickness of the concrete cover, the width, shape
and length of the cracks, and the period of time the cracks are open.
The major factor influencing the corrosion of steel bars is the permeability of the concrete.
Therefore, it is extremely important to avoid the presence of inferior concrete around the steel
bars. The rate of penetration of the corrosion agents is also affected by the thickness of concrete
cover. Usually, the cracking is evaluated in terms of widths of the cracks on the concrete surface.
However, it is evident that the shape of the crack (i.e., the variation in the width of crack
between the surfaces of concrete and the steel bars) and the length of the crack are also equally
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important as the surface width of the crack in evaluation of the decrease in the effectiveness of
the concrete cover due to crack. It is seen that the importance of surface width of the crack is
over emphasized.
The rate of corrosion in terms of the thickness and permeability of the concrete cover, the
width, shape and length of cracks, the period of time the cracks are open and the corrosive
nature of the environment are the various factors which are important factors for assessing
the durability of a reinforced concrete member, ideally. The diameter of steel bar is also important
factor which should be considered for a given depth of corrosion in the bar. It is to note that the
percentage loss in cross-sectional area of a bar is more in small diameter bars.
At present, the complete assessment appears to be impracticable, particularly because of the
difficulty of finding the important factors. The research in this subject of influence of cracking
on ‘corrosion of the reinforcement in still going on. The results of research are mostly reported
in terms of width of the crack at the surface of concrete. It is possible that the influence of crack
shape is not appreciated. It is also reported that the width of crack at the surface of concrete
upto 0.41 mm have caused small or no corrosion, even in aggressive environments.
At present the cracking is controlled by recommending permissible widths of the cracks at
the surface of concrete for given types of environments.
3.26 CAUSES OF CRACKING OF CONCRETE

There are numerous causes of cracking of concrete. Mostly the cracks develop due to one or
more of the actions described below.
3.26.1 Cracking Due to Settlement of Plastic Concrete

When the concrete is in plastic state and as it sets, it tends to settle slightly in the mould. As a
result of this, the concrete drops slighly away on each side of the steel bars near the top surface
of the concrete, because the steel bars are held in position. The lines of cracks develop along the
reinforcement. Sometimes, such cracks may be seen in beams over stirrups and other top steel.
Such types of cracks may be eliminated by good mix design and by revibration and screeding
of the plastic concrete.
3.26.2 Cracking Due to Volumetric Change

The volumetric change occurs due to drying shrinkage and thermal stresses. If the concrete is
restrained, the volumetric change will develop tensile stresses in the concrete, which may lead
to cracking. The concrete gets restraint in a number of ways (for example, concrete near the
surface of the member shrinks more than the concrete further inside the member). The inner
concrete will restrain the outer concrete and causes tensile stresses to introduce near the surface,
which may result in surface cracking. The shrinkage of the members may also be restrained by
other members, foundations or reinforcement. Therefore, developing tension.
In case the movement is restrained, the temperature change will also cause tension. The
cracking due to shrinkage may be controlled by decreasing the shrinkage of concrete by good
mix design (e.g., by keeping the content of water as small as possible) and by properly placed
reinforcement. The reinforcement does not prevent cracking. Indeed, the restraint of the
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reinforcement tends to encourage cracking. The bond between the concrete and the steel bars
distributes the shrinkage strains along the bars by bond. As a result of this, a number of fine
cracks may occur (instead of few wide cracks).
ACI Committee 318 [Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318–1971),
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp.78)] recommends the minimum cross-sectional
area and spacing of reinforcement that may be used in slabs and walls. This reinforcement is
considered adequate to control crack widths due to shrinkage and temperature stresses. Control
joints in walls and slabs are an effective method of avoiding unsightly shrinkage cracking in
large expanses of concrete. These control joints consist of normally of grooves in the concrete
along which the concrete is encouraged to crack. The stresses elsewhere in the concrete are
relieved by this controlled cracking. In pavements, the sawed joints are generally used for this
purpose.
3.26.3 Cracking Due to Direct and Bending Stresses Resulting from

Applied Load or Reactions
The cracks develop in tension zone of members carrying bending or axial tension. The external
loads or reactions may give rise to such tension. The cracks develop in the direction perpendicular
to the axis of the member, as in case of axial tension or bending without significant shear force.
In case the shear force is significant, the cracks develop in the inclined direction to the axis of
the member. These inclined cracks are called as diagonal tension cracks. It is generally
considered that these cracks are controlled shear reinforcement. Analytical work in small extent
is available on the control of diagonal tension cracks. However, there is evidence that the
control mechanism for diagonal tension cracks is similar to that for bending.
3.27 MECHANISM OF CRACKING DUE TO AXIAL TENSION

The width and spacing of cracks in reinforced concrete members are influenced by many
variables. The problem of cracking is complex. There are a number of approximate, semi-
theoretical and empirical approaches for calculating the widths of cracks. Each approach selects
its own variables.
A reinforced concrete member subjected to axial tensile load is shown in Fig. 3.17 (a). Figures
3.17(b), (c) and (d) show the distributions of bond stress between concrete and steel bars,
tensile stress in concrete and tensile stress in steel bars, respectively. In most of the early
studies on cracking in the mechanism of cracking of reinforced concrete member carrying axial
tensile, it was proposed that the crack control depends largely on the quality of bond between
concrete and steel. When the tensile strength of the concrete is exceed at weak sections, the
initial cracks develop and distribute at random. At cracks, there occurs slip between the concrete
and steel. The concrete becomes free from the stress at the cracks. The steel reinforcement bars
alone carries the tensile load. Between the two adjacent cracks, the concrete still is under
tensile stress. The tension is transferred from the steel to the concrete because of bond. The
distribution of tensile stress in the concrete and the steel between the concrete result from the
magnite and distribution of bond stress. At higher loads, the additional cracks may develop
when the tensile strength of concrete is exceeded. In 1943, Watstein and Parsons, D.E.,
formalized this thesis and presented in their paper titled as Width and Spacing of Tensile
Cracks in Axially Reinforced Concrete Cylinders, Journal of Research of the National Bureau
of Standards, Vol. 31, No. RP 545, July, 1943, (pp. 1–24).
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PT PT
l I
(a ) R .C .C . m e m b e r in a xial te ns ion
(b ) D istrib ution o f b on d stress
(c) D istrib ution o f ten sile stre ss in co ncre te
(d ) D istrib ution o f ten sile stre ss in ste el
Fig. 3.17 Cracking of a member (with axial tesion)
Initial tension cracks develop (at irregular spacing) in reinforced concrete member carrying
axial tensile load, when the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded at weak sections. At
higher loads, the additional cracks develop between the initial cracks. However, the spacing
between the adjacent crack may decrease to a certain minimum spacing, smin as shown in
Fig. 3.18. In case, the tensile load becomes sufficiently high to develop an additional crack
between two adjacent existing cracks may not be transformed by bond from steel to concrete.
Two cracks develop initially at sections x1 and x 2 and the cracks are at distance, s apart. Suppose,
an additional crack is to develop at x at minimum spacing, smin from x1 due to sufficient tension
transferred due to bond between the steel and the concrete to crack the concrete at x. The
tensile force needed to crack the concrete is
= Ae . ft́ ...(i)
where, Ae = effective area of concrete in tension
f´t = tensile strength of the concrete
D X
PT PT
b X1 S m in X2
S
(a ) R .C .C . m e m b er sectio n (b ) C ra cks in m e m b er
Fig. 3.18 Cracking of a R.C.C. member (With Axial Tension)
The steel bars transfer tension to the concrete

= smin . τbd . Σo ...(ii)
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where,
τbd = average bond stress
smin = minimum spacing between the cracks
Σo = sum of perimeter of the steel bars
Equating the two values of tensile force from the expressions (i) and (ii)
smin . τbd . Σo = Ae. f´t
⎛ A ⋅f ´ ⎞
smin = ⎜ e t ⎟ ...(3.54)
⎝ τbd . Σ o ⎠
In Fig. 3.18, the spacing between the initial cracks at x 1 and x 2. A new crack may develop at
x, if s ≥ 2 smin. A new crack shall not develop at x, if s < 2.smin. It means that the spacing
between the cracks may be expected to vary between smin and 2.smin with an average of spacing
of approximately 1.5 smin.The indication from this reason is that in practice there will be a large
scatter in crack spacing. The spacing between cracks ranges between 0.67 and 1.33 of the
average spacing are theoretically possible.
For bars of equal diameter s, the number of steel bars
Ast
N = ... (iii)
⎛π 2⎞
⎜⎝ 4 × φ ⎟⎠
where,
Ast = area of steel bars in tension
φ = diameter of the steel bar
Sum of the perimeter of all the bars
Σo = N . πφ ...(iv)
Ast
or Σo = ⎛ π × πφ
2⎞
⎜⎝ 4 × φ ⎟⎠
⎛ 4A ⎞
or Σo = ⎜ st ⎟ ... (v)
⎝ φ ⎠
Maximum spacing
smax = 2 . smin ... (vi)
Substituting the smin from Eq 3.54
⎛ 2 ⋅ Ae ⋅ ft´ ⎞
smax = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ τbd ⋅ Σ o ⎠
⎛ 2 ⋅ Ae ⋅ ft´ ⎞
and smax = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ τbd ⋅ ⎛ 4 Ast ⎞ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
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⎛ ft´ ⋅φ ⎞ ⎛ Ae ⎞
or smax = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟ ... (viii)
⎝ 2 τ bd ⋅ Σ o ⎠ ⎝ Ast ⎠
⎛A ⎞
Let ρe = ⎜ st ⎟ then,
⎝ Ae ⎠
⎛ ft´ ⋅φ ⎞
smax = ⎜ ⎟ ... (3.55)
⎝ 2 τbd ⋅ ρe ⎠
The width of crack may be obtained from the elongation of steel between two cracks minus
the elongation of the concrete. The elongation of concrete is small and hence, it may be neglected.
The maximum width of crack
⎛ fs ⎞
wmax = smax . ⎜ ...(ix)
⎝ Es ⎟⎠
where,
fs = stress in steel
Es = Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel 2 × 105 N/mm2
Substituting smax from Eq 3.55,
⎛ f ´ ⋅φ ⎞ ⎛ fs ⎞
w max = ⎜ t ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 τbd ⋅ p ⎠ ⎝ Es ⎠
⎛ fs ⋅φ ⎞ ⎛ ft´ ⎞
or wmax = ⎜ ⋅
⎝ p ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 τ bd ⋅ E s ⎟⎠
⎛ f ⋅φ ⎞
or wmax = ⎜ s ⎟ ...(3.56)
⎝ p k1 ⎠
⎛ 2 τ .E ⎞
where k 1 = ⎜ bd´ s ⎟
⎝ ft ⎠
Many investigators have modifed this basic Eq. 3.56. In above derivation, it is assumed that
the tensile stress at section x, Fig. 3.18 is uniform, and the effective area of concrete in tension,
Ae is therefore the total cross-sectional area of the member. Actually, the distribution of tensile
stress is highly non-uniform. It was also assumed that the opening of crack is due to slip of the
concrete relative to the steel bars used as reinforcement, and the spacing of cracks is obtained
by the force that is transmitted from the steel to the concrete by bond, and the sides of crack are
parallel (i.e., the crack is of uniform width) through the thickness of the member.
3.28 MECHANISM OF CRACKING DUE TO FLEXURAL

The expression for the maximum width, Eq. 3.56 needs further assumptions when it is to be
applied to the bending of a beam. The effective area of concrete, in tension, Ae needs suitably
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defined. In general, Ae is adopted to be the area of concrete having total width of the beam and
having the same centroid as the main reinforcement as shown in Fig. 3.19 (a) . Figure 3.19 (b)
shows the elementary length of beam subjected to bending. Application of Eq. 3.56 to beam
requires to decrease the effect of diameter of steel bars, φ and ρe keeping in view the results of
tests, Eq. 3.56 is modified in its form. In 1960, it was suggested in Committee European Benton
[Reference : CEB, ‘Compt-Rendu de la Seme Session de Travail’, Committee Europeen du Benton,
Bulletin d Information No. 24, Paris, 1960] following expression for the maximum width of
crack at the level of the reinforcement on the concrete surface
⎛ 0.4 ⎞ φ f
wmax = ⎜ 4.5 + ⋅ s ...(3.57)
⎝ p ⎟⎠ k2
where,
k 2 = 328000 N/mm2 for deformed bars
N e utral axis N e utral axis

a
D
x1 S m in x x2
S
(a ) R .C .C . b ea m section (b ) E lem e nta ry le n gth o f b ea m
Fig. 3.19 Cracking of R.C.C. beam carrying bending moment
Equation 3.58 was further modified by Kaar, P.H. and Mattock, A.H [High Strength Bars
as Concrete Reinforcement, Part 4, Control of Cracking, Journal, Portland Cement Association
Research and Development Laboratories, Vol. 5, No. 1, January, 1963, (pp. 15–38)] to express
the maximum crack width at the level of deformed bar reinforcement on the concrete surface
as below
wmax = 83.96 (A)1/4 .fs × 10–6 mm ..(3.58)
where,
Ae
A= (where N is the number of bars) in sq mm
N
fs = stress in steel in N/mm2
The measured maximum crack width from width Eq. 3.58 was derived shows a scatter of
upto ± 40 percent from equation.
In order to find the maximum crack width at the extreme fibre for reinforced concrete beams
with deformed bars, Kaar, P.H. and Hognestad, E [High Strength Bars as Concrete
Reinforcement Part 7, Control of Cracking in T-beam Flanges, Journal, Portland Cement
Association Research and Development Laboratories, Vol. 7, No. 1, January, 1965, (pp. 42–
53)] for the modified Eq. 3.58 as under :
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wmax = 83.96 × (A)1/4 . fs . (h2/h1) × 10–6 mm ...(3.59)

where,
h 1 = distance from the centroid of tension steel to neutral axis
h 2 = distance from the extreme fibre in tension to neutral axis
3.28.1 No-slip Theory

A fundamentally different approach was proposed and it was assumed that for the range of
widths of the crack commonly allowed in reinforced concrete beam, slip does not occur between
steel bars and the concrete. [Reference : Base, G.D., Read, J.B., Weeby, A.W. and Taylor,
H.P.J, An Investigation of the Crack Control Characteristics of Various Types of Bars in
Reinforced Concrete Beams, Research Report, No. 18, Part 1, Cement and Concrete Association,
London, December, 1966 (pp. 44)]. It is also assumed that the width of the crack is zero at the
level of reinforcing steel bars and the width of crack increases as the surface of member is
reached. The width of crack depends on the deformation of the surrounding concrete. The
distribution of stress and strain in concrete between the cracks may be found by using theory
N N e utra l A
a xis
h1
R e in force d P o in t o f m e asure m en t
con cre te b eam se ctio n o f crack w id th
Fig. 3.20 Notations for crack width equation (base et al approach)
of elasticity. The stresses so determined show when further cracking is likely ; the strains show
the deformed shape of the concrete surface, hence the likely width of cracking. Tests were
conducted at the Cement and Concrete Association. On the basis of results of the tests, the
expression for predicting the maximum width on the surface of concrete was proposed by Base
et al [Reference as given above] as under. The various notations of Eq. 3.60 are shown in
Fig. 3.20.
fs h2
wmax = 3.3 × ⋅ mm ...(3.60)
Es h1
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where,
x = distance from the point at which the crack width is to be found to the surface of
nearest reinforcing steel bar, mm
fs = stress in steel bars, N/mm2
Es = Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel, 2 × 105 N/mm2
h 2 = distance from the point at which the crack width is to be found to the neutral
axis, mm
h 1 = distance from the centroid of the steel bars in tension to the neutral axis, mm
The results of tests conducted by the Cement and Concrete Association also revealed that
the type of reinforcing steel had a much smaller influence on the crack width than had previously
been thought. It was seen that for beams reinforced with plain bars, the surface widths may be
20 percent more than those in beams reinforced with deformed bars, for the same steel stress
and beam proportions.
3.29 GERGELY-LUTZ EQUATION FOR CRACK WIDTH

A large number of experimental data from their research at Cornell University [Reference :
Gergely, P. and Lutz, L.A., Maximum Crack Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members,
in Causes, Mechanisms, and Control of Cracking in Concrete, ACI Special Publication SP-20,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1968, (pp 87–117)] were statistically analysed to find
the importance of the variable involved. Professors Gergely and Lutz tried many combinations
of the variables and it was very difficult to get an equation that fitted all sets of data well. The
effective area of concrete in tension, Ae, the number of bars, the side or bottom cover, the strain
gradient from the level of the steel bars to tension face and the steel stresses were observed to
be important variables. The stress in steel bars, fs was seen to be most important. Gergely and
Lutz proposed the following equation for predicting the maximum width of the crack at the
tension face of the beam. The notations used in Eqs. 3.61 and 3.62 are shown in Fig. 3.21.
h2
wmax = 10.93 (dt . A)1/3 . f × 10–6 mm ...(3.61)
h1 s
At the level of the reinforcement
10.93 (ds. A )1 / 3
wmax = . fs × 10–6 mm ...(3.62)
⎛ 2 ds ⎞
⎜⎝1 + 3 h ⎟⎠
1
where,
d 1 = thickness of concrete cover measured from tension face to the centre of steel bar
closes to that face
ds = distance from the side face of the beam to the centre of the adjacent bar, in mm
A = average effective area of concrete in tension around each reinforcement bar
(A = Ae /N, where N is the number of bars in mm2)
ds = stress in steel in N/mm2
h 1 = distance from the centroid of the steel in tension to the neutral axis
h 2 = distance from the extreme fibre in tension to the neutral axis.
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ds
dt
Fig. 3.21 Notations for crack width equation (Gergely–Lutz approach)
Accuracy of Eq. 3.62 was compared with experimental maximum crack width data from
tests by Professor Nawy, E.G. [Crack Control in Reinforced Concrete Structures, Journal ACI
Vol. 65 No. 10, October 1968 (pp. 825–836)] Professors Hognestad, Kaar, P.H. and Mattock,
A.H. of Portland Cement Association and Base et al [References cited above] also compared the
accuracy of this Eq. 3.62. The scatter of data about the predicted maximum crack widths was
very considerable. Lloyd, J.P., Hassan, M.R., and Kesler, C.E. [Crack Control in One-way
Slabs Reinforced with Deformed Welded Wire Fabric, Journal ACI Vol. 66, No, 5, May 1969,
(pp. 366–376)] have measured maximum crack widths on one-way slabs reinforced by deformed
bars, deformed wires, deformed wire fabrics, and smooth wire fabric. These Professors concluded
that Gergely–Lutz Eqs. 3.61 and 3.62 are satisfactory for predicting the maximum width of
the crack.
3.29.1 General Approach

A clear understanding of the mechanism of cracking has come out from recent work by Professor
Beeby, A.W. [An Investigation of Cracking in Slabs Spanning One Way, Technical Report
TRA 433, Cement and Concrete Association, London, April, 1970, (pp. 33)]. In one-way slab,
as shown in Fig. 3.22, the widths of crack and spacing were measured by Professor Beeby at
various points across the bottom surface, (that is, the various values of x, Fig. 3.22).
N e utral axis
x S tee l b ars
ho cc
dt
Fig. 3.22 Reinforced concrete slabs spanning in one direction
It was observed that the width and spacing crack increased with distance from the bar and
at some distance from the bar approached constant values, which were dependent on the
height of crack, instead of distance from the bar.
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Professor Beeby concluded that pattern of crack at any point was due interaction between
two basic patterns of crack.
3.30 CRACKING AT A POINT DISTANT FROM A REINFORCING STEEL BAR

An elementary length of a singly reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending is shown in
Fig. 3.23. A crack develops from bottom surface (tension face) upto a height, ho upto the neutral
axis. The height of crack may be determined by elastic theory using the area of steel and the
modular ratio of concrete. From the principle of St. Venant, it is seen that the tensile stresses in
concrete between the concrete are substantially uninfluenced by the crack at distance more
than ho. Therefore, the minimum spacing of the cracks is ho and the maximum spacing of the
cracks is 2ho. It gives a spacing of crack as 1.5 ho. Professor Beeby actually measured mean
value as 1.33 ho. It was seen that the width and spacing of crack were directly proportional to
the initial height of crack. As such this type of crack is governed by the height of initial crack, ho.
N e utral axis
ho S te e l b ar
Fig. 3.23 Elementary length of R.C.C. beam
3.31 CRACKING DIRECTLY OVER A REINFORCING STEEL BAR

An elementary length of a singly reinforced concrete beam is shown in Fig. 3.24. The clear
cover from the tension face upto surface of steel bar is Cc.
N e utral axis
S te e l b ar
cc
Fig. 3.24 Elementary length of R.C.C. beam
In Art. 3.28 no-slip theory was discussed. This theory predicts wedge-shaped cracks. The
width of crack at the steel bar is zero. The relationship between width of the crack and the
distance from the steel bar is predicted as linear. The effect height of crack from the steel bar
upto the tension surface is Cc. From the same reasoning as earlier, the spacing between crack
varies between Cc and 2Cc and the average spacing is 1.5Cc. The slip or deformations at the bar
surface that occur before the crack pattern has fully developed will result in the crack having
some width at the surface of the bar and will increase the effective crack height. It results in
larger crack spacings and widths. In case, the bond does not exist between concrete and steel,
the pattern of crack would be governed by the initial height, ho of the crack. As such, the effect
of slip and internal deformations is to modify the Cc controlled pattern of crack toward the
height, ho controlled crack pattern. In this general case, the widths of crack shall be function of
⎛C ⎞
Cc, to take the wedge shape into consideration, and ⎜ c ⎟ to consider slip and internal fracturing
⎝ ho ⎠
at the surface of steel bar into consideration.
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Beeby gave the following expressions which fit best to his experimental data :
Maximum crack width directly over a bar
⎡ ⎛ Cc ⎞ ⎤
⎛ wmax .o ⎞ ⎢ A − k3 . ⎝⎜ h0 ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎜⎝ ε ⎟ = ⎢k1 ⋅ Cc + k2 ⋅ φ e ⎥
...(3.63)
m ⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Maximum crack width at a distance from a bar
⎛ wmax .l ⎞
⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠ = (k1 . ho) ...(3.64)
m
Maximum crack width for intermediate positions
⎡ c. wmax .l . wmax .o ⎤
wmax = ⎢ ⎥ ...(3.65)
⎣ Cc .c. wmax .l + (C − Cc ) wmax .o ⎦
where,
C = distance from point of measurement of crack to surface of the nearest steel bar
Cc = minimum clear cover to steel bars
φ = diameter of the steel bars
A = effective area of concrete in tension surrounding one bar
h o = initial height of the crack
εm = average longitudinal strain at the level where cracking is being considered
e = base for the natural logarithm
k 1, k2, k3 = constants (which depend on the probability of width of crack being exceeded)
For the practical use, Eqs. 3.63, 3.64 and 3.65 are too complex. These expressions may be
simplified as done by Professor Beeby, A.W. [Reference : Prediction and Control of Flexural
Cracking in Reinforced Concrete Members, Cracking, Deflection and Ultimate Load of Concrete
Slab Systems, SP-20 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp. 55–75)].
Professor Beeby suggested the following expression for the width of crack that will be exceeded
by approximately 20 percent of the results as
⎡ 3. c . εm ⎤
wmax = ⎢ ...(3.66)
2 (C – Cc ) ⎥
⎢1 + ⎥
⎢⎣ ( D – kd ) ⎥⎦
where,
D = overall depth of section
kd = depth of neutral axis from the compression face
⎡⎛ b.D ⎞ ⎛ D − kd ⎞ ⎤
εm = ⎢⎜ ε s − 2.5 × 10 –6 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(3.67)
⎝⎣ Ast ⎠ ⎝ d − kd ⎠ ⎦
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where,
εs = strain in steel at crack
b = width of the section
D = overall depth of the section
Ast = area of steel in tension
d = effective depth, and
kd = depth of neutral axis
The negative term in first set of parentheses, is an empirical term due to the stiffening effect
of concrete in tension between cracks, and modified by the strain gradient term to get the
average strain at the extreme tension fibre of the member.
Professor Ferry Borges J. [Reference : Cracking and Deformability of Reinforced Concrete
Beams, Publications, Vol. 26, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
Zurich, 1966, (pp. 75–95)] suggested the maximum width of crack in beams reinforced by
deformed steel bars.
1 ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ 0.738 ⎞
wmax = ⎜⎝ 2.5 Cc + 0.066 p ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ fs − p ⎟⎠ mm ...(3.68)
Es
where,
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, 2 × 105 N/mm2
Cc = thickness of concrete cover over bar in mm
φ = diameter of the steel bar in mm
⎛A ⎞
p = ⎜ st . d⎟
⎝ bw ⎠
Ast = area of the steel bars in mm2
b w = width of the web in mm
d = effective depth of the beam, and
fs = stress in steel at crack, in N/mm2
In Eq 3.68, the term 2.5 Cc takes the wedge shape of the crack into consideration. The
second term 0.66 φ/p takes the effect of bond slip at the steel bar into consideration. This term
is similar to the classical theory. The third term 0.738/p reduces the stress in steel at a crack to
given the average value of stress in steel to consider for tension carried by the concrete between
the cracks.
3.31.1 Long-term Cracking

All the earlier expressions for the maximum width of crack were derived from relatively short-
term loading tests. As regards the effect of long-term loading on the crack width, very little
information is available.
Professors Illuston, J.M. and Stevens, R.F. [Long-Term Cracking in Reinforced Concrete
Beams, Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 2, Research and Theory, Vol. 53,
December, 1972, (pp. 445–459)] reported that the spacing of cracks does not alter with time
under sustained loading, however, the average width of the crack increases with time. The
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increase in width of the crack occurred at reducing rate with time. In the experimental tests,
the width of the crack became doubled in two years. The widths of crack increases due to
shrinkage of the concrete and by time dependent change of curvature. It was observed that
there was a break down of bond with sustaining loading. The cracks tend to become more
parallel sides. In terms of Beeby’s work, it probably means that sustained loading tends to
modify Cc controlled cracks to ho controlled cracks.
3.32 ACI CODE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CRACK CONTROL

The nature of cracking and wide scatter of crack width measurements are random. Even in
laboratory conditions, the excessive precision in determining the width of crack is not justified
ACI Code recommendations for the width of crack is as following.
3.32.1 Permissible Crack Widths

In practice and design, the permissible values of width of flexural cracks in service depend
chiefly on the environment in which the structure has to serve, specially from the point of view
of the possibility of corrosion of the reinforcement. The permissible values of width of cracks are
listed in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Permissible crack widths in reinforced concrete (As per ACI Committee 224)
S. No. Exposure conditions Maximum permissible
width of crack (mm)
1. Dry air or protective membrane 0.41
2. Humidity, moisted air, soil 0.30
3. Deicing chemicals 0.18
4. Sea water and sea water spray, wetting and drying 0.15
5. Water-retaining structures excluding non pressure pipes 0.10
[Reference : ACI Committee 224, Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, Journal ACI, Vol. 69,
No. 12, December 1972 (pp. 717–753)].
However, in comparison with these values, ACI 318–71 [Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318–71), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, (pp. 78)]
recommends only two maximum allowable widths of crack 0.41 mm for interior exposure and 0.33
for exterior exposure. These values recommended by ACI 318–71 for beams and one-way slabs
are based on Gergely–Lutz equation with [(h2/h1) = 1.2].
The permissible maximum width may be written as requirement
wmax ≥ 10.93 (dt.A)1/3 × 1.2 fs × 10–6 mm ...(3.69)
For interior exposure, (as per ACI 318–71, the values converted in SI units, wmax = 0.41 mm)
fs(dt .A) 1/3 ≤ 25.67 × 106 N/mm ...(3.70a)
For exterior exposure, (as per ACI 318–71, the values converted in SI units, wmax = 0.336 mm)
fs(dt .A) 1/3 ≤ 21.037 × 106 N/mm ...(370b)
This check is required to be carried when the design value of yield strength exceeds for the
reinforcement. In case, the structures are subjected to very aggressive environment or designed
to be water-tight, Eq. 3.70(b) does not apply, as a smaller maximum allowable crack width
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needs to be adopted as per Table 3.8. ACI Code recommends that only deformed bars shall be
used for reinforcement. The tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the tension zone
of concrete. It further specifies that the designs shall not be based on a yield strength fy in
excess of 552 N/mm2.
In Eqs. 3.70 (a) and (b), the stress in steel bars at the service load is need the stress in steel
bars may be calculated from
⎛ M ⎞
fs = ⎜
⎝ Ast ⋅ jd ⎟⎠
where, M is the bending moment due to service load and jd is the lever arm.
Alternatively, the stress in steel may be adopted as 60 percent of specified yield strength of
the steel.
British Code of Practice CP-110–1972 [BSI, ‘Code of Practice for the Structural Use of
Concrete’ CP 110 - Part I, 1972, British Standard Institution, London, 1972, (pp. 154)], needs
in general that the widths of crack at the surface at the service load should not exceed 0.3 mm.
Code also specifies rule for clear distances between bars for crack control.
However, in particular good engineering judgement must be used in setting limiting values.
The increase in concrete cover is benficial to avoid corrosion (even though, it increases the
width of crack at surface).
3.33 CONCRETE AREA SURROUNDING ONE STEEL BAR IN TENSION

1. In Gergely–Lutz equation for crack width in Art. 3.29, the notation, A, used in Eq. 3.62 has
been defined as average effective area of concrete in tension, surrounding each reinforcing steel
bar is equal to total effective tension area of the concrete around a steel bar having the same
centroid, divided by number of bars, N, that is A = Ae/N as shown in Fig. 3.25, in which the
main flexural reinforcement steel bars are provided in two layers.
N N e utral axis A N e utral axis
h2
h1
2d t C e ntroid o f ste el b ars

ht
Ae
E ffe ctive ten sio n a re a o f co ncre te
Fig. 3.25
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2. For beams with main flexural reinforcement steel bars provided in one layer, as shown
in Fig. 3.26, a convenient design and may be developed that allows tabulation of minimum
number of steel bars in the web of beam that will satisfy requirements of ACI Code for crack
control.
From Fig 3.26,
Ae = 2 dt . b ...(i)
Ae 2 dt ⋅ b
A = = ...(ii)
N N
where, N is the number of bars in the single layer of the reinforcement. From Eq. 3.69
wmax = 10.93(dt . A)1/3 × 1.2 fs × l0–6 mm ...(iii)
Let Z = fs . (dt . A)1/3 ...(iv)
Then –6
wmax = 10.93 × 1.2 × 10 × Z
wmax × 10−6
Z = ...(3.71)
10.93 × 1.2
N e utra l axis
h1
h2
2 dt
dt
Ae
E ffe ctive ten sion a rea o f con crete
Fig. 3.26
An upper limit may be set on the parameter, Z to control the maximum width of the crack. As
per ACI Code, (the values converted in SI units), Z shall 256.7 for interior exposure and 210.7
for exterior exposure. These limits correspond to maximum crack widths 0.41 mm and 0.336
mm, respectively. In Art. 3.32, this has been specified by Eqs 3.70 (a) and (b), respectively.
From the expression (iii).
Substituting for the area, A from the expression (ii)
3
⎛ z⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠ = dt . A ...(v)
s
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3
⎛ z⎞ ⎛ dt2 ⋅ b ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠ = 2. ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
s ⎝ N ⎠
⎡ 2 ⋅ dt2 ⋅b ⎤
or N = ⎢ 3 ⎥
...(vii)
⎢ ⎛ z⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜f ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ s⎠ ⎦
For fs = 250 N/mm2, and 40 mm cover below the reinforcement,
⎛ φ⎞
d t = 40 mm + ⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ 2⎠
Therefore
⎡ 2 ⋅ (40 + 0.5 φ)2 ⋅ b ⎤

N = ⎢ 3
⎥ ...(3.72)
⎢ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ 250 ⎦
Equation 3.72 gives minimum number of bars that may be used to satisfy the requirements
of crack control in terms of diameter of the steel bars and the width of the web of beam, b for
the imposed limit on Z.
3. When steel bars of unequal diameters are used together, as is often advantageous in
practice, the area of concrete in tension per single bar may be determined using an equivalent
number of bars, obtained by dividing the total area of reinforcement by the area of the largest
steel bar used as per ACI Code.
In case, the bundled bars are used Professor Lutz, L.A. [Crack Control Factor for Bundled
Bars and for Bars of Different Sizes, Journal of ACI, Vol. 71, No. 1, January 1974, (pp. 9-10)]
has recommended that each bundle be counted as the equivalent of 1.4 bars in calculating, A,
recognizing that the bundled bars have an increased bond perimeter compared to a single bar
having the same area as the bundled.
4. For beams with relatively deep webs, some reinforcement is placecd near the vertical
faces of the web in order to control the widths of the crack in the concrete tension zone above
the level of main bars. ACI code recommends that in case the depth of web exceeds 920 mm
(equivalent to 3 ft), the additional longitudinal reinforcement having a total area equal to 10
percent of that of the main bars should be placed near the side faces of the web. These additional
bars should be distributed in the tension zone of concrete with spacing not more than the width
of web, b and not more than 300 mm. The contribution of such reinforcement to the flexural
reinforcement is usually not considered, as a strain compatibility analysis would be needed to
establish the stress in the steel bars in the web at the flexural failure load.
3.34 OTHER SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS

In order to ensure the appropriate performance of a structural member during its service life.
Several other serviceability requirements may be considered. The durability of the concrete
structures, resistance to fire, fatigue to rolling loads, or due to machine vibrations, thermal and
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sound insulation properties, etc. may be treated as other serviceability requirements. The
durability and fire resistance are significant. Depending upon the function of the structure,
other serviceability requirements may also be considered as important.
In individual structural members, the fire resistance is controlled by the effect of fire on
strength, resistance against penetration of flames and transfer of heat in case of slabs and
walls. The strength of concrete and steel, both the materials is decreased, in case these are
subjected to high temperature. There may be excessive deflection and collapse of the member
due to fire. In order to protect from fire, the limitations may be specified as regards the minimum
dimensions and minimum cover to the reinforcements.
The conditions of exposure, the quality of concrete, the cover to the steel reinforcement and
the width of cracks influence the durability of concrete. The minimum cement contented and
maximum water-cement ratio may be specified to ensure adequate durability for various types
of exposure.
3.35 SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR BEAMS

In order to ensure lateral stability and to exclude failure of beams by sideways bending and
buckling, it is necessary to impose limits for the clear distance between lateral restrains (viz.,
lateral supports along the length of beam).
A simply supported or continuous beam shall be so proportioned that the clear distance
between the lateral supports (as specified in IS : 456–1978) does not exceed 60.b or (250 b2/d)
whichever is less where b is the width of the compression face midway between the lateral
restraints and d is the effective depth of the beam.
For a cantilever, the clear distance from the free end of the cantilever to the lateral support
shall not exceed 25 b or (100 b2/d) whichever is less.
Example 3.9 A simply supported beam having an effective span of 8 m supports a dead
load of 16 kN/m and an imposed load of 24 kN/m. The grades of concrete and steel are M 20
and Fe 415, respectively. Determine (a) the strains in concrete at the midspan service-load (i) at
the level of the tension reinforcement, (ii) at the tension face (i.e., the soffit) of the beam and at
250 mm below the neutral axis (b). In case, because of creep, the value of Ec becomes half, repeat
the calculations for long-term service-load given above. The cross-section of singly reinforced
beam is shown in Fig 3.27.
Solution The dimensions of singly reinforced beam are as shown in Fig. 3.27.
(a) Short-term strains due to service loads
Effective span of beam
leff = 8 m ...(i)
Dead load supported by the beam
W DL = 16 kN/m ...(ii)
Imposed load supported by the beam
w LL = 24 kN/m ...(iii)
Service load moment
(16 + 24) × 82
M SL = = 320 kN-m ...(iv)
8
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For steel, Fe 415, Young’s modulus of elasticity

Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 ...(v)
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(vi)
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(vii)
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2
= 5700 × (20)1/2
= 0.255 × 105 N/mm2 ...(viii)
Cross-section area of steel reinforcement in tension
π
Ast = 8 × × (20)2
4
= 2513.28 mm2 ...(ix)
b = 4 50 m m
n1 n1
N N e utral axis A N A
d = 6 80 2 50 m m
(d – n 1 )
D = 7 50 (d – n1 )
50 50
εs u
20
20
70 mm
70 mm
εS L εD
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te be am se ctio n (b ) S train d istribu tion diag ra m
Fig. 3.27
A. (i) Depth of neutral axis at service load

At service load, the beam section remains in elastic stage. The depth of neutral axis is found by
working stress method (viz., by equating the first moment of equivalent areas about neutral
axis. The modular ratio of concrete for short term loading
Es 2 × 105
m1 = = = 7.843 ...(x)
Ec 0.255 × 105
Therefore,
x1
b.x1 = mAst (d – x1)
2
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where n is the depth of neutral axis
x12
450 = 7.843 × 2513.28 (680 – n1)
2
7.843 × 2513.28
x12 = ⋅ (680 − n1 )
225
∴ x 1 = 204.17 mm ...(xi)
(ii) Moment of inertia of beam section. It is determined on the basis of cracked section.
The area of concrete in tension is neglected. Therefore, the moments of inertia of equivalent
cracked section
1
Icr1 = b.x13 + mAst (d – x1)2
3
1
Icr1 = × 450 × (204.17)3 + 7.843
3
× 2513.28 (680 – 204.17)2 mm4
Icr1 = 5739.64 × 106 mm4 ...(xii)
(iii) Strains at different levels at service loads. The stress in concrete at the level of
steel bars (reinforcement) in tension in lower tier.
M SL
fc1 = (680 + 2 + 204.17) ...(xiii)
I cr
The stress in steel bars in tension in lower tier
m1 M SL
fs1 = m1 . fc1 = . (700 – 204.17) ...(xiv)
Icr1
The strain in steel bars in tension in lower tier
m1 M SL
εs = × 495.83
1 Es ⋅ Ic
7.843 × 320 × 106 × 495.83

εs =
1
2 × 105 × 5939.64 × 106
εs = 0.00105 ...(xv)
1
This is also the strain in concrete at the level of the steel bars in tension at lower tier.
(i.e., ε s = εc )
1 1
Therefore, ε s = 0.00105
1
The strain in concrete at the level of tension face (i.e., the soffit) of the beam
⎛ 750 – 204.17 ⎞
εD = 0.00105 × ⎜
1 ⎝ 700 − 204.17 ⎟⎠
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545.83
εD = 0.00105 × = 0.00116
1 495.83
The strain in concrete at the level of the steel bars in tension at upper tier
⎛ 495.83 – 40 ⎞
εC = 0.00105 × ⎜ = 0.000965
1 ⎝ 495.83 ⎟⎠
The strain in concrete at the level of 250 mm below of neutral axis
⎛ 250 ⎞
ε 250 = 0.00105 × ⎜ = 0.000529
⎝ 495.83 ⎟⎠
(B) Long-term strains due to service loads. The value of Ec reduces to half as given.
[It means, as if, the value of coefficiently of creep, Ccp is unity. Then, the value of effective
Young’s modulus of elasticity, EEC = Ec / (1 + Ccp) = 0.255 × 105/ (1 + 1) = 0.1275 × 105 N/mm2].
Therefore,
Revised modular of ratio of concrete
Es 2 × 105
m2 = = = 15.686 ...(xvi)
EEC 0.1275 × 105
B. (i) Revised depth of neutral axis at service load. The first moment of equivalent
areas of concrete and steel about neutral axis are equal. Therefore,
x2
b. x2 = m1 . Ast (d – x2)
2
450 2
or x 2 = 15.686 × 2513.28 (680 – x2)
2
15.686 × 2513.28
or x 22 = (680 − x 2 )
225
x 2 = 268.51 mm ...(xvii)
(ii) Revised moment of inertia of beam section. Moment of inertia of equivalent cracked
section
1
I cr2 = b.x23 + m2 Ast (d – x2)2
3
1
I cr2 = 450 × (268.51)3 + 15.686 × 2513.28 (680 – 268.51)2
3
∴ I cr2 = 9579.31 × 106 mm4 ...(xviii)
(iii) Strains at different levels at service loads. The stress in concrete at the level of
steel bars (reinforcement) in tension in lower tier
M SL
fc = (680 + 20– 268.51)
2 I cr 2
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The stress in steel bars in tension in lower tier

m2 . M SL
fc = m2 . fc2 = (700 – 268.51) ...(xix)
2 I cr 2
The strain in steel bars in tension in lower tier
εs m2 . M SL
2
= × 431.49
Es ⋅ I cr 2
εs 15.686 × 320 × 106 × 431.49

=
2 × 105 × 9579.31 × 106
2
εs = 0.00113 ...(xx)
2
This is also the strain in concrete at the level of the steel bars in tension at lower tier (i.e., εs2
= εc2 ). Therefore εs2 = 0.00113. The strain in concrete at the level of tension face (i.e., the
soffit) of the beam
⎛ 750 − 268.51 ⎞
εD = 0.0001133 × ⎜
2 ⎝ 700 − 268.51 ⎟⎠
or εD = 0.00126
2
The strain in concrete at the level of the steel bars in tension at upper tier
⎛ 431.49 – 40 ⎞
εc = 0.00113 × ⎜ = 0.00103
⎝ 431.49 ⎟⎠
The strain in concrete at the level of 250 mm below the neutral axis
250
ε 250 = 0.00113 × = 0.00065
431.49
Example 3.10 A simply supported beam is acted on by a load, part of which is permanent.
The bending moment due to total load M, is 54 kN-m and bending moment due to permanent
load Mp is 42 kN-m. Make assumptions appropriate to a partially cracked section. Calculate (i)
the long-term curvature of the beam under the permanent, in case, the tensile stress ft in concrete
at the level of steel bars is 0.60 N/mm2 appropriate to long-term loading, (ii) the instantaneous
curvature under the total load and the permanent load, in case f, is 1 N/mm2 for short-term
loading, and (iii) the difference between the instantaneous curvatures under the total and the
permanent loads. Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2, EEC (long term) = [Ecl(1 + Ccp)] where Ccp is the
coefficient of creep, grades of concrete and steel are M 20 and Fe 415, Ccp = 2.5.
Solution The cross-section of beam is shown in Fig 3.28(a). As usual, the strains are assumed
to be linearly distributed. Since the beam section is partially cracked, some concrete in tension
zone (i.e., below the neutral axis, still carries tension as represented by triangular distribution
in Fig. 3.28 (c), in which stress in concrete in tension, fct still exists at the level of steel bars. It
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is to note particularly that compressive stresses in concrete above the neutral axis (but not
below it) and the reinforcement stresses are related to the strains as below
fc = Ec . εc ...(i)
fs = Es . εs ...(ii)
b = 3 00 m m fc c
N N e utral axis A N A N A
d = 4 30
D = 4 30 Ast
= 4 H ysd stee l
b ars 2 0 m m φ
fc t
mm
50
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te (b ) S train (c) C o ncre te stress

be am section d ia gra m d ia gra m
Fig. 3.28
However, the stresses in concrete in tension (i.e., below the neutral axis) are not to be
calculated from the strain diagram but from the specified value fct. For example, the stress in
concrete in tension at the bottom face (i.e., the soffit of the beam)
⎛ D − n⎞
Stress in concrete at tension face = fct . ⎜ ...(iii)
⎝ d − n ⎟⎠
Further, it is assumed that fct is independent of the magnitude of the bending moment M
acting at the section. In other words, as M varies, fcc and fs vary but fct remains unaltered,
being fixed to the value assigned to fct.
(i) Long-term curvature (φ φ lp = 1/rlp) due to Mp.
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2
Ec = 5700 (20)1/2 = 0.255 × 105 N/mm2 ...(iv)
Effective Young’s modulus of curvature
EC 0.255 × 105
EEC = = = 0.073 × 105 ...(v)
(1 + Ccp ) (1 + 2.5)
Modular ratio of concrete
ES 2 × 105
m = = 27.451 ...(vi)
EEC 0.073 × 105
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Area of steel in tension

π
Ast = 4 × × 202 = 1256.64 mm2 ...(vii)
4
(A) Depth of neutral axis at service load. Since the beam section is partially cracked,
the depth of neutral axis is determined by equating the tensile and compressive forces.
The distribution of tensile stress in concrete is assumed to be independent of the moment
acting on the section, while other stresses vary with M. The value of depth of neutral axis x will
vary with M as well. A simplifying assumption is made that the neutral axis depth is same as
that in a cracked section. Therefore, the depth of neutral axis may be determined by equating
first moment of equivalent areas of concrete and steel. The strain distribution and the steel and
concrete compressive stresses are calculated as that for the cracked section — after the moment
M has been adjusted to permit for the contribution of the concrete tension.
Therefore by equating first moment of equivalent areas of concrete and the steel
x
b. x . = m . Ast (d – x)
2
x2
300 × = 27.451 × 1256.64 (430 – x)
2
27.451 × 1256.64
or x2 = × (430 – x)
150
x = 239.23 mm ...(viii)
(B) Moment of inertia of the section (section assumed as cracked section)
1
Icr = b . x3 + m.Ast(d – x)2
3
1
Icr = × 300 × (239.23)3 + 27.451 × 1256.64 (430–23923)2
3
∴ Icr = 2624.56 × 106 mm4 ...(ix)
Net moment due to permanent load
Average tensile stress in concrete in tension zone
=
(1 + 0) ⋅ ( D − x ) ⋅ f ...(x)
2 (d − x ) ct
Tensile force in concrete in tension zone
1 b ( D − x )( D − x )
= ⋅ fct ...(xi)
2 (d − x )
Lever arm of this force about the neutral axis
2
= (D – x) ...(xii)
3
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Moment due to concrete in tension
1 b ( D − x )( D − x ) 2
= × × × ( D − x ) ⋅ fct
2 (d − x ) 3
3
1 b.( D − x )
= fct ...(xiii)
3 (d − x )
That is, when a moment M is applied to the partially cracked section, part of it is resisted by
the concrete tension. The net moment to be resisted by the concrete compression and tensile
forces in the reinforcement
3
⎡ 1 b ⋅(D − x ) ⎤
Mnet = ⎢ M − ⋅ fct ⎥ ...(xiv)
⎢⎣ 3 (d − x ) ⎥⎦
3
1 300. (480 − 239.2)
Mp.net = 42 × 106 – × × 0.6
3 (430 − 239.2)
⎛ 13.963 × l08 ⎞
= ⎜ 42 × 106 − 0.6 ×
⎝ 1.908 × 100 ⎟⎠
= (42 × 108 – 7.318 × 106)
= 37.61 × 106 kN-m ...(xv)
⎛ 1 ⎞
(C) Long-term curvature ⎜ φip = ⎟
⎝ rl.p ⎠
M p.net
φl.p =
Ec . I cr
37.61 × 106
=
0.073 × 105 × 2624.56 × 106
= 1.963 × 10–6
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
(ii) Instantaneous curvature ⎜ φit = ⎟ and ⎜ φip = ⎟
⎝ rit ⎠ ⎝ rip ⎠
2 × 105
me = = 7.843 ...(xv)
0.255 × 105
Revised depth of neutral axis
x1
b . x1 . = m . Ast (d – x1)
2
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x12
300 . = 7.843 × 1256.64 (430 – x1)
2
∴ x 1 = 138.42 mm ...(xvi)
Revised moment of inertia of cracked section
⎡1 2⎤
Icr1 = ⎢ b x13 + m1 . Ast (d − x1 ) ⎥
⎣3 ⎦
⎡1 ⎤
= ⎢ ×300 × 138.423 + 7.843 × 1256.64 × (430–138.42)2 ⎥
⎣3 ⎦
Icr1 = 1103.11 × 106 mm4 ...(xvii)
Revised net moment (for total load)
3
⎡
6 1 300 (480 − 138.42) × 1 ⎤
Mt.net = ⎢ 54 × 10 − × ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 (430 − 138.42) ⎥⎦
= [54 × 106 – 100 × 39.85 × 106 × 1]
= (54 – 13.67) × 106
= 40.33 × 106 N-mm
(a) Instantaneous curvature due to total load
40.33 × 106
φ ip =
0.255 × 105 × 1103.11 × 106
= 1.434 × 10–6
Revised moment (for permanent load)
Mp.net = (42 × 106 – 13.67 × 106)
= 28.33 × 106 N-mm
(b) Instantaneous curvature due to permanent load
28.33 × 106
φit =
0.255 × 105 × 1103.11 × 106
= 1.01 × 10–6
(iii) Difference in instantaneous curvature
(φit – φip) = (1.434 – 1.01) × 10–6
= 0.424 × 10–6
It is to note that in above calculations, the difference in instantaneous curvatures may be
obtained directly as
(φit – φip) = (Mt – Mp)/ Ec . Icr
Since (Mt – Mp) = (Mt.net – Mp.net). other term cancels out.
Further it is to note that this example has useful application of deflections.
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Example 3.11 Determine the mid-span deflection ∆ym in each case. The curvature diagrams
for a beam of uniform flexural rigidity. EI acted upon by various loads are shown in Fig. 3.29.
Solution The moment area theorem states that the deflection of a point on a member,
measured from the tangent at another point on the member, is equal to the moment of M/EI
diagram between the two points taken about whose deflection is calculated. The curvature of a
beam is given by M/EI.
Above theorem may be rephrased as a (more useful) curvature-area theorem : It states
that the deflection of a point on a member, measured from the tangent at another point on the
member is equal to the moment of the curvature diagram between two points taken about
point whose deflection is calculated.
The deflection of simply-supported beam carrying different loads have been found as
under:
1. Beam carrying concentrated load. The simply supported beam as shown in Fig. 3.29
(a) (i) carries a concentrated load. The curvature diagram is as shown in Fig 3.29 (b) (ii).
Shaded area of the curvature diagram
1 L L
= × × φm = ⋅ φm ...(i)
2 2 4
Moment of shaded area about left support
2
L ⎛ 2 L⎞ L
= ⋅ φm ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⋅φ ...(ii)
4 ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ 12 m
From the curvature-area theorem, it is the deflection of the left support from the tangent at
mid-span. Therefore, it is numerically equal to the deflection at mid-span
1
∆ym = . L2 . φm ...(iii)
12
2. Beam carries equal moments in opposite directions at ends. The simply supported
beam as shown in Fig. 3.29 (b) (i) carries equal moments at its ends acting in the opposite
diagram. The curvature diagram is shown in Fig. 3.29 (b) (ii).
Shaded area of the curvature diagram
L 1
= × φm = φm ⋅ L ...(iv)
2 2
Moment of the shaded area about left support
⎛L ⎞ L 1
= ⎜ × φm ⎟ × = φm ⋅ L2 ...(v)
⎝2 ⎠ 4 8
1
∴ ∆ym = φm ⋅ L2 ...(vi)
8
3. Beam Carries uniformly distributed load. The simply supported beam as shown in
Fig. 3.29 (c) (i) carries uniformly distributed load.
The curvature diagram is as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c) (ii) shaded area of the curvature diagram
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2 L
= ⋅ ⋅ φm ...(vii)
3 2
Moment of the shaded area about left support
⎛2 L ⎞ ⎛ 5 L⎞
= ⎜ × × φm ⎟ ⋅ ⎜
⎝3 2 ⎠ ⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠
5
= φm ⋅ L2 ...(viii)
48
5
∴ ∆ym = ⋅ φm ⋅ L2 ...(ix)
48
w
(L / 2 ) (L / 2)
φm
L Trian gu la r
(i) (ii)
(a )
M M
φm
L
R e ctan gu la r
(i) (ii)
(b )
UDL
φm
L
P a rab o lic
(i) (ii)
(c)
M1 M2
(m 1 > m 2 )
θ1 ∆ym φ1
∆y 1 φ2
∆y 2
L
Tra pe zoid a l
(i) (ii)
L oa ding s on be a m C u rva tu re diag ram s
(d )
Fig. 3.29 Curvature diagrams for various loadings
4. Beam carries unequal moments at ends. The simply supported beam as shown in
Fig 3.29 (d) (i) carries unequal moments at its ends acting in the opposite direction. The curvature
diagram is as shown in Fig. 3.29 (d) (ii).
Deflection ∆y2 is determined by taking the moment of the entire curvature diagram about
the right support
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∆y2 =
(φ1 + φ2 ) ⋅ L ⋅ L ⎡⎛ 2 (φ1 + φ2 ) ⎞ ⎤ ...(x)
⎢ ⎥
2 3 ⎢⎣⎜⎝ ( φ1 + φ2 ) ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
slope at the left support
∆y2 1 (φ1 + φ2 ) L ⎡⎛ 2 ( φ1 + φ2 ) ⎞ ⎤
θ1 = = ⋅ ⋅ L ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎥
L L 2 3 ⎣⎢⎝ (φ1 + φ2 ) ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
L
= (2φ1 + φ2). ...(xi)
6
Deflection ∆y3 is calculated by taking the moment of the left half of the curvature diagram
about mid span
⎡⎛ (φ1 + φ2 ) ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ 2 φ1 + ⎟⎠ ⎥
∆y3
1 ⎡
= ⋅ ⎢φ1 +
( φ1 + φ2 ) ⎤ L 1 L ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎥
⎥⋅ ⋅ ⋅⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2 3 2 ⎢ ⎛ φ + ( φ1 + φ2 ) ⎞ ⎥
⎜ 1
2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎦
=
1 ⎡ ( φ + φ2 ) ⎤
⋅ L2 ⋅ ⎢2 φ1 + 1 ...(xii)
⎥
24 ⎣ 2 ⎦
Deflection at mid span
L
∆ym = θ1 . – ∆y3
2
∆ym = (2 φ1 + φ2)
L L 1 2⎡
⋅ −
(φ + φ2 ) ⎤
L ⎢2 φ1 + 1 ⎥
6 2 24 ⎣ 2 ⎦
1
∆ym = . L2 (φ1 + φ2) ...(xiii)
16
Example 3.12 An interior span of a continuous beam (a) carrying a concentrated load at
the mid-span as shown in Fig. 3.30 (b) carries a uniformly distributed load as shown in
Fig. 3.31. Derive expressions for the deflection at midspan in both the cases.
Solution
(A) Deflection for concentrated load. The interior span of a continuous beam carrying
a concentrated load at the mid span is shown in Fig. 3.30(a)
The curvature diagram for the interior span of the continuous beam is shown in Fig.3.30(c).
From the geometry of Fig. 3.30(c).
⎛ φ A + φB ⎞
φm = ⎜ ⎟⎠ + φC ...(i)
⎝ 2
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( L /2) ( L /2)
C
A L B
(a ) L oa ding on bea m
1 MB
MA 2 (M A + M B )
MC
(b ) B e nd in g m om en t d ia gra m s
1 φB
φA 2
( φA + φB )
φC
(c) C u rvatu re diag ram
φM
(d ) C u rva tu re diag ram for sim p ly sup p orte d sp a n
φB
φA
(e ) C u rva tu re diag ram for interior sp an
Fig. 3.30 Superposition of curvature diagrams for interior span
From Example 3.11, the deflection at mid-span of a simply supported beam carrying unequal
moments at its two ends
L 2
= L (φ A + φB ) ...(ii)
16
where,
φ A = (MA/EI), φB = (MB/EI) and φC = (MC/EI)
From Example 3.11, the deflection at mid-span of a simply supported beam carrying
concentrated load
1 2
= L ( φm ) ...(iii)
12
Therefore, by superposition, the net midspan deflection
1 2 1 2
= L φm − ⋅ L (φ A + φ B ) ...(iv)
12 16
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Therefore, the deflection at midspan of the interior span of a continuous span

1 2 ⎡ φ A + φB ⎤ 1 2
∆ym = L + φC ⎥ − ⋅ L [φ A + φ B ]
12 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦ 16
1 2 ⎡ φ + φB ⎤ 1 2 ⎡ B⎤
∆ym = L ⋅ φC ⋅ ⎢1 − A ⎥= ⋅ L ⋅φC ⋅ ⎢1 − ⎥ ...(v)
12 ⎣ 4 φC ⎦ 12 ⎣ 4⎦
⎡ (φ A + φ B ) ⎤
where B= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ φC ⎦
(B) Deflection for uniformly distributed load. The interior span of a continuous beam
carrying an uniformly distributed load at the midspan is shown in Fig. 3.31 (a).
The curvature diagram for the interior span of the continuous beam is shown in Fig. 3.31 (c).
From the geometry of Fig. 3.31 (c)
⎛ φ A + φB ⎞
φm = ⎜ ⎟⎠ + φC ...(vi)
⎝ 2
From Example 3.11, the deflection at midspan of a simply supported beam carrying unequal
moments at its two ends
L 2
= L (φ A + φB ) ...(vii)
16
where,
φ A = (MA/EI), φB = (MB/EI) and φC = (MC /EI)
From Example 3.11, the deflection at midspan of a simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load
5 L2
=
48
(φm ) ...(viii)
Therefore, by superposition, the net midspan deflection
5 L2 L2
=
48
( φm ) −
16
(φ A + φB ) ...(ix)
Therefore, the deflection at midspan of the interior span of the continuous span
5 2 ⎡ φ A + φB ⎤ L2
∆ym = L ⎢
48 ⎣ 2
+ φC ⎥ − ⎣⎡( φ A + φ B )⎦⎤
⎦ 16
10 2 ⎡ β⎤
∆ym = L φC ⎢1 − 10 ⎥ ...(x)
96 ⎣ ⎦
where,
β = ⎡⎣( φ A + φ B ) φC ⎤⎦
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UDL
A C B
L
(a ) L oa ding o n b e am
1 (M + M ) MB
MA
2 C C
MC
(b ) B e nd ing m om en t d ia g ram
1 φB
φA
2
φC
(c) C u rvature diag ra m
(d ) C u rva ture diag ram for sim ply su pp orted spa n
φB
φA
(e ) C u rva ture diag ram for in te rio r spa n
Fig. 3.31 Superposition of curvature diagrams for interior span
Example 3.13 In Example 3.10, determine the long-term deflection at midspan. Take
shrinkage value for concrete εcs = 0.0004.
Solution From Example 3.10,
Step 1
Bending moment due to total load
Mt = 54 kN-m ...(i)
Bending moment due to permanent load
Mp = 42 kN-m ...(ii)
short-term, Ec
Ec = 5700 (20)1/2 = 0.255 × 105 N/mm2 ...(iii)
Long-term, EEC (effective)
EC
EEC = ...(iv)
(1 + CCP )
0.255 × 105
= = 0.073 × 105 N/mm2
(1 + 2.5)
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Area of steel reinforcement in tension

Ast = 1256.64 mm2 ...(v)
Step 2
Total long-term deflection at mid-span
The instantaneous curvature due to the total load, φit and the instantaneous curvature due
to the permanent load are calculated and the difference (φit – φip) is found.
From Example 3.10, instantaneous curvatures
Due to total load
φit = 1.434 × 10–6 ...(vi)
Due to permanent load
φ ip = 1.01 × 10–6 ...(vii)
Difference in instantaneous curvatures
(φit – φip) = (M1 – Mp)/Ec.Icr
= 0.424 ×l0–6 ...(Viii)
Step 3
From Example 3.10, Step (c)
Long-term curvature due to permanent load is then found
φ Lp = 1.963 × 10–6 ...(ix)
Sum of long-term curvature due to permanent load and difference between instantaneous
curvatures due to total load and permanent load gives the curvature at mid-span
φ m = φlp + (φit –φip ) = (1.963 + 0.424) × 10–6
= 2.387 × 10–6
Step 4
Ratio of area of steel Ast and (b.d), (percentage area of steel]
Ast 1256.64
pt = 100 × = 100 × = 0.974 percent
bd 300 × 430
Step 5
The shrinkage curvature, φsh is then calculated shrinkage curvature, (From IS : 456–1978)
ε cs
φsh = k4 ⋅
D
(For 0.25 < pt < 1.0, IS : 456–1978
k 4 = 0.72 × (pt)1/2 < 1.0
= 0.72 × (0.974)1/2 < 1.0
= 0.949 < 1.0
0.949 × 0.0004
φsh = = 0.79 × 10 −6
480
The required total total curvature may then be obtained
[φ = φlp+ (φit – φip) + φsh]
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The total long-term curvature, φ consists of

(1) The long-term curvature due to the permanently applied load, φlp
(2) The instantaneous curvature due to the non-permanent load, (φit – φip), and
(3) The long-term curvature due to the shrinkage of concrete in flexure, φsh
A non-permanent load is the load which may or may not be acting at any given instant. The
expression [φ = φlp+ (φit – φip) + φsh] corresponds to maximum long-term deflection, that is,
when the non-permanent load happens to be acting.
The minimum long-term deflection is that when the non-permanent load does not act
This is calculated from a long-term curvature that excludes the instantaneous curvature that
excludes the instantaneous curvature (φit – φip) due to non-permanent load, [viz. φ = φip+ φsh].
Step 6
Required long-term deflection at midspan may be found by using curvature area theorem.
From Example 3.11, the midspan deflection due to uniformly distributed load over simply
supported beam (step c)
∆ym 5
1
= ⋅ φm ⋅ L2 (from step 3)
48
5
= × (2.387 ×10–6) L2
48
= 0.249 L2 × 10–6
From Example 3.11, the midspan deflection due to two equal and opposite moments acting
at the ends of simply supported beam (step b) due to shrinkage
∆ym 1 2
2
= L ⋅ ϕ sh
8
1
= × 0.79 × 10–6 × L2
8
= 0.9875 L2 × 10–6
Total deflection at midspan
∆ym = (0.249 + 0.09875) × 10–6 × (8 × 1000)2 mm
Aym = 22.256 mm
Note : For a given concrete of characteristic strength, fck, the modulus of elasticity for short-
term loading may be determined as below
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2 ...(i)
The value of effective modulus of concrete EEC is used for long-term loading. As per IS : 456–
1978, for effect of creep
EC
EEC = ...(ii)
(
1 + Ccp )
where Ccp is the coefficient of creep.
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C ra cks H ysd ste el b ars
xs xc xc xs
Fig. 3.32 Curvature of reinforced concrete beam due to shrinkage
The second moment of inertia is significantly affected by the cracking of concrete. Consider
the region Xs (near support for a simply supported beam as shown in Fig 3.32. The tensile
stresses in this region at the bottom fibre are sufficiently low for the concrete. The concrete
remains uncracked. Therefore, the second moment of area for this region would be that for
uncracked section.
The situation is more complicated in the region Xc. Two sections are to be considered in this
region Xc as under:
(i) At a section containing crack :
The value of second moment of inertia of a cracked section shall remain appropriate.
(ii) At a section in between cracks :
The tensile forces in the concrete are not completely lost. The second moment of inertia I is
not for a cracked section and it is not for uncracked section.
Distinctly, in deflection determination, it is the sum effect of EI (flexural rigidity) values
that is more important.
As regards shrinkage is concerned, a plain concrete beam undergoing a uniform shrinkage
would shorten without warping.
In a reinforced concrete beam, the reinforcement resists the shrinkage. Therefore, the
shrinkage produces curvature. (As per IS : 456–1978, φSH = k 4 . εCS/D).
Example 3.14 In Example 3.9, in case the stress in lower tier of steel bars has reached 210
N/mm2 at the service load, check that the arrangement of the reinforcement is sufficient for
exterior exposure. Determine the maximum likely width of cracking. Use various crack width
formulae. Take Es = 2 ×105 N/mm2.
Solution In absence of recommendations of IS : 456–1978, the approach specified in ACI
318–71 is applied. The effective area of concrete in tension is the shaded area as shown in
Fig. 3.27, Example 3.9.
Therefore,
Ae = 450 × (40 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 40) = 630 × 102 mm2 ...(i)
Area of concrete in tension per bar
630 × 102
A = = 78.75 × 102 × mm2 ...(ii)
8
Distance from extreme fibre in tension to the centre of the adjacent bar in mm
d t = (40 + 15) 50 mm ...(iii)
and stress in lower tier of steel bars at service load
fs = 210 N/mm2 ...(iv)
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From Eq 3.70(c)
fs .(dt . A)1/3 = 210 × (50 × 78.75 × l02)1/3
= 210 × (393.75 × l03)1/3
= 0.0154 × 106 ...(v)
1. For exterior exposure. As per ACI 318–71 approach (after converting the expression
in SI units), viz., Eq 3.70
fs. (dt. A)1/3 = 0 0154 × 106 < 18783 × 106 N/mm
Hence, the arrangement of eight steel bars (as shown in Fig. 3.27) provided as reinforcement
in tension is satisfactory.
2. Maximum likely width of crack. For the beam section as shown in Fig. 3.27, Example
3.9
Depth of neutral axis of beam at service load
x 1 = 204.17 mm ...(vi)
From Fig. 3.25,
Distance of extreme fibre of concrete in tension from the neutral axis
x 2 = (750 – 204.17) = 545.83 mm ...(vii)
Distance of centre-line of eight steel bars provided in two tiers
x 1 = (x2 – dt)
∴ x 1 = (545.83 –70) = 475.83 mm ...(viii)
(i) Professors Gergely–Lutz equation for crack width, Eq. 3.69 maximum width of
crack (likely to develop) in the concrete
2
1/3 h −6
W max = 10.93 ( d ⋅ A ) × 1
× fs × 10
h
545.83 −6
= 10.93 [210 (50 × 78.75 × l02)1/3] × × 10
475.83
= 10.93 × 210 × 7.329 × 10 × 1.147 × 10–6
= 0.19295 mm ...(ix)
(ii) Professor Beeby equations for crack width
Strain in steel at crack using (Eqs 3.66 and 3.67), the values b, D, Ast and kd from
Example 3.9.
⎛ f ⎞ 210
εs = ⎜ s ⎟ = = 0.00105 ...(x)
⎝ Es ⎠ 2 × 105
b⋅ D 450 × 750
= = 134.29 ...(xi)
Ast 2513.28
⎛ D − kd ⎞ ⎛ 750 − 204.17 ⎞ 545.83

and ⎜⎝ d − kd ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 680 − 204.17 ⎟⎠ = 475.83
= 1.147 mm
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From Eq 3.67,
⎛ b⋅ D −6 ⎞ ⎛ D − kd ⎞
εm = ⎜ ε s − 2.5 × 10 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ...(xii)
⎝ Ast ⎠ ⎝ d − kd ⎠
Substituting the above values in (xii),
εm = [0.00105 – 2.5 × 134.29 × 10–6] × 1.147
= 0.8193 × 10–3 ...(xiii)
From Eq 3.66, the width of crack
3 ⋅ c ⋅ εm
Wmax = ...(xiv)
⎡⎣1 + 2 × (C − Cc ) / ( D − kd )⎤⎦
Distance at the extreme fibre in tension at one corner of the section, Fig 3.27, (x = c)
C = ⎡⎣ 2 (50) − 10 ⎤⎦ = 60.71 mm
Cc = (50 – 10) = 40 mm
(C – Cc) = (6071 – 40) = 20.71 mm
(D – kd) = (750 – 204.17) = 545.83 mm
Therefore,
−3
3 × 60.71 × 0.8193 × 10
Wmax = mm ...(xv)
(1 + 2 × 20.71 / 545.83)
= 0.1387 mm
(iii) Professor Ferry Borges equation for crack width
Thickness of concrete cover over steel bar
Cc = 40 mm
Diameter of the steel bar
φ = 20 mm
st A 2513.28
P = b ⋅ d = 450 × 680
w
= 0.0082
fs = 210 N/mm2
From Eq 3.68, maximum width of the crack
1 ⎡ 0.066φ ⎤ ⎛ 0.738 ⎞
wmax = ⎢2.5Cc + ⎥ ⎜ fs −
Es ⎣ p ⎦⎝ p ⎟⎠
1 ⎡ 0.066 × 20 ⎤ ⎛ 0.738 ⎞
= ⎢2.5 × 40 + 0.0082 ⎥ ⎜⎝ 210 − 0.0082 ⎟⎠
5
2 × 10 ⎣ ⎦
= 0.1566 mm
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(iv) Professors Kaar–Hognestad equation for crack-width

Area of concrete in tension per steel bar (from above)
A = 78.75 × 100 mm2
fs = 210 N/mm2
h2 545.83
h1 = 475.83 = 1.147
Maximum width of crack (likely to develop) in the concrete, Eq 3.58
h2
wmax = 83.96. (A)1/4 . fs × h × 10–6 mm
1
= 83.96 × (78.75 × 100)1/4 × 210 × 1.147 × 10–6

= 83.96 × 10 × 0.942 × 210 × 1.147 × 10–6
= 0.1900 mm
(v) Professors Base et al equation for crack width
fs h2
wmax = 3.3 × x × ×
Es h1
The distance at the extreme fibre in tension at one corner of the section, Fig. 3.27, (x = c) is
60.71 mm
210 545.83
∴ wmax = 3.3 × 60.61 × 5
× mm
2 × 10 475.83
3.3 × 6.61 × 2.10 × 1.147 × 103

= mm
2 × 105
= 0.2409 mm
The maximum widths of crack (likely to develop) in concrete determined by four different
expressions are listed below for comparison.
Expressions wmax
1. Gergely–Lutz equation 0.19245 mm
2. Beeby equation 0.1387 mm
3. Ferry Borges equation 0.1566 mm
4. Kaar–Hognestad equation 0.1900 mm
5. Base et al equation 0.2409 mm
The value of crack width obtained by Base et al equation is a rather higher maximum crack
width. However, the remaining four values are within 28 percent.
It is evident that the crack widths will not normally be a problem in design unless the stresses
in steel at service load are very high or the crack widths are to be kept very small. A great
accuracy in calculations for crack control is not reasonable. The reinforcing bars may be well
distributed over the zone of concrete in tension. The object is to have fine, closed spaced cracks
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form, rather than a few wide cracks form, rather than a few wide cracks. For relatively deep
beams, reinforcement should also be added near the vertical faces in the tension zone to control
in the web (Reference ACI 318–71). Without such face steel a few wide cracks may be extended
into the web even though the zone of maximum tension may only contain fine cracks.
As per limit state of serviceability in cracking. Code IS : 456–1978 recommends that
in general, compliance with the spacing requirements specified shall be sufficient to control
flexural cracking.
It is emphasised that the protection against corrosion is not just a matter of limiting the
crack width on the surface of the concrete. A reasonable thickness of good quality, well-compacted
concrete is also essential for durable structures.
3.36 DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

The analysis and design of singly reinforced rectangular beams are related problems. In spite
of this, these problems involve fundamental differences and need different techniques. It is
essential to understand clearly these differences.
The analysis of singly reinforced rectangular beams deals with given beams in which all the
dimensions of beams and cross-sectional area of the steel bars provided as reinforcement in
tension are known. The position of neutral axis of the beam section is unique in each case. The
permissible load or moment of resistance (viz., strength of beam) is determined. Knowing the
value of ratio of depth of neutral axis to the effective depth of beam, (viz., xu/d), it is compared
with the value of (xu.max/d) specified in the code, IS : 456–1978, it is found that whether the
beam section is under-reinforced, balanced or over-reinforced. Alternatively, the actual
percentage of tension reinforcement, p is compared with the value of plim and it is ascertained
that the beam section is under-reinforced, balanced or over reinforced.
The design of singly reinforced rectangular beams deals with the selection of proper grade of
concrete mix, proper quality of steel (viz., proper materials) proper shape (viz., rectangular in
this case), sizes and proportions (viz., all the dimensions) of beams. M 15 and M 20 grades of
concrete mix are very commonly used for the beams. The mild steel bars, Fe 250 or high yield
strength deformed (Hysd) steel bars Fe 415 or Fe 500 are used as tension’ reinforcement. The
material strengths for the concrete and steel are known. The dead loads and the live loads at
service conditions are also known. As the dimensions of beam are fixed by the designers, the
designers have some contre over the location of the neutral axis. The designers may shift
where they desue it to the extent that changes in the dimensions may alter the balance between
tension and compression.
The procedure for economical dimensions for a rectangular beam is not distinctly defined. A
shallow beam., (viz., beam of small depth) is expensive because of weight of steel bars needed.
For long spans, it leads to deflection problems. A deep beam (viz., beam of large depth) is more
economical of steel but costs more for side forms and uses up head room, which means more
storey heights. In the beginning for a preliminary estimate of beam size, the effective depth, d
is assumed depending upon intensity of loads and length of clear spans. The effective depth of
beam is assumed as one-tenth [(1/10)th] of span for beams to carry light loads and beams of
moderate span, and one-eighth [(1/8)th] of span for beams to carry heavy loads and beams of
long span. The size of a beam may be established in various manners. It is almost totally
concerned with strength and slightly concerned with deflection. The efforts are made to save
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the steel for the particular size selected. Following are the usual steps in the design of singly
reinforced beams.
Step 1. The effective span is needed to determine maximum (ultimate) moment and maximum
(ultimate) shear force.
Effective span for singly reinforced beams have been described in Art. 3.19.
(i) For simply supported spans (Eqs 3.43 and 3.44)
Effective span = Clear span + Effective depth
ES = (CS + d) ...(i)
or Effective span = Centre to centre of supports ...(ii)
The width of supports at the two ends of the beams may be assumed as 300 mm to 600 mm.
The effective span for simply supported beam shall be minimum of the values found from these
two expressions.
(ii) For cantilever beams (Eq. 3.45)
ES = length from free end of the cantilever to the face of
support plus half its effective depth
1
ES = clear projection + d ...(iii)
2
Step 2. It is necessary to know the types and magnitudes of dead load and live loads to be
supported by the beams corresponding to the service conditions in order to calculate the
maximum (viz., ultimate) moment and the maximum (viz., ultimate) shear.
Dead Loads. The dead loads of materials permanently attached and supported by the beams
are calculated by knowing the unit weight of materials used and their quantities, (Table 2.1,
Art. 2.2). The self-weight of beam is determined by estimating the size (viz, proportions of
width and depth) of the beam.
3.36.1 Proportions of Beam

The effective depth of beam, d is estimated as per the guidelines described above.
The width of beam is fixed in the range from about half to two-third of the overall depth.
However, the constraints (if any) may dictate the choice. In the beginning, the width of beam
may be assumed as half of the effective depths.
In building construction, it is common to use group of beams of equal widths and equal
depth, which will permit the use of a single-flat bottom form-work, resulting in fact, economical
construction and permit levelled ceilings. Knowing the width and the depth of beam, the self-
weight of the beam may be estimated. However, the exact depth of beam necessary for the
strength and the serviceability conditions is determined in the subsequent steps.
Live Loads. (Imposed loads). The imposed loads are calculated for the plan are supported
by the beam. The corresponding intensity of uniformly distributed load (UDL) per unit horizontal
plan area are noted for different occupancies (e.g., residential, educational, institutional, etc.)
from Table 2.2 [i.e., as per IS : 875 (Part 2)–1987]
Knowing the values of dead load and the imposed (live loads), the factored design loads
(i.e., hypothetical over loads) are determined for the following combination of loads as per IS :
456–1978 :
The term factored loads means the characteristic loads multiplied by the appropriate
value of partial safety for loads, rfL
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(i) D.L. + L.L. factored design load

w Fd = (1.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
or w F = 1.5 (D.L. + L.L.) ...(iv)
(ii) D.L. + W.L. factor design-load
w Fd = [(1.5 or 0.9) D.L. + L.L.)] ...(v)
(It is to note that = 0.9 is to be considered when the stability against overturning or stress
reversal in critical)
(iii) D.L. + L.L. +W.L., factor design load
w Fd = 1.2 (D.L. +L.L.+ W.L.) ...(vi)
The factored design loads in above combinations are determined by applying load factors,
(viz., partial safety factors for loads greater than unity), to the loads actually expected. The
required strength of beam is found as if hypothetical over load stage is practically realized.
Thus, the factored design load is determined.
Step 3. The factored design moment, MFd are calculated by carrying out the structural
analysis
Factored design moment
2
MFd = k .wFd . leff ...(vii)
where,
w Fd = factored design load (uniformly distributed load)
leff = effective span for the beam
k = a constant. It depends upon the support conditions
For example, for a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the value of
k is [(1/8) = 0.125]
Therefore,
1 2
MFd = . wFd . leff ...(viii)
8
Step 4. In the present method of design [viz., limit state design (i.e., limit state of collapse in
flexure)] of reinforced concrete beam, the design of beam is based on the concept of providing
sufficient flexural strength to resist the hypothetical over load. The nominal strength of a
proposed beam [viz, moment of resistance of beam, (i.e., ultimate moment, Mu)] is calculated
based on the best current knowledge of beam and the material behaviour.
The partial safety factors rms for the material strength (for concrete, rms = 1.5, and for steel
rms = 1.15) are used when the strength of beam for limit state of collapse in flexure) is to be
assessed. Therefore, the value of (1/rms) = φ becomes less than unity and φ is called as strength
reduction factor. The design strength of the materials is given by
1
fd = .f ...(ix)
rms ck
or f d = φ . fck ...(x)
The design strength of beam, is obtained by modifying the nominal strength, Mn (ultimate
moment of resistance) by multiplying by factor, φ
Mds = φ.Mn ...(xi)
In general, a reinforced concrete structural member is proportioned so that
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φ . Mn > MFd ... ...(xii)

φ . Vn > V Fd ... ...(xiii)
φ . Pn > PFd ... ...(xiv)
Where the subscripts n denotes the nominal strengths in flexure shear and thrust respectively
and the subscripts Fd denote the factored design load moment, shear and thrust. The values of
strength reduction factors φ normally differ, depending upon the type of strength to be
determined, and the importance of the member in the structure.
The beam section is designed as a balanced section. For a balanced section of a beam, the
ratio
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ...(xv)
In code of practice, IS : 456–1978, the ratios (xu.max/d) for steel Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500
are 0.53, 0.48 and 0.46, respectively. The value of this ratio remains known. The value of
depth of neutral axis (therefore,) becomes known in terms of effective depth of beam. As such,
the value of lever (the distance between line of actions of forces in compression, and tension)
becomes known :
j.d = (d – 0.42 x u ) ...(xvi)
For a balanced beam section, the strength of beam (viz., moment of resistance of the beam)
from compression side and from tension side are equal. It is called as limiting value of the
moment of resistance.
∴ Mu.lim = Mu.1 = Mu.2 ...(xvii)
or Mu.lim = Ccu . jd = Tsu . jd ...(xviii)
where, From Eqs 3.33 and 3.34,
xu ⎛ 0.42 xu ⎞ 2
Mu.1 = 0.36 fck. ⎜⎝1 − d ⎟⎠
bd ...(xix)
d
⎛ 0.42 xu ⎞
and Mu.2 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎜1 − .d ...(xx)
⎝ d ⎟⎠
and (φ . Mn) = Mu.1 = Mu.2 ...(xxi)
3.36.2 Effective Depth of Beam, d

Therefore, the required effective depth of the beam section may be determined by equating
(Mu.lim = Mu.1) with the moment due to factored load as in the expression (vii). Hence,
Mu.1 = MFd
xu ⎛ xu ⎞ 2
or 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜⎝ 1 − 0.42 d ⎟⎠ ⋅ bd = MFd ...(xx)
d
An infinite number of combinations of b and d is possible. The value of width of beam, b is
first fixed in the light of discussions given above. The effective depth, d is calculated from the
expression (xxii). The value of effective depth, d is increased to a practical overall depth, D of
the beam keeping in view the need for the cover, web reinforcement and number of layers of
reinforcement, if the steel bars are to be accommodated in two or more layers.
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The firm values of b and d are established. The self-weight estimated in the step 2 is revised
if necessary the practical values of d and D are adopted.
The width of beam, b may be checked for the lateral stability requirement of beam as described
in Art. 3.35.
Step 5. Steel reinforcement in tension
The area of steel bar stobe provided reinforcement in tension is found by equating the factored
design load moment and the moment of resistance of the beam from tension side. That is, from
Eq. 3.42,
(Mu.lim = Mu_2) = MFd
0.87fy Ast . (d – 0.42 xu) = MFd ...(xxiii)
⎡ M FD ⎤
∴ Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxiv)
⎢⎣ 0.87 fy (d − 0.42 xu ) ⎥⎦
The area of steel reinforcement in tension Ast, may also be found by equating Ccu and Tsu.
Alternatively. The depth of neutral axis may be substituted as under
⎛ 0.87 fy Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⋅d
⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⋅ d ⎟⎠
It may be substituted in the expression (xxiii), then
⎛ 0.87 fy Ast ⎞
0.87 fy Ast ⋅ ⎜ d − 0.42 × ⋅ d = MFd ...(xxv)
⎝ 0.36 fckbd ⎟⎠
The expression (xxv) becomes an quadratic expression, which may be solved to find Ast. In
case, the percentage of steel, p is near pmin (Eq. 3.41), then, the actual value of the effective
depth, d will be equal to less than the theoretical value determined in step 4. In case, p is near
pmin(described in Art. 3.17) then, the actual value of d will be equal or greater. This ensures
that the pmin and pmax limits will be after determining the area of steel reinforcement in tension,
actual reinforcement is selected considering rules for the minimum spacing (described in Art. 3.17)
and the requirements for the cover (described in Art. 3.18).
Step 6. Check for deflection and width of crack (viz., limit states of serviceability)
In order to satisfy the limit states of serviceability, a singly reinforced rectangular beam
proportioned on the basis of adequate strength at a hypothetical overload stage (viz., factored
design load) must also perform in a satisfactory manner under normal service load conditions.
In specific terms, the total deflection must be within the acceptable limits and the tensile
cracks in concrete, which inevitably occur, must be of narrow width and well distributed
throughout the tension zone. Formerly, it was the practice to limit the deflections and crack
widths indirectly, by limiting the stresses in the steel and the concrete at the service load stage.
The elastic design method or service load design method (in which the members are proportioned
according to stress limits, with the deflections and the cracking controlled indirectly) is still
allowed as an alternative according to the 1983 ACI Code.
However, because of the limitations and inconsistencies associated with the service load
design method, the strength method (viz., limit state of design method) is preferred. As per
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IS : 456–1978 after proportioning for adequate strength, (i.e., limit state of collapse for flexure),
deflections are calculated and compared against limiting values (or there are controlled to
satisfy the limit state of serviceability) and the crack widths are kept by some specific means :
This approach of design is referred to in Europe, and to some extent in United States practice
as limit state design. It is main basis of the 1983 ACI Code also.
As per IS : 456–1978, total deflection viz., the sum of the short-term deflection and the long-
term deflections are found as under:
Procedure
(A) Short-term deflection (immediate deflection)
1. Shor-term modulus of elasticity. The short-term deflection may be calculated by
the usual methods for elastic deflections using the short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete,
Ec and an effective moment of inertia, Ieff obtained as below:
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2 N/mm2 ... (xxvi)
5
Es = 2 × 10 N/mm 2 ...(xxvii)
1/2
fcr = 0.7 × (fck) N/mm 2 ...(xxviii)
m = (Es/Ec), short term modular ratio
2. Actual depth of NA. The actual depth of neutral axis for the beam section, x (by
elastic method) is determined by equating first moment of equivalent areas about the neutral
axis. That is,
x
b. x . = m . Ast (d – x) ...(xxix)
2
3. Lever arm distance. The lever arm distance between the line of actions of compressive
force and the tensile force for the elastic design
⎛ x⎞
z = ⎜d − ⎟ ...(xxx)
⎝ 3⎠
⎛ z⎞ ⎛ 1 x⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝1 − 3 d ⎟⎠
4. Maximum B.M. The maximum bending moment under service load (for example, for
simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, w)
w ⋅ l2
M = ...(xxxi)
8
5. Cracking moment. The cracking moment
Mcr = (fcrIgr)/y t ...(xxxii)
where y t = distance from the centroidal axis of gross-section, neglecting the reinforcement, to
extreme fibre in tension.
6. Gross moment of inertia Igr. Gross-moment of inertia of uncracked section of beam
1
Igr = b ⋅ D3 ...(xxxiii)
12
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7. Moment of inertia of cracked section. Moment of inertia of the cracked section

(that is, neglecting the portion of concrete in tension)
2
1 ⎛ x⎞
Icr = b. x3 + b.x ⎜ ⎟ + m. Ast (d – x)2 ...(xxxiv)
12 ⎝ 2⎠
8. Effective moment of inertia leff . Effective moment of inertia (from Appendix B, IS :
456–1978)
I cr
Ieff = ...(xxxv)
⎡ M cr z ⎛ x ⎞ bw ⎤
⎢1.2 – M ⋅ d ⎜⎝1 − d ⎟⎠ ⋅ b ⎥
⎣ ⎦
and (Icr < Ieff < Igr). Then, the short term deflection is determined, (i.e., for simply supported
beam carrying uniformly distributed, load)
9. Maximum deflection
2
5 w ⋅ leff
∆y = ⋅ ...(xxxvi)
384 E ⋅ I eff
(B) Long-term deflection
The long-term deflection consists of its two components (viz., deflection due to shrinkage and
deflection due to creep)
(i) Deflection due to shrinkage may be calculated using Eq. 3.53
∆ SH = K SH .φSH .leff2 ...(xxxvii)
1. Values of constant, KSH . The values of constant K SH have been given along with
Eq. 3.53. Moreover, these values are also given in Appendix B, IS : 456–1978.
2. Curvature due to shrinkage. φSH is the shrinkage curvature. It is equal to
εC SH
φ SH = k 4. ...(xxxviii)
D
where, εC . SH is the ultimate shrinkage strain of concrete. As per IS : 456–1978, the approximate
value of the total shrinkage strain for design may be taken as 0.0003 (in case, the test data are
not available.
(a) For 0.25 < (pt–pc) < 1.0,
k 4 = 0.72 × [(pt–pc)/(pt)1/2] < 1.0 ...(xxxix)
(b) For (pt – pc) > 1.0,
k 4 = 0.64 × [(pt– pc)/(pc)1/2] < 1.0 ...(xl)
where pt = 100 (Ast/bd)
pc = 100 (Asc/bd)
For singly reinforced beam, (pc = 0)
(ii) Deflection due to creep
The creep deflection due to permanent loads (as per IS : 456–1978, and described in Art. 3 .24)
∆cp(perm) = [∆i . cc (perm) – ∆i (perm)] ...(xli)
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1. Effective modulus of elasticity, EEC . Effective modulus of elasticity of concrete

(from Eq. 3.49)
EC
EEC = ...(xlii)
(1 + Ccp )
2. Deflections. The permanent load, wp may be assumed as 50 to 60 percent. These
deflections in the expressions (xli) are determined as below : (For example, for simply supported
beam carrying uniformly distributed load)
4
5 ⎛ w p . leff ⎞
∆icc(perm) = ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(xliii)
384 ⎝ EEC ⋅ I eff ⎠
4
5 ⎛ w p . leff ⎞
and ∆i.(perm) = ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(xliv)
384 ⎝ EC ⋅ I eff ⎠
Therefore,
∆cp(perm) = [∆i.cc(perm) – ∆i (perm)]
3. Total deflections. Total deflection may be obtained as below
∆Total = (∆y + ∆SH + ∆cp) ...(xlv)
It may be assumed that half the total shrinkage strain occurs within the first twenty-eight
days the total deflection ∆Total must be less than the permissible deflection.
Step 7. The design of beam is yet to include shear, the development length essential for the
steel bars and the curtailment of the reinforcement. The shear in singly reinforced beam, the
development length necessary for the steel bars and the curtailment of reinforcement shall be
described in the subsequent sections, and then, the design of beam shall be explained by
further continuing the illustrative examples.
Step 8. The design of beam is completed by drawing an adequate sketch showing the key
dimensions and detailing of the reinforcement (viz., placement of the reinforcement along with
any special notes). The details of main (longitudinal) reinforcing steel bars (including the
curtailment of steel bars and the development length needed) and shear reinforcement (including
diameter of bars, two-legged/four legged, etc. and the spacing of the stirrups along the length
of beam.
The design of singly reinforced rectangular beam may also be done by using design aids for
reinforced concrete to IS : 456–1978 (i.e., Special publication SP : 16–1980 published by Bureau
of Indian Standards). It is explained in the subsequent section.
Example 3.15 Design a singly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at its two
ends. The clear span of beam is 4.80 m. The intensities of superimposed uniformly distributed
dead load and the imposed load are 20 kN/m and 28 kN/m, respectively. Use M 20 grade of
concrete and hysd steel, Fe 415. Take ultimate strain in concrete due to shrinkage as 0.0003
and coefficient of creep, Ccp as unity.
Solution
Design. The beam is simply supported over the supports. The beam is designed for the limit
state of collapse in flexure following the steps as described below : Let the width of support
at each end be 450 mm.
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Step 1. Effective span

The effective span ES of the simply supported beam
ES = centre to centre of the supports
ES = 4.80 + 0.450/2+ 0.450/2 = 5.25 m ...(i)
The overall depth of beam, D may be estimated as one-eighth to one-tenth of clear span.
(viz., 600 mm to 480 mm). Therefore,
D = 540 mm ...(ii)
The effective span ES of beam
ES = clear span effective depth
Let the effective cover of concrete (measured from the extreme fibre in tension upto the
centre of steel bars) be 40 mm.
ES = 4.80+ (0.540 – 0.040) = 5.29 m ...(iii)
The effective span of beam, leff is minimum of the values as in the expressions (i) and (iii). As
such
ES = leff = 5.25 m ...(iv)
Step 2. Proportion of beam
(i) Effective depth of beam, d is estimated as per the guidelines described above.
(ii) Width of beam, b may be kept as half to two-thirds of the overall depth (viz., 270 mm
to 360 mm). Let
b = 360 mm ...(v)
Step 3. Total load coming over the beam shall be as follows :
Superimposed dead load
Estimated self weight = 20 kN/m ...(vi)
.
(0 36 × 0.540 × 1) × 25 = 4.86 kN/m ...(vii)
Total dead, DL = 24.86 kN/m ...(viii)
Imposed load, LL = 28 kN/m ...(ix)
Design (Factored) load
w Fd =
(γ fL1 ⋅ DL + γ fL ⋅ LL
2
)
The partial factors of safety for loads may be noted from IS : 456–1978.
γ fL = 1.5 and γ fL = 1.5
1 2
Therefore, w Fd = 1.5 (DL) + 1.5 (LL)

= [1.5 (24.86) + 1.5 (28)] kN/m
= (37.29 +42) = 79.29 kN/m ...(x)
Step 4. Design (Factored) moment. The maximum design (factored) moment for the simply
supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load occurs at the centre
1
MFd = w . l2
8 Fd eff
79.29 × 5.25 × 5.25
MFd = kN-m = 273.18kN-m ...(xi)
8
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Step 5. Design of beam. In this step, required depth of beam is determined. The section of
beam is designed as balanced section. The effective depth of beam, d necessary is determined
by equating the ultimate moment of resistance (viz., the flexural strength of beam at collapse
to design (factored) moment of the beam calculated. For the balanced section of beam,
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ...(xii)
From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel Fe 415
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.48 ...(xiii)
Characteristic strength of M 20 grade of concrete

fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(xiv)
Ultimate moment of resistance (flexural strength of beam at collapse from the compression
side from Eq. 3.33
Mu.lim = Mu.1
xu ⎛ xu ⎞ 2
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜⎝1 − 0.42 d ⎟⎠ bd ...(xv)
d
Equating Mu.lim and MFd
xu ⎛ xu ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜⎝1 − 0.42 d ⎟⎠ bd = MFd ...(xvi)
d
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (l – 0.42 × 0.48) 360 × d2 = 273.18 × 106
∴ d = 524.42 mm ...(xvii)
Effective cover of the concrete as assumed
= 40 mm
Overall depth of the beam
D = 564.42 mm ...(xviii)
Let the overall depth of beam be 580 mm
Then, the effective depth of beam
d = (580 – 40) = 540 mm ...(xix)
The necessary area of steel reinforcement is determined by equating the moment of resistance
of the beam (viz., the flexural strength of beam at collapse from tension side) to design (factored)
moment of the beam calculated. Therefore,
(Mu.lim = Mu2) = MFd
fy
. Ast = MFd ...(xx)
γ ms
From IS : 456–1978, the partial factor of safety of the material (steel bars) for the strength
γms = 1.15
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fy
. Ast (d − 0.42 xu ) = MFd
1.15
or 0.87fy Ast(d – 0.42xu) = MFd
xu
or 0.87fy Ast(d – 0.42 ) = MFd
d
⎡ ⎤
⎢ M Fd ⎥
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxi)
⎢ 0.87 fy.d(1 − 0.42 xu ) ⎥
⎣⎢ d ⎦⎥
⎡ 273.18 × 106 ⎤
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxii)
⎣ 0.87 × 415(1 − 0.42 × 0.48) × 540 ⎦
Ast = 1754.96 mm2
N N e utral axis A
M 2 0 G ra de o f co ncrete
5 40
A st = 6 H ysd stee l
b ars 2 0 m m φ
5 80
40 m m
25 m m 25 m m
Fig. 3 33
Check
(i) For Hysd steel Fe 415,
0.85
(Ast)min = × 360 × 540 = 398.169 mm2
415
(Ast)min = 0.04 × 360 × 580 = 8352 mm2
The area of steel needed is more than minimum and less than maximum requirements.
Provide 6 bars of 20 mm diameter. Actual area of steel bars provided as tension reinforcement
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π
Ast = 6 × × 202
4
= 1884.96 mm2
Actual horizontal distance (spacing) between adjacent steel bars
= (360 – 6 × 20 – 2 × 25)/5
= 38 mm
It is more than the diameter of the steel bars, viz., 20 mm and it is also more than [(size of
aggregate + 5 mm) = (20 + 5) = 25 mm]. These bars are provided symmetrically distributed
about the vertical axis of the beam cross-section.
The design of beam for the transverse reinforcement to resist factored shear force and the
development length and the curtailment of steel bars provided as main reinforcement have
been done in Example 3.20. The details of complete design is shown in Fig. 3.60.
The singly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at its two ends have been designed
for Limit state of collapse in flexure. It is now checked for Limit state of serviceability
for deflection.
Step 7. Vertical deflection : As per IS : 456 –1978, for beams, the vertical deflection limits
may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the span to effective depth ratio is not
greater than the value obtained as below :
Basic value for simply supported spans upto 10 m
⎛ Span ⎞
⎜⎝ Effective depth ⎟⎠ = 20 ...(xxiii)
This ratio is multiplied by modification factor from IS : 456 –1978. Actual percentage of steel
Ast ⎛ 1884.96 × 100 ⎞
p = × 100 = ⎜
bd ⎝ 360 × 540 ⎟⎠
= 0.9696 percent
Modification factor for Hysd steel Fe 415
mf = 0.96 ...(xxiv)
Therefore, allowable value of ratio
⎛ Span ⎞
⎜⎝ Effective depth ⎟⎠ = 0.96 × 20 = 19.2
Actual ratio
⎛ Span ⎞ ⎛ 5.25 × 1000 ⎞

⎜⎝ Effective depth ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 540 ⎟⎠ = 9.77 ...(xiv)
Actual (span/effective depth) ratio is less than the allowable (span/effective depth) ratio.
Hence, the beam satisfies the limit state of serviceability.
Actual calculations for short-term deflection, and long term deflection (viz., deflection due to
shrinkage and deflection due to creep) may be carried out as per Appendix, B, IS : 456–1978 as
follows :
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Step 8. Short-term deflection. The short-term deflection may be determined using the
short-term modulus of elasticity, Ec of the concrete and an effective moment of inertia, Ieff at
service load short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2
= 5700 (20)1/2 = 0.255 × 105 N/mm2 ...(xxvi)
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars, Fe 415, modular ratio of concrete
2 × 105
m = = 7.843 ...(xxvii)
0.225 × 105
Depth of neutral axis. At the service load, depth of neutral axis is calculated by taking the
moment of equivalent areas of concrete and steel in compression and tension respectively.
Therefore, from Eq. 3.33
b.x . (x/2) = m . Ast. (d – x)
360 . x . (x/2) = 7.843 × 1884.96 (540 – x)
x = 173.498 mm ... (xxviii)
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ 173.498 ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 540 ⎟⎠ = 0.321 ...(xxix)
⎛ 173.498 ⎞
and z = (d – x/3) = ⎜ 540 − ⎟⎠ = 482.167 mm
⎝ 3
Ratio of lever arm to effective depth
⎛ 482.167 ⎞
(z/d) = ⎜ = 0.893 ...(xxxi)
⎝ 540 ⎟⎠
bw
⎛ 360 ⎞
= ⎜ = 1.00
b ⎝ 360 ⎟⎠
Moment of inertia of the cracked section (viz., area of concrete in tension is neglected) about
neutral axis
⎡1 ⎤
Icr = ⎢ bx 3 + mAst .(d − x )2 ⎥
⎣3 ⎦
1
= × 360 × l73.4983 + 7.843 × 1884.96
3
× (540 –173. 498)2 ...(xxxii)
Icr = 2612.5 × 106 mm4 ...(xxxiii)
D = 580 mm ...(xxxiv)
Gross moment of inertia
1 1
Igr = bD3 = × 360 × 5803
12 12
= 5853.36 × 106 mm4 ...(xxxv)
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Modulus of rupture of the concrete

fcr = 0.7(fck)1/2 = 0.7 × 4.472
= 3.13 N/mm2
Distance to the extreme fibre of concrete in tension
(D – x) = (580 – 173.498)
= 406.502 mm
bw 360
= = 1 ...(xxxvi)
b 360
x
= 0. 02886 ... (xxxvii)
d
Cracking moment
⎛ fcr ⋅ lgr ⎞
Mcr = ⎜
⎝ y ⎟⎠
t
3.13 × 4162.26 × 106

=
424
= 45.07 × 106 N-mm ...(xxxviii)
Maximum bending moment due to service load
2
w . leff
M =
8
2
(PL + LL). leff (24.86 + 28) × 5.25 × 5.25
M = =
8 8
M = 182.12 × 106 N-mm ...(xxxix)
Effective moment of inertia, from IS : 456–1978, (Appendix B)
⎡ I cr ⎤
Ieff = ⎢ ⎥ ... (xl)
M z x b
⎢1.2 − cr × ⎛⎜1 − ⎞⎟ w ⎥
⎣⎢ M d ⎝ d ⎠ b ⎦⎥
Substituting the values of various terms from the expressions (xxviii) to (xxxix)
⎡ 4162.26 × 106 ⎤
Ieff = ⎢ 6 ⎥
⎢1.2 − 45.07 × 10 × 0.893(1 − 0.321) × 1 ⎥
⎣⎢ 182.12 × 106 ⎦⎥
= 2488 × 106 mm4 ...(xli)
Intensity of service load supposed by beam
w = (DL + LL) = (24.86+ 28) = 52.86 kN/m
= 52 86 N/mm
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Short-term deflection at the centre of span

4 ⎞
5 ⎛ w. I eff
∆y 1 = .
384 ⎜⎝ Ec. I eff ⎟⎠
5 ⎡ 52.86(5.25 × 1000)4 × 106 × 106 ⎤

∆y 1 = ⎢ ⎥
384 ⎣ 0.255 × 105 × 2488 × 106 ⎦
5 ⎡ 52.86 × 759.69 × 106 × 10 6 ⎤

∆y 1 = ×⎢ ⎥ = 8.242 mm ...(xlii)
384 ⎣ 0.255 × 105 × 2488 × 106 ⎦
Step 9. Long-term deflection
The deflection due to shrinkage and deflection due to creep constitute long-term deflection.
Both these deflections are additive to vertical deflection. There are calculated separately as
below :
2. (i) Deflection due to shrinkage. It is found as under :
∆y SH = k3 . φSH . l2 ...(xliii)
For simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the value of
⎛ 1⎞
k 3 = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.125.
8
Curvature due to shrinkage
εc.SH
φ SH = k4 . ...(xliv)
D
Ultimate strain in concrete due to shrinkage
εc.SH = 0.0003 (assumed) ...(xlv)
Percentage of steel in tension from step 7 above
pt = 0.9696 percent
For 0.25 < pt < 1.0, From IS : 456–1978 (Appendix B)
pt
k 4 = 0.72 × p 1
( pt ) 2
1 1
= 0.72 × ( pt ) 2 = 0.72 × (0.9696) 2
= 0.709
D = 580 mm
0.709 × 0.0003
φ SH = = 0.367 × 10–6
580
Deflection due to shrinkage
∆ySH = 0.125 × 0.367 × 10–6 × (5250 × 1000)2
∆ySH = 1.263 mm ...(xlvi)
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2. (ii) Deflection due to creep : The dead load acts as permanent load
w DL = 24.86 kN/m = 24.86 N/mm
Coefficient of creep
Ccp = 1.00 (given)
Effective modulus of elasticity of concrete
EC 0.255 × 105
EEC = = = 0.1275 × 15 N/mm2
(1 + Ccp ) (1 + 1)
Referring code IS : 456–1978, Appendix B
Instantaneous (short-term) deflection due to permanent load
5 w × l4
∆y.ip = × DL eff
384 Ec .I cr
5 24.86 × (5.250 × 1000)4

∆y.ip = × mm
384 0.255 × 105 × 4162.26 × 106
5×24.86 × 759.69 ×1012
∆y.ip =
384 × 0.255 × 105 × 2612.5 × 106
= 3.691 mm
Initial plus creep deflection due to permanent loads.
5 ⎛ w . l4 ⎞
∆y.iccp = × ⎜ DL eff ⎟
384 ⎝ EEC . I eff ⎠
= 5 ⎡ 24.86 × (5.250 × 1000)4 ⎤ mm

×⎢ ⎥
384 ⎣ 0.1275 × 105 × 2488 × 106 ⎦
= 7.752 mm
Deflection due to creep due to permanent load
∆y.cp = (7.752 – 3.691) = 4.061 mm
Total deflection due to all loads and due to shrinkage and creep
∆y = (∆y1 + ∆y.SH + ∆y.cp)
∆y = (8.242 + 1.263 + 4.061)
= 13.566 mm
Final (total) allowable deflection due to all loads including the effects of creep, and shrinkage
and measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roof and all other horizontal
members
⎛ span ⎞
∆y.perm >/ ⎜
⎝ 250 ⎟⎠
⎛ 5.250 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 21 mm
⎝ 250
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Actual final deflection is less than the final permissible deflection. Hence the design of beam
is also satisfactory as regards limit state of serviceability.
Step 10. Slenderness limits for beams to ensure lateral stability
For simply supported beam
60 × b = 60 × 360 = 21,600 mm
⎛ 250 × b2 ⎞ ⎛ 250 × 360 × 360 ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 60,600 mm
⎝ ⎠ 540
Distance between lateral restraints
L = leff = 5250 mm
⎛ b2 ⎞
Since, L < (60b) and also L < ⎜ 250 ⎟ , the design of beam is also satisfactory for lateral
⎝ d⎠
stability.
Example 3.16 The floor of a class-room 5 m × 9 m consisting of 120 mm thick reinforced
concrete slab is supported by singly reinforced rectangular beams. Design the beams. Take
ultimate strain due to shrinkage as 0.0003 and the coefficient of creep as unity.
0 .6 m
5m
0 .5 m
0 .6 3m 3m 3m 0 .6
9m
Fig. 3.34
Solution
Design. The beams are placed over width of room at 3 m centre to centre distance as shown
in Fig. 3.34. The clear span, CS of beam is 5 m. The thickness of supporting wall is assumed
600 mm. Overall depth of beam may be estimated as one-eigth to one-tenth of clear span, (viz.,
D = 620 mm). The effective depth, d may be taken as 580 mm. The beams are simply supported
over the supports. The beams are designed for the limit state of collapse in flexure following
the steps as described below : M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel, Fe 250 shall be used.
Effective span, ES of the simply supported beam
ES = centre to centre of the supports
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ES = (5.0 + 0.3 + 0.3) = 5.60 m ...(i)

ES = CS + d = (5 + 0.58) = 5.58 m ...(ii)
The effective span of beam, leff is minimum of the values as in the expressions (i) and (ii). As
such
ES = leff = 5.58 m ...(iii)
Step 2. Proportion of beam
(i) Effective depth of beam, d is estimated as per the guidelines described above.
(ii) Width of beam, b may be kept as half to two-thirds of the overall depth (viz., 310 mm
to 413.33 mm). Let
b = 320 mm ...(iii)
Step 3. Total load coming over the beam shall be as follows :
From reinforced concrete slab, superimposed dead load
0.120 × 3 × 1 × 25 = 9 kN/m ...(iv)
Self-weight of the beam
0.320 × 0.620 × 1 × 25 = 4.96 kN/m ...(v)
Total DL = 13.96 kN/m ...(vi)
The floor of slab is likely to be used as a class-room (educational buildings). From IS : 800
(Part 2)–1987, imposed (live load) supported by the beam
= 3 kN/m2 (as UDL)
Therefore, imposed uniformly distributed load
LL = 3 × 1 × 3 = 9 kN/m ...(vii)
Design (factored) load
w Fd = ( γ fL1 DL + γ fL2 . LL)
The partial factors of safety for loads may be noted from IS : 456–1978
γ fL1 = 1.5 and γfL = 1.5
Therefore,
w Fd = 1.5 (DL) + 1.5 (LL)
= (1.5 × 13.96 + 15 × 9) kN/m
= 34.44 kN/m ...(viii)
Step 4. Design (factored) moment
The maximum design (factored) moment for the simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load occurs at the centre
1 2
MFd = w . leff
8 Fd
34.44 × 5.58 × 5.58
= = 134.04 kN-m ...(ix)
8
Step 5. Design of beam
In this step, required depth of beam is determined. The section of beam is designed as a
balanced section. The effective depth of the beam, d necessary is determined by equating the
ultimate moment of resistance (viz., the flexural strength of beam at collapse to the design
(factored) moment of the beam calculated. For the balanced section of beam
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⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
From IS : 456–1978, for mild steel, Fe 200,

⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.53 ...(x)
Characteristic strength of M 15 grade of concrete

fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(xi)
Ultimate moment of resistance (flexural strength of beam at collapse from the compression
side from Eq. 3.33
Mu.lim = Mu1
⎡ x ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢0.36 fck u ⎜1 – 0.42 u ⎟ b d2 ⎥ ...(xii)
⎣ d ⎝ d ⎠ ⎦
Equating Mu.lim and MFd
⎡ xu ⎛ xu ⎞ 2 ⎤ 6
⎢0.36 fck d ⎜⎝1 – 0.42 d ⎟⎠ 320 × bd ⎥ = 134.04 × 10
⎣ ⎦
711.97 d2 = 134.04 × 106
d 2 = 188.265 × 103
∴ d = 433.895 mm ...(xiii)
Effective cover of the concrete as assumed
= 40 mm
D = (433.895 + 40) = 473.895 mm
Let the overall depth of beam be 480 mm. Then, the effective depth of beam
d = (480 – 40) = 440 mm ...(xiv)
The necessary area of steel reinforcement is determined by equating the moment of resistance
of the beam (viz., the flexural strength of beam at collapse from tension side) to design (factored)
moment of the beam calculated.
Therefore,
(Mu.lim = Mu.2) = MFd
fy
Ast (d – 0.42 x u ) = MFd
γ ms
From IS : 456–1978, the partial factor of safety of the material (steel bars) for the strength
γms = 1.15
⎡ fy ⎛ x ⎞⎤
⎢ ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ ⎥ = MFd
⎣ γ ms ⎝ d ⎠⎦
⎡ M Fd ⎤
Ast = ⎢
x ⎥
⎢ 0.87 × fy ⋅ d ⋅ ⎛⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
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⎡ 134.04 × 106 ⎤
Ast = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.87 × 250 × 440 (1 – 0.42 × 0.53) ⎦
= 1801.68 mm2 ...(xv)
pt = 1.279 percent
Check :
(i) For mild steel
0.85
(Ast)min = × 320 × 440 = 478.72 mm2
250
(ii) (Ast)max = 0.04 × 320 × 480 = 6144 mm2
The area of steel needed is more than minimum and less than maximum requirements.
Provide 6 bars of 20 mm diameter. Actual area of steel bars provided as tension reinforcement
π
Ast = 6 × × 202
4
= 1884.96 mm2 .. .(xvi)
Actual horizontal distance (spacing) between adjacent steel bars
(320 – 6 × 20 – 2 × 25)
= = 30 mm
5
It is more than the diameter of the steel bars, viz., 20 mm and it is also more than [(size of
aggregate + 5 mm) = (20 + 5) = 25 mm]. These bars are provided symmetrically distributed
about the vertical axis of the beam cross section.
N N e utral axis A
M 1 5 g ra de of con cre te
4 40
A st = 6 H ysd stee l
ba rs 20 m m φ
4 80
40 m m
25 m m 25 m m
Fig. 3.35
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The design of beam for the transverse reinforcement to resist factored shear force and the
development length and the curtailment of the steel bars provided as main reinforcement have
been done in Example 3.19. The details of complete design is shown in Fig. 3.59.
The singly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at its two ends have been designed
for Limit State of Collapse in flexure. It is now checked for Limit State of Serviceability
for deflection.
Step 7. Vertical deflection
As per IS : 456–1978, for beams may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the
span to effective depth ratio is not greater than the value obtained as below. Basic value for
simply supported spans upto 10 m.
⎛ span ⎞
⎜⎝ effective depth ⎟⎠ = 20 ...(xvii)
This ratio is multiplied by modification factor from IS : 456–1978. Actual percentage of steel
⎛ 1884.96 ⎞
p = ⎜ × 100⎟ = 1.339 percent ...(xviii)
⎝ 320× 440 ⎠
Modification factor for mild steel, Fe 250
mf = 1.35 ...(xix)
Therefore, allowable value of ratio
⎛ span ⎞
⎜⎝ effective depth ⎟⎠ = 20 × 1.35 = 27 ...(xx)
Actual ratio
⎛ span ⎞ 5.58 × 1000
⎜⎝ effective depth ⎟⎠ = 440
= 12.682 ...(xxi)
Actual (span/effective depth) ratio is less than the allowable (span/effective depth) ratio,
Hence, the beam satisfies the limit state of serviceability.
Actual calculations for short-term deflection, and long-term deflection (viz., deflection due to
shrinkage and deflection due to creep) may be carried out as per Appendix, B, IS : 456–1978 as
follows :
Step 8. Short term deflection
The short-term deflection may be determined using the short-term modulus of elasticity, Ec
of the concrete and an effective moment of inertia, leff at service load short-term modulus of
elasticity of concrete
1
Ec = 5700 ( fck ) 2
= 5700 (15)1/2
= 0.221 × 105 N/mm2 ...(xxii)
For M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel bars, Fe 250, modular ratio of concrete
2 × 105
m = = 9.05 ...(xxiii)
0.221 × 105
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Depth of neutral Axis

At service load, the depth of neutral axis is calculated by taking the moment of equivalent
area of concrete and steel in compression and tension, respectively
⎛ x⎞
b. x. ⎜ ⎟ = m. Ast . (d – x)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ x⎞
320 × x × ⎜ ⎟ = 9.05 × 1884.96(440 – x)
⎝ 2⎠
x = 169.746 mm ...(xxiv)
⎛ x⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 0.386 ...(xxv)
Lever arm distance

⎛ x⎞ ⎛ 169.746 ⎞
z = ⎜ d – ⎟ = ⎜ 440 – ⎟⎠
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3
= 383.419 mm ...(xxvi)
Ratio of lever arm to the effective depth
z 383.419
= = 0.817 ... (xxvii)
d 440
Moment of inertia of the cracked section about neutral axis. (Area of concrete in tension is
neglected)
⎡1 2⎤
Icr = ⎢ b x 3 + m. Ast (d − x ) ⎥
⎣3 ⎦
1
= × 320 × 169.7463 + 9.05 × 1884.96 × (440–169.746)2 mm4
3
= 17676 ×106 mm4 ...(xxviii)
Overall depth of beam
D = 480 mm ...(xxix)
Gross moment of inertia
1 1
Igr = bD3 = × 320 × 4803
12 12
= 2949.12 × 106 mm4 ...(xxx)
Modulus of rupture of the concrete
1
fcr = 0.7 × ( fck ) 2 = 0.7 (15)1/2 = 2.71 N/mm2 ...(xxxi)
Distance to the extreme fibre of concrete in tension
(D – x) = (480 – 169.746) = 310.254 mm ...(xxxii)
bw 320
= = 1.0 ...(xxxiii)
b 320
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Cracking moment
fcr .I gr 2.71 × 2949.12 × 106
Mcr = =
It 310.254
= 25.76 × 106 N-mm
2 2
w ⋅ leff (DL + LL) ⋅ leff
M = =
8 8
(13.96 +9) × 5580 ×5580
=
8
= 89.36 ×106 N-mm ...(xxxiv)
Effective moment of inertia, from IS : 456–1978, Appendix B
⎡ I cr ⎤
leff = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxxv)
M cr z ⎛ x⎞ b
⎢1.2 − × × ⎜1 − ⎟ w ⎥
⎢⎣ M d ⎝ d⎠ b ⎥⎦
Substituting the values of various terms from the expressions (xxv) to (xxxiv)
3034.28 × 106
=
⎡ 25.76 × 106 ⎤
⎢1.2 − 6
× 0.817 (1 − 0.386) × 1⎥
⎣ 89.36 × 10 ⎦
= 1674.8 × 106 mm4 ...(xxvi)
Intensity of service load supported by beam
w = (DL + LL) = (13.96 + 9)
= 22.96 kN/m = 22.96 N/mm ...(xxxvii)
Short-term deflection
4 ⎞
5 ⎛ w . leff
∆y1 =
384 ⎜⎝ Ec . I eff ⎟⎠
5 ⎛ 22.96 × (5.580 × 1000)4 ⎞

∆y1 = ×⎜ 5 6 ⎟ mm
384 ⎝ 0.221 × 10 × 1674.8 × 10 ⎠
5 22.96 × 969.48 × 1012

∆y1 = ×
384 0.221 × 105 × 1674.8 × 106
= 7.831 mm ...(xxxviii)
Step 9. Long-term deflection
The deflection due to shrinkage and deflection due to creep constitute long term deflection.
Both these deflections are additive to the vertical deflection. These are calculated separately as
below :
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(i) Deflection due to shrinkage: It is found as under :

∆y.SH = k3 . φSH . l2 ...(xxxix)
⎛ 1⎞
For simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the value of k 3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.125
⎝ 8⎠
curvature due to shrinkage
εC .SH
φ SH = k4 = ...(xl)
D
Ultimate strain in concrete due to shrinkage
εCSH = 0.0003 (assumed) ...(xli)
Percentage of steel in tension from step 7 above
pt = 1.339 percent
For pt > 1.0
k 4 = 0.65 × pt / (pt)1/2 < 1.0
= 0.65 × (l.339)1/2 = 0.752 ...(xlii)
D = 480 mm
0.752 × 0.0003
φ SH = = 0.47 × 10–6 ...(xliii)
480
∆ySH = 0.125 × 0.47 × 10–6 × (5.58 × 1000)2
∴ ∆ySH = 1.823 mm ...(xliv)
(ii) Deflection due to creep : The dead load acts as permanent load
wDL = 13.96 kN/m = 13.96 N/mm
Ccp = 100 (given)
E 0.221 × 105
EEC = =
(1 + Ccp ) (1 + 1)
= 0.1105 × 105 N/mm2 ...(xv)
Referring code IS : 456–1978, Appendix B
Instantaneous (short-term) deflection due to permanent load
5 ⎛ w ⋅ l4 ⎞
∆y.ip = × ⎜ DL eff ⎟
384 ⎝ Ec ⋅ I cr ⎠
5 ⎛ 13.96 × (5.580)4 (1000)4 ⎞

∆y.ip = ×⎜ mm
384 ⎝ 0.221 × 105 × 1767.6 × 106 ⎟⎠
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5 13.96 × 969.47 × 1012

∆y.ip = × mm
384 0.221 × 105 × 1767.6 × 106
= 4.511 mm ...(xvi)
Initial plus creep deflection due to permanent loads
5 ⎛ w ⋅ l4 ⎞
384 ⎝ EEC ⋅ I eff ⎠
5 ⎡ 13.96 × 969.47 × 1012 ⎤

∆y.iccp = ×⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎣ 0.221 × 105 × 1674.8 × 106 ⎦
= 9.523 mm
∆y.cp = (9523 – 4.511) = 5.012 mm
Total deflection due to all loads and due to shrinkage and creep
∆y = (∆y1 + ∆y.SH + ∆y.cp)
∆y = (7.831 + 1.823 + 5.012)
= 14.666 mm
Final (total) allowable deflection due to all loads including the effects of creep, and shrinkage
and measured from the as cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all other horizontal
members
⎛ span ⎞
∆y.perm |
> ⎜⎝
250 ⎟⎠
⎛ 5580 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ = 22.32 mm
250 ⎟⎠
Actual final deflection is less than the final permissible deflection. Hence, the design of beam
is also satisfactory as regards limit state of serviceability.
Step 10. Slenderness limits for beams to ensure lateral stability
60 × b = 60 × 320 = 19,200 mm
⎛ 250 × b2 ⎞ 250 × 320 × 320

⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ d ⎠ 440
= 58,181.82 mm
Distance between lateral restraints
L = leff = 5580 mm.
Since, L < (60 b) and also L < (250 b2/d), the design of beam is also satisfactory for lateral
stability.
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3.37 DESIGN AIDS FOR SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

The object of design aids is to reduce the design time and calculations and is to aid in design.
A number of design aids may be prepared in the form of Charts and Tables which are used
for the design of reinforced concrete structural members. These aids remain helpful in practice.
Bureau of Indian Standards has also prepared ‘Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS :
456–1978’. It is a special publication and therefore it is numbered as SP : 16–1980. In order to
use SP : 16–1980, one should be well acquainted with the provisions of IS : 456–1978. SP : 16–
1980 includes number of Charts and Tables. These Charts are used conveniently for the
preliminary design. The tables are used for final design where greater accuracy is needed.
These Charts and Tables of SP : 16–1980 for the flexural members do not account crack control
and are meant for strength calculations only. The detailing rules included in the code IS : 456–
1978 are followed for crack control. In most of the Charts and Tables in SP: 16–1980, the
colour identification is given on the right/left hand corner along with other salient values to
indicate the type of steel, in other Charts/Tables salient values have been given only. It is to
note that in case the steel being used in the design has a strength which is slightly different
from the one used in the Charts and Tables, the Tables or Charts for the nearest value may be
used and area of reinforcement thus obtained is modified in proportion to the ratio of the
strength of steels.
In SP : 16–1980, the compressive stress at the extreme fibre of concrete in singly reinforced
rectangular beam section in stress diagram is taken as 0.446 fck which is identical to that
marked in Fig. 3.1. However, the depth of line of action of the compressive force in concrete, Ccu
is shown as 0.416 xu instead of rounded as 0.42 x u as in Fig. 3.1 and marked also in IS : 456–
1978. Total compressive force in concrete Ccu remains same (viz., Ccu = 0.36 fck. b . xu in IS :
456–1978 and SP : 16–1980). However, the lever arm, z (i.e., the distance between centroid of
the compressive force and the centroid of the tensile force) becomes (z = d – 0.416 xu ) instead of
(z = d – 0.42 x u).
1. Balanced beam sections. The moment of resistance of a singly reinforced balanced
rectangular beam section becomes
Mu.lim = Ccu. (d – 0.416 x u) = Tsu . (d – 0.416x u) ...(i)
That is, from compression side
Mu.lim = 0.36fck.b.Xu.max × (d – 0.416x u.max) ...(ii)
and from tension side
Mu.lim = 0.87fy . Ast. (d – 0.416 xu.max) ...(iii)
From the expression (ii)
⎛ M u.lim ⎞ ⎛ 0.416 xu. max ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⋅ bd ⎟⎠ = 0.36 . xu.max ⎜⎝1 − d ⎟⎠
ck
⎛ M u.lim ⎞ xu. max ⎛ 0.416 xu. max ⎞

or ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 0.36 . ⎜⎝1 − d ⎟⎠ ...(iv)
⎝ fck ⋅ bd ⎠ d
In the expression (iv) the values of (x u.max/d) as per SP : 16–1980, (Table B) from Table 3.1,
Art. 3.2, [0.531, 0.479 and 0.456 for fy = 250, 415 and 500 N/mm2, respectively] may be
substituted. Then, the values of limiting moment of resistance for singly reinforced rectangular
beams [Mu.lim/(fck.bd2)] may be found as under.
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(i) For fy = 250 N/mm2

⎛ M u.lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.36 × 0.531 × (1.0416 × 0.531)
⎝ fck ⋅ bd 2 ⎠
= 0.1489 @ 0.149 ...(v)
(ii) For fy = 415 N/mm2
⎛ M u.lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.36 × 0.479 × (1– 0.416 × 0.479)
⎝ fck ⋅ bd 2 ⎠
= 0.1381 @ 0.138 ...(vi)
(iii) For fy = 500 N/mm2
⎛ M u.lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.36 × 0.456 (1 – 0.416 × 0.456)
⎝ fck ⋅ bd 2 ⎠
= 0.13302 @ 0.133 ...(vii)
It is to note that these values have already been listed in Table 3.4 (a) [Table C, SP : 16–
1980] and the values of (Mu.lim/bd2) for different grades of concrete (M 15, M 20, M 25 and M
30) for fy = 250, 415 and 500 N/mm2 have also been calculated and noted in Table 3.4 (b)
[Table D, SP: 16–1980]. From Art. 3.12, and Eqs. 3.20,3.21 and 3.23, the values of pB.lim have
already been calculated for fy = 250,415 and 500 N/mm2 and listed in Table 3.3(a). So also, the
values for (PB.lim.fy/fck) have been calculated and listed in Table 3.3(b) [Table C, SP : 16–1980].
2. Under-reinforced beam sections. In the under-reinforced (singly reinforced
rectangular) beam sections, the actual percentage of reinforcement, p remains less than pB.lim
given in Table 3.3(a) [Table E, SP : 16–1980]. For such sections the ratio of (xu/d) also remains
less than (x u.max/d) given in Table 3.1 [Table B, SP: 16–1980]. The values of strain in steel
reinforcement at the limit state of collapse will therefore, be more than [(0.87fy/Es) + 0.0020]
and the design stress in steel will be 0.87fy.
(i) Depth of neutral axis. The depth of neutral axis is determined by equating total tensile
force in steel bars and total compressive force in the concrete in compression at ultimate load
⎛ P ⎞
(since, the beam section is in equilibrium). Therefore, ⎜ A st = ⋅ bd⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
Tsu = Ccu
(0.87fy )Ast = 0.36 fck . b . xu
p
or bd(0.87fy ) = 0.36 f . b. xu
100
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⋅ ...(viii)
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.36 fck ⎟⎠
(ii) Moment of resistance of beam section. The moment of resistance of beam section for the
under-reinforcement beam is calculated from tension side. Therefore
Mu.2 = Tsu. (lever arm)
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or Mu.2 = [(0.87fy) . Ast. (d – 0.416 xu)]

⎛ p⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
or Mu.2 = 0.87fy ⎜ 1 − 0.416 u ⎟ bd 2
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ d⎠
Substituting from the expression (viii), xu/d ...(ix)
⎛ p ⎞ ⎡ p 0.87 fy ⎤ 2
Mu.2 = 0.87 fy ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢1 − 0.416 × × ⎥ bd
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎣ 100 0.36 fck ⎦
⎛ p ⎞ ⎡ fy ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤ 2
Mu.2 = 0.87fy ⎜ ⋅ 1 − 1.005 ⋅ ⎟ ⎥ bd ...(x)
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎜
fck ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦
SP: 16–1980 includes the following Charts and Tables as design aids for the design of singly
reinforced rectangular beams as below:
(i) Charts. Charts 1 to 18 have been prepared by assigning different values of Mu/b and
plotting effect depth, d versus the percentage of steel reinforcement in tension. The moments
values in the Charts are in kN-m per metre width units. These Charts have been prepared for
three grades of steel (fy = 250,415 and 500 N/mm2) and two grades of concrete, (M 15 and M
20) which are most generally used for the beams.
(ii) Tables. Tables 1 to 4 have been prepared for five varieties of steel bars (viz., fy = 240,
250, 415, 480 and 500 N/mm2) and four grades of concrete (M 15, M 20, M 25 and M 30). In
these Tables, the percentage of reinforcement, p have been listed against Mu/bd2.
3.37.1 Control of Deflection

The deflection of beams will commonly be within the allowable limits. Specified in Art. 3.22.
These allowable limits are modified by multiplying with the modifications factors to account for
the effects of grade of concrete and percentage of reinforcement in tension (Fig. 3.12). In
normal designs, the reinforcement provided is kept equal to that needed from strength
consideration. The basic values of span to effective depth may be multiplied by the appropriate
values of the modifying factors and given in a form suitable for direct reference. Such Charts
have been prepared as explained below.
The basic span to effective depth ratio for simply supported beam is multiplied by the
modification factor for reinforcement in tension (Fig. 3.12) and plotted as the base curve in the
Chart. A separate Chart is plotted for each grade of steel. In this Chart, the span to effective
depth ratio is plotted on the vertical axis and the percentage reinforcement in tension is drawn
on the horizontal axis.
SP : 16–1980 may be referred directly. The design of singly reinforced rectangular beams
methods of referring to flexural Charts and Tables have been explained in the illustrative
examples given subsequently.
Professors Everard, N.J. and Tanner J.L. [Theory and Problems of Reinforced Concrete
Design, Schaum Publishing Co. New York, 1966 (pp. 325)] have given figures as design aids
and charts. These Professors have given solution for the factor for moment of resistance to
(bd2.fck). Professors Whitney, C.S. and Cohen, E [Guide for Ultimate Strength Design of
Reinforced Concrete, Journal ACI, Vol. 53, No. 5, November, 1956, (pp. 455–490)] have also
given solution for the factor for moment of resistance to (bd2 . fck).
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ACI Committee 340, [Design Handbook in Accordance with Strength Design Method of ACI
318–70, Vol. I, ACI Special Publication SP: 17(73), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973,
(pp. 432)] has given a most comprehensive set of design aids. A good guide to reasonably
proportioned members are the span/depth ratio listed in the ACI Code [Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318–1971, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1971, (pp.78)], which in case exceeded need the deflection of member to be checked.
Example 3.17 In Example 3.15, calculated the main tension reinforcement needed for the
rectangular beam section. Use SP : 16–1980 (viz., Design aids for reinforced concrete to IS:
456–1978).
Check whether the depth of the beam section is sufficient for control of deflection.
Solution
Design. From Example 3.15, the grade of concrete (viz., concrete mix) is M 20. The hysd
steel, Fe 415, reinforcement bars are to be used in tension.
Size of beam
Width of beam
b = 360 mm ...(i)
D = 580 mm ...(ii)
Factored (design) moment
MFd = 273.18 × 106 N-mm ... (iii)
Let 20 mm diameter of steel bars be used with 30 mm clear cover of concrete.
Effective cover for reinforcement
EC = (30 + 20/2) = 40 mm ...(iv)
Effective depth of the beam
d = (D – EC)
= (580 – 40) = 540 mm ...(v)
From Table D (SP : 16–1980) for fck = 20 N/mm2 and fy = 415 N/mm2, the ratio
(Mu.lim/bd 2) = 2.76 N/mm2 ...(vi)
Moment of resistance (strength) of given beam section (360 mm × d = 540 mm)
Mu.lim = 2.76 × bd2 ...(vii)
= 2.76 × 360 × 540 × 540 N-mm
= 289.73 × 106 N-mm
Factored (design) moment (given) Example 3.15,
MFd = 273.18 × 106 N-mm ...(viii)
The moment of resistance of given beam section, Mu.lim is more than the actual moment.
Therefore, the beam section is to be designed as a singly reinforced (under-reinforced),
rectangular section. The Charts and Tables given in SP : 16–1980 may be used as design aids
to find the main tension reinforcement needed.
(A) Percentage of steel reinforcement in tension
A (i) Flexural charts (SP : 16–1980)
For fck = 20 N/mm2 and fy = 415 N/mm2 charts 13, 14 and 15 are used depending upon the
value of effective depth [(50 mm to 300 mm), (300 mm to 550 mm) and ( 550 mm to 800 mm)
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respectively]. These charts require the value of moment per metre width of the beam, i.e.,
(MFd/b). Since the effective depth of beam is 540 mm, therefore Chart 14 shall be used.
From chart 14,
Effective depth d = 540 mm ...(ix)
Moment per metre width of me beam section
M Fd ⎛ 273.18 ⎞
= ⎜ = 758.83 × 106 N-mm per metre width ...(x)
b ⎝ 0.360 ⎟⎠
For (d = 540 mm) and (MFd/b) = 758.83 kN-m/m. 9 horizontal line is taken from d = 540 mm
upto a curve of (MFd/b) = 758.83 kN-m/m (in case, this value lies between two curves, a linear
interpolation may be done) and then, a vertical ordinate is drawn to the base line. As such, the
percentage of steel in tension (from Chart 14)
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞
pt = ⎜ = 0.885 percent ...(xi)
⎝ bd ⎟⎠
⎛ 0.885 ⎞
∴ Ast = ⎜ × 360 × 540⎟ = 1720.440 mm2 ...(xii)
⎝ 100 ⎠
In Example 3.15, the required area of steel reinforcement calculated
Ast = 1754.96 mm2 ...(xiii)
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ 1754.96 × 100
pt = ⎜
⎝ bd ⎟⎠ 360 × 540
= 0.9028 percent
The difference between two values is very small.
A (ii) Flexural Tables (SP : 16–1980)
The flexural Tables 1 to 4 (SP : 16–1980) are used for singly reinforced beam sections. These
Tables are for five values of fy (240, 250, 415, 480 and 500 N/mm2, respectively) and fck = 15,
20, 25 and 30 N/mm2, respectively. These Tables are for (MFd/bd2) N/mm2 [for (0.30 to 224),
(0.30 to 2.98), (0.30 to 3.74) and (0.30 to 4.45) N/mm2 values]. For fck = 20 N/mm2 Table 2 (SP :
16–1980) is applicable
Table 2 (SP: 16–1980)
⎛ M Fd ⎞ ⎛ 273.18 × 106 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ 360 × 540 × 540 ⎟ = 2.602 ...(xiv)
bd2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(xv)
For (MFd/bd2) = 2.60, pt = 0.883 percent

⎛ 0.884 ⎞
Ast = ⎜ × 360 × 540⎟ = 1718.496 mm2 ...(xvi)
⎝ 100 ⎠
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Two values of area of steel reinforcement in tension needed are practically equal. The difference
between these values and that calculated is also very small. It is seen that the percentage of
area for steel reinforcement to be provided in singly reinforced rectangular beam section may
be determined very quickly using the design aids (i.e.,Charts or/and Tables from SP: 16–1980).
B. Check for control of deflection
Effective span of beam in Example 3.15
Es = 5250 mm ...(xvii)
Actual ratio
⎛ span ⎞ ⎛ 5250 ⎞
⎜⎝ effective depth ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 540 ⎟⎠ = 9.722 ...(xviii)
Percentage of area of steel reinforcement in tension needed

From Charts, pt = 0.885 percent ...(xix)
From Table, pt = 0.884 percent ...(xx)
B (i) Charts (SP: 16–1980)
Charts 21, 22 and 23 (SP : 16–1980) are for fy = 250, 415 and 500 N/mm2, respectively.
These charts are for maximum ratio of (span/effective depth) and tension reinforcement. Different
curves are given in each chart for fck = 15, 20 and 25 N/mm2, respectively. Therefore, for Fe
415 steel bars chart 22 (SP : 16–1980) is applicable.
Grade of concrete is M 20. As such,
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(xxi)
For percentage of steel reinforcement in tension
pt = 0.884 percent ...(xxii)
(Maximum span/d) ratio from chart 22,
= 194 ...(xxiii)
It is to note that the actual ratio of (span/effective depth) = 9.722 is less than the allowable
value of ratio of (span/effective depth) = 19.4. Therefore, the depth provided is sufficient for
controlling deflection.
Hence, the design of beam carried out by the limit state of collapse in flexure and checked for
the control of deflection (viz., limit state of serviceability) by using design aids (SP : 16–1980)
is found to be satisfactory. The tension reinforcement provided is shown Fig. 3.33.
Example 3.18 In Example 3.16, calculate the main tension rein forcement needed for the
rectangular beam section. Use SP : 16–1980 (viz., Design aids for reinforced concrete to IS :
456–1978).
Check whether the depth of the beam section is sufficient for control of deflection:
Solution
Design. From Example 3.16, the grade of concrete (viz., concrete mix) in M 15. The mild
steel, Fe 250 reinforcement bars are to be used in tension.
Size of beam :
Width of beam
b = 320 mm ...(i)
D = 480 mm ...(ii)
Factored (Design) moment :
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MFd = 134.04 kN-m ...(iii)

Let 20 mm diameter of steel bars be used with 30 mm clear concrete cover Effective cover for
reinforcement
Ec = (30 + 20/2) = 40 mm ...(iv)
d = (D – EC)
= (480 – 40) = 440 mm ...(v)
From Table D. (SP : 16–1980) for fck = 15 N/mm2 and fy
= 250 N/mm2, the ratio
(Mu.lim/bd) = 2.24 N/mm2 ...(vi)
Moment of resistance (strength) of given beam section (b = 320 mm × d = 440 mm)
Mu.lim = 2.24 × 320 × 440 × 440 N-mm
= 138.77 kN-m ...(vii)
Factored (design) moment (given) Example 3.16,
MFd = 134.04 kN-m ...(viii)
The moment of resistance of given below section, Mu.lim is more than the actual moment.
Therefore, the beam section is to be designed as a singly reinforced (under-reinforced)
rectangular section. The Charts and Tables given in SP: 16–1980 may be used as design aid
to find the main tension reinforcement needed.
(A) Percentage of steel reinforcement in tension
A (i) Flexural charts (SP : 16–1980)
For fck = 15 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2 charts 1, 2 and 3 are used depending upon the value
of effective depth [(50 mm to 300 mm), (300 mm to 550 mm) and (550 mm to 800 mm),
respectively]. These charts require the value of moment per metre width of the beam, i.e.,
(MFd/b). Since the effective depth of beam is 440 mm, therefore, chart 2 shall be used.
For chart 2
Effective depth
d = 440 mm ...(ix)
Moment per metre width of the beam section
MF ⎛ 134.04 ⎞
= ⎜ = 418.875 kN-m/m
b ⎝ 0.320 ⎟⎠
For (d = 440 mm) and (MFd/b) = 758 83 kN-m/m a horizontal line is drawn from d = 440 mm
upto a curve of (MFd/b) = 418.875 kN-m/m (in case, this value lies between two curves, a linear
interpolation may be done) and then, a vertical ordinate is drawn to the base line. As such the
percentage of steel in tension (from Chart 2) pt = 100 Ast/bd
pt = 1.25 percent ...(xi)
⎛ 1.25 ⎞
Ast = ⎜ × 320 × 440⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= 1760 mm2 ...(xii)
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In Example 3.16, the required area of steel reinforcement calculated

Ast = 1801.68 mm2 ...(xiii)
pt = 1.279 percent
The difference between two values is very small.
A (ii) Flexural Tables (SP : 16–1980)
The flexural Tables 1 to 4 (SP : 16–1980) are used for singly reinforced beam sections. These
Tables are for fire values of fy (240, 250, 415, 480 and 500 N/mm2, respectively) and fck = 15,
20, 25 and 30 N/mm2, respectively). These Tables are for (MFd/bd2) N/mm2. [For (0.30 to 2.24),
(0.30 to 2.98), (0.30 to 3.74) and (0.30 to 4.45) N/mm2 values]. For fck = 15 N/mm2 Table 1 (SP :
16–1980) is applicable.
⎛ M Fd ⎞ ⎛ 134.04 × 106 ⎞
= 2
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟
bd ⎠ ⎜ 320 × 440 × 440 ⎟ = 2.1636 N/mm ...(xiv)
⎝ ⎠
fy = 250 N/mm2 ...(xv)
2
For (MFd.bd ) = 2.16, pt = 1.259 percent
For (MFd.bd2) = 2.18, pt = 1.275 percent
For (MFd.bd2) = 2.1636, pt = 1.262 percent
⎛ 1.262 ⎞
Ast = ⎜ × 320 × 440⎟ = 177.690 mm2 ...(xvi)
⎝ 100 ⎠
Two values of area of steel reinforcement is tension needed are practically equal. The difference
between these values and that calculated is also very small. It is seen that the percentage of
area of steel reinforcement to be provided in singly reinforced rectangular beam section may be
determined very quickly using the design aids (i.e., Charts or/and Tables from SP: 16–1980).
(B) Check for deflections :
Effective span of beam in Example 3.16
ES = 5580 mm ...(xvii)
⎛ span ⎞ ⎛ 5580 ⎞
Actual ratio = ⎜ = 12.682 ...(xviii)
⎜⎝ effective depth ⎟⎠ ⎝ 440 ⎟⎠
Percentage of area of steel reinforcement in tension needed

From chart, pt = 1.25 percent ... (xix)
From Table, pt = 1.262 percent ...(xx)
(B) (i) Charts (SP : 16–1980)
Charts 21, 22 and 23 (SP: 16–1980) are for fy = 250, 415 and 500 N/mm2, respectively.
These charts are for maximum ratio of (span/effective depth) and tension reinforcement. Different
curves are given in each chart for fy = 15, 20 and 25, N/mm2, respectively. Therefore, for Fe
250 steel bars, Chart 21 (SP : 16–1980) is applicable Grade of concrete in M 15. As such
fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(xxi)
For percentage of steel reinforcement in tension
pt = 1.25 percent ...(xxii)
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(Maximum span/d) ratio from Chart 21,

= 26 ...(xxiii)
It is to note that the actual ratio of (span/effective depth) = 12.682 is less than the allowable
value of ratio of (span/effective depth) = 26. Therefore, the depth provided is sufficient for
controlling deflection.
Hence, the design of beam carried out by the limit state of collapse in flexure and checked for
the control of deflection (viz., limit state of serviceability) by using design aids (SP : 16–1980)
is found to be satisfactory. The tension reinforcement provided is shown in Fig. 3.35.
3.38 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN SHEAR

The shear failure at any section of a beam is brittle and catastrophic in nature. In order to keep
the failure of a beam ductile in nature, sufficient shear resistance is provided in all the regions
of the beam so that in case of overloading, the load carrying capacity of the beam is controlled
mostly by flexure. The rules specified in code IS : 456–1978 for curtailment of tension
reinforcement and for bond and anchorage also assist in keeping the chances of shear failure
to a minimum.
The provision for shear in this code limits the nominal shear stress, τv at factored (design)
load W Fd for beams which does not contain web reinforcement. In case, τv is more than the
design shear strength of concrete, τc in shear, then, the shear reinforcement is provided as
specified in the code. However, incase τv is more than τc.max, the beam section is redesigned.
The factored (design) shear force is determined by an elastic analysis of the structure using
the appropriate partial safety factors or loads at collapse, γfL. This factored (design) shear force,
τFd does not include the shear force due to torsion for which separate provisions are specified in
the code. The critical section for shear is also specified in the code and it is described in subsequent
sections.
3.39 DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS

When the beams carry transverse loads, the bending of beams takes place. The bending of
beams create a tendency in the particles to slide upon each other within the beam. This tendency
of the particles to slide upon each other is called shear. The resistance to sliding offered by the
material of beam is called shear strength. The algebraic sum of the external loads to the left or
right (only on one side) of an imaginary transverse section of a beam called shear force, V also
develops along with the bending moment M at the transverse section. The bending stresses
develop at the section due to bending moment. Similarly, the shear stresses also develop at the
section. The magnitude and distribution of the shear stresses at the various sections of the
beam depends upon the external loads, the shape and the dimensions of beam. Due to vertical
relative sliding on either side of a transverse section, the vertical shear stresses develop at the
section. Due to horizontal sliding on either of a horizontal or longitudinal section of a beam, the
horizontal shear stresses develop. The vertical shear stresses and horizontal shear stresses develop
at any point in the transverse section are equal. The magnitude of shear stresses at a height y
from the neutral axis for a beam of homogeneous material and its distribution across the cross-
section of beam may be found as follows :
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A small portion of a simply supported beam (say Fig. 1.1 a(i)) of homogeneous material and
of rectangular cross-section is shown in Fig. 3.36 AD and BC are two transverse section (sections
perpendicular to length) δx distance apart measured parallel to the neutral surface GH. Let
the width of beam section at any height y above GH be denoted by z. Let M and V, and (M +
δM) and V be the bending moments and shear forces at the sections AD and BC, respectively.
M M +6m
A B B b B'
E F F F'
y1 z γ
y1
v y y
G N e utral axis H
b
V
D C
δx
(i) P o rtio n of bea m alon g len g th (ii) B ea m se ction (iii) S he a r stre ss d istribu tio n
Fig. 3.36
The longitudinal or horizontal bending stress at the section AD at any height, y is σb = (M.y/I)
where I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section. Consider the equilibrium of portion
ABEF between two sections. The longitudinal force at AE on any element of cross-section, of
area zdy is
M
FAE = σb . z . dy = y . z . dy ...(i)
I
The longitudinal force at BF on the same element at the same height y
( M + δM )
FBF = y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(ii)
I
The difference between the two longitudinal forces
δM
FBF – FAE = ⋅ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(iii)
I
The total difference between the two longitudinal forces
y1 y1
δM δM
∑(FBF – FAE) = ∫ I
⋅ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy =
I ∫ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(iv)
y y
The portion of beam is in equilibrium. Hence the total difference of longitudinal forces on the
portion ABFE is zero. It is balanced, by the horizontal shear force on the surface EF. Let
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τ represent the shear stress at a height y (neglecting any change in τ in length δx), the shear
force
y1
δM
τ . z . δx =
I ∫ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(v)
y
y1
δM 1
or τ = ⋅
δx I ⋅ z
⋅ ∫ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(vi)
y
y1
V ⎡ δM ⎤
or τ =
I ⋅Z ∫ ⋅ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ⎢3 δx = V ⎥
⎣ ⎦
...(3.73)
y
y1
It may be noted that ∫ ⋅ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy is the moment of area BFF´B´ about the neutral axis, (which
y
is equal to product of area BFF´B = A and distance of its centroid from neutral axis, y ). Therefore
V V ⋅Q
τ = ⋅ Ay = ...(3.74)
IZ IZ
where Q is the static moment of area above the surface considered about the neutral axis of the
beam section. The stresses at the outer fibres are zero.
For the rectangular beam section, substituting the values of I and Z in Eq. 3.73 the shear
stress, τ is found as under :
h/2
V
τ =
1
× ∫ b ⋅ y ⋅ dy ...(vii)
⋅ bh3 ⋅ b y
12
6V ⎡ h2 2
⎤
or τ = ⎢ − y ⎥ ...(viii)
b ⋅ h3 ⎣ 4 ⎦
The various values of τ plotted as ordinates with height of beam, h as the base line, the
distribution of shear stress τ is seen as parabolic, with y = 0.
1.5V
τ = (maximum at neutral axis)
b⋅h
In case of reinforced concrete beam, the distribution of shear stress is different from that for
a beam of homogeneous material. In reinforced concrete beam, the beam section is considered
as cracked section. The portion of concrete in tension is neglected. However, a perfect bond
exists between concrete and steel in tension. Consider a small portion of a simply supported
beam reinforced with steel bars in tension only and of rectangular section as shown in Fig. 3.37.
AD and BC are two transverse section, fix distance apart. Due to the moments shown in Fig. 3.37
C and (C + δc) and T and (T + δT) are the compressive forces and tensile forces developed at
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sections AD and BC, respectively. Let n be the distance of top fibre in concrete in compression
and (d – n) be the distance of centre of steel in tension from the neutral axis.
The distribution of shear stresses in concrete above neutral axis is similar to that in beam of
homogeneous material. The magnitude of shear stress may be written from Eq. 3.73 as below
for the reinforced concrete beam section for the layer at a height y above the neutral axis upto
the top fibre.
M (M + δM )
b
A B
C (C + δC )
V τ
E F n
G H
jd
V
( d –n )
τb
T ( T + δT )
τv
δx τ
(a ) P o rtion of b ea m alon g len g th (b ) B e am se ction (c) S h ea r stre ss distrib ution
Fig. 3.37
Therefore,
y1 n
V V
τ =
I ⋅Z ∫ ⋅ y ⋅ z ⋅ dy =
IZ ∫y
y ⋅ z ⋅ dy ...(ix)
y
V 1
τ = ⋅ b ⋅ ⎡⎣n2 − y2 ⎤⎦ ...(3.75)
I ⋅b 2
From Eq. 3 .75 it is seen that, the distribution of stress is parabolic from top of the beam upto
neutral axis as shown in Fig. 3.37 (c). The difference between longitudinal or horizontal forces
below the neutral axis [(T + δT) –T = δT] is balanced by the shear force.Therefore,
τ.b.δτ = δT ...(x)
The portion of beam ABCD is in equilibrium and hence, the sum of moments is zero. Therefore,
taking moment of forces about the line of action of compressive forces
(T + δT) . jd = T.jd + V. δx ...(xi)
V ⋅ δx
∴ δT = ...(xii)
jd
From the expressions (x) and (xii),
δx
τ .b.δx = V ⋅
jd
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V
or τ = ...(3.76a)
b ⋅ jd
From Eq. 3.76 it is seen that the shear stress, τ below neutral axis remains constant and its
distribution is rectangular as shown in Fig. 3.37 (c).
3.39.1 Nominal Shear Stress

A concept of nominal shear stress has been newly introduced in IS : 456–1978. The nominal
shear stress is a measure of the shear resistance offered by the concrete. It is simply an indication
of the shear resistance offered by the concrete and it does not necessarily represent the actual
stress conditions. The nominal shear stress in beams of uniform depth is represented by τc and
it is calculated as below:
VFd
τv = ...(3.76b)
bd
where, V Fd = factored (design) shear force due to factored loads
b = breadth of the beam
d = effective depth of the beam
The term factored shear force means the shear force due to charactic loads multiplied by
the appropriate value of partial safety factors for loads γfL (that is, the loads correspond to
hypothetical ultimate load applied to beams).
The distribution of nominal shear stress, τc along the full effective depth, d is considered as
uniform as shown by dotted line, Fig. 3.37 (c).
3.40 SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS OF VARYING DEPTH

In practice, the beam sections of uniform width and varying depth are commonly used. For
example, in cantilever beams, the depth of beam section increases from its free end towards
fixed support. The bending moment, M also increases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth, d increases. Consider a small portion of this wedged shape beam of length δx as
shown in Fig. 3.38 (a). Let d and d1 be the effective depths of beam section at the faces AB and
GH respectively. Let V be the shear force due to design loads at the face GK.
Let (T + δT) and T be the tensile forces in steel reinforcement (provided parallel to the face
inclined at an angle β with the horizontal, and (C + δC) and C be the compressive forces
(parallel to the face inclined at an angle α with the horizontal) in concrete at sections GH and
AB, respectively developed due to bending of beam. The compressive forces (C + δC) and C may
be resolved horizontally and vertically. Their horizontal and vertical components are as follows:
HG.K.C = (C + δC). cos α ...(i)
VG.K.C = (C + δC). cos α (acts downward) ...(ii)
HAB.C = C . cos α ...(iii)
VAB.C = C. sin α (acts upward) ...(iv)
These vertical components VGK.C and VAB.C may also be expressed in terms of horizontal
components HGK.C and HAB.C respectively. Therefore,
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VGK.C = HGK.C tan α ...(v)

VAB.C = HAB.C tan α ...(vi)
The tensile forces (T + Tδ) and T may also be resolved horizontally and vertically. The
horizontal and vertical components are as follows:
HGK.T = (T + δT) . cos β ... (vii)
VGK.T = (T + δT) . sin β (acts downward) ...(viii)
HAB.T = T . cos β ...(ix)
VAB.T = T. sin β (acts upward) ...(x)
The vertical components may also be expressed in terms of horizontal components. Therefore,
VGK.T = HGK.T tanβ ...(XI)
VAB.T = HAB.T tanβ ...(xii)
Shear force at the face GK
Net shear force at the face GK shall be as below : (3 HGK.C = HGK.T)
= V – HGK.C tan α – HGK.T tan β
= V – HGK (tan α + tan β) ...(xiii)
The horizontal component, HGK may be approximately written as under :
HGK = MGK/d1 ...(xiv)
Therefore, the net shear force may be written as
= V – MGK (tan α + tan β) ...(xv)
The difference between the forces in steel reinforcement
[T + δT) – T = δT]
is balanced by the shear force. Therefore,
t . b. δx sec β = δT ...(xvi)
The portion of beam, Fig. 3.38 (a) is in equilibrium hence, the sum of moments is zero.
Therefore, taking moment about a point on the line of action of compressive forces at the
section GK.
C o m p o ne nt
1 σ 2α
2 c bc b kd cos b
α A σc b c
( kd /3)
kd
C
d c = 1 /2 d
jd jd
T = A s t σs t
Ast
A s t σst cos β
B com p on en t
β
(a ) P o rtion o f b ea m alon g le ng th (b ) B e am se ctio n
Fig. 3.38
(T + δT) jd1 = T. jd1 + [(V – MGK (tan α + tan β)/d1] δx . sec β

∴ δT = [V – MGK (tan α + tan β)/d1] . δx sec b/jd1 ...(xvii)
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From the expressions (xvi) and (xvii)

δx sec β
τ . b. δx . sec β = [V – MGK . (tan α + tan/β)d1 ]
jd1
V − M GK ⋅ (tan α + tan β ) d1
τ = ...(3.77a)
b ⋅ jd1
When the compression face of beam is horizontal and the tension face only is
inclined
When the compression face of beam is horizontal, the value of tan β shall be zero. Then,
Eq. 3.77(a) reduces as below :
VFd − M GK (tan β ) / d1
τ = ...(3.77b)
b ⋅ jd1
When the tension face of beam is horizontal and the compression face is inclined
When the tension face of beam is horizontal, the value of tan β shall be zero. Then, Eq. 3.77 (a)
reduces as below :
VFd − M GK (tan α ) / d1
τ = ...(3.77c)
b ⋅ jd1
For beams of varying depth, Eqs. 3.77 (a), (b) and (c) reduce as below for nominal shear
stress
VFd m M Fd (tan α + tan β ) / d
τv = ...(3.78a)
b⋅d
VFd m M Fd (tan β) / d
τv = (378b)
b⋅d
VFd m M Fd (tan α ) / d
τv = (3.78c)
b⋅d
where M and d are the bending moment and the effective depth at the section.
The negative sign in Eq. 3.78 is used when the bending moment, M increases numerically in
the same direction as the effective depth, d increases. And the positive sign when the moment
decreases numerically in this direction.
3.41 DIAGONAL TENSION IN HOMOGENEOUS ELASTIC BEAMS

A beam of homogeneous material (say, steel or timber) simply supported at its both the ends
and carrying transverse loads is shown in Fig. 3.39 (a). Let V and M be the shear force and the
bending moment at any section XX of the beam. The portion of beam above neutral axis carries
compressive bending stresses in the horizontal direction (normal to section XX) and that below
the neutral axis carries tensile bending stresses in the horizontal direction due to bending
moment. The bending stresses
σ´b = M.y/I ...(i)
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The section of beam also carries shear stresses

τv = V.(A y )/(I.b) ...(ii)
where Ay is the statical moment of area A above/below a line (parallel to neutral axis) upto the
face of the beam (upper or lower) and y is the distance of its centroid measured from neutral
axis. I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about neutral axis and b is the width
of beam at the line being considered.
X τv
A B
τv '
N e utral axis T C
A B σb σb
D C
D τv́
X C
S p an
(a ) S im p ly su pp orted b ea m of ho m og en eo u s m a te ria l (b ) E lem e nta ry section
Fig. 3.39
The shear stresses, τv as in expression (ii) act vertically (parallel to section XX) and these
shear stresses always accompany complementary shear stresses, τv´ which act horizontally and
τv and τv´ are equal.
In case any elementary portion ABCD of beam shown on exaggerated scale in Fig. 3.39 (b)
located anywhere (but neither at the neutral axis nor at the outer edges. This elementary
portion ABCD carries six stresses as shown in Fig. 3.39 (b). These six stresses may be combined
to principal stresses, (compressive and tensile) which act at right angles to each other. The
principal stresses are given by
2 1/2
σb ⎡⎛ σb ⎞ 2
⎤
α = ± ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + ( τv ) ⎥ ...(iii)
2 ⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
The inclination of principal stresses α is given by
tan 2α = 2τv/σb ...(iv)
The magnitudes of bending stress, σb and the shear stress,τv change both along the length
of beam and vertically with the distance from the neutral axis. Therefore, the magnitudes and
inclination of principal stress, σ also change for the element depending upon its location.
At the neutral axis or at the support of beam it is seen that the bending stresses are zero.
Therefore, from expression (iv)
2 τv
tan 2α = = ∞, (3 α = 45°) ...(v)
(zero)
The inclination of principal stresses, α is 45°. At support, the principal stress σ is tensile along
the diagonal AC and it is compressive along the diagonal BD. The diagonal tensile principal is
called as diagonal tension. Its magnitude is obtained from expression (iii), as below
|σ| = |τv| ...(va)
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At the outer faceslor at the centre of beam, the shear stresses τv are zero. Therefore, from
expression (iv)
2 ⋅ (zero)
tan 2α = = (zero). (Q α = 0) ...(vi)
σb
The inclination of principal stress, α is zero. The principal stress acts horizontally.
It is to note that the principal tensile stress obtained by combining the bending and shear
stress, is also referred as diagonal tension. Its inclination varies from zero at mid span to 45° at
support. These principal tensile stresses exist at all locations of a beam and it may damage or
harm the integrity of beam, if it is not adequately provided for.
Since, the tensile strength of concrete is low, this principal tensile stress (known as diagonal
tension also must be carefully considered in the reinforced concrete beam design.
3.42 BEAMS WITHOUT SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

Plain concrete beams without reinforcement behave similarly to homogeneous elastic beams as
regards shear. In a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the maximum
bending moment occurs at the centre. The bending tensile stress is maximum at the section
carrying maximum bending moment at the outer fibre. As the transverse loads are increased,
a tension crack forms at the outer fibre by bending alone. The influence of shear on the strength
of beam (if any) is very small.
Reinforced concrete beams with tension reinforcement (viz., longitudinal or main
reinforcement) and without shear reinforcement carry much higher loads. Steel in tension
provides necessary bending strength, (though tension cracks develop at the outer fibre as
above) and resists longitudinal tension near the tension face.
Shear stresses develop, in beam along with bending stresses. The shear stresses increase as
the loads are increased. The shear stresses combined with bending stresses result in principal
stresses. The principal tensile stresses exist in all the regions of beam. The longitudinal
reinforcement does not resist the principal tensile stresses existing at other locations. The concrete
is weak in tension. The principal tensile stresses increase as the loads are increased and cause
cracks in the direction perpendicular to these stresses as shown in Fig. 3.40. These cracks are
called as diagonal cracks in distinction to the vertical flexural cracks form near the section of
D ia g on al te nsio n C ra cks
Fig. 3.40 Direction of cracks due to diagonal tension
maximum bending moment first. But in the regions where both the shear force and bending
moment have comparatively large values, the diagonal tensile stress at the upper end of one or
more of these cracks exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, the cracks bend in diagonal
direction and their lengths and widths increase. These cracks are called as flexural-shear cracks
as shown in Fig. 3.41. In the beams of short spans, the flexural stresses are negligibly small and
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the shear stresses are very high near the supports. The diagonal tensile stresses are inclined 45°
and are numerically equal to the shear stresses which are maximum at the neutral axis. The
diagonal cracks (which are also called as web shear cracks) form mostly at or near the neutral
axis when the tensile stresses exceeds the tensile strength of concrete as shown in Fig. 3.41.
Flexu ral – sh ear cra cks

N e utral axis
4 5°
D ia g on al (W e b sh ea r) E lexural cracks
cracks
( L /2)
Fig. 3.41. Cracks in reinforced concrete beam without shear reinforcement
In order to counteract the effect of diagonal tension, it is necessary to provide shear

reinforcement in the reinforced concrete beams.
3.43 BEHAVIOUR OF DIAGONALLY CRACKED BEAMS

In reinforced concrete beams without shear reinforcement, the vertical flexural cracks are
allowed to occur on the tension side. These cracks are not harmful to the strength of beam
because, the beams have sufficient longitudinal reinforcement to resist the bending tensile
stresses. However, the principal tensile stresses (diagonal tension) exist at all regions and
there is not shear reinforcement. When the loads are increased on the beams, the diagonal
tension (principal tensile stress) also increased and it exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete
and the diagonal cracks are formed in the concrete in the direction perpendicular to the diagonal
tension. These diagonal cracks govern the behaviour and strength of reinforced beams without
shear reinforcement. Present knowledge is based on many tests conducted on such beams,
which show that the performance of such beams is of following two types.
Type-1 performance :
After formation of a diagonal crack, the diagonal crack spreads either immediately at the same
loads or at increasing the load slightly. From the tension reinforcement, the diagonal crack traverses
the beam to the compression face. The beam splits in two portions and the beam fails.
This process occurs suddenly without warning. It happens mainly in shallow beams (i.e.,
beams with span depth ratios of about 8 or more). The reinforced concrete beams without shear
reinforcement become vulnerable to accidental large over loads and such beams are likely to
have catastrophic failure without warning.
Even if the beams do not need shear reinforcement, it is good practice to provide a minimum
shear reinforcement. The shear reinforcement counteracts the growth of diagonal cracks. The
shear reinforcement increases the ductility of the beam. There shall be warning before actual
failure.
In some slabs and footings, the actual shear stresses are very small as compared to their
critical values and in such some situations, an unusual large factor of safety is used. For such
structural members, it is not necessary to provide shear reinforcement and it is omitted.
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Type-2 performance :
After formation of a diagonal crack, the diagonal crack spreads toward and partially into the
compression zone. However the diagonal crack does not penetrate into the compression zone.
In this type of behaviour, the beam does not collapse suddenly. The failure of beam takes place
at load significantly more than the load at which the diagonal crack first develops. The deep
beams (viz., beams having smaller span-depth ratios) show this type of performance.
3.44 SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

When the beams are subjected to transverse loads, bending moment M and shear force V
develop at every transverse section of a beam. When the loads are increased, such that the
diagonal tension in beam exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, a diagonal tension is formed
as shown in Fig. 3.42 (a). The external shear force, V is resisted by internal shear strength of
the beam, Vint. The internal shear strength Vint consists of shear strength of uncracked concrete,
Vcc in compression zone, the vertical component of aggregate interlocking force, Vyi and the
dowel action, Vda (the shear force) acting across the longitudinal steel bars. Therefore, the
resistance of concrete beam with longitudinal reinforcement only.
Vint = Vcc + Vyi + Vda ...(i)
The beam is in equilibrium and therefore Vint is equal to Vext. Therefore,
Vcc = Vext – Vyi – Vda ...(ii)
The shear strength of uncracked concrete, Vcc increases with the quality of concrete. The
interlocking force, Vai depends upon type of aggregate. For light weight aggregates, the
1
interlocking force, Vai shall be comparatively small. This interlocking force, Vai is rd and
3
more of the total shear force. The dowel action force, Vda across the longitudinal reinforcement
is usually very small. The longitudinal reinforcement is supported against (vertical displacement
mainly by the thin layer of concrete. The vertical tensile stresses develop in this concrete due to
the bearing pressure due to Vda as shown in Fig. 3.42 (a). These vertical tensile stresses split
the concrete along the longitudinal reinforcement and decrease the dowel action force Vda and
widen the diagonal crack. In this process, the aggregate interlocking force, Vai also decreases
and vanishes completely and frequently leads to immediate failure due to rapid transfer of
large shear force to concrete in compression.
Vcc
Vai
Vyi jd
Vxi
T
R Vda
Fig. 3.42 (a) Forces at diagonal crack in a beam without shear reinforcment
The resistance of concrete against external shear is given by

Vc = τc.b.d ...(3.79)
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where, τc = design shear stress in concrete in beam with longitudinal reinforcement and
without shear reinforcement discussed in Art. 3.50.
Professor B.V. Rangan has specified a criterion in his paper titled as ‘Diagonal Cracking
strengths in Shear of Reinforced Concrete Beams’ published in Civil Engineering Transactions,
Institution of Engineers, Australia, Vol. C.E. 14, No.1, 1972 that the diagonal cracking strength
in shear is reached whenever the principal tensile stress at the the neutral axis of flexurally
cracked beam attains the tensile strength of concrete. Professor B.V. Rangan has specified a
semi-emperical formula τc based on this criterion as below
0.85(0.8 fck )1 / 2 [(1 + 5β)1 / 2 − 1]

τc = ...(3.80)
6β
where
P = 0.8fck/(6.89 pt), but not less than unity, and
pt = 100 As/b.d
The cylinder strength has been converted to cube strength by using a factor 0.8 in the above
formula. A reduction factor of 0.85 similar to the partial safety factor for the material is used.
The permissible shear stress in concrete, τc serves two purposes. Firstly it prescribes a limit
for the shear carried by beams without shear reinforcements. Secondly, it gives a measure of
shear carried by concrete in a member with shear reinforcement.
When the resistance of concrete, Vc in shear becomes insufficient, then, the shear reinforcement
is provided to keep the two portions of splitted beam together. The shear reinforcement is also
referred as web reinforcement or transverse reinforcement. Total external shear force.Vext is
resisted by the resistance of concrete to shear, Vc and the resistance of shear reinforcement to
shear, Vs as shown in Fig. 3.42 (b). Therefore
Vext = (Vcc + Vyi + Vda) + Vus ...(iii)
or V Fd = Vuc + Vus ...(iv)
or Vus = (VFd – Vus)
or Vus = [VFd – τc.bd] ...(3.81)
where, Vus = Shear force carried by shear reinforcement.
Vcc
Vyi jd
Vs Vxi
T = σs t . A st
Vda
R
p
Fig. 3.33 (b) Forces at diagonal crack in a beam with vertical stirrups
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Practically, the shear reinforcement remains free of stress prior to the development of diagonal
cracks. The shear reinforcement increases the shear resistance of a reinforced concrete beam
after the formation of diagonal cracks as follows :
A portion of shear force, viz., Vus is resisted by the vertical/inclined bars which cross a particular
crack. The growth of diagonal cracks is checked by the presence of these bars. The possibility of
penetration of diagonal crack into the compression zone is also reduced due to these bars. Two
cracked faces of a diagonal crack is kept in close contact by the shear reinforcement. It increases
the interlocking force, Vai. The longitudinal reinforcement is tied into the main mass of the
concrete by the shear reinforcement. The longitudinal reinforcement gets support in addition
to that from concrete in cover. The possibility of development of a crack along the longitudinal
reinforcement is reduced and the portion of shear force resisted by the dowel action of concrete,
Vda increases.
3.45 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

When the diagonal tensile stress in the surrounding of neutral axis of a beam attains the value
of tensile strength of the concrete, a diagonal crack develops in the beam. In order to resist the
diagonal tensile stress and to check the development of diagonal cracks, the shear reinforcement
(also referred as web reinforcement or transverse reinforcement) is provided in the beams having
longitudinal or main reinforcement. Following types of shear reinforcement are provided in
the reinforced concrete beams.
Vertical stirrups placed at varying spacing along the length of the beam are very commonly
used as shear reinforcement. Alternatively, the bent-up bars (a part of longitudinal tensile
reinforcement where it is no more required to resist tension due to bending) are provided in the
reinforced concrete beams. The bent-up bars along with vertical stirrups are also used as shear
reinforcement. Formerly, inclined stirrups in the direction perpendicular to the possible diagonal
cracks used to be provided.
3.46 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH VERTICAL STIRRUPS

Vertical stirrups (stirrups in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement are
most frequently used as shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams. Although, the vertical
stirrups are not placed theoretically in the direction of diagonal tension, these stirrups resist
the diagonal tensile stresses very effectively. These stirrups are secured against slipping in a
horizontal direction. These are easily kept in position during construction. Stirrups are made of
steel bars of comparatively small diameter, (e.g., 5 mm, 6 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm or 12 mm). Small
sizes of bars are used for shear stirrups as these are usually strong enough when provided
with closed spacing. The bars may be bent more easily and sharply to the shape as desired.
These vertical stirrups are independent of the main reinforcement in tension and these bars
extend from tension zone into the compression zone and are anchored there. Holding bars also
termed as (anchored bars) which run in longitudinal direction in compression zone, are used to
keep the stirrups in position. Figure 3.43 shows one-legged, two-legged, four-legged and
multilegged vertical stirrups used as shear reinforcement.
The steel bars of vertical stirrups are bent round the holding bars of at least its own diameter
through an angle of 135° and are continued beyond the end of curve for a length of at least six
times the diameter of bar. The shear reinforcement is thus anchored with the holding bars in
compression zone of the concrete.
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1 1
2 2
1 4
2 3 2
(i) O ne leg ge d (ii) Tw o leg ge d (iii) Fo ur leg g ed (iv) M u lti leg ge d
Fig. 3.43 Various types of stirrups
One vertical stirrup traversing a diagonal crack exerts a force Asv .(0.87fy) on the given
portion of beam, where Av is the cross-sectional area of the stirrup bar and 0.87fy is the tensile
stress in the stirrup. In case of two-legged stirrups, Asv is twice the cross-sectional area of one
bar. In case Vus is the portion of the shear force resisted by the shear reinforcement (viz.,
vertical stirrups) and n is the number of vertical stirrups traversing a diagonal crack, then
Vus = n . Asv .0.87fy ...(i)
The external shear force, V varies along the length of a beam. The spacing of vertical stirrups,
sv also varies along the length of beam. The spacing of vertical stirrups is found as follows :
3.46.1 Spacing of Vertical Stirrups

Figure 3.42 (b) shows the horizontal projection, p for a diagonal crack. The number of stirrups,
n traversing the diagonal crack spaced, sv distance depends on the horizontal projection p of
the diagonal crack. The number of stirrups, n is given by the following expression,
p
n = ...(ii)
sv
The diagonal crack used to develop at inclination somewhat flatter than 45. As such, the
horizontal projection length, p may be assumed equal to the effective depth of the beam.
Therefore,
d
n = ...(iii)
sv
Hence, the shear resistance of the vertical stirrups may be found by substituting the value
of n in the expression (i). Therefore,
Asv .0.87 fy .d
Vus = ...(3.82)
Av
Therefore,
0.87 fy . Asv .d
Vus = ...(3.83)
sv
Then, the spacing of vertical stirrups is found as below :
Asv .0.87 fy .d
sv = ...(3.84)
Vus
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Therefore.
0.87 fy . Asv .d
sv = ...(3.85)
Vus
The vertical stirrups are spaced such that every 45° line which may represent a diagonal
crack which develops from mid-depth (d/2) of the beam to the longitudinal tension reinforcement
is crossed by atleast one vertical shear strirrup. The first vertical stirrup at the end of a beam is
placed at a distance equal to half of the spacing, sv. The same size of vertical stirrups and same
spacing are provided from the face of support to the critical section at distance d from the face
of support. Two or multi-legged stirrups are advantageous for erection and specially for
continuous beams. As these stirrups secure the tensile as well as compressive reinforcement.
3.46.2 Maximum Spacing of Vertical Stirrups

IS : 456–1978 recommends that the maximum spacing of vertical stirrups measured along the
axis of the beam shall not exceed 0.75 times the effective depth, d. This spacing ensures that a
potential shear crack is crossed by atleast one stirrup as mentioned above. In no case, this
maximum spacing shall exceed 450 mm.
3.46.3 Minimum Shear Reinforcement

The minimum cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement, (Asv).minimum shall be provided even
if, it is seen by the calculations that shear reinforcement is not needed
( Asv ).min 0.4
> ...(3.86)
b ⋅ sv fy
b ⋅ Sv
or (Asv).min > 0 0.4 ...(3.87)
fy
where fy is the characteristic strength or yield stress of the steel used for stirrup reinforcement.
The value of fy for mild steel is 250 N/mm2 and that for hysd steel of grade Fe 415 is 415 N/mm2.
3.47 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH BENT-UP BARS

The cross-section of a reinforced concrete beam is designed to resist maximum bending moment.
In a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed transverse loads, the maximum
bending moment occurs at the centre. The area of steel bars (size and their number) in tension
(viz., longitudinal or main reinforcement) is also calculated to resist the maximum bending
moment. The bending moment at the transverse section any where in between support and
the centre of beam is smaller than its maximum value at the centre. All the steel bars at such
transverse section are not needed. In case these steel bars are not cut-off and these excess
longitudinal steel bars are bent-up (45° or more with respect to the longitudinal reinforcement)
into the compression zone, as shown in Fig. 3.44, these bent-up bars when properly distributed
and inclined serve as excellent shear or web reinforcement. These bent-up bars have the
advantage resulting from closer coincidence with the direction of diagonal tensile stress. These
bars also have the advantage of being rigidly connected with the main reinforcement. These
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bars are bent-up two at a time for symmetry. These bars are shifted from the bottom of the
beam to the top, where these bars resist negative bending moment, if any.
d d d d
2 2 2 2
d
α α
d d C /L
Fig. 3.44
There is also a disadvantage of bent-up bars. Their number in a reinforced concrete beam is
small and the point/points of bending-up is controlled by the requirement of bending moment
and which one in turn do not coincide with the requirements of diagonal tension reinforcement.
The bent-up bars are made fully effective as diagonal tension reinforcement, by keeping the
spacing of these bars measured along the axis of beam not larger than the effective depth of
beam. Where only one bar is bent-up or the spacing is large, the region of effectiveness of the
bent-up bar the spacing is large, the region of effectiveness of the bent-up bar as diagonal
tension reinforcement extends, on both the sides, from the point of intersection of the bar with
the neutral axis for a distance along the beam equal to one-half of the depth of beam.
The bent-up bars resist the shear force, Vs equal to the vertical component of force in these
bars. Therefore,
Vus = 0.87fy . Asv . sin α ...(3.88)
Asv = total cross-sectional area of bent-up bars at the cross
section
(0.87fy = fy/rms = fy/15) ...(3.89)
α = angle between bent-up bars and axis of member not
less than 45°
3.48 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH INCLINED BARS (STIRRUPS)

Bars or stirrups inclined at an angle α (not less than 45°) with respect to the longitudinal
reinforcement placed in the direction of diagonal tensile stress is the most appropriate shear
reinforcement to resist these type of stresses. The inclination of diagonal tension changes in
different parts of the beam. The inclination of diagonal tension in case of simply supported
beam carrying uniformly distributed transverse loads is maximum near the support and it
flattens out towards the centre of beam. In order to follow the direction of diagonal tensile
stress, the inclination of inclined stirrups would have to be changed throughout the beam and
it is impracticable. The inclined bars (stirrups) have advantage of its superiority which results
from a closer coincidence between the direction of the stress and the direction of the bar. In
case, the inclined stirrups are used, these are placed inclined 45° or more with the longitudinal
reinforcement as shown in Fig. 3.45. For practical reasons, (viz., it is difficult to attach these
bars with the main reinforcement and to keep them in place), the inclined bars are rarely used
as shear reinforcement.
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b dc
D ia g on al α > 4 5°
n ( d – dc )
crack
M f n l ⊥r to ba r
α α α m l ⊥r to nl
e
sv sv C /L
Fig. 3.45
Figure 3.45 shows a diagonal crack inclined at an angle θ with the horizontal. This diagonal
crack extends from the longitudinal (tensile) reinforcement to the compression surface. It
intersects an average of n inclined bars (stirrups) as shown in Fig. 3.45. The vertical component
of the force in one bar is Asv. 0.87 fy . sin α. The portion of shear force resisted by all the bars
which cross the crack is given by the following expression :
Vus = n . Asv . 0.87 fy . sin α ...(i)
The number of inclined bars, n spaced at a distance, sv apart, horizontally crossing the
diagonal crack may be found as under:
Let the horizontal projection of the crack ab be p and its inclined length ab be i,
i = p/cos θ ...(ii)
The distance between two adjacent bars measured parallel to the direction of crack, a is
equal to mn, the distance between two middle points m and n. In order to find the length mn,
draw nl perpendicular to the middle bar and ml perpendicular to the nl.
a = mn = nl . sec (angle mnl)
or a = mn = nl . sec [90 – (α + θ)]
or a = mn = nl . cosec (α + θ) ... (iii)
The perpendicular distance nl is equal to ef perpendicular distance between two adjacent
bars
nl = ef = sv . sin α ...(iv)
Therefore,
a = mn = sv. sin α . cosec (α + θ) ...(v)
sv
or a = ...(vi)
sin θ (cot θ + cot α )
The number of bars crossing the crack
i p
n = =
a a ⋅ cos θ
p sin θ (cot θ + cot α )
or n =
cos θ ⋅ sv
p
or n = ⋅ (1 + tan θ ⋅ cot α ) ...(vii)
sv
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Therefore, the portion of shear force resisted by the inclined bars (stirrups) from the
expressions (i) and (vii)
p
Vs = (1 + tan θ . cot α) Asv . 0.87fy . sin α
sv
p
or Vs = Asv. 0.87fy . s (sin α + cos α . tan θ) ...(viii)
v
The inclination of diagonal crack, θ, which varies somewhat depending on various influences,
is commonly assumed to be 45°. The expression (viii) reduces as follows:
Asv ⋅ 0.87 fy ⋅ p
Vus = ⋅ (sin α + cos α ) ...(ix)
sv
The horizontal projected distance, p of the diagonal crack may be assumed as the effective
depth of beam, d as in case of the vertical stirrups. Therefore,
Asv ⋅ 0.87 fy ⋅ d
Vus = ⋅ (sin α + cos α ) ...(3.90)
sv
Av ⋅ 0.87 fy ⋅ d
or sv = ⋅ (sin α + cos α ) ...(3.91)
Vus
It is to note that Eqs. 3.82 and 3.84 developed for the vertical stirrups, are only special case
of Eqs. 3.90 and 3.91 for α = 90°. Equations. 3.90 and 3.91 are more general expressions.
3.49 FUNCTION OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

The function of shear reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beam may also be explained by
analogy with simple steel trusses. The expressions as in Eqs. 3.82, 3.84, 3.88, 3.90 and 3.91 are
based in truss analogies IS : 456–1978 also recommends Eqs 3.82, 3.88 and 3.90 to determine
the portion of shear force resisted by vertical stirrups, bent-up bars and inclined stirrups,
respectively, placed as shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams.
3.49.1 Truss Analogy-1

A simple steel truss is shown in Fig. 3.46 (a). The top and bottom chords of this steel truss are
in compression and tension, respectively. The web members of this truss are diagonal members
which are alternately in compression and tension.
In a reinforced concrete beam with shear reinforcement (inclined stirrups) as shown in
Fig. 3.46 (b), the concrete above neutral axis resists the compression and the longitudinal
reinforcement at the bottom resists the tension. The inclined stirrups used as shear reinforcement
resist the diagonal tensile forces and the concrete resists diagonal compressive forces. Thus, it
is seen that there is truss analogy between the simple steel truss shown in Fig. 3.46 (a) and
reinforced concrete beam with shear reinforced concrete beam with shear reinforcement shown
in Fig. 3.47 (b). The crushing of concrete in web is avoided by limiting the maximum shear
stress x c.max, which depends upon the grade of concrete used.
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The inclined stirrups inclined at 45° with the longitudinal reinforcement are used with spacing
2a as shown in Fig. 3.46 (c). Force in the inclined bar near the support may be found from the
triangle of forces. Therefore,
Force in inclined bar sin 45°
=
Force in horizontal bar sin 90°
Force in inclined bar sin 45°

= ...(i)
Asv ⋅ 0.87 fy sin 90°
C C C C C
C T C T C T T C T C T C
T T T T T T
(a ) S tee l truss
C o ncrete in com p ression
C o ncrete in In clin ed b ras in

com p ression te nsio n
L on gitud in al R e in forcem en t in ten sion
(b ) Truss A ction in a reinforce d co ncrete be am truss an alog y
Ten sion in incline d
C o m p re ssio n in C o m p re ssio n in
b ars
con crete con crete
a 20 20
4 5° 4 5° 4 5° 4 5°
20 20 20 20
(c) R e in fo rce d co ncre te be am w ith in clin ed stirrup s
Fig. 3.46
Therefore, the force in inclined bar

= Asv . 0.87fy . sin 45°
= 0.707 (0.87fy)Asv ...(ii)
The portion of shear force resisted by the inclined bar in such a case shall be as follows:
Vus = 0.707 (0.87fy) . Asv sin 45° ...(iii)
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IS : 456–1978 does not recommend this as the basis, since, the portion of shear force resisted
by the inclined bar reduces by 0.707 as compared to the portion of shear force resisted and
recommended as Vsu = (0.87fy) Asv sin 45°.

In this truss analogy, the angle of inclination of concrete in compression as web member is
considered as 67 12 ° and that of inclined bars is taken as 45°, with the longitudinal reinforcement
as shown in Fig. 3.47 (a). The distance between holding bars at top and longitudinal
reinforcement is assumed equal to lever arm, (a = jd). The spacing between the inclined bars
from the geometry of any one triangle may be written as follows
sv = a cot (45°) + a cot ( 67 12 ° )
or sv = a (cot 45° + cot 67 12 ° )

or sv = l.414a
The tensile forces in longitudinal reinforcement and inclined bars are maintained equal.
The tensile force in the inclined bars is equal to Asv. 0.87fy. The portion of shear force resisted
by the inclined bar
Vus = Asv . 0.87fy . sin 45° ...(ii)
The inclined bar used as shear reinforcement remains effective for distance equal to lever
arm on either side measured along the neutral axis.
Inclined bars C om pression

in tension in concrete
a
45° 45°
(a)
Inclined bars in tension C om pression in concrete
90°– α 90°– α 90°– α 90°–

α
2 2 2 2
90°– α 90°– α
2 90°– α 90°– α 2
α 2 2 α
s s s s s s
(b)
Fig. 3.47
In case, the angle of inclination of inclined bars in tension is α with the longitudinal
reinforcement, the angle of inclination for concrete in compression is assumed as (90 – α/2) as
shown in Fig. 3.47 (b).
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In case, two inclined bars (inclined at an angle α = 45° with the longitudinal reinforcement)
cross the diagonal crack, (viz., n = 2), such a system is referred a double system of lattice girder.
The spacing between two adjacent inclined bars becomes equal to half of that for a single
system. Therefore
sv = 1.5 × 1.414a = 0.707 a ...(i)
θ = 67 1° α = 45°
2
θ
a = jd
θ α
sv ( s v = 1 x 1.414 a = 0.707 a )
2
Fig. 3.48 Double system of lattice girder
The portion of shear force resisted by the inclined bars shall be

Vus = Asv . (0.87fy) (sin α + cos α) . d/sv ...(ii)
IS : 456–1978 recommends that angle α should not be less than 45°. For α = 45, the value of
(sin α + cos α) is 2 maximum,
Vus = 2 × 0.707 Asv . (0.87fy) ...(iii)
For vertical stirrups, α = 90°, and therefore
Vus = Asv . (0.87fy).d/sv ...(iv)

The action of vertical shear reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beam Fig. 3.49 (a) may be
described analogous to the truss action as shown in Fig. 3.49 (b). The vertical shear reinforcement
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te be am w ith vertical she ar reinfo rcem e nt

C o ncre te in
Ve rtica l stirru ps in
com p ressio n te nsio n
L on gitud in al re in fo rce m en t in ten sio n
(b ) Truss action in a re in fo rce d co ncre te be a m
Fig. 3.49
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resists the vertical component of diagonal tension, while the concrete along the diagonal as
shown by dotted line resists the compression. The portion of shear force resisted by vertical
reinforcement is Vus = Asv . (0.87fy) . d/sv, where sv is the spacing between the two adjacent
vertical stirrups.
3.50 CRITICAL SECTION FOR SHEAR FORCE

The position of critical section for calculating the shear force depends upon the types of supports.
When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces tension into the end region
of the member, the position of critical section for calculating the shear force is at the face of the
support as shown in Fig. 3.50 (a). In such a case, the support reaction does not introduce
compression, as expected in rectangular water tank. A diagonal crack is likely to beg in at the face.
R e actio n intro du ce s te nsio n R e actio n in tro du ce s com pre ssion
(a ) C ritical section at fa ce o f the sup po rt (b ) C ritical section a t d istan ce d from th e face o f sup po rt
Fig. 3.50
When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end
region of the member, the position of critical section for determining the shear force is at a
distance, d (the effective depth of beam) from the face of the support, since the diagonal crack
is displayed away from the face of support.
x
v
X X
d
x v v
d d
X X
(a ) (b )
y
x y
(c) (d )
Fig. 3.51 Position of critical section for shear force at XX
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The positions of critical sections for the various types of supports viz., beam is supported by
bearing at the bottom of the beam, beam is integrally cast into the another member, the beam
carries concentrated load close to the support and bracket support are shown in Fig. 3.51 (a),
(b), (c) and (d), respectively.
3.51 DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The design shear strength of concrete in reinforced concrete beam without reinforcement as
specified in IS : 456–1978 are as follows:
Table 3.9 Design shear strength of concrete, tc, N/mm2
As
100 τc in N/mm2
bd
M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 45
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
0.25 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.64 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.50 0.68 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.71 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.71 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.71 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.71 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
3.00 0.71 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01
It is to note that As is that cross sectional area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which
continues upto ateast one effective depth beyond the transverse section being considered. At
supports, As is the cross-sectional area of complete tension reinforcement which exists there
provided it is properly anchored.
Equation 3.80 is the semi-empirical formula which gives the criterion for determining the
value of permissible shear stress, τc.
The values of maximum permissible shear stress, τc.max for the reinforced concrete beam
with shear reinforcement as specified in IS : 456–1978 is as follows :
Table 3.10 Maximum shear stress, τc.max in N/mm2
Grade of concrete M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40
τc.max (N/mm2) 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
So long as the nominal shear stress, in beams, τv remains less than τc.max the crushing of
concrete in beam due to diagonal compressive stress shall not occur.
The values of τc.max as specified in IS : 456–1978 is calculated from the following expression:
τc.max = 0.83 (fc)1/2 = 0.83 (0.85fck)1/2 N/mm2 ...(3.92)
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where fc is the cylindrical strength of concrete. The cylindrical strength of concrete beam is
converted to cube strength (fc = 0.85fck), and thereafter applying a factor of 0.85 being the
partial safefy factor for material strength.
3.52 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

Shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beam is provided to resist the diagonal tension. At
support, the nominal shear stress, τc is the measure of diagonal tension. The reinforcement in
reinforced concrete beam is designed as follows:
Step 1. The factored (design) shear force, VFd due to total transverse load on the beam
occurring at the critical section is determined by elastic analysis of the structure and then
multiplied by appropriate safety factors for loads for collapse, rfL. The nominal shear stress, τc
is found. The width and the effective depth b and d of the beam cross-section are known.
Step 2. This shear force VFd is resisted jointly by concrete and shear reinforcement. The
value of permissible shear stress in concrete for the reinforced concrete beam without shear
reinforcement, τc is found as described in Art. 3.50. The cross-sectional area of longitudinal
tension reinforcement, As and the grade of concrete proposed to be used are already known.
The value of maximum shear stress τc.max for concrete in the reinforced concrete beam with
shear reinforcement is also noted from IS : 456–1978. The value of nominal shear stress,
τc calculated in step 1 is compared with τc.max and τc.
The nominal shear stress, τc in beams should not exceed τc.max. In case, the value of τc exceeds
to τc.max the effective depth of beam, d is increased and it is ascertained that τv is less than τc.max.
When the nominal shear stress, τv in beams is less than the τc found above, the minimum
cross-sectional area for shear reinforcement as given by Eq. 3.87 is provided at a distance some
what less than or at the most equal to the maximum spacing as described in Art. 3.45.
When the nominal shear stress, τv is more than τc and less than τc.max, the shear reinforcement
is provided as designed in the following subsequent step 3 to resist the portion of shear force,
Vus equal to (VFd – τc.bd).
Step 3. Vertical stirrups, bent up bars along with vertical stirrups and inclined stirrups may
be used as shear reinforcement.
3.52.1 Vertical or Inclined Stirrups

In case vertical or inclined stirrups only are provided, it is usually convenient to select a trial
shear reinforcement area, Asv. The diameter of steel bars and shape of the stirrup (two-legged,
four-legged or multiple legged) are selected such that minimum spacing is not too small
(preferably not less than 100 mm) and the total number of stirrups in a beam not too large.
The portion of shear force, VFd to be resisted, the cross-sectional area Asv of the shear
reinforcement, the permissible stress σsv in steel in tension and the effective depth, d of the
beam being known, the spacing for the stirrups is determined by Eq. 3.84 for the vertical
stirrups or by Eq. 3.91 for the inclined stirrups. The spacing sv to be provided it kept somewhat
smaller than its calculated value. However, sv should not exceed the maximum spacing specified
in Art. 3.45 for vertical stirrups. For the inclined stirrups at 45° the maximum spacing specified
is effective depth, d or 450 mm whichever is less.
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When the vertical stirrups are needed over a comparatively small distance, it is desirable to
space these stirrups uniformly over the entire distance (the spacing being found for the maximum
shear). If possible, the same spacing may even be provided in all similar beams in the entire
structure in order to avoid errors and confusion. When the shear reinforcement is to be provided
over a large distance and in case the shear force changes significantly throughout this distance,
it is economical to calculate the spacing needed at more sections. The stirrups are placed
accordingly in groups of varying spacing.
3.52.2 Vertical Stirrups and Bent-up Bars

When the bent-up bars are used along with the vertical stirrups, the portion of shear force, Vus
is jointly resisted by the bent-up bars and vertical stirrups. Therefore,
Vus = Vus.BB +Vus .VS ...(i)
The portion of shear force contributed towards shear resistance by the bent-up bars, Vus.BB
shall not be more than that of the total shear reinforcement (viz, Vus.BB > 0.5 Vus). The strength
of bent-up bars bent at the same cross-section, Vus.BB is equal to 0.87 fy . Asv. sin α. The angle
of inclination of bent-up bars with the longitudinal reinforcement, α and diameter of bars
(being same as that of longitudinal reinforcement) being known, Vus.BB becomes known.
Therefore, the remaining shear force Vus.VS to be resisted by vertical stirrups also becomes
known. The vertical stirrups and their spacings are found as described above.
In case, the cross-sectional are and form of shear reinforcement provide in a reinforced beam
are specified along with their spacing and inclination, the strength of shear reinforcement or
the total strength of beam in shear may also be found, by using the appropriate expression
Eq. 3.82, Eq. 3.88 or Eq. 3.90. The total shear strength of a beam shall be as follows :
V Fd = Vuc + Vus
V Fd = (τc .bd) + Vus ...(ii)
Example 3.19 A reinforced concrete simply supported beam 400 mm wide and 550 mm
effective depth is having 4 hysd steel bars of 20 mm diameter to resist the maximum bending
moment at the centre. 2 hysd steel bars are bent at 45° with the horizontal and carried at the
top near the support and 2 hysd steel bars are continued near the end. In addition to this, the
vertical two-legged stirrups 8 mm diameter of hysd-steel are also provided at 110 mm spacing
as shown in Fig. 3.52. Determine, the total shear strength of beam at the transverse section
crossing the bent-up bars. The grade of concrete is M 20.
Ve rtica l stirru ps 8 m m φ hysd ste el a t 11 0 m m

2 hysd ste e l b ars 2 0 m m φ
4 5° 4 5°
2 H ysd ste el ba rs 4 H ysd ste el ba rs

20 m m φ 20 m m φ
Fig. 3.52
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Solution 2 hysd steel bars 20 mm in diameter continue as longitudinal tension reinforcement

near the end of beam. Therefore
⎛ π⎞
As = 2 × ⎜ ⎟ × 202 = 628.32 mm2 ...(i)
⎝ 4⎠
100 As ⎛ 100 × 628.32 ⎞

= ⎜⎝ = 0.2856 ...(ii)
bd 400 × 550 ⎟⎠
For M 20 grade of concrete, and 100 As/bd = 0.2856, the value of permissible shear stress in
concrete from IS : 456–1978
(0.48 − 0.36)
τc = × (0.2856 − 0.25) N/mm2
(0.50 − 0.25)
τc = (0.36 + 0.0171) = 0.3771 N/mm2 ...(iii)
Strength of concrete in shear, Vuc
⎛ 0.3771 × 400 × 550 ⎞
Vuc = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 82.96 kN ...(iv)
⎝ 1000
2 Hysd steel bars of 20 mm diameter are bent at 45° at the same cross-section.
⎛ π⎞ 2
Asv = 2 × ⎜ ⎟ × (20) = 628.32 mm2 ...(v)
⎝ 4⎠
Strength of bent-up bars in shear, Vus.BB
From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel, Fe 415, fy = 415 N/mm2
Vus.BB = 0.87,fy . Ast . sin α
0.87 × 415 × 628.32 × 0.707
Vus.BB = = 160.386 kN ...(vi)
1000
Strength of vertical stirrups in shear, Vus.VS
Cross-sectional area of two legged vertical stirrups of 8 mm diameter
⎛ π⎞
Asv = 2 × ⎜ ⎟ × 82 = 100.53 mm2
⎝ 4⎠
sv = 110 mm
0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d
Vus.VS =
sv
0.87 × 415 × 100.53 × 550

or Vus.VS =
110 × 1000
= 181.48 kN ...(vii)
Total shear strength of beam at the transverse section crossing the bent up bars
V = (Vuc + Vus.BB + Vus.VS)
= (82.96 + 160.386 + 181.48)
= 424.826 kN
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3.53 BOND IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

The bond in reinforced concrete beams is the adhesive force developed between concrete and
the steel bars embedded in concrete, which resists any force that tends to push or pull the bars.
The adhesive force (bond force) is the interface strength between concrete and steel which
prevents slip to occur at the interface. The concrete after setting adheres to the surface of the
steel bars placed in the concrete. It is most important requirement of reinforced concrete that a
perfect bond exists between concrete and the steel bars used as reinforcement. As the concrete
deforms, the steel bars also deforms equally. The strain in an embedded steel bars, εs (unit
extension or compression) is equal to the strain in the surrounding concrete, εc. (viz., εs = εc).
The bond strength between concrete and steel bars is the additive effect of chemical adhesion,
mechanical friction and frictional resistance (resistance to sliding). Chemical adhesion develops
at the concrete-steel interface between cement paste and steel bars. It is attributed to the
adhesive properties of the cement get produced in the concrete during setting. Mechanical
friction results due to shrinkage of the concrete and consequently gripping of the reinforcement.
Resistance to sliding due to friction is provided by the natural roughness of the mill scale of hot
rolled plain steel bars and by the closely. Spaced rib shaped surface deformations of hysd-steel
bars. The relative contributions of these factors have not been separated so far. However, the
resistance to slip of plain steel bars is about one-third to one-half of that with the deformed
bars.
The beams reinforced with plain steel bars loose the bond strength between steel and concrete
at large loads and the collapse of beam is likely to occur as the steel bars are likely to be pulled
through the concrete. To prevent this, end anchorages are provided in the forms of hooks at
both the ends. With adequate anchorages at both the ends of steel bars, such beam acts as tied
arch and does not collapse, even if the bond breaks over the entire length.
The shoulders of the closed spaced projections of rib shaped projections of rib shaped
deformations of hysd-bars bear on the surrounding concrete and provide a high degree of
interlocking of two materials and result in greatly increased bond strength. Hysd-steel bars do
not need any anchorage devices such as hooks. The crack widths and deflection in beams
reinforced with hysd-steel bars also reduce.
The bond in a reinforced concrete beam at a transverse section is a three-dimensional
phenomenon and it depends in addition to the cross-sectional properties of the steel bars, upon
the anchorage length in both the directions therefrom.
3.54 BOND STRESSES

The bond stress is defined as the intensity of adhesive force per unit of surface area. The bond
stress in a reinforced concrete beam may be found by considering a portion of a beam between
two vertical sections AD and BC as shown in Fig. 3.37. The beam section is considered as
cracked section. The portion of concrete intension is neglected. Transverse sections AD and
BC spaced small distance, δx apart carry moment M and (M + δM) and tensile forces Tus and
(Tus + δTus) due to moments, respectively. Then,
M = Tus . jd ...(i)
and (M + δM) = (Tus + δTus) . jd ...(ii)
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Therefore, δM = δTus . jd
or δTus = δM/(jd) ...(iii)
The expression (iii) shows that the change in bending moment δM produces a change in
tensile force, δTus in the tension reinforcement. The steel bars are in equilibrium. Hence, this
change in tensile force, δTus is resisted at the contact surface between concrete and steel by an
equal and opposite force developed by bond. Then
τbf . (∑O .dx . 1) = δTus ...(iii)
δTus
or τbf . (∑O . 1) = ...(iv)
δx
where τbf is the bond stress developed due to change in tensile force as δTus as a consequence of
change in bending moment. Hence, it is called as flexural bond stress, ∑O is the sum of the
perimeters of the steel bars in tension.
Substituting the value of δT from the expression (iii)
δM
τbf . (∑O . 1) = ...(v)
jd ⋅ δx
From mechanics, it is known that change in bending moment δM over a small length δx is
equal to the external shear force, V. (viz., δM/δx = VFd).
Therefore,
VFd
τbf = ...(3.93)
jd ⋅ ∑O
From Eq. 3.93, it is seen that, finally the flexural bond stress is a function of factored (design)
shear force, VFd. It is uniformly distributed over the contact area.
In case, the steel bars are not at equal distance from the neutral axis, then, the general
expression for flexural bond stress, τbf may be found by considering a steel bar in tension
provided at a distance y from the neutral axis. The bending stress in steel bar in tension shall
be
M
σst = m ⋅ ⋅y Q (σst = 0.87 fy) ...(vi)
I
The force in steel bar of diameter φ shall be Tus = (0.87fy . Ast). Therefore
Tus = Ast . σst ...(vii)
⎛π ⎞ M
and Tus = ⎜ φ2 ⎟ ⋅ m ⋅ ⋅ y ...(viii)
⎝4 ⎠ I
The change in tensile force, δTus
⎛π ⎞ dM
δTus = ⎜ φ2 ⎟ ⋅ m ⋅ ⋅y ...(ix)
⎝4 ⎠ I
From the expression (iii),
δTus= τbf . (∑O . dx . 1)
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For one steel bar ∑O = (πφ)

π 2 dM
∴ τbf . (πφ. 1 dx) = φ ⋅m⋅ ⋅y
4 I
m dM
τbf = ⋅ ⋅ y⋅φ ...(x)
4 I dx
dM
Since, = V Fd
dx
VFd
or τbf = ⋅m⋅ y⋅φ ...(3.94)
4I
where m is the modular ratio and I is the moment of inertia of equivalent area of beam about
neutral axis.
The bond stresses between tensile steel and concreted used to be calculated at a particular
transverse section and used to be checked till IS : 456–1978 was issued that these stresses do
not exceed the value of safe or permissible stresses in the design of reinforced concrete
construction. This check for bond stresses specified in the earlier code is now replaced by the
concept of development length described in subsequent article.
3.55 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT BARS IN TENSION

The development length of reinforcement bars is defined as the minimum length of the steel
bars necessary on either side of a section to develop by bond, the tensile force Ast σs, where Ast
is the cross-sectional area of the bar and σst, is the stress in the bar at the section being considered
at the design load. The development length is denoted by Ld. It is also termed as embedment
length. The expression for the development length may be derived as follows:
Tbd
S tee l b ar em b ed ded in co n cre te

T
T = A s t . σs t
L d´
Fig. 3.53
A steel bar embedded in concrete is shown in Fig. 3.53. The bar carries a tensile force T equal
to Ast . σst. This fo πφ.Ld, where φ is the diameter of bar. The bond force developed in the steel
bar is equal to the tensile force and acts in the opposite direction. The steel bar is in equilibrium.
Therefore,
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⎡⎛ π ⎞ ⎤
τbd . Ld . πφ = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ φ2 ⎥ σ st
⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎦
Since, σst = 0.87fy
(0.87 fy ) ⋅ φ
or Ld = 4 ⋅ τbd ...(3.95)
where τbd is the design bond stress. Since, the bond force in steel bar develops due to anchorage,
this bond stress is known as anchorage bond stress and it is different from flexural bond stress.
In Eq. 3.95, the appropriate values of σst and τbd are to be used. In case the area of steel
provided at a section is more than that necessary from the design consideration, the development
length may be modified. The modified development length
⎛ A ⋅ needed ⎞
Ldm = ⎜ st . Ld ...(3.96)
⎝ Ast ⋅ provided ⎟⎠
The values of design bond stresses in bond in tension and the development length. Ld for
plain mild steel bars and hysd-steel bars for different grades of concrete as specified in IS :
456–1978 and calculated by using Eq. 3.95, respectively are as follows:
Table 3.11 Design bond stresses in bond, τbd in N/mm2 and development length, ld intension
Grade of concrete Plain mild steel bars Hysd-steel bars Fe 415
fy = 250 N/mm2 fy = 415 N/mm2
τbd Ld zu Ld
(N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 )
M 15 1.00 54.375 φ 1.60 56.414 φ
M 20 1.20 45.313 φ 1.92 47.012 φ
M 25 1.40 38.839 φ 2.24 40.296 φ
M 30 1.50 36.250 φ 2.40 37.609 φ
M 35 1.70 31.985 φ 2.72 33.185 φ
M 40 1.90 28.618 φ 3.04 29.692 φ
The values of bond stress, τbd for deformed bars is 1.60 times those for plain mild steel bars
(viz., these values have been increased by 60 percent).
The values of bond stress for plain mild steel bars and for Hysd-steel bars in tension are
increased by 25 percent for bars in compression as recommended in IS : 456–1978. It is difficult
to push a bar in concrete as compared to pull it out.
For bars bundled in contact. The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall
be that for the individual bar, increased by 10 percent for two bars in contact, 20 percent for
three bars in contact and 33 percent for fours in contact.
3.56 ANCHORAGE OF PLAIN STEEL BARS IN TENSION

The natural bond strength in beams reinforced with plain mild steel bars used to be comparatively
weak. It is likely that bond between concrete and steel bars may break and may collapse as the
desired tension in steel bar may not develop, by bond alone. In order to avoid even the possibility
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of collapse of beam, special anchorage are provided at the ends of bar in tension, commonly by
means of 90° bends 180° hooks. There shall be no possibility of collapse of beam with adequate
anchorages at the ends of steel bar even if the bond breaks over the complete length between
the anchorage. In such a case, the beam shall be acting as a tied arch.
3.56.1 Hooks and Bends

Hooks and bends are the mechanical devices, which are provided at the ends of steel bars as
anchorages. The hooks and bends are capable of developing strength in the steel bars without
any damage to concrete. These hooks and bends have standard dimensions as shown in Fig. 3.54
conforming to IS : 2502–196.
Hooks are 180° bends viz., semi-circles plus an extension of at least 4 times the bar diameter
at the free end of bar as shown in Fig. 3.54 (a).
90 bends are right angle bends plus an extension of at least 4 times the bar diameter at the
free end of bar as shown in Fig. 3.54 (b).
The minimum value of k for mild steel is 2 and for cold worked steel is 4.
4 φ mm
4 φ mm
Kφ
2 Kφ
Kφ
Kφ Kφ
φ φ
(a ) S tan da rd ho ok (b ) S tan da rd 90 ° b en d
Fig. 3.54
Anchorage values of hooks and bends

Hooks and bends resist the tension in the steel bars by combined action of bond along the
straight length of bar and anchorage provided by the hooks or bends at the ends. The tension
T = Ast . σst acting in the straight portion of a steel bar (as shown in Fig. 3.55) of a right angled
( σcbr. n φ. φ)
nφ
T = σst. A st
( L 'd τb d πφ)
Fig. 3.55
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bend is resisted jointly by bearing resistance of vertical portion and resistance due to bond
between concrete and steel bar over the length, L´d. The steel bar with right angle bend is in
equilibrium. Therefore,
L´d. τbd . πφ + σcbr . nφ . φ = (π/4) φ2 σst
nσ cbr ⋅ φ φ ⋅ (0.87 fy )
L´d. + = ...(i)
π ⋅ τbd 4 τbd
From Eq. 3.95, Ld = φ(0.87fy) (4τbd)
Ld = Ld´ + k . φ ...(ii)
where, k . φ represents anchorage value of bend. The anchorage value of a bend is taken as 4
times the diameter of the bar for each 45° bend subject to a maximum of 16 times the diameter
of the bar. The anchorage value of a standard U-type hook is 16 times the diameter of the bar.
The anchorage value of 90° bend is 12 times the diameter of the bar (8φ + 4φ extension = 12 φ).
3.57 CURTAILMENT OF TENSION REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

In simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed transverse loads, the value of
bending moment, M is maximum at the centre and it decreases at the vertical sections towards
the end of beam. The area of steel reinforcement provided to resist tension for the maximum
bending moment is not needed at the other sections. It is common practice to cut-off steel bars
in tension where these bars are no longer required to resist the existing bending moment at the
section. The tensile force, Tus to be resisted by the reinforcement at any transverse section is
(note σst = 0.87fy)
Tus = Ast . σst = M/jd ...(i)
where, jd is the lever arm of the resisting moment. This value of lever arm changes within
narrow limits. The value of lever arm at any section is not less than that at maximum bending
moment section. Therefore, tensile force, Tus may be considered practically directly proportional
to the bending moment at the section. Hence, the area of steel (and therefore number of bars)
needed in tension is very nearly proportional to the bending moment. It is desirable that steel
reinforcement in tension everywhere in the beam is as nearly fully stressed as possible. Therefore,
the excess number of bars are cut-off.
Let Nc be the total number of steel bars in tension and Nx be the number of steel bars cut-off
at a distance x on either side measured from the centre. Then
Nx 2
= 4x ...(i)
Nc L2
1/2
1 ⎛ Nx ⎞
x = ...(3.97)
2 ⎜⎝ N c ⎟⎠
Alternatively, Eq. 3.97 may also be found by equating the factored (design) bending moment
at any section to the moment of resistance of the section, calculated by considering only the
continuing bars. The maximum bending moments for the factored (design) uniformly distributed
load w per unit length over the simply supported beam
MFd = (wFdL2/8) ...(ii)
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The moment of resistance of beam section resisting the maximum bending moment
MR = Tus . jd = Ast . (0.87fy) . jd
or MR = Nc . Aφ . (0.87fy) . jd ...(iii)
where, Aφ = Area of one steel bar.
Equating the expressions (ii) and (iii)
Nc . Aφ . (0.87fy) . jd = (wFdL2/8) ...(iv)
In case, Nx number of bars are cut-off, then the expression similar to the expression (iv) may
be written as follows :
2
wFd L2 wFd (2x )
[Nc – Nx) Aφ] . (0.87 fy) . jd = − ...(v)
8 8
By dividing the expression (v) by the expression (iv)
( Nc − N x ) =
wFd L2 / 8 − wFd ⋅ 4 x 2 / 8
...(vi)
Nc wFd l 2 / 8
⎛ Nx ⎞ ⎛ 4x 2 ⎞
or ⎜⎝1 − N ⎟⎠ = ⎜1 − L2 ⎟ ...(vii)
c ⎝ ⎠
1/2
L ⎛ Nx ⎞
Therefore, x = ...(viii)
2 ⎜⎝ N c ⎟⎠
The tension reinforcement is not curtailed exactly at the theoretically determined cut-off
points. Prior to cracking of concrete, the tensile force in steel bars at any point is proportional to
the moment at a transverse section passing through the point. After formation of a crack due to
diagonal tension, an internal redistribution of forces occurs in a beam. The tensile force is then
controlled by the moment at a section nearer the midspan, which one is more than that at the
theoretical cut-off points. The actual bending moment diagram may differ from that used for
ω U n ifo rm ly d istrib uted lo a d/m
< ( L d / 3) N u m b er o f b ars a t C < (L d / 3 )

(N c – N x) Nc (N c – N x)
d d
or or
1 2φ 1 2φ
E xte nd in g ba rs < (l/3 ) o f to ta l A st E xte nd in g ba rs < (l/3 ) o f to ta l A st

S e ctio n XX : Th e ore tica l cut o ff se ctio ns
N c : N u m b er of ba rs A t c
( N c – N x ) : N u m b e r of ba rs con tin u ing
Fig. 3.56 Cut off and extension of tension reinforcement for simply supported beam
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the design of beam due to approximation of real loads, approximation in analysis or the
superimposed of settlement or lateral loads. For these reasons. IS : 456–1978 recommends that
a bar to be curtailed at a theoretical cut-off point is continued at least at a distance equal to the
effective depth or 12 times the diameter of bar (whichever is greater) except at simple support
or end of cantilever as shown in Fig. 3.56.
In addition to this, it is also essential that the calculated tensile stress in reinforcement at
each section be developed by adequate embedded length or by end anchorage or by combination
of both. Hence, a development length, Ld must be provided beyond the critical sections at which
the maximum stress (maximum bending moment) exists in the bars.
Further, IS : 456–1978 recommends that at least one-third the positive moment
reinforcement is extended along the same face of the member into the support, to a length
equal to Ld /3. This takes care of possibility of charge in location of maximum bending stress.
IS : 456–1978 also recommends that atleast one-third of the total reinforcement provided for
the negative moment at the support shall extend at least Ld beyond the theoretical point of cut-
off of bars and in addition must extend beyond the point of inflection for a distance not less
than the effective depth or 12φ or one-sixteenth of the clear span, viz., Ln/16) whichever is
greater.
The steel bars provided to resist the bending moment may be curtailed in tension zone only
when one of the conditions specified in Art. 3.57 is satisfied.
3.58 CONDITIONS FOR CURTAILMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT IN

TENSION ZONE
Curtailment of flexural reinforcement in tension zone results in a sharp discontinuity in the
steel. It causes early formation and opening of flexural cracks, which may change into premature
formation of diagonal tension cracks in the surrounding of the cut end. As a result of this, the
shear capacity and overall ductility of the beam may decrease. In order to take special precautions,
following conditions have been specified in IS : 456–1978. The flexural reinforcement may be
curtailed in tension zone only when one of the following conditions is satisfied:
1. The shear at the cut-off points does not exceed two-thirds that normally permitted,
including the shear strength of web reinforcement provided.
2. Stirrup area in excess of mat required for shear is provided along each curtailed bar
over a a distance from the point of cut-off equal to three-fourths the effective depth of
the beam. The excess stirrups area provided shall not less than (0.4 b . sv/fy), where b
is the breadth of beam, sv is the spacing of the stirrups and fy is the characteristic
strength of shear reinforcement in N/mm2. The resulting spacing shall not exceed
(d/8bb), where bb is the ratio of the area of bars cut-off to the total area of bars at the
section, and d is the effective depth of the beam.
3. For 36 mm and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for
flexure at the cut-off point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths that is permitted.
In case any one condition is satisfied it means that either the shear stresses are kept low
(condition-1) or extra shear reinforcement is provided (condition-2) or excess flexural steel is
available along with excess shear capacity (condition-3). In the rare case, the condition 1 or 2
cannot be satisfied and bars are greater than 36 mm diameter.
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Condition-3 is applicable only when the diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bar is equal
to or less than 36 mm. In case, the diameter of bar is more than 36 mm, then either condition-
1 or the condition–2 has to be satisfied.
3.59 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS NEAR POINTS OF ZERO MOMENT FOR

CURTAILMENT OF TENSION REINFORCEMENT
The provision of full development length, Ld beyond the point where the bar is having maximum
stress is the basic requirement. To insure safety against design bond distress, this require may
not be sufficient. Consider a simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load designed
in such a way mat design stress is developed at the central section, which is required to resist
the factored (design) maximum bending moment, MFd = wFd L2/8. The shape of bending moment
diagram is parabola. Equation of parabolic bending moment diagram with A (support) as the
origin is given by
y = (4a/L2) . x . (L – x) ...(i)
At x = L/2, y = MFd Q a = MFd
∴ y = 4MFd . x . (L – x)/L2 ...(ii)
x = L/4, y = 0.75 MFd ...(iii)
At l/4 from the support A the reinforcement is to resist 0.75 MFd where as the reinforcement
would develop only half the design stress. Therefore, it is not possible to satisfy the requirement
of code for development at quarter-span simply by satisfying this at mid span. Therefore, special
requirement have been specified in IS : 456–1978 for the curtailment of tension reinforcement
have been specified in IS : 456–1978 for the curtailment of tension reinforcement at supports
and at point of zero moments. IS L 456–1978 recommends that at simple supports and at
points of zero moment, the diameter of positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited
such that the development length calculated for 0.87fy does not exceed [(1.30M1/V) + L0], viz.
Ld |> [(1.30M1/V) + L0] ...(3.98)
where M1 is the moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at the section
to be stressed to 0.87fy VFd is the shear force at the section due to design loads and L0 is the sum
of the anchorage beyond the centre of support and equivalent anchorage value of any hook or
a mechanical anchorage at simple support; Fig. 3.57 (a); and at point of zero moment. L0 is
limited to the effective depth of beam or 12 φ, whichever is greater. φ is the diameter of bar.
The value of (M1/V) in Eq. 3.98 may be increased by 30 percent when the ends of
reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction.
Consider an infinitesimal length of the beam very near the support. It is clear that if the
development length requirement is satisfied at point P, the development length requirement
specified in the code may always be satisfied in the portion to the left of point P. The point P
may be located as follows :
From the expression (v), Art. 3.53, the bond force per unit along the tension requirement in
a beam is given by
τbf . ( ∑ 0.1) = (dM/jd . dx) ...(iv)
Expression (iv) shows that the bond force per unit length of bar developed by bending is
proportional to the slope of bending moment diagram. From the elementary mechanics, (dM/
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dx) at any point is equal to the factored (design) shear force at that point, VFd. Draw a tangent
to the bending moment diagram at the point A (point of zero moment) having a slope equal to
the value of shear force, V, Fig. 3.57 (b).
In case M1 is the moment of resistance provided by those bars that extend to the point of zero
moment, and the bending moment diagram is conservatively assumed to vary linearly along
the tangent, then,
(M1/a1) = a1 = (M1 / VFd) ...(v)
Therefore, P is at a distance AP = a1 = (M1/VFd) from the support. The distance AP should be
more than Ld, or Ld should not exceed (M1/VFd), so that the pullout of bar would not occur.
However the reinforcement bars are extended beyond the point A (the point of zero moment,
towards the left Fig. 3.57 (b) to point Q. This extension of reinforcement is contribution towards
satisfying the embedded length.
X
ω UDL
x 1 3 φ xδ X
bs bs
2 2
bs
( L /2)
(a ) S im p ly su pp o rted b ea m
P a rab o lic cu rve
I
V M1
0 .75 M
A
(M /V)
Lo ( L /4)
( L /2)
(b ) B e nd ing m om en t d ia g ram
( L /2)
(c) S h e ar force diag ra m
Fig. 3.57
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The length Lo = AQ may be calculated by knowing the width of support, bs. Then, from
Fig. 3.57 (a)
Lo = x o + 16φ ...(vi)
and xo = (bs/2) – x1 – 3φ ...(vii)
where x 1 is the end cover for the reinforcement and 16φ is the anchorage value for the standard
hook. Therefore, from expressions (vi) and (vii)
Lo = [(bs/2) – x1 – 3φ] + 16φ ...(viii)
Lo = [(bs/2) – x1 + 13φ] ...(3.98)
In case, the hook is not provided, then
Lo = [(bs/2) – x1] ...(3.99)
In case, any inequality occurs in Eq. 3.98, more bars may be brought within the support A,
so that, M1 is increased. Otherwise Lo may be increased by providing larger width for the
support. But Lo is also limited to the effective depth of beam or 12φ, whichever is greater. It is
best to use smaller size steel bars, so that Ld is reduced.
3.60 BAR SPLICES

Small size steel bars are stocked by the supplier in lengths of 6 m of 12 m and the large size
steel bars are stocked in 18 m lengths. Sometimes the length of bar required is more than the
length of steel bars available. Sometimes, it is convenient to work with bars of small lengths. As
such, it becomes necessary to splice the steel bars to be used as reinforcement in the structural
members. The overlapping of the steel bars a sufficient length to transfer the stress by bond
from one bar to the other bar as shown in Fig. 3.58 is known as bar splicing.
L = O verla pp in g len gth

L
Fig. 3.58
In order to keep the bars in position during the pouring of the concrete, the lapped bars
placed in contact are usually lightly wires. Alternatively, to provide full positive connection
between the bars, the bars may be spliced by welding or by sleeves or by mechanical devices.
The splices in the reinforcing bars are provided at the points away from the sections of
maximum stress and these are staggered.
IS : 456–1978 recommends that the bar splices in flexural members should not be located at
sections where the bending moment is more than fifty percent of the moment of resistance of
the beam section. The number of bars spliced at a section should be less than half the total
number of bars at the section. Where the splices are made at points of maximum stress or
where more than one-half of the bars are spliced at a section, special precautions shall be
taken, such as increasing the length of lap and/or using spirals or closely spaced stirrups around
the length of the splice. IS : 456–1978 specifies the recommendations for lap splices in bars in
tension as follows.
3.60.1 Lap Splices in Tension

The lap splices shall not be used for bars larger dian 36 mm. For larger diameters the bars may
be welded. In case, where welding is not practicable, the lapping of bars larger than 36 mm be
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allowed and in such case additional spiral should be provided around the lapped bars. The lap
splices are considered as staggered if the centre to centre distance of the splices is not less than
1.3 times the lap length calculated as below.
The lap length including anchorage value of hooks in flexural tension shall be Ld or 30 φ
whichever is greater and for direct tension 2 Ld or 30 φ whichever is greater. The straight
length of the lap shall not be less than IS φ or 200 mm.
The diameter of spiral bars used for enclosing shall not be less than 6 mm diameter with
pitch not more man 100 mm. Hooks are provided at the ends of bars.
Where the bars of two different diameters are to be spliced, the lap length shall be calculated
on the basis of diameter of the smaller bar.
In case of bundled bars, the lap splices shall be made by splicing one bar at a time. Such
individuals splices with in a bundle shall be staggered.
The design strength of a welded splice or a mechanical connection shall be taken as equal to
18% per cent. When the spliced area forms not more than 20 per cent of the total area at the
section, 100 per cent design strength may be assumed.
When the splicing of welded wire fabrics is to be carried, lap splices of wires shall be made so
that overlap measured between the extreme cross-wire shall be not less than the spacing of
cross-wires plus 100 mm.
Example 3.20 Design the beams for shear reinforcement and check the main reinforcement
for development length in Example 3.16 at supports.
Solution
Design. From Example 3.16, factored (design) load (total intensity of uniformly distributed
load multiplied by partial factors of safety for loads per unit length acting over the beam) is 34.44
kN/m and the effective span of beam, L is 5.58 m. The critical section for shear, XX Fig. 3.59 for
the beam is at a distance d = 440 mm from the face of support. The factored shear force, V at the
critical section, XX
1
V Fd = 34.44 × 5.58 – 34.44 5 (0.440 + 0.300) kN
2
= 70.60 kN
Nominal shear stress
VFd 70.60 × 1000
τv = = = 0.4014 N/mm2
b⋅d 400 × 440
2 Le gg ed m s 8 m m φ stirrup s
2 m s b a rs (spa cing = 1 50 m m ) 2 m s b ars 2 0 m m φ
20 m m φ
X A n ch o rin g b ars X'
4 40 4 80 m m
6 m s b a rs Fe 25 0 C o ve r
d X X' d
20 m m φ 40 m m
5 .58 m
Fig. 3.59
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Out of 6 mild steel bars of 20 mm φ 2 bars have been bent-up near the support and 4 bars
have been continued upto ends as shown in Fig. 3.59. The area of steel reinforcement present
at the critical section
π
Ast = 4 × × 202 = 1256.64 mm2
4
100 ⋅ Ast 100 × 1256.64
= = 0.7140
b⋅d 400 × 440
For M 15 grade of concrete the design shear stress in concrete without shear reinforcement
from IS : 456–1978
⎛ 0.7140 − 0.50 ⎞
τc = 0.46 + (0.54 – 0.46) ⎜
⎝ 0.75 − 0.50 ⎟⎠
= 0.46 + 0.0685
= 0.5285 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress, τc.max from IS : 456–1978 for M 15 grade of concrete is 2.5 N/mm2.
The nominal shear stress, τv is less than τc.max and it is also less than τc. Hence, the beam needs
only minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups. Two legged shear stirrups 8 mm φ
mild steel are provided throughout the length of beam as shown in Fig. 3.59.
π
Asv = 2 × × 82 = 100.531mm2
4
Ast 0.4
From IS : 456–1978, >
b ⋅ sv fy
Ast ⋅ fy 100.531 × 250

sv = =
0.4 × b 0.4 × 400
= 157.08 mm
Provide shear stirrups at 150 mm spacing.
Check for the main reinforcement for development length
As per IS : 456–1978, at simple supports, the positive moment is limited to a diameter such
that the development length, Ld calculated for 0.87fy does not exceed (M1/V + L0), viz., from
Eq. 3.98
⎛ 1.30 M1 ⎞
L0 >| ⎜⎝ V + L0 ⎟ and , (x = 0.53d)
Fd ⎠ u
The moment of resistance of beam section at support (from Example 3.16)

Mu = 0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42 xu)
= 0.87 × 250 × 1256.64 (440 – 0.42 × 0.53 × 440)/106
= 93.49 kN-m
The factored shear force at support
1
V Fd = × 34.44 × 5.58 = 96.08 kN
2
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From Eq. 3.98,

⎡⎛ bs ⎞ ⎤
L0 = ⎢⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − x1 + 13φ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
End cover, x1 is 25 mm and the width of support bs is 600 mm. Therefore,
⎡ 600 ⎞ ⎤
L0 = ⎢⎛⎜ ⎟⎠ − 25 + 13 × 20 ⎥ = 535 mm
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎦
⎛ 1.3 M1 ⎞ ⎛ 93.49 ⎞
⎜⎝ V + L0 ⎟ = ⎜⎝1.30 × + 0.535⎟ = 1.80 m
⎠
Fd ⎠ 96.08
L0 @ ⎛⎜ 54.375 × 20 ⎞⎟ = 1.0875 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
The development length, Ld does not exceed (130 M1/VFd + L0). The requirement of IS :
456–1978 is satisfied.
Example 3.21 Design the beam for shear reinforcement and check the longitudinal
reinforcement for development length in Example 3.15 at supports.
Solution
Design : From Example 3.15, factored (design) load (total intensity of uniformly distributed
load multiplied by partial factors of safety for loads per unit length acting over the beam) is
79.29 kN/m and the effective span of beam, L is 5.52 m. The critical section for shear, XX
Fig. 3.60 for the beam is at a distance d = 540 mm from the face of support.
The factored shear force, V at critical section, XX
1 ⎛ 0.450 ⎞
V Fd = × 79.29 × 525 – 79.29 × ⎜ 0.540 + kN
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= 147.48 kN
VFd 147.48 × 1000
τv = = = 0.4078 N/mm2
b⋅d 360 × 540
4 Hysd-steel Fe 415 bars, continue upto ends as shown in Fig. 3.60. The area of steel
reinforcement present at the critical section
π
Ast = 4 × 202 = 1256.64 mm2
4
⎛ 100 ⋅ Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 1256.64 ⎞
⎜⎝ b ⋅ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝
360 × 540 ⎟⎠ = 0.6464
For M 20 grade of concrete, the design shear stress in concrete without shear reinforcement
from IS : 456–1978
(0.6464 − 0.50) ⎤
τc = 0.46 + (0.54 – 0.46) . ⎡⎢ ⎥ N/mm
2
⎣ (0.75 − 0.50) ⎦
= (0.46 + 0.0468) = 0.5068 N/mm2
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2 Le gg e d h ysd 8 m m φ stirrup s
(S p acin g = 2 8 0 m m )
2 B a rs 16 m m φ h ysd X'
X
ho ld in g ba rs
5 40 5 80 m m
d X X' d C o ve r
40 m m
5 .25 cm
4 50 m m 4 50 m m
Fig. 3.60
Maximum shear stress, τc.max from IS : 456–1978 for M 20 grade of concrete is 2.8 N/mm2.
The nominal shear stress, τv is less than τc.max and it is also less than τc. Therefore, the beam
requires only minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups. Two legged shear stirrups
8 mm φ Hysd-steel, Fe 415 are provided throughout the length of beam as shown in Fig. 3.60.
π
Asv = 2 × × 82 = 100.531 mm2
4
From IS : 456–1978,
⎛ Asv ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 ⎞
⎜⎝ b ⋅ s ⎟⎠ ≥ ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠
v y
⎛ Asv × fy ⎞ ⎛ 100.531 × 415 ⎞

or sv = ⎜ = = 289.725 mm
⎝ 0.4 ⋅ b ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.4 × 360 ⎟⎠
The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of member shall not
exceed 0.75 d = (0.75 × 540) = 405 mm for vertical stirrups and in no case shall the spacing
exceed 450 mm. Provide shear stirrups at 280 mm.
Check for the main reinforcement for development length
As per IS : 456–1978, at simple supports, the positive moment is limited to a diameter such
that the development length, Ld calculated for 0.87fy does not exceed (M1/VFd + Lo), viz., from
Eq. 3.98
⎛ 1.30 M1 ⎞
Lo >/ ⎜ + L0 ⎟ and (x u = 0.48 d)
⎝ VFd ⎠
The moment of resistance of beam section at support
Mu = 0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42x u)
= 0.87 × 415 × 1256.64 (540 – 0.42 × 0.48 × 540)/106
= 19608 kN-m
The factored shear force at support
1
V Fd = × 79.29 × 5.25 = 208.136 kN
2
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From Eq. 3.99 (since, hook is not provided in Hysd-steel reinforcement)

⎛b ⎞
Lo = ⎜ s − x1 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
End cover, x1 is 25 mm and the width of support bs is 450 mm.
Therefore
⎡⎛ 450 ⎞ ⎤
Lo = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25 ⎥ = 20 mm
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ 1.30 M1 ⎞ ⎛ 196.08 ⎞
⎜⎝ V + L0 ⎟ = ⎜1.30 × + 0.20⎟ = 1.928 m
Fd ⎠ ⎝ 147.48 ⎠
Lo = 47.012 × 20 = 0.940 m
1000
The development length, Ld does not exceed (1.30 M1/VFd + L0). The requirement of IS :
PROBLEMS
3.1. A singly reinforced rectangular beam is 360 mm wide. The effective depth of beam section is
480 mm and its effective cover is 40 mm. A steel reinforcement consisting of 4 mild-steel 16
mm diameter has been used in the beam-section. The grade of concrete is M 15. Locate the
neutral axis of the beam. Use the method of limit state design.
3.2. In Problem 3.1, the bending moment at a transverse section of a beam is 60 kN-m. Determine
the compressive strain in bending in concrete, εcu at the extreme fibre and tensile strain in
steel, εst. Also find the stress in steel bars.
3.3. In Problem 3.1, determine the moment of resistance (Flexural strength) of the beam section.
In case, the strain in concrete at the extreme fibre in compression, εcu is 000.10 and the
tensile stress in bending is steel bars is 245 N/mm2, find the depth of neutral axis.
3.4. A singly reinforced rectangular beam is 360 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 480 mm.
Determine the percentage of steel and the cross-sectional area of reinforcement for the balanced
beam section. The grade of concrete is M 20. The quality of steel is (i) mild-steel, Fe 250 (ii) Hysd-
steel, Fe 415. Diameter of steel bars shall be 20 mm. Use the method of limit state of design.
3.5. In Problem 3.4, determine the moment of resistance (Flexural strength) of the beam section,
when (i) the mild-steel reinforcement is used (ii) the hysd-steel bars are used.
3.6. A singly reinforced rectangular beam is 360 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 480 mm
and its effective cover is 70 mm. The steel reinforcement in the beam section consists of 4
mild-steel bars, 16 mm diameter. The grade of concrete is M 15. Determine whether the beam
section is under reinforced or over-reinforced. Also determine the flexural strength of the
beam section. Use the method of limit state of collapse.
3.7. A singly reinforced rectangular beam is 360 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 480 mm
and its effective cover is 40 mm. The steel reinforcement in the beam section consists of 4
hysd-steel) bars, 16 mm diameter. The grade of concrete is M 20. Determine whether the
beam section is under-reinforced or over-reinforced. Also determine the flexural strength of
the beam section. Use limit state design method.
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3.8. A singly reinforced beam is 360 mm wide. The effective depth of beam is 480 mm and is
effective cover is 70 mm. Hysd steel reinforcement, Fe 415 has been provided. The grade of
concrete is M 20. The beam section is to be kept under-reinforced. The flexural strength of
beam is 210 kN-m. The depth of neutral axis is 180 mm. Determine the area, of steel
reinforcement using the method of limit state of design from the principle of (i) forces, and
(ii) moments.
3.9. The effective span of a simply supported beam is 6 m. It supports a dead load of 12 kN/m and
an imposed load of 20 kN/m. The grades of concrete and steel are M 20 and Fe 415, respectively.
Determine (a) the strains in concrete at the mid-span service load (i) at the level of tension
reinforcement (ii) at the tension face (i.e., soffit) of the beam and at 180 mm below the neutral
axis. (b) In case, because of creep, the value of Ec becomes three-fourth, repeat the calculations
for long-term service load given above. The corossion of singly reinforce beam is shown in
Fig. P. 3.9.
4 70 m m 5 40 m m
A s t = 6 b a rs 16 m m φ
H ysd ste el F e 4 15
20
20 m m 20
50 m m
50 m m 50 m m
Fig. P. 3.9 Beam section

3.10 A simply supported beam supports a load, part of which is permanent. The bending moment
due to total load M, is 40 kN-m and bending moment due to permanent load, Mp is 32 kN-m.
Make suitable assumptions for a partially cracked section. Determine (i) the long-term curvature
of the beam under the permanent load, in case, the tensile stress, ft in concrete at the level of
steel bars is 0.50 N/mm2 appropriate to long-term loading (ii) the instantaneous curvature
under the total load and the permanent load, in case ft is 0.8 N/mm2 for short term loading
and (iii) difference between the instantaneous curvatures under the total and the permanent
⎡ E ⎤
C
loads. Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2. EEC (long-term) = ⎢ ⎥ , where Ccp is the coefficient of
⎢⎣ HCcp ( ) ⎥⎦
creep. The grades of concrete and steel are M 20 and Fe 415. Ccp = 2.5.
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3.11. Determine the deflection ∆ym at the free end of the beam in the following cases. Draw curvature
diagrams for them. The beam section is of uniform flexural rigidity. (i) a cantilever beam
carrying concentrated load (ii) a cantilever beam carrying uniformly distributed load.
3.12. The floor of a class room 4 m × 7 m consisting of 150 mm thick reinforced concrete slab is
supported by singly reinforced rectangular beams. Design the beams. Adopt the permissible
stresses as recommended in IS : 456–1978. Also design the beams for shear reinforcement.
Check the main reinforcement for development length at supports. Take ultimate strain in
concrete due to shrinkage as 0.0003.
3.13 Design a singly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at its two ends. The clear span
of beam is 5.60 m. The intensity of uniformly distributed super imposed dead and live loads
are 18 kN/m and 26 kN/m. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel, Fe 415. Adopt the
permissible stresses from IS : 456–1978. Design the beam for shear reinforcement and check
the longitudinal reinforcement for the development length at supports.
3.14 A simply supported rectangular concrete beam 360 mm wide and 480 mm effective depth is
having 4 hysd-steel bars of 18 mm diameter to resist the maximum bending moment at the
centre, 2 hysd-steel bars are bent at 45° with the horizontal and carried at the top near the
support and 2 hysd-steel bars are continued near the end. In addition to this, two legged
vertical stirrups 8 mm diameter of hysd-steel are also provided at 150 mm spacing. Determine
the total shear strength of beam at the transverse section crossing the bent-up bars. The
grade of concrete is M 20.
3.15. In Problem 3.13, design the beam section using the design aids (i) charts and (ii) Tables of
SP : 16–1980.
3.16. In Problem 3.14, design the beam section using the design aids (i) charts and (ii) Tables of
SP : 16–1980.
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Design of Doubly
4 Reinforced Rectangular
Beams
4.1 INTRODUCTION
When the singly reinforced beams need considerable depth to resist large bending moment,
then the beams are also reinforced in compression zone in addition to the reinforcement in the
reinforcement in tension as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a). Similarly when the size of rectangular beam
cross-section is limited (viz., the dimensions of concrete section are fixed predetermined) because
of architectural considerations and practical reasons and the bending moment is decidedly
more than the moment of resistance of the beam section if ideally reinforced, the use of both
tension and compression reinforcements becomes necessary. In such a case, it happens that
the concrete alone cannot develop the compressive force and the compressive stresses in the
extreme fibre required to resist the given bending moment, the beams are strengthened by
providing reinforcement in compression zone. The additional moment of resistance needed is
obtained by providing compression reinforcement. The beams having reinforcements in tension
and compression zones are called as doubly reinforced beams. When a beam is continuous over
several supports, the section of beam at the support is usually designed as a doubly reinforced
beam. In continuous beams, the moving and partial live loads may cause the points of inflection
to move closer to the support under some conditions so that some tension reinforcement is
needed near the supports. The doubly reinforced beams are also used when the beams are
subjected to eccentric loading, shocks, impact or accidental lateral thrust or when the bending
moment reverses due to loading. The lintels, braces, walls of storage reservoirs, brackets, etc.
are the example of doubly reinforced beams. The doubly reinforced beams are considered as
uneconomical beams, as the strength of compression reinforcement is not fully utilized.
The reinforcement in compression zone is also used for the reasons other than the strength.
When the compressive reinforcement is added in the beams, the long-term deflections in beams
reduce. In some-cases, the steel bars are placed in compression zone for minimum-moment
loading.
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Figure 4.1 (a) shows a doubly reinforced beam of size breadth, b and overall depth, D.
The area of longitudinal reinforcement in tension is Ast and that in compression is Asc.
The distance from the top face (in case of simply supported beam) measured upto the centroid
of tension reinforcement is the effective depth, d. The depth of neutral axis, x u is the distance
from extreme fibre of concrete in compression to the neutral axis of the beam section. The
distances d, and dc are the effective cover for reinforcements in tension and compression
respectively.
εc u f c u = 0 .44 6 f ck
b
dc εs c dc 0 .42 x u C s c
xu xu C cu
Asc
d N N e utral A
a xis O
D ( d –x u ) ( d – 0.42 x u )
( d –x u )
Ast
T sc
dt dt εs C c u = 0 .36 f ck .b .x u
C s c = A s c ( F sc – f cu )
T s u = 0 .87 f y A s t
(a ) B e am se ction (b ) S train d istribu tion (c) S tress diag ra m s
Fig. 4.1 Doubly Reinforced Beam
Figure 4.1 (b) shows the strains distributed in accordance with the assumption of linear
strain distribution (which implies that the plane sections remain plane, is not exactly correct
but it is justifiable for practical purposes). At the instant of collapse the maximum strain in
concrete in compression is εcu. The strain in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement is εs.
The strain in steel bars provided as compressive reinforcement is εsc. The strains in concrete at
depth d and dc from the top (for simply supported beam) of beam may be obtained from similar
triangles (viz., geometry of diagram). The relationship between the strain in concrete
surrounding the steel bars depends on bond between the concrete and the steel (this bond is
assumed to be perfect). However, it is accurate enough to assume that these are correspondingly
equal. Therefore, strain in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = ⎜ ⎟ . εcu ...(4.1)
⎝ xu ⎠
strain in steel bars provide as compression reinforcement
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εse = ⎜ ⎟ . εcu ...(4.2)
⎝ xu ⎠
Figure 4.1 (c) shows the idealized stress distribution diagram for the concrete in compression
as recommend in IS : 456–1978 code (i.e., for simply supported beam, the portion of concrete
above neutral axis). It is shown shaded in Fig. 4,1 (c). This stress distribution diagram is called
as the stress block. The relevant characteristics of the stress block are (i) the stress at
the top (simply supported beam, i.e., extreme fibre of concrete in compression) is 0.446fck and
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Design of Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams 269
(ii) the depth of line of action of compressive force in concrete at ultimate state is 0.42 xu. It is
also the depth of centroid of the stress block. The portion of concrete in tension is neglected as
per the assumption made for the limit state of collapse in flexure.
In this chapter, the doubly reinforced beams are designed as per the method of limit state
of collapse in flexure and it is checked for the limit state of serviceability (viz., deflection
and concrete).
In doubly reinforced beam, it is now seen that the steel bars are also provided in compression
in flexure. It is ensured that these compression steel bars do not buckle outward, when the
beams are loaded, which will spall off the outer concrete. These bars are anchored in the same
manner as the steel bars in compression in columns are anchored by the lateral ties. These
lateral ties are provided throughout the length where the compression reinforcement is needed.
4.2 DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS

The depth of neutral axis, xu of a doubly reinforced rectangular beam as shown in Fig. 4.1
subjected to ultimate load (i.e., when the flexural strength is reached) may be determined from
the principle of equilibrium of the beam as under. When the beam attains the maximum bending
moment, the tension and compression reinforcements may or may not be at the yield strength.
It depends upon the cross-sectional areas of the reinforcing bars and their positions. Total
compressive force consists of compressive force in concrete in compression zone, Ccu and
compressive force in the steel bars provided as compression reinforcement Csc.
Compressive force in concrete in compression
Ccu = (0.36fck).(x u.b) ...(i)
Compressive force in the steel bars provided as compression reinforcement (fcu = 0.446 fck)
wsc1 = Asc . fsc
The compression steel bars have been provided in the compression zone of the concrete.
Where the compression steel bars have been placed, in that place, the concrete is not these. But
in the compressive force, Ccu, a complete area b . xu has already been considered. Therefore, the
deduction in compressive force must be made where there is not concrete. Therefore,
Cs2 = Asc . fcu
The compression steel bars are provided at a depth, dc (effective cover for the compression
reinforcement). However, the position of the steel bars remains in the rectangular portion of
the stress block, Fig 4.1 (c). Therefore, the stress in concrete at the level of the steel bars in
compression
(fcu = 0.445 fck)
Net compressive force at the level of steel bars in compression
Csc = (Asc1 – Csc2)
Csc = (Asc .fsc – Asc .fcu)
In an approximation : Second term in the parenthesis may be dropped
Csc = Asc (fsc –fcu) ...(ii)
C = (Ccu + Csc) ...(iii)
The portion of concrete in tension is neglected. Therefore, the tensile force in the steel bars
provided as tensile reinforcement
Tsu = fs – Ast ...(iv)
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where the stresses in steel in tension, fs and in compression fsc are related to the strains, εs and
εsc by the respective stress-strain curves for the reinforcement.
The beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, from the principle of equilibrium, total
compressive force is equal to the total tensile force. Then, from the expressions (i), (ii), (iii) and
(iv) above
Ctotal = Tsu ...(v)
0.36 fck . xu.b + Asc . (fsc – fsu) = fs . Ast
0.36 fck . xu.b = (fs . Ast . fsc . Asc) ...(vi)
In the expression (vi), the depth of neutral axis, xu is only unknown.
⎡ fs . Ast − Asc ( fsc − fsu ) ⎤
xu = ⎢ ⎥. d ...(vii)
⎣ 0.36 fck . b . d ⎦
xu ⎡ f . A − ( fsc − fsu ) Asc ⎤

or = ⎢ s st ⎥ ...(4.3)
d ⎣ 0.36 fc . b . d ⎦
In an approximation. Term Asc . fcu may be dropped. The actual stresses fs and fsc may be
calculated from the strain diagram. From the strain diagram, Fig. 4.1 (b)
⎡ εsc ⎤ ⎛ε ⎞
⎢ ⎥ = ⎜ cu ⎟
⎣⎢ ( u
x − dc )⎦
⎥ ⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟ ...(4.4)
⎝ xu ⎠
The maximum strain in concrete in compression may be εcu = 0.0035.
Then,
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ...(4.5a)
⎝ xu ⎠
For balanced beam section, xu = x max
⎛ xu. max − α c ⎞
εsc = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ...(4.5b)
⎝ xu. max ⎠
The stress in steel bars in compression,
fsc = εsc. Es
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
∴ fsc = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ . Es or fy ...(4.6)
⎝ xu ⎠
For balanced section,
xu = x max, therefore
⎛ xu. max − dc ⎞
fsc = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ . Es ...(4.7)
⎝ x u. max ⎠
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where, fsc is the design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to a strain, εsc
expressed in Eq. 4.5 (b) and xu.max is the limiting value of the x u [IS : 456–1978].
From Eq. 4.1, the strain in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = εcu . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ...(4.8)
⎝ xu ⎠
However,
εs |> εsy1
or εs = (0.87fy/Es + 0.002) ...(viii)
Then, the stress in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement
fs = e s . Es
⎛ d − xu ⎞
or fs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ . Es or fy ...(4.9)
⎝ xu ⎠
In practice, a trial and error procedure is adopted. The value of x u is assumed and then, the
strains in steel bars in tension and compression (and then the stresses) are then calculated. In
case, Eq. 4.3 is not satisfied, an adjustment is made to xu by inspection. And the procedure is
then repeated (several times, if necessary) until, Eq. 4.3 is sufficiently closely satisfied.
Alternatively. The analysis of a doubly reinforced beam section may be done by assuming
first that all the steel bars (in tension and in compression are yielding. The calculations may be
modified later in case it is seen that some of the steel bars are not at the yield strength are
described as following.
4.2.1 Tension and Compression Steel both at Yield Stress

When the steel bars provided in tension reinforcement and as compression reinforcement both
are yielding, then stresses in steel bars in tension
fs = 0.87fy ...(ix)
stresses in steel bars in compression
fsc = fy ...(x)
where fy is the yield strength of the bars. The compressive force in concrete in compression
Ccu = 0.36 fck . xu . b ...(xi)
Compressive force in steel bars in compression (fcu = 0.446fck)
Csc = Csc (fy – fcu) ...(xii)
Tensile force in steel bars in tension
Tsu = 0.87 fy . Ast ...(xiii)
For the equilibrium condition, total compressive force is equal to the total tensile force
CTotal = (Ccu + Csc) ...(xiv)
CTotal = Tsu ...(xv)
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Therefore, (fcu = 0.446 fck)

0.36 fck . b . xu + Asc (fy – fcu) = 0.87 fy . Ast
0.36 fck . b . xu = 0.87 fy . Ast – Asc (fy – fcu)
xu = ⎢
( )
⎡ 0.87 fy . Ast − Asc fy − fsu ⎤ d
⎥×
⎢⎣ 0.36 fck . b ⎥⎦ d
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎡ 0.87 fy . Ast − Asc fy − fcu ( ) ⎤⎥

⎜ d ⎟ = ⎢ ...(4.10)
⎝ ⎠ ⎢⎣ 0.36 fck .(b .d ) ⎥⎦
In an approximation : Term Asc .fcu may be dropped.

The strain diagram may now be used to check whether the steel bars in tension and
compression are yielding. From the similar triangles
⎡ εs ⎤ ⎛ε ⎞
⎢ ⎥ = ⎜ cu ⎟ ....(xvi)
⎣⎢ ( d − x u )⎦
⎥ ⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = εcu . ⎜ ⎟ ....(xvii)
⎝ xu ⎠
Since, εcu = 0.0035,then the expression (xvii) may be written as
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ...(xviii)
⎝ xu ⎠
At yielding, the maximum strain in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement,
εs = εsy1 ...(xix)
⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞
= ⎜ E + 0.002 ⎟ ...(xx)
⎝ s ⎠
⎡ εsc ⎤ ⎛ε ⎞
and ⎢ ⎥ = ⎜ cu ⎟
⎢⎣ ( xu − dc ) ⎥⎦ ⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
then, εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ...(xxi)
⎝ xu ⎠
fsc fy
Since εsc = = ...(xxii)
Es Es
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⎛ xu − dc ⎞ fy
0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ ≥ ...(xxiii)
⎝ xu ⎠ Es
If the conditions as per the expressions (xx) and (xxiii) hold good, the assumptions of all the
steel bars (viz., in tension and in compression, both) are yielding, is correct.
In case, the checks as per the expressions (xx) and (xxiii) indicate that the steel bars are not
yielding then, the value of depth of neutral axis, xu may be calculated from Eq. 4.3 described
above.
4.2.2 Compression Steel below Yield Stress

It may be possible that the steel bars used as tension reinforcement, may have stress equal to
yield stress. But, whether or not the steel bars provided as compression reinforcement may
have yielded at failure or not, may be found as follows :
In case, the steel bars in compression have yielded, then εsc = εy then, from Fig. 4.1 (b), from
similar triangles (that is, from geometry)
εcu εcu
= ...(xxiv)
( xu − dc ) xu
Therefore,
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εy = εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟ ...(xxv)
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
Then (εsc – εy) = εcu – εcu . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ εcu . xu − εcu . xu + εcu . dc ⎞

or (εsc – εy) = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ εcu ⎞
or xu = ⎜ ⎟⎟ . dc ...(xxvi)
⎜ εcu − ε y
⎝ ⎠
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎡⎛ εcu ⎞ ⎛ dc ⎞⎤
or ⎜ d ⎟ = ⎢⎜⎜ ε − ε ⎟⎟ . ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(4.11)
⎝ ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ cu y ⎠ ⎝d ⎠ ⎥⎦
Since, εcu = 0.035 ...(xxvii)

and εy = (fy/Es) ...(xxviii)
where Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
In case, the stress in steel bars in compression
fsc ≤ fy ...(xxix)
then, fsc = εsc . Es ...(xxx)
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where, the strain in steel bars in compression, from the expression (xxv)
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
then fsc = εsc . Es
⎡ ⎛ xu.max − dc ⎞ ⎤
or fsc = ⎢εcu . ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ . Es ...(xxxii)
⎢⎣ ⎝ xu ⎠ ⎥⎦
From the expression (xxxi), it is seen that the compressive stress in steel bars may be expressed
in terms of the unknown depth of neutral axis, x u. In case of balanced section of the beam
x u = x u.max, and εcu = 0.0035. IS : 456–1978 specifies
⎡ ⎛ xu − dc ⎞ ⎤
fcs = ⎢0.0035. ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ . Es ...(xxxiii)
⎣⎢ ⎝ xu.max ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, fsc is the design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to a strain of [0.0035
(xu.max – dc) / xu.max] and xu.max is the limiting value of the depth of neutral axis, xu.
4.3 TENSION AND COMPRESSION FAILURES

The doubly reinforced beams as well as singly reinforced beams may fail in tension or in
compression or in both.
4.3.1 Tension Failure

In tension failures the steel bars provided as reinforcement in tension may yield. In practical
beams, the tensile steel reinforcement will always be yielding.
4.3.2 Compression Failure

In compression failures, the tension steel remains in the elastic range. Very often, the strain at
the level of the steel bars in compression is large enough for the steel to be at yield strength as
well. Depending upon the lower values of dc and fy it is more probable that the compression
steel bars is yielding.
In both the types of failures, the steel bars in compression may or may not be yielding.
Instead of developing the general equations for all these cases, illustrative examples have
been worked out numerically from first, principles Professors Mattock, A.H., Kriz, L.B., and
Hognestad, E. have developed general equations, if needed, the reference may be made in
their published paper titled as Rectangular Stress Distribution in Ultimate Strength Design,
Journal ACI, Vol. 57, No. 8, February, 1961, (pp. 875–928).
4.4 PERCENTAGE STEEL RATIO

It is highly preferred (for the reasons discussed for singly reinforced rectangular beams, earlier)
that the failure (if it occurs) should be initiated by yielding of the steel bars rather than by
crushing of the concrete. In case, in a doubly reinforced beam, the tensile steel ratio p is equal
to or less than 0.75 pB, then, ACI code recommends that the strength of the doubly reinforced
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beam may be approximated within acceptable limits without considering the steel bars provided
as reinforcement in compression. The strength of such a beam shall be governed by tensile
yielding. The lever arm of the resisting moment shall ordinarily be but little influenced by the
presence of compression reinforcement. It may be assured by setting an upper limit on the
tensile steel ratio, (that is, the percentage steel ratio in tension).
The strain in steel bars in tension as shown in Fig. 4.1 (b), may be equal to εsy1 = [(0.87fy/Es)
+ 0.002] to establish the location of neutral axis for the condition of balanced failure. There are
two possibilities as the regards the compressive steel and each possibility may be discussed
individually.
4.4.1 Compression Steel at Yield Stress

In case, in a doubly reinforced beam, the tensile steel ratio is more than 0.75 pB, an elaborate
analysis is needed. Figure 4.1 (a) shows a rectangular beam section with the area of steel bars,
Asc in compression placed at a distance dc from the compression face and with the area of steel
bars, Ast placed at an effective depth from the compression face. Initially, it may be assumed
that both Asc and Ast are stressed to yield at failure.
It may easily be shown that the balance percentage steel ratio pBD for a doubly reinforced
beam is
PBD = [PBD + PSC (0.87fy – fcu)] ...(4.12)
where,
pB = balanced percentage steel ratio for the corresponding singly reinforced beam
(p = Ast/bd)
PSC = percentage steel ratio for steel bars in compression [(Ast/bd) × 100]
In an approximation. In Eq. 4.12, second term within parenthesis may be dropped.
ACI code of practice recommends that the maximum percentage steel ratio may be set to
ensure the same margin against brittle concrete failure in a double reinforced beam as in
singly reinforced
PD.max = (0.75 pB+pc) ...(4.13)

Whether the steel bars used as reinforcement in compression will have yield at failure or not,
may be found as follows.
From Fig. 4.1 (b) and considering the limiting case, the strain in compression steel
εsc = εy ...(i)
From similar triangles, Fig, 4.1 (b)
εcu εcu
=
xu − dc xu
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
(εsc – εy) = εcu. ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
(εcu – εy) = εcu . εcu . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
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εcu
(εcu – εy) = ε . dc
xu
⎛ εcu ⎞
or xu = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . dc ...(iii)
⎝ εcu − ε y ⎠
The horizontal forces acting over the doubly reinforces as shown in Fig. 4.1 (c) [i.e., as
shown in Fig. 4.2 (a)] are equivalent to the horizontal forces as shown in Fig. 4.2 (b). The beam
section is in equilibrium. Therefore, the horizontal forces acting from left to right are equal to
the horizontal forces acting from right to left (i.e., algebraic sum of horizontal forces is zero).
Therefore
Csc + Ccu = Csc + (Tsu – Csc) ...(iv)
These forces are as under :
Csc = 0.36 fck . (x u . b) ...(v)
Csc = Csc(0.87fy – fcu . Asc) ...(vi)
T m = 0.87fy . Ast ...(vii)
Substituting the values of these forces in the expression (iv)
0 44 6 f c k = f c u
C su dc C su 0 .42 x u
Ccu
xu Ccu
D (d – d c ) + ( d – 0 .42 x s u )
(d – xy )
C su (T s u – C s u)
dt T su dt
C c u = 0 .3 6 f ck . b . x u C s c = A s c ( f sc – f u ) T su = fs A st
(a ) Fo rces a ctin g o ver be am (b ) E q uiva le nt fo rces in d ou b ly re inforce d b e am

Fig. 4.2 Doubly reinforced beam
In an Approximation. In expression (vi), the term fcu . Asc may be dropped.

Since (fck = 0.446fck)
(0.87fy – fcu ) Asc + 0.36 fck.b.xu = Asc. (0.87 fy – fcu)
+ 0.87 fy . Ast . Asc (0.87 fy – fcu)
or 0.87 fy . Ast = 0.36 fck . b . xu + Asc (0.87 fy – fcu) ...(viii)
Ast 0.36 fck . b . xu Asc
or 0.87 fy . = + + (0.87 fy – fcu)
bd bd bd
Ast 0.36 fck ⎛ xu ⎞ Asc
or = + (0.87 fy – fcu) ...(ix)
bd 0.87 fy ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ bd
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Substituting the value of xu from the expression (iii)
Ast 0.36 fck ⎛ εcu ⎞ ⎛ dc ⎞ Ast

= .⎜ ⎟⎟ . ⎜ ⎟+ (0.87 fy – fcu)
bd 0.87 fy ⎜ εcu − ε y
⎝ ⎠ ⎝d ⎠ bd
0.36 fck ⎛ εcu ⎞ ⎛d ⎞

PD. lim = .⎜ ⎟⎟ . ⎜ c ⎟ + pC . (0.87 fy – fcu) ...(4.14)
0.87 fy ⎝⎜ εcu − ε y ⎠ ⎝d ⎠
In an approximation. From the expressions (viii) and (ix) and in Eq. 4.14, term Asc.fcu
may be neglected.
Equation 4.14 provides the minimum tensile steel ratio PD.lim for the doubly reinforced beam.
It ensures that the steel bars in compression at failure, yields. Let
Ecu= 0.0035 as usual and
Ey = (fy/Es), and Es = 2 + 105 N/mm2
Then,
0.36 fck ⎛ dc ⎞ ⎛ 700 ⎞

PD . lim = . . + pSC . (0.87 fy – fcu)
0.87 fy ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎜ fy ⎟
⎜ 700 − ⎟
⎝ Es ⎠
0.36 fck ⎛ dc ⎞ ⎛ 700 ⎞

or PD . lim = . .⎜ ⎟⎟ + pSC . (0.87 fy – fcu) ...(4.15)
0.87 fy ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 700 − fy ⎠
In an approximation. Second term, that is fcu in the parenthesis may be neglected.
In case, the tensile steel ratio is less than this limiting value, the neutral axis is sufficiently
high that the compressive stress is less than the yield stress.
From Eq. 4.12,
PBD = [PB+ pSC (0.87fy – fcu)] ...(x)
The use of shallow beams with relative high strength steel is very common. This expression
needs modification. The modified form of above expression (x) [that is, Eq 4.12] as below :
⎛f ⎞
pB.D = pB + pSC . ⎜ sc ⎟⎟ ...(4.16)
⎜ fy
⎝ ⎠
where,
fsc = Es . εsc ...(xi)
⎡ ⎛d ⎞ ⎤
or fsc = Es . ⎢εcu − ⎜ c ⎟ . (εcu + ε y )⎥ ...(xii)
⎣ ⎝d ⎠ ⎦
or fsc ≤ fy ...(xiii)
ACI code allows the maximum steel ratio as under
⎛f ⎞
PD. max = 0.75 pB +psc . ⎜ sc ⎟⎟ ...(4.17)
⎜ fy
⎝ ⎠
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In case, the tensile steel ratio is less than pD.lim and less than pB.D as given by Eq. 4.16, the
tensile steel is at the yield stress at failure, but the steel bars in compression are not. In such a
case [from the expression (xxv) Art. 4.2]
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟ ...(xiv)
⎝ xu ⎠
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
Therefore, fsc = Es . εsc = εcu . ⎜ ⎟ . Es ...(4.18)
⎝ xu ⎠
From the expression (viii) above (when fsc ≠ fy)
Asc
0.87fy . Ast = 0.36 fck . b . xu + (f – fcu)
0.87 sc
0.36 fck A
then, Ast . fy = . b . xu + sc (fsc – fcu)
0.87 0.87
0.36 fck A
or Ast . fy = . b . xu + sc (fsc – fcu)
0.87 0.87
Since from the expression (xiv)
⎛ xu − dc ⎞
εsc = εsc . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
fsc = εsc . Es
0.36 Asc ⎡ ⎛ xu − dc ⎞⎤
Ast . fy = . fck . b . xu . ⎢E . E ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(4.19)
0.87 0.87 ⎣⎢ sc s ⎝ xu − fcu ⎠ ⎦⎥
It is to note that Eq. 4.19 may be solved for the depth of neutral axis.
In an approximation. In Eq 4.19 and above expression (xv), the term Asc fcu may be
neglected.
Values of fsc. The values of stress in compression reinforcement steel bars may be noted
from three different quality of steel reinforcement, (viz., mild steel Fe 250, Hysd steels Fe 415
and Fe 500).
(A) For Mild Steel, Fe 250. After yield stress, the stress in mild steel remains constant
even though, the strain in steel continues to increase. Therefore, (Referring to Fig. 2.13)
fsc = 0.87 ...(xvi)
(B) For Hysd Steel bars Fe 415 and Fe 500. Figure 2.14 shows stress-strain curve for
Hysd steel. The stresses and strains change as per the typical curve shown. The values of fsc
may be noted as under :
(i) Corresponding to the calculated strain εsc, the values of fsc may be noted from Table
2.7. The linear interpolation may be done, if necessary.
(ii) The values of fsc depend upon the ratio (dc/d). These values may be noted corresponding
to this ratio and the grade of sceel from Table 4.1.
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Table 4.1. Values of fsc N/mm2

Ratio (f sc N/mm 2 )
(d c /d) Grades of steel
Fe 250 Fe 415 Fe 500
0.05 217 355 424
0.10 217 353 412
0.15 217 342 395
0.20 217 329 370
4.5 BENDING (FLEXURAL) STRENGTH OF A DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM

The ultimate bending (flexural) strength of a doubly reinforced beam is often called the ultimate
moment of resistance.
From Fig. 4.1, it is seen that the doubly reinforced beam section carries a compressive force,
Ccu (on ultimate compressive force in concrete in compression), a compressive force, Csc (an
ultimate compressive force in steel bars provided as compression reinforcement) and the tensile
force, Tsu (an ultimate tensile force in steel bars provided as tension reinforcement. The
compressive force in concrete, in compression Ccu acts at a distance 0.42 xu from the extreme
fibre of concrete in compression (viz., from top for simply supported beam as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Ccu = [(0.36fck) . (b . xu)] ...(i)
The compressive force, Csc in steel bars in compression acts at a distance, dc from the extreme
fibre of concrete in compression.
Compressive force in steel bars in compression
Csc = Asc (fsc – fcu) ...(ii)
fcu = 0.446 fck
where fsc is the stress in the steel bars in compression and Asc is the cross-sectional area of the
steel bars in compression.
In an approximation. Term Acs . fcu may be neglected.
The tensile force, Tsu in steel bars provided as reinforcement in tension acts at the centre of
the steel bars in tension. It acts at a distance, d (the effective depth of beam section) from the
extreme fibre of concrete in compression, (viz., from top of simply supported beam as shown in
Fig. 4.1).
Tensile force in steel bars in tension reinforcement
Tsu = fs Ast ...(iii)
where Ast is the cross-sectional area of steel bars provided as reinforcement in tension.
The ultimate forces Ccu, Csu and Tsu may be marked as equivalent system of forces as shown
in Figs. 4.2 (a) and (b). The total moment of resistance of a doubly reinforced beam is the sum
of limiting moment of resistance Mu.lim of a singly reinforced beam section and additional moment
of resistance. Mu , that is
2
Mu = Mu.lim + Mu
2
It may be thought of as the sum of two parts. First part (of total moment of resistance), Mu.cu
is due to compressive force Ccu. It is determined by taking the moment of Ccu about a conventional
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horizontal axis (viz., the horizontal axis passing through the centre of steel bars in tension).
Therefore,
Mu.cu = Ccu . (d – 0.42 x u) ...(iv)
or Mu.cu = [(0.36 fck . b. xu (d – 0.42 x u)] ...(4.20)
Second part (of total moment of resistance). Mu.sc is due to the compressive, Csc. It is also
obtained by taking the moment of Csc about the centre of steel bars in tension. Therefore,
Mu.sc = [Asc . (fsc – fcu) (d – dc)] ...(4.21)
fcu = 0.446 fck
Compressive stress in concrete at the level of centroid of compression reinforcement
(d – dc) = lever arm for the additional moment of resistance. It
is equal to the distance between centroids of tension
and compression reinforcement
Therefore, total moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam
Mu = (Mu.cu + Mu.sc) ...(v)
or Mu = [0.36 fck . b . xu (d – 0.42 xu)
+ Asc . (fsc – fcu)(d – dc)] ...(4.22)
fcu = 0.446 fck
Total moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam may also be determined by
considering the moment of all the forces about the centroid of the concrete stress block
[Fig. 4.1 (c)].
Therefore,
Mu = [fs . As . (d – 0.42 xu)
+ Asc . (fsc – fcu) . (0.42 xu – dc)] ...(4.23)
fcu = 0.446 fck
In an approximation. Term Asc .fcu in Eqs. 4.21, 4.22 and 4.23 may be neglected.
The two values of total moment of resistance, Mu calculated from Eq. 4.22 and Eq. 4.23 are
equal. In Fig. 4.1 (a) rectangular beam section of a doubly reinforced beam is shown. However,
above theory is of general validity. It is equally applicable to any arbitrary section (provided it
is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the section).
It is possible that both the steel bars in tension and compression reinforcement, (i.e., their
cross-sectional area Ast and Asc) are initially stressed to fy at failure.
4.5.1 Tension and Compression Steel Bars both at Yield Stress

The first part of total moment of resistance may also be written as [from Fig. 4.2 (b)]
Mx = [(Tsu – Csc) . fy ]. (d – 0.42 xu) ...(vi)
Mx = [Ast . fy – Asc . (fy – fcu) . (d – 0.42 x u) ...(4.24)
The second part of total moment of resistance may then be written as [from Fig. 4.2 (b)]
M2 = [Asc. (fy – fcu) (d – dc)] ...(4.25)
(fcu = 0.446 fck)
The toal moment of resistance may then be written as sum of the two moments M1 and M2.
Therefore,
MU = (M1 + M2) ...(vii)
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MU = [(Ast – Asc) . fy . (d – 0.42 xu)

+ Asc . (fy – fcu)(d–dc)] ...(4.26)
(fcu = 0.446 fck)
In an approximation. Term Asc . fcu in Eqs 4.24, 4.25 and 4.26 may be neglected.
The other possibility is that the tension steel bars may yield and the compression steel bars
may have stress below yield stress. This case is discussed here under.

The bending (flexural) strength of doubly reinforced beam (i.e., the total moment of resistance
of the beam may then be written as
Mu = (Mu.cu + Mu.sc) ... (vii)
or Mu = [0.36fck . b . xu (d – 0.42 x u)
+ Asc . (fsc– fcu)(d – dc)] ...(4.27)
(fcu = 0.446 fck)
Very often it may happen that the steel bars in tension yields and the steel bars is compression
may remain at stress below yield stress in bending. It is highly desirable that the failure, in
case it occurs may be precipitated by yielding of tension steel bars rather than by crushing.
From the tension side, the expression (vii) may be written as below : by taking the moment
about the centroid of the stress block
Mu = Mu.TSU + Mu.SC ... (viii)
or Mu = [0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42 x u)
+ Asc . (fsc– fcu)(0.42 xu – dc)] ...(4.28)
(fcu = 0.446 fck)
In an approximation. Term Asc . fcu in Eqs. 4.27 and 4.28 may be neglected.
In case, Mu.lim is the limiting moment of resistance of a beam section without compression
reinforcement and x u.max is the limiting value of depth of neutral axis, then, the total moment
of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam may be expressed as under as it is
Specified in code IS : 456–1978
⎡ ⎛ xu. max ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢0.36 fck . ⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 − 0.42 u. max ⎟ bd ⎥ ... (ix)
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠ ⎦
Mu = [Mu.lim + fsc . Asc . (d – dc)] ... (4.29a)
It should have been
⎡ ⎛ xu. max ⎞⎤
Mu = ⎢0.36 fck . ⎜ + Asc . ( fsc − fcu ) (d − dc ) ⎟ ⎥ ...(4.29b)
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦
Equation 4.29 may also be written as below : (As per IS 456–1978)
It is to note that the values of Mu.lim may be also be noted from Table 3.4 (a).
(Mu – Mu.lim) = fsc . Asc . (d – dc) ...(4.30a)
It should have been
(Mu – Mu.lim = Asc (fsc – Ast . (d – dc) ...(4.30b)
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where,
fsc = design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to strain εsc.
⎡ 0.0035 ( xu. max − dc ) ⎤
εsc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(4.31)
⎣ xu. max ⎦
From Eq. 4.30 (a)
⎡ ( M u − M u.lim ) ⎤
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(4.32)
⎣⎢ fsc (d − dc ) ⎦⎥
Total area of steel bars provided as tension reinforcement may be obtained from the following
expression :
Ast = (Ast1+ Ast2) ...(4.33)
where,
Ast = cross-sectional area of the total tensile reinforcement
Ast1 = area of the tensile reinforcement for a single reinforced
beam section corresponding to Mu.lim and
⎡ M u.lim ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ 0.87 f . d − 0.42 x ⎥ ...(4.34)
⎣⎢ y ( u.max ) ⎦
⎥
0.87 fy . Ast2 = fsc . Asc ...(4.35a)

0.87 fy . Ast2 = Asc. (fsc – fcu) ...(4.35b)
In stead of this Eq. 4.32, the additional moments should be equated about neutral axis.
Therefore, the position of neutral axis remains unaltered
0.87 fy . Ast2 (d – xu) = fsc . Asc (xu – dc) ...(4.36)
In an approximation. In Eqs 4.29 (b), 4.30 (b) and 4.35 (b), term Asc.fcu may be dropped.
Example 4.1 A doubly reinforced rectangular beam is 400 mm wide. The effective depth of
beam section is 550 mm and the effective cover to both tension and compression reinforcements
from the outer surfaces is 50 mm. The tension and compression reinforcements consist of 4 bars
of 20 mm diameter and 4 bars of 16 mm diameter, respectively. Locate the neutral axis and
determine the moment of resistance of doubly reinforced beam. M 15 grade of concrete and
mild steel reinforcements are used.
Solution
The grade of concrete is M 15, and mild steel reinforcements are used in tension and
compression.
π
Ast = 4 × × 202 = 1256.64 mm2 ...(i)
4
Area of steel reinforcement in compression
π
Asc= 4 × × l62 = 804.25 mm2 ...(ii)
4
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4.5.2.1 Location of Neutral Axis

The doubly reinforced beam section is shown in Fig. 4.3. In total compressive force (compressive
force in concrete in compression zone and compressive force in compression reinforcement) and
total tensile force in tension reinforcement at ultimate stage of loads, that is from expression
(v), Art. 4.2
CTotal = Tsu ...(iii)
εc u f c u = 0 .44 6 f ck
0 .42 x u
Asc εs c dc C
sc
xu xu C cu
N A N A
O
(d – d c )
(d – xu )
( d – xu)
Tsu
Ast 50 m m εs C c u = 0 .36 f ck .b .x u
C s c = A s c ( f sc – f cu )
T s u = 0 .87 f yA s t
(a ) B e am se ction (b ) S train d istribu tion (c) S tress diag ra m s
Compressive force in concrete in compression expression (i)

Ccu = 0.36 fck . xu . b
⎛ 0.36 × l5 × xu × 400 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 2.16 x u kN ...(iv)
Compressive force in steel bars in compression
Csc = Asc .fsc
1
⎛ 804.25 × fsc ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 0.80425 fsc kN ...(v)
Compressive force in concrete (not available) where there are steel bars (fcu = 0.446fck)
Csc2 = Asc . fcu
⎛ 804.25 × 0.446 × 15 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 5.380 kN ...(vi)
Tsu = 0.87fy . Ast
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⎛ 0.87 × 250 × 1256.64 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 273.32 kN ...(vii)
CSC = (CSC1 – CSC2)
= (0.80425 fsc – 5.380) kN ...(viii)
Total compressive force
CTotal = (Ccu – Csc)
= (2.16 x u + 0.80425 fsc – 5.380) ...(ix)
Since, [from expression (iii)]
CTotal = Tsu
2.16x u + (0.80425 fsc – 5.380) = 273.32 ...(x)
For mild steel
fsc = 0.87 fy
= 0.87 × 250 = 217.5 N/mm2
From the expression (x)
2.16 x u + (080425 × 217.5 – 5.380) = 273.32
2.16 x u +(174.92 – 5.380) = 273.32
⎛ 273.32–169.544 ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟ = 48.04 mm
⎝ 2.16 ⎠
4.5.2.2 Moment of Resistance of Beam Section

In order to determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam section,
depth of neutral axis, for the balanced section is found. From IS : 456–1978.
For fy = 250 N/mm2,
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.53
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = (0.53 × 550) = 291.50 mm
The depth of neutral axis, in case the doubly reinforced beam section is balanced is x u.max =
291.50 mm. The actual depth of neutral axis x u is 48.04 mm. By comparing x u and x u.max, it is
seen that x u is less than xu.max. The doubly reinforced beam section is under-reinforced.
The moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam section (given is found by taking
the moment of compressive forces Ccu and Csc about the centre of steel bars in tension. From
Eq. 4.21, (the steel bars in compression have stress below yield stress)
Mu = [0.36 fck . b . xu (d – 0.42 xu) + Asc . (fsc – fcu) (d – dc)]
Mu = [0.36 × 15 × 400 × 48.04 (550–0.42 × 48.04) + 804.25
(0.87 × 250–0.446 × 15) (550.50)] × 10–6
Mu = [(54.978 + 84.772)] = 139.75 kN-m
[It is to note that the safe working moment of given beam section in (139.75/1.50 = 93.167 kN-m]
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Example 4.2 In Example 4.1, in case the grade of concrete is M 20 and hysd steel bars are
used, locate the neutral axis and determine the moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced
beam section.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 20 and Hysd steel bars, Fe 415 are used as reinforcements
in tension and compression.
From Example 4.1,
Ast = 1256.64 mm2 ...(i)
Asc = 804.25 mm2 ...(ii)
4.5.2.3 Depth of Neutral axis of the Beam Section

The doubly reinforced beam section is shown in Fig. 4.3. From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel
bars of grade Fe 415,
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = 0.48 × 550 = 264 mm
In case, the given beam section of doubly reinforced beam is having balanced section, then,
x u = xu.max = 264 mm2.
CTotal = (Ccu + Csu)
= [Ccu +(Csc – Ssc )]
1 2
= [0.36 fck . b. xu.max + Asc (fsc – fcu)] ...(iii)
The design stresses in compression reinforcement and the concrete at the level of centre of
steel bars provided as compression reinforcement, fck and fcu corresponding to strain, εsc. From
Eq. 4.31, (and so also IS : 456–1978)
⎡ 0.0035 ( xu. max – dc ) ⎤

εsc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(iv)
⎣ xu. max ⎦
⎡ 0.0035 (264 – 50) ⎤

εsc = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 264 ⎦
= 0.00284 ...(v)
From Table 2.7, (so also from stress strain curve for Fe 415 steel)
For strain, εsc Stress, fsc
0.002420 342.83 N/mm2
0.002856 351.85 N/mm2
0.002840 351.52 N/mm2
fcu = 0.446 fck = 0.446 × 20 = 8.92 N/mm2
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⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 400 × 264 804.25(351.52 – 8.92) ⎤
CTotal = ⎢ + ⎥ kN
⎣ 1000 1000 ⎦
= (760.32 + 275.536) = 1035.856 kN ...(vi)
Total tensile force in steel reinforcement in tension
Tsu = 0.87 fy × Ast
⎛ 0.87 × 415× 1256.64 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 453.41 kN ...(vii)
⎝ 1000 ⎠
In case, total compressive force for the beam (in case, the beam is having balanced section)
is more than the total tensile force, that is
CTotal > T su ...(viii)
The given beam section is under-reinforced. In such a case, the actual depth of neutral axis
of the given beam section is obtained by equating total compressive force with actual depth of
neutral axis with the total tensile force. Therefore,
CTotal = Tsu
Csu + (Ccu + Csu) = Tsu
0.36fck .b . xu+ Asc (fsc – fcu) = 0.87 fy . Asl
or 0.36fck . b . xu = [0.87 fy . Ast – Asc(fsc – fcu)]
⎡ 0.87 fy + Ast . − Asc . ( fsc − fcu ) ⎤

or xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣⎢ 0.36 fck .b ⎦⎥
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 1256.64 – 804.25 ( fsc − fcu ) ⎤

∴ xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.36 ×20×400 ⎦
⎡ 4453709.87 – 804.25 (fsc – fcu ) ⎤

∴ xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 2880 ⎦
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (fsc – fcu)] mm ...(ix)
Since fcv = 0.446 × fck = 0.446 × 20 = 8.92 N/mm2 ...(x)
Therefore,
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (fsc – 8.92)] mm ...(xi)
The expression (xi) may be solved for xu. The iterative procedure may be used as under.
(i) In the First Cycle of Iteration. The value of x u may be assumed equal to that for the
balanced section, i.e.,
xu = x u.max = 264 mm
0.0035 × (264 – 50)
εsc =
264
= 0.00284
∴ fsc = 351.52 N/mm2
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From the expression (xi)

xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (351.52 – 892)] mm
xu = 61.95 mm
(ii) Second Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 61.95 mm
0.0035 × (61.95 – 50)
εsc = = 0.000675
61.95
εsc < 0.00145
fsc = εsc . Es
= 0.000675 × 2 × 105 = 135.06 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (fsc – fcu)] mm
= [157.538 – 0.279 (135.06 – 8.92)] mm
= 122.34 mm
(iii) Third Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 122.34 mm
0.0035(122.34 – 50)
εsc =
122.34
= 0.00021 mm
From stress-strain curve for steel Fe 415
fsc = 332 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (332 – 8.92)] mm
= 67.40 mm
(iv) Fourth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 67.40 mm
0.0035(67.40 – 50)
εsc =
67.40
= 0.0009
From stress-strain curve for steel Fe 415
fsc = εsc – Es
= 0.0009 × 2 × 105 = 180 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (180 – 8.92)] mm
= 109.81 mm
(v) Fifth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 109.81 mm
0.0035(109.81 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0019
109.81
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From the stress-strain curve for steel bars Fe 415

fsc = 32163 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (321.63 – 8.92)] mm
= 70.29 mm
(vi) Sixth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 70.29 mm
0.0035(70.29 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0010
70.29
fsc = εsc × Es
= 0.0010 × 2 × 105 = 200 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (200 – 8.92)] mm
= 104.226 mm
(vii) Seventh Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 104.226 mm
0.0035 (104.226 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0018 mm
104.22
fsc = 315.40 N/mm2
xu = [157538 – 0.279 (315.40 – 8.92)] mm
= 72.03 mm
(viii) Eighth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 72.03 mm
0.0035 (72.03 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0011
72.03
fsc = 0.0011 × 2 × 105 = 220 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (220 – 8.92)] mm
= 98.64 mm
(ix) Ninth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 98.64 mm
0.0035 (98.64 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0017
98.64
fx = 309.18 N/mm2
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xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (309.18 – 8.92)] mm
= 73.76 mm
(x) Tenth Cycle of Iteration :
xu = 73.76 mm
0.0035 (73.76 – 50)
εsc = = 0.0011
73.76
εsc < 0.00145
f k = 0.0011 × 2 × 105 = 220 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279 (220 – 8.92)] mm
= 98.64 mm
( Note. [In this Example 4.2, the width 6 = 400 mm is also large and the cross-sectional area of the steel bars
in compression, Asc is also comparatively large. As a result of these two data, the total compressive force
becomes large as compared to the total tensile force which further results that the depth of neutral axis is very
small. So also, the convergence in iterative procedure has not been achieved even in tenth cycle iteration].
In such a case, the average strain is adopted as

⎛ 0.0017 + 0.0011 ⎞
εsc = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0014
⎝ 2 ⎠
εsc < 0.00145
fs = 0.0014 × 2 × 105 = 280 N/mm2
xu = [157.538 – 0.279(280 – 8.92)] mm
= 81.90 mm
Actual depth of neutral axis, xu may be adopted as 81.90 mm

The moment of resistance of the given doubly reinforced beam section may be calculated by
taking the moment of the compressive forces Ccu and Csc about the centre of steel bars used as
tension reinforcement as the beam section is under-reinforced.
Therefore,
Mu = [0.36 fck . b . xu . (d – 0.42x u) + Asc(fsc – fcu). (d – dc)]
or Mu = [0.36 × 20 × 400 × 81.90 (550 – 0.42 × 81.90)
+ 804.25 (280 – 8.92) (550 – 50)] × 10–6
or Mu = [(121.62 + 109.01)]
= 230.63 kN-m
Example 4.3 A doubly reinforced rectangular beam is 300 mm wide. The effective depth of
the beam section is 550 mm. The effective cover to both tension and compression reinforcements
from outer surfaces is 50 mm. The tension and compression reinforcements consists of 4 bars of
20 mm diameter and 4 bars of 12 mm diameter, respectively. Determine the depth of neutral
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axis. Find the moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam M 20 grade of concrete and
Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are used.
Solution
The grade of concrete is M 20 and Hysd steel reinforcements of grade Fe 415 are used in
tension and compression.
π
Ast = 4 × × 202 = 1256.64 mm2 ...(i)
4
π
Asc = 4 × × 122 = 452.25 mm2 ...(ii)
4
4.5.2.5 Depth of Neutral Axis of the Beam

The doubly reinforced beam section is shown in Fig. 4.4. From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel
bars of grade Fe 415
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = 0.48 × 550 = 264 mm
In case, the given section of doubly reinforced beam is having balanced section, then,
x u = xu.max = 264 mm.
CTotal = (Ccu + Csu)
= [Ccu + (Ccs1 – Ccs2 )]
= 0.36 fck . b . xu.max + Asc . (fsc – fcu)] ...(iii)
The design stresses in compression reinforcement and the concrete at the level of centre of
steel bars provided as compression reinforcement, fsc and fcu, corresponding to strain, εsc. From
Eq. 4.31, (and so also from IS : 456–1978)
⎡ 0.0035 ( xu⋅max − dc ) ⎤
εsc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(iv)
⎣ xu⋅max ⎦
⎡ 0.0035 (264 − 50 ) ⎤
εsc = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 264 ⎦
= 0.00284 ...(v)
From Table 2.7, (so also from stress-strain curve for Fe 415 steel)
⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 300 × 264 452.25 (351.52 – 8.92) ⎤
CTotal = ⎢ + ⎥
⎣ 1000 1000 ⎦
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= (570.24 + 154.94)
= 725.18 kN ...(vi)
Total tensile force in steel reinforcement in tension
Tsu = 0.87 fy, Ast
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 1256.64 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ... (vii)
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 453.71 kN
In case, total compressive force for the beam (in case, the beam is having balanced section)
in more than the total tensile force, that is
CTotal > Tsu ...(viii)
The given beam section is under reinforced. In such a case, the actual depth of neutral axis
of the given beam section is obtained by equating total compressive force with actual depth of
neutral axis with the total tensile force. Therefore,
CTotal > Tsu
Ccu + (Csc1 – Csc2) = Tsu
0.36 fck .b. xu+ Asc . (fsc – fcu) = 0.87 fy . Ast
or 0.36 fck . b. xu = [0.87 fy . Ast – Asc (fsc – fcu)]
⎡ 0.87 fy . Ast – Asc ( fsc – fcu ) ⎤
or xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.36 fck . b ⎦
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 1256.64 – 452.25 ( fsc – fcu ) ⎤

xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.36 × 20 × 300 ⎦
⎡ 453709.87 – 452.25( fsc – fcu ) ⎤

xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 2160 ⎦
xu = [210.05 – 0.209 (fsc – fcu)] mm ...(ix)
Since, fcu = 0.446 × fck = 0.446 × 20
= 8.92 N/mm2 ...(x)
The expression (xi) may be solved for xu. The iterative procedure may be used as under:
(i) In the First Cycle of Iteration. The value of x u may be assumed equal to that for the
balanced section, i.e.,
xu = x u.max = 264 mm
⎡ 0.0035 × (264 – 50) ⎤
εsc = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 264 ⎦
= 0.00284
fsc = 351.52 N/mm2
xu = [210.05 – 0.209 (351.52 – 8.92)] mm
= 138.45 mm
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(ii) Second Cycle of Iteration

xu = 138.45 mm
0.0035 (138.45 – 50)
εsc =
138.45
= 0.00224
From the stress-strain curve for Hysd steel Fe 415
fsc = 337.19 N/mm2
xu = [210.05 – 0.209 (337.19 – 892)] mm
= 141.44 mm
(iii) Third Cycle of Iteration
xu = 141.44 mm
0.0035 (141.44 – 50)
εsc =
141.44
= 0.002263
From the stress-strain curve for Hysd steel Fe 415
fx = 337.19 N/mm2
xu = [210.05 – 0.209 (337.19 – 8.92)] mm
= 141.44 mm.
In this third iteration, the depth of neutral axis assumed is 141.44 mm and the calculated
value of xu is also 141.44 mm. It means that the iteration procedure converges. Therefore,
the actual depth of neutral axis, xu may be adopted as 141.44 mm
εc u f c u = 0 .44 6 f ck
dc
Asc εs c 0 .42 x u C
sc
xu xu C cu
N A N A
O
(d – d c )
( d –x u )
(d – xu )
Tsu
Ast 50 m m εs C c u = 0.36 f ck .b .x u
C s c = A s c ( f sc – f cu )
T s u = 0.87 f y A st
(a ) B e am se ction (b ) S train distribu tion (c) S tress diag ra m s
Fig. 4 4 Doubly reinforced beam
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The moment of resistance of the given beam section may be calculated by taking the moment of
the compressive forces Ccu and Csc about the centre of steel bars used as tension reinforcement
as the beam section is under-reinforced. Therefore,
Mu = [0.36 fck . b . xu . (d – 0.42 x u) + Asc . (fsc – fcu) . (d – dc)]
⎡0.36 × 20 × 300 × 141.44 (550 – 0.42 × 141.44) ⎤
⎢ 452.25 (337.19 – 8.92) . (550 – 50)] ⎥⎦
⎣
Mu =
106
Mu = [(149.88 + 74.23)]
= 224.11 kN-m
4.6 DESIGN OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

For the design of doubly reinforced beams subjected to known dead loads and imposed traversed
loads, the factored load is determined. In case, the beam carries uniformly distributed loads,
then, the factored (design) loads
w Fd = (γFL1 . D.L + γFL2 . L.L) ...(i)
From IS : 456–1978, γ FL = 1.5 and γFL = 1.5, therefore,
1 2
w Fd = (1.5 D.L + 1.5 L.L) ...(ii)
From the factored (design) loads, the factored (design) moment is calculated. (For example,
for simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the factored (design) moment
shall be
2
wFd ⋅ leff
MFd = ...(iii)
8
The design of a doubly reinforced beam needs determination of dimensions of the beam, the
cross-sectional area of the steel bars to be provided as tension reinforcement, Ast and cross-
sectional area of the steel bars to be used as compression reinforcement, Asc the doubly reinforced
beam may be designed by following the various steps described as below :
Step 1. Dimensions of the Beam
The doubly reinforced beam is also designed as a balanced section. The width of beam, b and
the effective depth of beam, d are so proportioned that the strain in extreme fibre of concrete in
compression, εcu reaches 0.0035 and that in the steel bars in tension reinforcement attains
εsy1 = [(0.87 fy/Es) + 0.002], simultaneously.
Moment of resistance (that is, Ultimate bending strength of beam section)
(∴ x u = xu.max)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck . ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ bd2
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
Therefore,
M u⋅lim
bd 2 =
x
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
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The reinforced concrete beams may be wide and shallow, or relatively narrow and deep.
Consideration of maximum material economy leasd to proportions with width of the beam in
the range from about half to two-third of the effective depth. The width of beam, b may be
kept suitable so that the steel bars may be placed properly and the concrete may be compacted
fully. The dimensions of beam b and d may also satisfy the requirement of lateral stability.
For the balanced section of beam
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
( xu⋅max )
The ratio may be noted from IS : 456–1978 depending upon the grade of steel.
d
Then, xu - xu.max.
Usually, the dimensions of beam to be used as doubly reinforced beam, b × d remain known.
A doubly reinforced beam section as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a) may be considered as built-up of
two beams as shown in Figs 4.5 (b) and 4.5 (c). The beam as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b) is a singly
reinforced beam and the area of steel reinforcement in tension is Ast1. The beam as shown in
Fig. 4.5 (c) is an additionally reinforced beam. It is an hypothetical beam without concrete. It
consists of additional reinforcement in tension, Asc and additional reinforcement in compression,
Asc.
b b b
dc dc Asc
A sc n
(x u – d c)
N N e utral A N N e utral A N e utral A
a xis a xis N a xis
d d
(d – d c )
(d – n )
(d – n u )
(d – n )
A s t1
dt Ast d t dt d t A s t2 dt
(a ) D o ub ly re in force d (b ) S ing ly re in fo rce d (c) A dd ition ally re in fo rce d
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
The depth of neutral axis for the balanced section, ⎜ u ⎟ = ⎜ , which may be noted
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠
from IS : 456–1978 depending the grade of steel to be used]
xu = x u.max = (factor for NA) . d ...(iv)
The effective cover of concrete for the reinforcements in tension and compression shall be
provided to protect the reinforcements from fire and corrosion. Total area of steel in tension
reinforcement becomes sum of Ast and Ast , (that Ast = Ast + Ast ).
1 2 1 2
Step 2. Area of steel reinforcement in tension Ast for the balanced singly reinforced
1
beam
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The limiting moment of resistance of a beam section without compression reinforcement

(that is for the singly reinforced beam is calculated from compression side as under: [Since,
(xu = x u.max)]
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck .b . xu . (d – 0.42 x u)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
or Mu.lim = 0.36fck . ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ bd2 ...(v)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
The limiting moment of resistance of the singly reinforced beam may also be obtained from
tension as below :
Mu.lim = 0.87 fy. Ast . ⎛1 − 0.42 xu ⎞ . d ...(vi)

1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
By equating two values of the limiting ultimate moment of resistance, the cross-sectional
area of steel bars, Ast in tension is determined. Therefore,
1
⎡ ⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞ 2⎤
⎢ 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ d ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ ⋅ bd ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(vii)
1 ⎢ ⎛ xu ⎞ ⎥
⎢ 0.87 fck Ast1 ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ ⋅ d ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ xu ⎞ 2⎤
⎢ 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ d ⎟ ⋅ bd ⎥
⎝ ⎠
or Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(viii)
1 ⎢ 0.87 fck ⋅ d ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Step 3. Additional area of steel reinforcement, Asc compression
The compression steel reinforcement is provided in the beam for the following reasons :
(i) When the beam section is shallow in depth, and the flexural strength obtained using
p = pmax is insufficient. That is, the factored (design) moment, MFd is more than the
limiting ultimate moment of resistance of the beam section, Mu.lim (as a singly reinforced
beam of size b × d and area of steel reinforcement in tension as Ast . The ultimate
1
moment capacity of the beam is enhanced by providing compression steel bars, Asc as
an additional reinforcement (and so also, along with this, addition tension reinforcement,
Ast .)
2
(ii) The steel bars in compression enhances the ductility of the beam at the ultimate bending
strength. The total internal compressive force, CTotal is shared by the concrete and the
compression steel, [i.e., (CTotal = Ccu + Csc)]. Because of the compression steel, it is
evident that the depth of neutral axis, x u shall be small (e.g., as it is seen in Examples
⎛ εcu ⎞
4.1 and 4.2). As a result of this, the ultimate curvature φu = ⎜ ⎟ of the beam section
⎝ xu ⎠
shall be more.
(iii) The compression steel reinforcement reduces the deflection of the beam (at service
loads) as moment of inertia of the beam section also increases.
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(iv) The compression steel reinforcement also reduces the long-term deflections of the beams
at the service loads. As the concrete begins to creep, the compressive forces in the
beams tends to be transferred from the concrete to the steel. Therefore, the stress in
concrete lowers down and the deflection due to creep is much reduced.
(v) The curvatures due to shrinkage of concrete are also reduced.
(vi) The doubly reinforced beams are also used because of the possibility of the reversal of
the external loading. It is a common feature for the beams of continuous frames carrying
gravity and lateral loads. Such beams, need the reinforcement near both the faces to
resist the possible reversal of stresses and to act as doubly reinforced beam.
IS : 456–1978 recommends that the compression reinforcement is calculated from the following
expression:
⎡ ( M u − M u⋅lim ) ⎤
Asc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(ix)
⎢⎣ Asc ⋅ (d − dc ) ⎥⎦
⎡ 0.0035 ( xu⋅max − dc ) ⎤
where, fsc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(x)
⎣ xu⋅max ⎦
Maximum Compression Reinforcement. The maximum area of compression
reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04 bD. The compression reinforcement in beams shall be
enclosed by stirrups for the effective lateral support just as in column in order to protect bucking
of compression reinforcement.
Step 4. Additional Area of Steel in Tension, Ast2
The additional area of steel in tension, Ast2 may be calculated as under. The beam section
remains in equilibrium. Therefore, total compressive force is equal to total tensile force. Therefore,
(Ccu + Csc = Tsu) ...(xi)
or (Ccu + Csc1 – Csc2) = 0.87 fy . Ash + 0.87 fy . Ast2
Since, Ccu is equal to 0.87 fy . Ast1 the additional compressive force is balanced by the additional
tensile force. Therefore
(Csc1– Csc2) = 0.87 fy . Ast2 ...(xii)
Ast (fsc – fcu) = 0.87 fy . Ast2 ...(xiii)
The second term on the left hand side accounts for the small area of concrete in compression
displaced (or removed) by the steel bars in compression.
In the expression (xiii) the term Asc . fcu may be considered as small and therefore, it may be
neglected. Then, an expression as specified by IS : 456–1978 is obtained as under
⎛f ⋅A ⎞
Ast2 = ⎜ sc sc ⎟⎟ ...(xiv)
⎜ 0.87 fy
⎝ ⎠
In case, Ast2 is calculated either from the expression (xiii) or (xiv) , the position of neutral
axis will change. In order to keep the position of neutral axis, unaltered, Ast2 may be determined
as follows by equating the moments of additional forces about the neutral axis. That is
fsc . Asc (x u – dc) = 0.87 fy . Ast2 (d– xu)
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⎡ fsc ⋅ Asc ( xu − dc ) ⎤
Ast2 = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xv)
⎢⎣ 0.87 fy ⋅ (d − xu ) ⎥⎦
Total area of reinforcement in tension shall be obtained from the following expression:
Ast = (Ast1+ Ast2) ...(xvi)
4.6.1 Requirement of Area of Longitudinal Steel Reinforcement

The requirements of area of longitudinal steel reinforcement as regards spacing of reinforcement,
(that is the minimum distance between the individual bars and due maximum distance between
the bars in tension), cover to the reinforcement, minimum and the maximum cross-sectional
area of tension reinforcement and side face reinforcement have been specified in Art. 3.17. As
regards the compression reinforcement, the maximum area of compression reinforcement shall
not exceed 0.04 b.D. The compression reinforcement in beams are enclosed by stirrups for the
effective lateral restraint and to avoid the buckling of bars.
It is to note that the steel bars in compression may be yielding. In such a case, it may be
checked by considering the strain diagram as described in the text. However, in case, the steel
bars in compression are not yielding, then, the actual stress fsc may then be used instead of fy,
for the compression steel in the expression for the bending strength.
⎡P ⎤
Ast = ⎢ t. lim × (b ⋅ d) + A st 2 ⎥ ...(xvii)
⎣ 100 ⎦
In the above design, it is assumed that the steel bars in tension yield. It is essential to avoid
sudden and brittle failures of the beams, (that is in crushing of concrete). For a balanced beam
section, the strains in concrete and steel in tension attains the values 0.0035 and [(0.87fy/Es) +
0.002], simultaneously.
The doubly reinforced beam has been designed for the limit state of collapse in flexure.
Subsequently it shall be checked for the limit state of serviceability and designed for the limit
state of shear, and bond (viz., for the development length).
Example 4.4 Design a doubly reinforced rectangular beam to carry a service live load of
33.34 kN/m and a calculated dead load of 12 kN/m on an 5.40 m simple clear span. The cross-
section of beam for architectural reasons is kept as 300 mm in width and 650 mm in overall
depth. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel Fe 415. Adopt the limit state of design
method as recommended in IS : 456–1978.
Solution
Design. Let the width of support at each end be 450 mm. Therefore, the effective span,
ES of simply supported beam
ES = centre to centre of supports
0.450 0.450
or ES = 540 + +
2 2
= 5.850 m ...(i)
The overall depth of beam, D is 650 mm. Let the cover upto the centre of steel reinforcement
both in compression and tension be 50 mm. The effective depth, d of the beam d shall be
600 mm. The effectie span, ES of the beam
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ES = clear span + effective depth

or ES = 5.400 + 0.600
= 6.000 m ...(ii)
The effective span of beam, L is minimum of the values in the expression (i) and (ii). As such,
L = 5.85 m.
Step 1. Design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel Fe 415 are as follows :
IS : 456–1978.
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Effective depth, d = 600 mm
Depth of neutral axis for balanced section of beam
xu = x u.max
= 0.48 × 600 mm
∴ xu = 288 mm ...(iii)
Step 2. Total Load Supported by the Beam
Superimposed dead load = 12 kN/m
0.300 × 0.650 × 1 × 25 = 4875 kN/m
Total dead load = 16.875 kN/m
Imposed load (live load) = 33.33 kN/m
For dead load and live load combination.
Factored (design) load
w Fd = (1.5 D.L + 1.5 L.L)
= (1.5 × 16.875 + 1.5 × 33.34)
w Fd = (25.313 + 50.01) = 75.323 kN/m ...(iv)
Step 3. Factored (design) Moment
The beam is simply supported at both the ends. It supports uniformly distributed load. The
maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of beam Factored (design) moment
2
wFd ⋅ leff
MFd =
8
⎛ 75.323 × 5.85 × 5.85 ⎞

MFd = ⎜ ⎟ = 322.22 kN-m ...(v)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 4. Ultimate Moment of Resistance
The flexural (bending) strength of beam, in case, the beam is singly reinforced without
compression reinforcement from compression side
⎡ 0.36 fck × b × xu × (d − 0.42xu ) ⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢ ⎥ kN-m
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
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⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 300 × 288 × (600 – 0.42 × 288) ⎤

⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
Mu.lim = 298 kN-m ...(vi)
Step 5. Area of Steel Reinforcement Required in Tension
⎡ M u⋅lim ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ 0.87 f ⋅ d − 0.42x ⎥ mm2
⎢⎣ y ( u )⎥
⎦
⎡ 298 × 106 ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎣⎢ 0.87 × 415 × (600 − 0.42 × 288 ) ⎦⎥
Ast1 = 1722.97 mm2 ...(vii)
Step 6. Area of Steel Reinforcement in Compression
The steel reinforcement in compression may be obtained as below : (As per IS : 456–1978)
⎡ ( M Fd − M u⋅lim ) ⎤
Asc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(viii)
⎣⎢ fsc ⋅ (d − dc ) ⎦⎥
where,
fsc = design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to strain εsc
0.0035 ( xu⋅max − dc )
εsc = ...(ix)
xu⋅max
0.0035 (288 − 50 )
εsc =
288
= 0.0029 ...(x)
From the stress-strain curve for Hysd steel, Fe 415 for εsc = 0.0029
fsc = 352.75 N/mm2 ...(xi)
Therefore,
(322.22 – 298) × 106

Asc = mm2
352.75 × (600–50)
Asc = 124.84 mm2
Step 7. Additional Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension
IS : 456–1978 specifies that the additional area of steel reinforcement in tension may be
obtained as below :
⎛A ⋅f ⎞
Ast = ⎜ sc sc ⎟⎟ ...(xii)
2 ⎜ 0.87 fy
⎝ ⎠
However, Ast2 may be obtained by equating the moments of Asc and Ast2 about the neutral
axis. Therefore,
0.87 fy × Ast2 . (d – xu) = Asc . (fsc – fcu) . (x u– dc) ...(xiii)
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fcu = 0.446 fck

fcu = 0.446 × 20 = 8.92 N/mm2
Substituting the values of different terms
0.87 × 415 × Ast2 (600 – 288)
= 124.84 (352.75 – 8.92) . (288 – 50)
0.87 × 415 × 312 Ast2 = 124.84 × 343.83 × 238
Ast2 = 90.69 mm2
Step 8. Total Area of Steel bars needed for Tension Reinforcement
Ast = (Ast1 + Ast2)
= (1722.97 + 90.69)
= 1813.66 mm2
Six Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be provided (at a distance 50 mm from bottom face
upto the centroid of steel bars) as total tension reinforcement. The side face distance shall be
kept 25 mm each. Clear spacing between adjacent bars
(300 – 2 × 25 – 6 × 20)
= = 26 mm
5
It is more than the diameter of the steel bars in tension and the size of aggregate (20 mm +
5 mm). Total area of steel bars in tension provided is 1884.96 mm2.
Total area of steel bars required in compression Asc =124.84 mm2
The design of beam section is shown in Fig. 4.6.
3 00 m m
Asc
4 stee l bars
H ysd , Fe = 4 1 5, 8 m m φ X u = 28 8 m m
N N e utral axis A
( d – X u ) = 31 2 m m
6 00 m m
6 stee l bars
6 50 m m H ysd , Fe = 4 1 5, 20 m m φ
25 m m 25 m m
Ast
50 m m dt = 50 m m
Fig. 4.6 Design of doubly reinforced rectangular beam
Four Hysd steel bars of grade, Fe 415, 8 mm φ shall be provided (at a distance 50 mm from
top face upto the centroid of steel bars) as total compression reinforcement
Asc = 201.06 mm2 provided.
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The doubly reinforced beam has been designed as per the limit state of collapse in flexure
as per IS : 456–1978. However, the beam section shall be checked for the limit state of
serviceability. In the subsequent example. This doubly reinforced beam shall also be further
designed for the limit state of shear and bond.
Example 4.5 Design a doubly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at both the
ends. The clear span between the supports is 5.6 m. The beam carries a service imposed load of
24 kN/m and superimposed dead load of 16 kN/m. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel
Fe 415 for tension and compression reinforcements. Adopt the method of limit state of design
as specified in IS : 456–1978.
Solution
Design. The beam may be designed as described in the following steps :
Step 1. Preliminary Dimensions of Beam
The overall depth of beam may be assumed as one-tenth of the clear span. Therefore,
Estimated overall depth of the beam
1
D = × 5600 = 560 mm ...(i)
10
The width of beam may be assumed as half of the overall depth
1
b = × 560 = 280 mm ...(ii)
2
The preliminary size of beam may be taken as above. The effective cover for the compression
and tension reinforcement may be kept as 40 mm. Therefore, the estimated effective depth of
beam
d = (560 – 40) = 520 mm ...(iii)
Step 2. Effective Span of Beam, ES
Let the width of support at each end be 450 mm. Therefore, the effective span, ES of the
simply supported beam
ES = centre to centre supports
⎛ 0.450 0.450 ⎞
ES = ⎜ 560 + + m
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎟
= 6.05 m ...(iv)
The effective depth of beam, d has been estimated as 520 mm. The effective span of the
beam
ES = clear span + effective depth
= 5.60 + 0.520 = 6.120 m ...(v)
The effective span, left of beam is minimum of the two values in the expression (iv) and (v)
∴ leff = 6.05 m
Step 3. Design Constants
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel Fe 415 are as follows : IS :
456–1978.
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.48 ...(vi)
⎝ d ⎠
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Estimated effective depth

d = 520 mm ...(vii)
Depth of neutral axis for balanced section of beam
xu = x u.max
xu = 0.48 × 520 = 249.6 mm ...(viii)
Step 4. Total Load Supported by the Beam
Super-imposed dead load = 16 kN/m
0.280 × 0.560 × 1 × 25 = 3.92 kN/m
Total dead load = 19.92 kN/m
Imposed load (live load) = 24 kN/m
For dead load and live load combinations Factored (design) load
w Fd = (1.5 DL + 1.5 LL)
w Fd = (1.5 × 19.92 + 1.5 × 24)
= 55.92 kN/m ...(ix)
Step 5. Factored (design) Moments
The beam is simply supported at both the ends. It supports uniformly distributed load. The
maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of beam.
Factored design moment
2
wFd ⋅ leff
MFd =
8
⎛ 55.92 × 6.05 × 6.05 ⎞
MFd = ⎜ ⎟ = 255.85 kN/m ...(x)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 5. Ultimate Moment of Resistance
The flexural (bending) strength of beam, in case, the beam is singly reinforced without
compression reinforcement.
From compression side
⎡ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⋅ xu ⋅ (d − 0.42 ) ⎤
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 280 × 249.6 (520 – 0.42 × 249.6) ⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
Mu.lim = 208.91 kN-m ...(xi)
Step 6. Area of Steel Reinforcement needed inTension
⎡ M u⋅lim ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎢⎣ 0.87 fy ⋅ (d − 0.42 xu ) ⎥⎦
⎡ 208.91 × 106 ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎣⎢ 0.87 × 415 × (520 − 0.42 × 249.6 ) ⎦⎥
Ast1 = 1393.696 mm2 ...(xii)
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Step 7. Area of Steel Reinforcement in Compression

The steel reinforcement in compression may be obtained as below : (As per IS : 456–1978)
⎡ ( M Fd − M u⋅lim ) ⎤
Asc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xiii)
⎢⎣ fsc ⋅ (d − dc ) ⎥⎦
where
fsc = design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to strain εsc.
From IS : 456–1978
0.0035 ( xu⋅max − dc )
εsc = ...(xiv)
xu⋅max
0.0035 (249.6 − 60 )
εsc = = 0.00294 ...(xv)
249.6
From the stress-strain curve for Hysd steel, Fe 415 for εsc = 0.00294
fsc = 353.4 N/mm2 ...(xvi)
Therefore,
(255.8 – 208.91) × 106
Asc =
353.4 × (520 – 40)
Asc = 276.72 mm2 ...(xvii)
Step 8. Additional Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension
IS : 456–1978 specifies that
⎛A ⋅f ⎞ 276.72 × 353.4
Ast2 = ⎜ sc sc ⎟⎟ = = 270.85 ...(xviii)
⎜ 0.87 fy 0.87 × 415
⎝ ⎠
However, Ast2 may be obtained by equating the moments of Asc and Ast2 about the neutral
axis. Therefore,
0.87 fy × Ast2 . (d – xu) = Asc . (fsc – fcu) . (x u – dc) ...(xix)
fcu = 0.446 × fck
fcu = 0.446 × 20 = 8.92 N/mm2
Substituting the values of different terms
0.87 × 415 × Ast2 (520 – 2549.6)
= 276.72 (353.4 – 8.92) . (249.6 – 40)
0.87 × 415 × 270.4 Ast2 = 276.72 × 344.48 × 209.6
Ast2 = 204.65 mm2 ...(xx)

Step 9. Total Area of Steel bars needed for Tension Reinforcement
Ast = ( Ast
1
+ Ast2 )
= (1393.35 + 204.65) mm2 = 1598.35 mm2 ...(xxi)
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Five Hysd steel bars 20 mm of grade Fe 415 shall be provided (at a distance 40 mm from
bottom face upto the centroid of steel bars) as total tension reinforcement. The side face distance
shall be kept 25 mm each. Clear spacing between adjacent bars
(280 – 2 × 25 – 5 × 20)
= = 32.5 mm ...(xxii)
4
Area of steel provided
π
5× × 202 = 1570.796 mm2
4
It is more than the diameter of the steel bars in tension and the size of aggregate 20 mm + 5
mm. Total area of steel bars in tension provided is 1900.66 mm2.
Total area of steel bars needed in compression
Asc = 216.72 mm2
Four Hysd steel bars of grade, Fe 415 10 mm φ shall be provided (at a distance 40 mm from
the top face upto the centroid of steel bars) as total compression reinforcement.
Asc = 314.16 mm2 ...(xxiii)
The doubly reinforced beam has been designed as per the limit state of collapse in flexure
as per IS : 456–1978. However, the beam section shall be checked for the limit state of
serviceability in the subsequent example. This doubly reinforced beam shall also be designed
for the limit state of shear and bond.
The design of beam section is shown in Fig. 4.7.
2 80 m m
40 Asc
4 stee l ba rs
H ysd , Fe = 4 1 5, 10 m m φ X u = 2 49 .6 m m
N N e utral axis A
( d – X u ) = 2 70 .4 m m
5 20 m m
5 stee l ba rs
H ysd , Fe = 4 1 5, 20 m m φ
25 m m 25 m m
A st
40 m m d t = 40 m m
Fig. 4.7 Design of doubly reinforced rectangular beam
4.7 DESIGN AIDS FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

The facilities and conveniences achieved by using the design aids have been described in Art.
3.37 (Design aids for singly reinforced rectangular beams).
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In the design of doubly reinforced beams Art. 4.6, it is seen that the values of stress in
compression reinforcement, fck and compressive stress in concrete at the level of centroid of
compression reinforcement, fcu are needed in order to determine Asc. For the purpose of design
of doubly reinforced beam, the depth of neutral axis is adopted as x u.max. The strain in
compression reinforcement, εsc, Fig. 4.1 (b) may be calculated as under from similar triangles
(that is, geometry of figure)
ε sc ε
= cu ...(i)
( xu − dc ) xu
(xu − dc )
or εsc = εcu. ...(ii)
xu
⎛ dc ⎞
or εsc = 0.0035 ⎜1 − ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ xu ⎠
where the strain in concrete, εcu for the balanced beam section is 0.0035 and xu is equal to x u.max.
For the values of (dc/d) upto 0.2,
fcu = 0.446 fck ...(iv)
For the mild steel reinforcement, the stress in compression reinforcement,
fsc = 0.87 fy ...(v)
For Hysd steel bars of grade, Fe 415 and Fe 500 (cold worked steel bars), the stress in
compression reinforcement, fsc may be noted from Table 4.1 (as specified in SP : 16–1980 and
recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards). Bureau of Indian Standards has prepared
charts and tables for the design of doubly reinforced rectangular beams. These charts and
tables have been published in SP: 16–1980 as design aids. These charts and tables are as
under :
1. Charts (as per SP : 16-1980)
In Charts 19 and 20, the area of additional tensile steel reinforcement, Ast2 has been plotted
against (d – dc) for the different values of additional moment of resistance, Mur These charts
have been drawn for fs = 0.87 × 250 = 217.5 N/mm2 for mild steel. Chart 19 is for (d – dc) = 200
mm upto 500 mm for Ast2 = 0 to 4200 mm2 and chart 20 is for (d – dc) = 500 mm upto 800 mm
for Ast2 = 0 to 4200 mm2.
For other grades of steel, the values of Ast2 and Asc may be found by multiplying the value
noted from the chart by the factors given in Table 4.2 (as specified in SP : 16–1980).
These factors for Asc are based on a value of fcu for M 20 grade of concrete.
Table 4.2 Values of multiplying factors (for use with charts 19 and 20, SP : 16–1980)
Yield stress Multiplying factors for
for steel Asc
bars fy Ast2 For (dc – d) ratio
(N/mm 2 ) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
250 1.00 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04
415 0.60 0.63 0.63 0.65 0.68
500 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.60
It is to note that Table 4.2 above may be used for all other grades of concrete with small
error.
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2. Table (as per SP : 16-1980)

The total moment of resistance of a doubly reinforced rectangular beam may be expressed as
below :
Mu = Mu.lim + Mu2 ...(vi)
or Mu = Mu.lim + Ast2 . (0.87fy) (d – dc) ...(vii)
pt2
or Mu = Mu.lim + . (b.d) (0.87fy) (d– dc) ...(viii)
100
pt2 ⎛ dc ⎞
or Mu = Mu.lim + . (b.d2) (0.87fy) ⎜1 − ...(ix)
100 ⎝ d ⎟⎠
Dividing the expression (ix) by b.d2
⎛ Mu ⎞ ⎛ M u⋅lim ⎞ pt2 ⎛ d ⎞
2 ⎟ 100 (
or ⎜ 2 ⎟
= ⎜ + 0.87 fy ) ⎜1 − c ⎟ ...(x)
⎝ b.d ⎠ ⎝ b.d ⎠ ⎝ d⎠
where
⎛A ⎞
pt2 = ⎜ st × 100 ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⎠
= additional percentage of steel reinforcement in tension.
Total percentage of tensile steel reinforcement in percentage
pt = pt.lim + pt2 ...(xi)
⎛A ⎞
pc = ⎜ st ⎟ × 100 ...(xii)
⎝b⋅d ⎠
⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞
pc = pt2 . ⎜ ⎟ ...(xiii)
⎝ fsc − fcu ⎠
The values of p, and pc for four values of (dc/d) = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 have been
tabulated in Tables 45 to 46 (SP : 16–1980). These tables are for (dc/d) against (Mu/bd2).
The use of these charts and tables of SP: 16–1980 provided as design aids has been explained
in the subsequent illustrative examples.
Example 4.6 In Example 4.5, design the doubly reinforced rectangular beam using the
design-aid SP : 16–1980.
Solution
Design :
From Example 4.5, the size of beam is as follows :
Width of beam, b = 280 mm ...(i)
Overall depth of beam, D = 560 mm ...(ii)
Effective cover, EC = 40 mm ...(iii)
Effective depth, d = 520 mm ...(iv)
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars, Fe 415 are to be used for tension and compression
reinforcements. From Table D (SP : 16–1980) for M 20 grade of concrete (viz., fck = 20 N/mm2)
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and for Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 (i.e., fy = 415 N/mm2), the factor for limiting moment of
resistance for singly reinforced rectangular beam
M u⋅lim
= 2.76 ...(v)
b.d2
Limiting moment of resistance for the singly reinforced beam
Mu.lim = 2.76 b.d2
⎛ 2.76 × 280 × 520 × 520 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 1000×1000 ⎠
= 208.965 kN-m ...(vi)
Factored design moment for the doubly reinforced beam (Example 4.5)
MFd = 255.85 kN-m ...(vii)
The factored design moment for the doubly reinforced beam is more than Mu.lim. Therefore,
the beam is to be designed as doubly reinforced beam.
Limiting moment of resistance
Mu.lim = (MFd – Mu.lim)
= (255.85 – 208.965) kN-m
= 46.885 kN-m ...(viii)
4.7.1 Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension, Ast1

Maximum percentage of reinforcement in tension for singly reinforced rectangular beam section
from Table E (SP: 16–1980)
Pu.lim = 0.96 percent ...(ix)
Maximum cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement in tension
Ast1 = Ast.lim
pt
= ×b⋅d
100
0.96
= × 280 × 520 = 1397.76 mm2 ...(x)
100
4.7.2 Area of additional Steel Reinforcements in Tension and Compression

The area of steel reinforcement in compression Asc may be obtained by making the use of
charts and/or tables of SP : 16–1980 as design aids.
Charts (SP : 16-1980). The lever arm for the additional moment of resistance
(d – dc) = (520 – 40) = 480 mm ...(xi)
Additional moment of resistance
Mt 2 = 46.885 kN-m ...(xii)
Since, the value of (d – dc) is 480 mm, therefore, chart 19 (SP : 16–1980) shall be used.
Chart 19 has been prepared for fs = 0.87 × 250 = 217.5 N/mm2. It is applicable for mild steel
reinforcement with Fe 250 (i,e., fy = 250 N/mm2). Since, the grade of steel abrs to be used is
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Hysd, Fe 415, the multiplying factor from Table G (SP: 16–1980) shall also be used.
(d – dc) = 480 mm ...(xiii)
Mu2 = 46.885 kN-m ...(xiv)
From Chart 19 (SP : 16–1980)
Ast2 (for fy = 250 N/mm2)
= 1100 mm2 ...(xv)
⎛d ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ c ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.077 ...(xvi)
⎝d⎠ ⎝ 520 ⎠
⎛d ⎞
Next higher value for ⎜ c ⎟ is 0.10.
⎝d⎠
Factor for additional area of steel in tension reinforcement from Table G (SP: 16–1980) for
Fe 415 is 0.60. Therefore
(Ast2 for Fe 415) = 0.60 × 1100 = 660 mm2
Factor for additional area of steel in compression reinforcement from Table G (SP : 16–1980)
for Fe 415 is 0.63.
Asc = Value of Ast2 read from chart multiplied by the factor
= 1100 × 0.63 = 693 mm2 ... (xvii)
Total area of steel reinforcement in tension
Ast = Ast1 + Ast2
= (1397.76 + 660) = 2057.76 mm2 ...(xviii)
Tables (SP : 16–1980)
⎛ Mu ⎞ ⎛ 255.85×106 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.38 N/mm2 ...(xix)
⎝ bd ⎠ ⎝ 280× 520 × 520 ⎠
⎛ dc ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
⎜d⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0769 ...(xx)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 520 ⎠
⎛d ⎞
Next higher values of ⎜ c ⎟ = 0.10 may be used for referring Tables (SP : 16–1980). From
⎝d⎠
Table 50
⎛ Mu ⎞ ⎛ dc ⎞
For ⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ d ⎟ = 0.10
⎝ bd ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
pt pc
3.30 1.122 0.174
3.40 1.152 0.207
3.38 1.146 0.200
Total area of steel bars in tension reinforcement
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pt
Ast = × b.d
100
1.146
= × 280 × 520
100
= 1667.58 mm2 ...(xxi)
Area of steel bars in compression reinforcement
0.200
Asc = × 280 × 520
100
= 291.2 mm2 ...(xxii)
That is, additional area of steel reinforcement in tension
Ast2 = Ast – Ast1
= (1668.58 –1397.76)
= 270.82 mm2
( Note. The values of areas of steel reinforcement in tension Ast1 and Ast2 and area of steel reinforcement in
compression obtained by design aids (Tables) and those determined in Example 4.5 are comparable (very
closely) whereas the values of Ast2. and Asc obtained by charts and in design differs. The design may be checked
for deflection as discussed in subsequent section.
4.8 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED

RECTANGULAR BEAMS
The requirements for limit state of serviceability for singly reinforced rectangular beams have
been specified in Art. 3.20. The limits for the ratio of span of the beam to its effective depth for
the singly reinforced beam have been specified in Art. 3.22 (while discussing the methods of
controlling deflections).
For the doubly reinforced beams, the value of ratio of span of beam to its effective depth
specified above in Art. 3.20 is further modified as recommended by code IS : 456–1978, depending
upon the area of compression reinforcement. The value of this modification factor for the effect
of area of compression reinforcement is noted from Fig. 4.8 (as per IS : 456–1978).
1 .5
1 .4
M o difica tio n fa ctor
1 .3
1 .2
1 .1
1 .0
0 0 .50 1 .00 1 .50 2 .00 2 .50 3 .50
P e rcen tag e com pre ssion re in fo rce m en t
Fig. 4.8 Modification factor for compression reinforcement
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It is to note that in the doubly reinforced beams, the depth of neutral axis x u decreases with
an increase in the compression steel reinforcement. For a given value of the service stress, fs, in
the tension in the tensile steel reinforcement, the value of (d– xu) will increase with the increase
in the compression reinforcement. As a result of this, the curvature and hence the deflection of
the double reinforced beam, both reduce.
The additional deflections due to shrinkage and creep reduce substantially by the presence
of compression reinforcement. The compression reinforcement reduces the shrinkage curvature
by providing restraint to shrinkage in the compression zone of the concrete of the beam section.
Within the limit, in case a doubly reinforced beam with a symmetrical cross-section is equally
reinforced at top and bottom, the curvature due to shrinkage shall be zero. In the general case
of an unsymmetrical section, the curvature due to shrinkage shall be zero, if the centroids of
the reinforcement and the transformed section coincide.
The compression reinforcement also reduces the influence of creep in concrete. The compressive
strains in concrete increase with time. Some compressive stress is transferred gradually to the
steel resulting in reduced concrete stress and reduced creep strain.
In general, the compliance with the spacing requirements of reinforcement avoids the
possibility of crack development.
4.9 DEFLECTIONS IN DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

The effects of the deflections and the methods of controlling the deflections have been discussed
in Arts. 3.21 and 3.22, respectively. In Art. 4.8, it has been mentioned that in the doubly
reinforced beams, the deflection in beam reduces with the increase in area of steel bars provided
as compression reinforcement. The various components total deflection is short-term deflection,
and long-term deflection (that is, deflection due to shrinkage and deflection due to creep).
These different components of total deflection are determined as follows :
The detailed procedure for determining deflections in singly reinforced beam has been given
in Art 3.36 (Step 6).
4.9.1 Short-term (immediate) Deflection

The short-term deflection may be obtained by the usual methods of elastic deflections using the
short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2 and an effective moment of inertia,
Ieff. The effective moment of inertia is calculated, as specified by Eq. 3.48 (as recommended in
IS : 456–1978, Appendix B). The various notations of this Eq. 3.48 have also been defined
there along with this Eq. 3.48.
The depth of neutral axis, x is calculated by taking moment of equivalent areas of concrete
and steel about the neutral axis
b.x2/2 + (mc – 1). Asc (x –dc) = m Ast . (d – x)
m = (Es/Ec) and (mc = 1.5 m)
4.9.2 Long-term Deflections

The long-term deflections include the deflection due to shrinkage and deflection due to creep,
which are calculated as follows. The long-term deflections for singly reinforced beam have
been discussed in Art. 3.24.
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4.9.2.1 Deflection due to Shrinkage

Professor Branson, D.E. [in his paper titled as Instantaneous and time dependent deflection of
simple and continuous reinforced concrete beams, HPR Report No. 7, Part 1, Alabama Highway
Department, Bureau of Public Roads, August 1963, (1965), pp. 1–78] has suggested the following
empirical expression for the shrinkage empirical expression for the shrinkage curvature φSH
for doubly reinforced rectangular concrete beams.
For (pt – pc) ≤ 3 percent
⎡ 1⎤
1 ⎛ pt − pc ⎞ 2 ⎥
ε SH ⎢
φ SH = 0.7
D ⎢
( pt − pc )3 × ⎜ p ⎟ ⎥ ...(4.37)
⎝ t ⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
For (pt – pc) > 3 percent
ε SH
φ SH = ...(4.38)
D
where
εSH = unrestrained shrinkage strain
D = overall depth of the beam
pt = 100.(Ast/b.d)
pc = 100. (Asc/b.d)
It is to note that Eqs. 4.37 and 4.38 have been found to give reasonable agreement with
experimental results [Reference ACI Committee 435, ‘Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Flexural
Members’, Journal of ACI, Vol. 63, No. 6, June 1966, (pp. 637–674)].
Code IS : 456–1978 recommends that the deflection due to shrinkage ∆SH may be calculated
from the following expression (Eq. 3.53).
∆ SH = K SH . ∆SH . l2 ...(i)
where KSH is a constant. It depends upon the support conditions. For the simply supported
beams and for the cantilever beams, the values of KSH are 0.125 and 0.500, respectively.
For the members continuous at one end and for the members fully continuous, the values of
K SH are 0.086 and 0.063, respectively.
φSH is the curvature due to shrinkage and
⎛ ε cu ⎞
φ SH = K 4 . ⎜ ...(ii)
⎝ D ⎟⎠
Ecu = ultimate shrinkage strain of concrete (εcu = 0.0035).
For 0.25 ≤ (pt – pc) ≤ 1.0
( pt − pc )
K4 = 0.72 × 1 ≤ 1.0 ...(4.39)
( )
pt 2
For (pt – pc) > 1.0
( pt − pc )
K4 = 0.64 × 1 < 1.0 ...(4.40)
( ) pt 2
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pt = 100.(Ast/b.d)
pc = 100.(Asc/b.d)
For singly reinforced beam, it is to note that pc = 0.
The empirical method recommended in Code IS : 456–1978 avoids the complications of
calculating E and I for shrinkage curvature. It is sufficiently accurate for the practical purposes.
Figure 4.9 shows the simply supported beam. It is assumed that the extra fibre of concrete in
compression shrinks to εcus, (the unrestrained shrinkage, that is, the ultimate shrinkage strain
of concrete). (The points C and D in Fig. 4.9 (a) and (b) coincide).
From the geometry of Fig. 4.9 (a) and (b)
⎛ ε cus − ε s ⎞
φ SH = ⎜ ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
⎝ d
ε cus ⎛ ε ⎞
φ SH = ⋅ ⎜1 − s ⎟ ...(iv)
d ⎝ ε cus ⎠
The presence of compression steel reduces the curvature due to shrinkage. Therefore, φSH is
related to a function of (pt – pc). Therefore,
ε cus
φ SH = K 4 ⋅ (as above) ...(iva)
D
εc us
A B C D
S tee l b ars in co m pre ssion
d
εs D
S tee l b ars in ten sio n
φS H
C D
(a ) (b )
⎛ ε − ε s ⎞ εc u s ⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ε ⎞
φS H = ⎜ c u s ⎟⎠ = 1 − s ⎟ , φS H = K 4 ⋅ ⎜ cu s ⎟
⎝ d d ⎜⎝ εc u s ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
Fig. 4.9 Curvature due to shrinkage
4.9.2.2 Deflection due to Creep

The deflection due to creep for singly reinforced beam has been discussed in Art. 3.24. The
method of determining the deflection due to creep has also been described there. An approximate
method for calculating the total deflection (that is, the initial deflection plus deflection due to
creep) under permanent load was determined by the use of effective modulus of elasticity, ECE
as in Eq. 3.49.
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EC
EEC = ...(v)
(1 + Ccp )
EEC = 5700 (fck)1/2 ...(vi)
For the facility of calculations, it is preferred to find the total deflection occurring after a long
time in three parts.
(i) the immediate deflection (i.e., short-term or the instantaneous deflection under permanent
loads, ∆i.(perm)
(ii) the deflection due to creep due to permanent loads, ∆cc.(perm)
(iii) the short-term deflection under the total load, ∆i.(Total)
The immediate (short-term) deflection under the total load and under the permanent loads
may be calculated using the short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete, EC. The separate
calculations are needed to find ∆i.cc using the effective modulus of elasticity, EEC. These various
deflections are shown in Fig. 4.10.
∆i.(To ta l)
∆A ∆A
WT
∆i .(P e rm )
∆A = [ ∆i . (To ta l) – ∆i . (P e rm ) ]
WP
∆cc (P e rm )
= [ ∆i .C C (P e rm ) – ∆i . (P e rm ) ]
L oa d
∆T = ∆ + ∆i.
A cc (P e rm )
= ∆i.(To ta l) +
= [ ∆i.C C (P e rm ) – ∆i. (P e rm ) ]
∆ = D efle ction
∆i . C C (P e rm )
∆A
∆T = Total de flectio n
W P = P erm a ne n t lo a d
W T = Total lo ad
Fig. 4.10 Deflection due to creep
From Fig. 4.10, total deflection under total load is equal to the instantaneous deflection
under total load plus total deflection under permanent load minus short-term deflection under
total load. That is,
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Total deflection under total load

= [∆i.(Total) + ∆i.cc (Perm) – ∆i.(Perm)] ...(vii)
= [∆i.(Total) + Acc(perm)] ...(viii)
∆i.cc (Perm) = [∆i.cc (Perm) – ∆i.(Perm)] ...(ix)
Total deflection shall be the sum of immediate deflection plus shrinkage deflection plus
creep deflection (that is, ∆total = [∆i + ∆SH + ∆cc.(perm)]
Example 4.7 In Example 4.5, the doubly reinforced beam has been designed by limit state
of collapse in flexure. Check the design for limit state of serviceability by detail analysis.
Solution
Check for Limit State of Serviceability
In order to check the design for limit state of serviceability the vertical deflection of doubly
reinforced beam, shall be determined and then it will be compared with the permissible value
of deflection for the beam as below.
1. Vertical deflection
Total vertical deflection of doubly reinforced beam shall be the sum of short-term deflection
and the long-term deflection. These are found as follows :
1. (A) Short-term deflection. The short-term deflection is calculated using the short-term
modulus of elasticity, Ec of the concrete and an effective moment of inertia, leff at service load
Short-term modulus of elasticity concrete
Ec = 5700 (fck)1/2 ...(i)
Grade of concrete (From Example 4.5) is M 20. Therefore,
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(ii)
1/2
Ec = 5700 (20) = 0.255 × 10 N/mm 5 2 ...(iii)
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars, Fe 415, modular ratio of concrete (for short-
term effect)
Es 2 × 105
m = = = 7.843 ...(iv)
Ec 0.255 × 105
mc = 1.5 m = 1.5 × 7.843 = 11.765 ...(v)
Depth of neutral axis
As service load, the depth of neutral axis is calculated by taking the moment of equivalent
areas of concrete and steel in compression, and in tension, respectively. From Example 4.5.
Actual area of steel bars in compression
π
Asc = 4 × × 102 = 314.16 mm2 ...(vi)
4
Actual area of total steel bars in tension
π
Ast = 5 × × 202 = 1570.796 mm2 ...(vii)
4
From Fig. 4.7, the other dimensions b, d and dc are noted. For the depth of neutral axis, x
π
b.x. + (mc – 1) Asc . (x – dc) = m.Ast (d – x)
2
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x2
280. + (11.765 – 1) 314.16 (x – 40) = 7.843 × 1570.796 (520– x)
2
x = 167.239 mm ...(viii)
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ 167.239 ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 520 ⎟⎠ = 0.322
Lever arm distance

⎛ x⎞
z = ⎜d − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 167.239 ⎞
= ⎜ 520 − ⎟⎠ = 464.254 mm ...(ix)
⎝ 3
Ratio of lever arm to effective depth, (lever arm factor)
⎛ z⎞ 464.254
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = 520
= 0.893 ...(x)
⎛ bw ⎞ 280
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = = 1.00
280
Moment of inertia of cracked section of the beam (viz., area of concrete in tension is neglected)
about neutral axis.
⎡1 ⎤
Icr = ⎢ bx 3 + m. Ast .(d − x )2 + (mc − 1) Asc .( x – dc )2 ⎥
⎣3 ⎦
⎡1 3 2 ⎤
= ⎢ × 280 × 167.239 + 7.843 × 1570.796 × (520 − 167.239) ⎥
3
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ + (11.765 − 1) × 314.16 × (167.239 − 4)2 ⎦⎥
= 20.244 × 108 mm4 ...(xi)
D = 560 mm ...(xii)
Gross moment of inertia of the beam
1
Igr = bD3
12
1
= × 280 × 5603 = 40.977 × 108 mm4 ...(xiii)
12
Modulus of rupture of the concrete, M 20
fcr = 0.7 (20)1/2 = 3.130 N/mm2 ...(xiv)
Distance to the extreme fibre of concrete in tension,
yt = (D – x) = (560 – 167.239) = 543.761 mm ...(xv)
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Cracking moment
⎛ fcr ⋅ I gr ⎞
Mcr = ⎜
⎝ y ⎟⎠
t
⎛ 3.13 × 40.977 × 108 ⎞ 6

= ⎜ ⎟ = 23.587 × 10 N-mm ...(xvi)
⎝ 543.761 ⎠
Service load (from Example 4.5)
w = (D.L. + L.L.)
= (19.2 + 24) = 43.92 kN/m
leff = 6.05 m.
2 ⎞
⎛ w ⋅ leff
M = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 43.92 × 6.05 × 6.05 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 8
= 200.948 × 106 N-mm ...(xvii)
Effective moment of inertia from IS : 456–1976 (Appendix B)
I cr
Ieff = ...(xviii)
⎡ ⎛ M cr ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ bw ⎤
⎢1.2 − ⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ × ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝1 − d ⎟⎠ × d ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Substituting the values of various terms
20.244 × 108
Ieff =
⎡ ⎛ 23.587 ×106 ⎞⎤
⎢1.2– ⎜ 6
× 0.893 × (1 − 0.322) × 1⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 200.948 ×10 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 17.932 × 108 mm4 ...(xix)

Intensity of service load supported by beams
w = (D.L. + L.L.) = 43.92 kN/m
= 43.92 N/mm ...(xx)
Short-term deflection at the centre of span
4 ⎞
5 ⎛ w ⋅ leff
∆y 1 = ⋅⎜
384 ⎝ Ec ⋅ I eff ⎟⎠
5 ⎡ 43.92 ×(6.05)4 × (1000)4 ⎤

∆y 1 = ⋅⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎣ 0.255 × 105 × 17.932 × 108 ⎦
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5 ⎡ 43.92 ×1339.743 × 1012 ⎤

∆y 1 = ⋅⎢ ⎥ mm ...(xxi)
384 ⎣ 0.255 × 105 × 1793.2 × 106 ⎦
= 16.755 mm
2. Long-term deflections. The deflection due to shrinkage and deflection due to creep
constitute long-term deflection. Both these deflections are additive to short-term vertical
deflection. These are calculated separately as below:
2. (A) Deflection due to Shrinkage. It is found as under
∆y SH = k 3.φSH.l2 ...(xxii)
⎛ 1⎞
For simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the value of k3 = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 8⎠
0.125.
Curvature due to shrinkage
⎛ εC⋅SH ⎞
φ SH = k 4. ⎜ ...(xxiii)
⎝ D ⎟⎠
Ultimate strain in concrete due to shrinkage alone
εC.SH = 0.0003 ...(xxiv)
D = 560 mm
Total cross-sectional area of steel bars in tension (from Example 4.5)
Ast = 1570.796 mm2 ...(xxv)
Percentage of steel in tension
⎛A ⎞
pt = ⎜ st ⎟ × 100
⎝ b ⋅ d⎠
⎛ 1570.796 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100 = 1.0788 percent ...(xxvi)
⎝ 280 ×520 ⎟⎠
Total cross-sectional area of steel bars in compression (from Example 4.5)
Asc = 314.16 mm2 ...(xxvii)
Percentage of steel in compression
⎛A ⎞
pc = ⎜ sc ⎟ × 100
⎝ b ⋅ d⎠
⎛ 314.16 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100 = 0.2158 percent
⎝ 280 × 520 ⎟⎠
(pt – pc) = (1.0788 – 0.2158) = 0.8630 ... (xxviii)
From IS : 456–1978 (Appendix B)
For 0.25 ≤ (pt – pc) < 1.0
( pt – pc )
k 4 = 0.72 × 1 ≤ 1.0
( pt )2
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0.8630
= 0.72 × 1
= 0.598
(1.0788)2
0.598 × 0.0003
φ SH = = 0.320 × 10–6
650
∆y.SH = 0.125 × 0.320 × 10–6 (6.05 × 1000)2
∆y.SH = 1.464 mm
2. (B) Deflection due to Creep. The dead load acts as permanent load
w DL = 19.92 kN/m = 19.92 N/mm
Ccp = 1.00 (assumed)
EC
EEC =
(1 + Ccp )
0.255 × 105
= = 0.1275 × 105 N/mm2
(1 + 1)
Referring to code IS : 456–1978 (Appendix B) Instantaneous (short-term) deflection due to
permanent load
5 ⎛ w ⋅ l4 ⎞
∆y.ip = × ⎜ DL eff ⎟
384 ⎝ Ec ⋅ Icr ⎠
5 ⎡ 19.92 × (6.06 ×1000)4 ⎤

∆y.ip = × ⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎢ 0.244 × 105 × 20.244 × 108 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
5 ⎡ 19.92 × 1337.743 × 1012 ⎤

∆y.ip = ×⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎣ 0.255 × 105 × 2024.4 × 106 ⎦
= 6.732 mm
Initial plus creep deflection due to permanent load
5 ⎛ w ⋅ l4 ⎞
384 ⎝ EEc ⋅ I eff ⎠
5 ⎡ 19.92 × (6.06 ×1000)4 ⎤

= ×⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎢ 0.1275 × 105 × 1792.2 × 106 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
5 ⎡ 19.92 × 1337.743 × 1012 ⎤

= ×⎢ ⎥ mm
384 ⎣ 0.1275 × 105 × 1792.2 × 106 ⎦
= 15.21 mm
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∆y.cp = (∆y.iccp – ∆y.ip)
= (15.21 – 6.732) = 8.478 mm
Total deflection
∆y = ( ∆y1+ ∆y.SH + ∆y.CP)
∆y = (16.755 + 1.464 + 8.478) = 26.697 mm
Total permissible deflection measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roof
and all other horizontal members
span
∆y.perm ≥
250
6.05 ×1000
= = 24.20 mm
250
Actual deflection exceeds the permissible value slightly only. Therefore, as regards limit of
serviceability, the design of beam may be considered satisfactory.
4.9.3 Slenderness Limits for Beams to Ensure Lateral Stability

60 × b = 60 × 280 = 16800 mm
250 × b2 250 × 280 × 280

= = 37692.31 mm
d 520
Distance between lateral restraint
L = 6050 mm
Since, L > 60b, and also L < (250 b2/d), therefore, the design of beam is also satisfactory for
lateral stability.
Example 4.8 In Example 4.5, the doubly reinforced beam has been designed by limit state
of collapse in flexure. Check the design for limit state of serviceability by calculating span to
effective depth ratio.
Solution
From Example 4.5, the span is 6.05 m and the effective depth, d is 520 mm.
(A) Span to Effective Depth Ratio
From IS : 456–1978, for simply supported beam permissible
⎛ Span ⎞
⎜⎝ Effective depth ⎟⎠ = 20 ...(i)
Total area of steel bars in tension

Ast = 1570.796 mm2 ...(ii)
Percentage of steel in compression
⎛A ⎞
pt = ⎜ st × 100⎟
⎝b⋅d ⎠
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⎛ 1570.796 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100⎟ = 1.079 percent ...(iii)
⎝ 280 ×520 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd Fe 415,
Modification factor for tension reinforcement
= 0.95
Total area of steel bars in compression
Asc = 314.16 mm2
Percentage of compression reinforcement
⎛A ⎞
pc = ⎜ sc × 100⎟
⎝b⋅d ⎠
⎛ 314.16 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100⎟ = 0.216 percent
⎝ 280 ×520 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978,
Modification factor for compression reinforcement,
= 1.05
Permissible span to effective depth ratio
= (20 × 0.95 × 1.05) = 19.95
Actual span to effective depth ratio
⎛ 6050 ⎞
= ⎜ = 11.635
⎝ 520 ⎟⎠
Therefore, the design of beam is also satisfactory for limit state of serviceability.
4.10 SHEAR STRESSES IN DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

A doubly reinforced rectangular beam is shown in Fig. 4.11 (a). The cracked equivalent beam
section for this beam is shown in Fig. 4.11 (b). The distribution of shear stress in the doubly
reinforced beam is as shown in Fig. 4.11 (c). The shear stress distributing diagram, Fig. 4.11 (c)
has been explained here by considering the cracked equivalent beam section.
The intensity of shear stress at any plance at a height y above the neutral axis, in general,
is given by (Eq. 3.74) in the layer CD
⎛ VFd . Ay ⎞
τ = ⎜ ...(i)
⎝ I . z ⎟⎠
where, z is the width of layer being considered. The intensity of shear stress just above steel
reinforced in compression shall be
⎛ VFd . Ay ⎞
τ1 = ⎜ ...(ii)
⎝ I . b ⎟⎠
The intensity of shear stress in layer AB just below CD, τ2 shall be as follows. It is seen that
the cracked equivalent beam section, Figure 4.11(b) that the width of beam section, Z increases
suddenly from b to [b + (mc– 1) . Asc].
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Therefore, the intensity of shear stress decreases suddenly from the value τ1 to τ2 .
VFd . A y
τ2 = ...(iii)
I . [b + (mc − 1) ⋅ Asc ]
The intensity of shear stress increases parabolically over the depth AE. It becomes τ3 in the
layer EF. Below EF, the intensity of shear stress again increases suddenly as the width of
beam section reduces to b.
VFd .[ A y + (mc − 1) ⋅ Asc ( x − dc )
τ4 = ...(iv)
I .b
1 ( m – 1) Asc 1 ( m – 1) A
2 c 2 c sc
b
A C D B
A sc E F τ2
N A N A
N e utral
d τ3
a xis τ4
A st m .A st
dt dt
τV
(a ) B e am se ction (b ) E q uiva le nt sectio n (c) S h ea r stre ss d istribu tion
Fig. 4.11
The intensity of shear stress may be written from Eq. 3.73 as under for the layer (in between
EF and the neutral axis) at a height y above the neutral axis upto the layer EF. Therefore,
y1
V
τ4 = Fd ∫ y ⋅ zdy ...(v)
I ⋅Z y
VFd 1
or τ4 = ⋅ b ⋅ ⎡⎣ y12 − y2 ⎤⎦ ...(iv)
I ⋅b 2
Below, the neutral axis, the intensity of shear stress, τ remains constant
VFd
τ = ...(vii)
b ⋅ jd
where, jd is the lever arm. It is distance or depth between the line of action of the resultant of
two compressive forces Ccu and Csc. Let y be the depth of line of action of resultant compressive
from top fibre. Then
⎡ Ccu ⋅ (0.42xu ) + Csc ⋅ dc ⎤

y = ⎢ ⎥ ...(viii)
⎣⎢ (Ccu + Csc ) ⎦⎥
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⎡ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⋅ xu (0.42xu ) + (mc − 1) Asc . fsc .dc ⎤

or y = ⎢ ⎥ ...(ix)
⎢⎣ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⋅ xu + (mc − 1) Asc . fsc ⎥⎦
Therefore, the lever arm distance is given by (d – y ).

Alternatively. The lever arm distance, z = jd may be calculated by taking moment of total
tensile force in the steel bars provided as tension reinforcement about the line of action of
resultant of two compressive forces Ccu and Css. Therefore,
0.87 fy.Ast.z = MFd
⎛ M ⎞
or z = ⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(x)
⎜ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast
⎝ ⎠
where Ast = (Ast1 + Ast2)
z = jd
4.10.1 Nominal Shear Stress

IS : 456–1978 introduced a concept of nominal shear, x v in beam of uniform depth. It is
calculated as below :
⎛V ⎞
τv = ⎜ Fd ⎟
⎝ b.d ⎠

The limit state of collapse in shear for singly reinforced beam has been described in Art. 3.38.
The provision for shear in code IS : 456–1978 limits the nominal shear stress τv at factored
(design) shear force, VFd for beam which does not contain web reinforcement. In case τv is more
than the design shear strength of concrete in shear, then, the shear reinforcement is provided
as specified in the code. However, in case, τv is more than the τc,max, the beam section is redesigned.
The factored (design) shear force is calculated by an elastic analysis of the structure using
the appropriate partial factors on loads at collapse, γFL. This factored (design) shear force VFd
does not include the shear force due to torsion for which separate provisions are specified in the
code.
The critical sections for shear force is also specified in the code and for beams, it is specified
in Art. 3.49.
The doubly reinforced beams are designed for shear as the singly reinforced beams are
designed as described in Art. 3.51.
The specifications as regards the maximum spacing of the vertical stirrups, and the minimum
shear reinforcement are same as described in Art. 3.45. The shear stirrups are designed for
Vus = (VFd – τc.b.d) ...(i)
For the vertical stirrups, the shear resistance, Vus is given by Eq. 3.83 (by the expression as
given below)
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⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d ⎞
Vus = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ τv ⎠
Therefore, the spacing of the vertical stirrups is calculated from this expression (Eq. 3.85) as
under :
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d ⎞
Vv = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ Vus ⎠
The shear resistance, Vus for inclined stirrups is as that described in Art. 3.47 and given by
Eq. 3.90. When the bent-up bars are used along with the vertical stirrups, the total resistance
of shear force Vus is that of bent-up bars and vertical stirrups.
Vus = (Vus.BB + Vus.vs) ...(iv)
The other specifications recommended in code IS : 456–1978 and described in Art. 3.51 are
followed for design of the doubly reinforced beams in shear.
4.12 BOND STRESS IN BARS IN COMPRESSION

The bond in reinforced concrete beams and bond stresses in the singly reinforced beams have
been described in Art. 3.52 and Art. 3.53, respectively.
It is difficult to push a bar in concrete as compared to pull it out from the concrete. A part of
total force in compression is transferred by bond along the embedded length and a part is
transferred by end bearing of the bears in concrete. As such, the values of bond stress in bars
in compression are kept higher than those in tension. Therefore, the permissible value of bond
stress for bars in compression is increased by 25 percent the values of the permissible stress in
bond for bars in tension.
4.12.1 For Mild Steel Plain Bars in Compression

Bond stress
τbd.compr = 1.25 × τbd.tension ...(v)
4.12.2 For Hysd Steel Bars in Compression

Bond stress
τbd.compr = 1.25 × 1.60 τbd.tension ...(vi)
where, τbd.tension is the permissible stress in bond for plain mild steel bars in tension. The
values of τbd.tension are given in Table 3.11.
4.13 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT BARS IN COMPRESSION

In case of bars in compression, a part of total compressive force is transferred by bond along the
embedded length and a part is transferred by end bearing of the bars on concrete. Therefore,
in Art. 4.12, it is mentioned that the value of permissible stress of bond for bars in compression
is increased by 25 percent of the values of the bond stress for bars in tension. The surrounding
concrete remains relatively free of cracks. Therefore, the reinforcement bars in compression
need smaller basic development length as compared with that of tension.
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4.13.1 For Plain Mild Steel Bars in Compression

Development length of reinforcement
⎡ 0.87 fy φ ⎤
Ld.compr = ⎢ ⎥ ...(4.41)
⎣⎢ (1.25 × 4τbd ) ⎦⎥
4.13.2 For Hysd Steel Bars in Compression
⎡ 0.87 fy φ ⎤
Ld.compr = ⎢ ⎥ ...(4.42)
⎣1.25 × 1.60 × 4 τbd ⎦
where τbd is the permissible stress in bond for plain mild steel bars in tension. The values of τbd
are given in Table 3.11.
The special requirements near points of zero moment for the curtailment of tension
reinforcement has been described in Art. 3.58.
IS : 456–1978 recommends that at simple supports and at points of zero moment, the diameter
of positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited such that the development length
calculated for 0.87fy does not exceed [Eq. 3.98]. That
⎡⎛ M ⎞ ⎤
Ld >/ ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ + L0 ⎥
⎣⎝ V ⎠ ⎦
IS : 456–1978 recommends that the value of M1 . Fd in the above expression is increased by
30 percent when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction. Therefore
⎡⎛ 1.30M1 ⎞ ⎤
Ld >/ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + L0 ⎥ ...(4.43)
⎣⎝ V ⎠ ⎦
4.14 ANCHORAGE OF PLAIN BARS IN COMPRESSION

The anchorage length of straight bars in compression is taken equal to the development length
of bars in compression.
The projected length of hooks, bends and straight lengths beyond bends if provided for a bar
in compression shall be considered for the development length.
4.15 LAP SPLICES IN COMPRESSION

In addition to the requirements for the bar splices described in Art. 3.31 and for lap splices in
tension, following additional requirement must be satisfied for lap splices for the bars in
compression.
The lap length in compression shall be equal to the development length in compression
calculated as described in Art. 4.9, but not less than 24 times the diameter of the bar.
The compression bars may be spliced by lapping, by direct end bearing or by welding or
mechanical devices that provide positive connections. The direct end bearing of the bars has
been found by test and experience to be an effective means for transmitting compressive force.
In such a case, the bars must be held in proper alignment by a suitable device and the bar ends
must terminate in flat surface within specified tolerance (within 1.5° of a right angle).
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Example 4.9 In Example 4.5, design the beam for shear reinforcement and check the main
reinforcement for development length.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. From Example 4.5, step 4, factored (design) load acting as uniformly distributed per
unit length of simply supported beam
w Fd = 55.92 kN/m ...(i)
Effective span of the beam
leff = 6.05 m ...(ii)
Critical section for shear is at a distance d = 560 mm from the face of support
Step 2. Factored (design) shear force
1 ⎛ 0.450 ⎞
V Fd = × 55.92 × 6.05 – 55.92 ⎜ − 0.560 ⎟ kN
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 125.261 kN ...(iii)
⎛ YFd ⎞
τv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b× d ⎠
⎛ 125.261 × 1000 ⎞ 2
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.860 N/mm ...(iv)
⎝ 280 ×520 ⎠
Step 3. From Example 4.5
5 Hysd steel bars 20 mm diameter provided as tension reinforcement continue upto ends as
shown in Fig. 4.12
Ast = 1570.796 mm2
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 ×1570.796 ⎞

⎜ bd ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.079
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 280 ×520 ⎠
2 Le gg e d stirru ps 8 m m φ h ysd ste el

2 00 m m sp a cing c/c
4 B a rs 12 m m φ hysd ste el. F e 4 1 5

dc
dt
M 2 0 G ra d e o f co ncre te
5 ba rs 2 0 m m φ hysd ste e l, Fe 41 5 ( d c = d t = 50 m m )
C o ve r
C le a r spa n = 5 .6 0 m
Fig. 4 12 Details of reinforcement
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For M 20 grade of concrete, the shear stress in concrete without shear reinforcement, from
IS : 456–1978
⎡ (0.67 – 0.62) ⎤
τv = ⎢0.62 + × (1.079 – 1.00 )⎥ N/mm2
⎣⎢ (1.25 –1.00 ) ⎦⎥
= 0.6358 N/mm2
From IS : 456–1978, for M 20 grade of concrete ...(vi)
The nominal shear stress is more than the permissible shear stress in concrete. However, it
is less than maximum shear tress in concrete. Therefore, the beam needs shear reinforcement.
Step 4. Shear Reinforcement
V Fd = 125.261 kN
Shear resistance to be provided by the stirrups
Vsu = (VFd – τc . bd)
⎛ 0.6358×280×520 ⎞
= ⎜125.261– ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= (125.261 – 92.572) = 32.688 kN ...(viii)
Two legged vertical shear stirrups 8 mm φ Hysd-steel Fe 415 are provided. Area of vertical
shear stirrups
⎛ π ⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 82 ⎟ = 100.531 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Shear resistance of the vertical shear stirrups provided at a spacing, sv
Asv 0.87 fy
Vus = ⋅d
sv
Spacing of the vertical stirrups near supports
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Vsu ⎠
⎛ 0.87 ×415× 100.531 × 520 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 32.688 ×1000 ⎠
= 577.41 mm
The maximum spacing should not be more than 0.75 d or 450 mm.
0.75 d = (0.75 × 520) = 390 mm
Provide the vertical stirrups at 350 mm uniform spacing throughout the span of the beam.
Check for minimum shear reinforcement From IS : 456–1978
Asv. min 0.4
=
b ⋅ sv fy
⎛ 0.4 ⎞
Asv.min = ⎜ × 280 × 350 ⎟ = 76.26 mm2
⎝ 415 ⎠
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Actual area of two legged vertical stirrups provided at 350 mm centre to centre spacing, Asv
is more than Asv.min need. Therefore, it is satisfactory.
Step 5. Check for Development Length
As per IS : 456–1978, at simple supports, the positive moment tension reinforcement is limited
to a diameter such that Ld calculated for fd does not exceed
⎡⎛ M1⋅Fd ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜1.3 ⎟ + L0 ⎥ viz. from Eq. 4.43
⎣⎢⎝ V1⋅Fd ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡⎛ M1⋅Fd ⎞ ⎤
Ld >/ ⎢⎜1.3 ⎟ + L0 ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ V1⋅Fd ⎠ ⎦⎥
The moment of resistance of beam section at support
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎜ d − ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⎠
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 1570.796 ⎛ 415 × 1570.796 ⎞ ⎤

M1 = ⎢ ⎜ 520 − ⎟⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎝ 20 × 280 ⎠⎦
M1 = 228.892 kN-m
V 1 = 125.261 kN
⎛ M1 ⎞
⎜1.3 ⎟ = 2.376 m
⎝ V1 ⎠
⎛b ⎞
L0 = ⎜ s − x1 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
The end cover x1 to 25 mm and the width of the support bs is 450 mm. Therefore,
⎛ 450 ⎞
L0 = ⎜ − 25 ⎟ = 200 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ M1 ⎞
⎜1.3 L0 ⎟ = (2.376 + 0.200) = 2.576 mm
⎝ V1 ⎠
68.45 × 20
Ld = = 1.0952 m.
1000
⎡⎛ ⎛ M ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
The development Ld does not exceed ⎢⎜⎜1.3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ L0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ . The requirement of IS : 456–1978 is
⎣⎢⎝ ⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎠ ⎦⎥
satisfied.
Example 4.10 Design a cantilever rectangular beam of span 3.60 m. The beam carries
superimposed dead load of 10 kN/m exclusive of self-weight and live load of 20 kN/m. M 20
grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 quality shall be used.
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Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 quality shall be used. The
effective span of beam is 3.60 m. The rectangular beam shall be designed as a balanced beam
section by the method of limit state of collapse in flexure as under :
Step 1. Estimation of Overall Depth and Width of Beam
At support, the overall depth of cantilever beam may be assumed as one-eleventh of the span
⎛1 ⎞
D = ⎜ × × 3.60 × 1000⎟ = 515.28 mm
⎝7 ⎠
D = 550 mm (say)
The width of beam, b may be assumed as half the overall depth
⎛1 ⎞
b = ⎜ × 550 ⎟ = 275 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Let the effective cover for the reinforcement be 50 mm. The effective depth of beam shall be
500 mm.
As per IS : 456–1978, for a cantilever beam, for lateral stability, the clear distance from the
⎛ 100b2 ⎞
free end of the cantilever to the lateral restraint shall not exceed 25b or ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ .
⎝ d ⎠
Therefore,
25 × b = 25 × 275 = 6875 mm
⎛ 100b2 ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 275 × 275 ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 15.125 mm
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 500 ⎠
Actual distance is 3600 mm, which one is less than 6875 mm.
At the free end, the depth of beam is reduced to 200 mm, where the bending moment is zero.
Step 2. Estimation of Loads
Super-imposed dead load at service state
= 10 kN/m
Self-weight of the beam at service state
⎛ 0.550 + 0.200 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ × 0.275 × 3.6 × 25
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 9.28 kN
Line of action of the self-weight from the face of support
⎛ 0.550 + 0.220 ⎞ 3.6
= ⎜ × m
⎝ 0.550 + 0.220 ⎟⎠ 3
= 1.52 m
Super-imposed live load at service state
= 20 kN/m
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Factored (design) super-imposed load

= 1.5 ×10 = 15 kN/m
Factored (design) self-weight of the beam
= 1.5 × 9.28= 13.92 kN
Factored (design) live load
= 15 × 20 = 30 kN/m.
Maximum bending moment due to factored (design) super-imposed dead load at face of the
support
⎛ 15 × 3.60 × 3.60 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 97.2 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Maximum bending moment due to factored (design) self-weight of the beam at face of the
support
= (13.92 × 1.52) = 21.158 kN-m
Maximum bending moment due to factored (design) superimposed lived load at face of the
support
⎛ 30 × 3.6 × 3.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 194.4 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total factored (design) moment
MFd = (97.2 + 21.158 + 194.40) = 312.758 kN-m
Step 4. Factored (design) Shear Force
Total factored (design) shear force
V Fd = (15 × 3.60 + 13.92 + 30 × 3.6) kN
= 175.92 kN.
Step 5. Limiting Moment of Resistance
The limiting moment of resistance of a section (singly reinforced beam) without compression
reinforcement
⎛ xu. max ⎞ ⎛ xu. max ⎞ 2
Mu. lim = 0.36 fck ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bd
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Hysd-steel bars of Fe 415 quality
x u.max = (0.48 × 500) = 240 mm
⎛ xu. max ⎞
⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ = (1– 0.42 × 0.48) = 0.7948
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 0.36 × 20 × 0.48 × 0.7984 × 275 × 5002 ⎞

Mu.lim = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 189.70 kN-m
At support
⎛ M u. lim ⎞ ⎛ 189.70 × 106 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 275 × 500 × 500 ⎟⎟ = 2.759
⎝ bd2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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Step 6. Area of Tension Reinforcement for Singly Reinforced Beam

The area of tension reinforcement for a singly reinforced beam section for limiting moment
of resistance
⎛ x ⎞
0.87 fy Ast1d ⎜1 − 0.42 u. max ⎟ = M
⎝ d ⎠ u.lim
⎡ M u.lim ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢
⎛ xu.max ⎞ ⎥
⎢ 0.87 fy Ast1d 1 − 0.42 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 189.70 × 106 ⎤
Ast1 = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎣⎢ 0.87 × 415 × 500 × 0.7984 ⎦⎥
= 1316.16 mm2
Ast1
100 × ⎛ 1316.16 ⎞
bd = ⎜ 275 × 500 ⎟ × 100 = 0.9572
⎝ ⎠
Step 7. Area of Steel for Compression Reinforcement

The ultimate [i.e., factored (design) moment] of resistance of section exceeds the limiting
value of moment. The compression reinforcement is provided for the additional moment
= (MFd – Mu.lim)
= (312.758 –189.70) = 123.058 kN-m
Area of compression reinforcement is obtained as below.
fsc.Asc.(d – dc) = (MFd – Mu.lim)
where fsc is design stress in compression reinforcement corresponding to strain
⎛x − dc ⎞
εsc = 0.0035 ⎜⎜ u.max ⎟⎟
⎝ xu.max ⎠
⎛ 240 − 50 ⎞
= 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.00277
⎝ 240 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, stress-strain curve for Fe 415 steel
fsc = 349.64 N/mm2
⎡ M Fd − M u. lim ⎤ 2
Asc = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ fsc ⋅ (d − dc ) ⎦
⎡ 123.058 × 106 ⎤
Asc = ⎢ 349.64 × (500 − 50) ⎥ = 782.125 mm2
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
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Provide 4 Hysd steel bars, Fe 415 16 mm diameter

⎛ π ⎞
Asc = ⎜ 4 × × 162 ⎟ = 804.25 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
The bottom face of cantilever beam remains in compression. These bars are provided at
50 mm from the bottom face.
Step 8. Additional Area of Steel Bars for Tension Reinforcement
As per IS : 456–1978, (Appendix E) additional area of steel bars for tension reinforcement is
obtained as below
0.87fy Ast2 = fst.Asc
In such a case, the position of neutral axis shall shift from the position that for the balanced
section. However, in case Ast2 is found by taking moment of additional force and the compressive
force in the compression reinforcement about the neutral axis, the neutral axis shall not alter
its position. Therefore,
0.87fy Ast2(d– x u.max) = fsc. Asc (x u.max – dc)
⎡ f A (x − dc ) ⎤
Ast2 = ⎢ sc sc u.max ⎥ mm2
⎣⎢ 0.87 f A
y st 2 ( d − x )
u.max ⎦⎥
⎡ 349.64 × 782.12(240 − 50) ⎤ 2

Ast2 = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.87 × 415(500 − 240) ⎦
Ast2 = 553.487 mm2
Step 9. Total Area of Steel Bars for Tension Reinforcement
Ast = (Ast1+Ast2)
= (1316.16 + 553.487) = 1869.65 mm2
Provide 5 Hysd steel bars, Fe 415 of 22 mm diameter. Total area of steel provided for tension
reinforcement
⎛ π ⎞
Ast = ⎜ 5 × × 222 ⎟ =1900.66 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
The top face of cantilever beam remains in tension. These steel bars are provided near top
face at 50 mm from the top surface.
Horizontal spacing between two adjacent steel bars
(275 − 2 × 25 − 5 × 22 )
= = 28.75 mm
4
It is more than the diameter of steel bars 22 mm. It is also more than [size of aggregate (20
mm + 5 mm] that 25 mm. Hence it is satisfactory.
Step 10. Development Length
In order to develop full tensile strength at the face of support, the steel bears in tension are
embedded in the support by a length equal to the development length, Ld.
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Development length for tension bar

⎛ 0.87 fy⋅ φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 τ bd × 1.60 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, substituting the values of fy and τbd for Hysd steel and M 20 concrete
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 22 ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ = 47.012 φ
⎝ 4 × 1.2 × 1.6 ⎠
⎛ 47.012 × 22 ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.034 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Development length for the compression bars
⎛ 0.87 × fy × φ ⎞
Ldc = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 × 1.25 × 1.60 × τbd ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 37.61φ
⎝ 4 × 1.25 × 1.60 × 1.2 ⎠
⎛ 37.61 × 16 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.602
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 11. Curtailment of Reinforcement
From step 10, it is seen that the tension and compression steel bars may be curtailed at
distances more than 1.034 m and 0.602 m. The tension and compression both the reinforcement
may be curtailed at a distance (3.60/2) = 180 m from the face of support. Therefore, the actual
length of curtailment of reinforcement from the face of support is kept as 1.80 m.
According to IS : 456–1978, for curtailment, the reinforcement shall be extended beyond the
point (viz., theoretical cut-off) at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance
equal to effective depth of the member, d or 12 times the diameter of bar whichever is greater
except at simple support or end of the cantilever.
This recommendation is to locate actual cut-off after calculating the theoretical cut-off. The
reverse recommendation may be given to decide actual cut-off earlier and then, to locate
theoretical cut-off as below.
After carrying out the calculations for the development length, the actual cut-off of the
reinforcement may be decided from which the theoretical cut-off (that is, at which that much
reinforcement is no longer needed to resist the flexure) by deducting a distance equal to effective
depth of the member, d or 12 times the diameter of bar whichever is more except at simple
support or cantilever end. Therefore,
Distance of theoretical cut-off from the face of the support
= 1.80 – effective depth of the beam at the theoretical point of cut-off
⎡ ⎛ 0.500 − 0.200 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 0.500 − 0.200 ⎞ ⎤
= 1.80 – ⎢0.500 − ⎜ ⎟ × 1.8 ⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 3.600 ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 3.600 ⎠⎦
= l.80–[0.35/0.9167]m
= (1.80–0.3818) = 1.4182 m.
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Moment at the point of theoretical cut-off
(3.6 − 1.4182 )2
MFd = (15 + 30) + 13.92(1.52 − 1.4182)
2
= (107.106+ 1.420) = 108.526 kN-m
Calculate
M Fd ⎛ 108.526 × 106 ⎞
2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.707
bd ⎝ 275 × 381.8 × 381.8 ⎠
For balanced section (From step 5)

⎛ M u. lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 2.759
⎝ bd2 ⎠
⎛ M u. lim ⎞ ⎛ M Fd ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
> ⎜ ⎟
⎝ bd ⎠ ⎝ bd2 ⎠
Out of 5 Hysd steel bars of 22 mm are curtailed. Similarly, out of 4 Hysd steel bars of 16 mm
diameter at the support in compression, two middle bars in compression are curtailed.
From step 6, at support
⎛ 100 Ast1 ⎞
⎜ bd ⎟ = 0.9572
⎝ ⎠
At theoretical cut-off, actual area of steel bars needed in tension for the limiting moment of
resistance
0.9572
Ast1 = × (275 × 381.8) mm2
100
= 1005.012 mm2
Area of 3 steel bars 22 mm diameter in tension
⎛ π ⎞
Ast1 = ⎜ 3 × × 222 ⎟ = 1140.398 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
The area of steel bars provided in tension for limiting moment of resistance is more than the
area of steel bars needed. For the balanced section, at support
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
At theoretical section,
x u.max = (0.48 × 381.8) = 183.264 mm
Area of two steel bars in compression
π
Asc = 2 × × 162 = 402.12 mm2
4
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Taking moment about the neutral axis

0.87 × 415 ×Ast2 (d – xu.max) = fsc . Asc.(xu.max – dc)
⎡ 349.64 × 402.12(183.264 − 50) ⎤ 2
Ast2 = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.87 × 415 × (381.8 − 183.264) ⎦
= 261.386 mm2
Total area of steel bars in tension
(Ast1 + Ast2) = (1005.012 + 261.386)
= 1266.398 mm2
Total area provided is 1140.398 mm2. The beam section shall act as under reinforced section.
Step 12. Design for Limit State of Shear
At support, the factored (design) shear force from step 4
V Fd = 175.92 kN
b = 275 mm
d = 500 mm.
MFd from step 3
MFd = 312.758 kN-m
Nominal shear stress in beam sloping from the support upto free end
⎛ 550 − 200 ⎞
tan β = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0972
⎝ 3600 ⎠
⎛ M Fd ⎞
⎜ VFd − d ⋅ tan β ⎟
⎝ ⎠
τv =
b⋅d
312.756 × 106
(175.92 × 1000 − × 0.0972)
500
τv =
275 × 500
τv = 0.837 N/mm2
The details of design are shown in Fig. 4.13.
Area of longitudinal (main) tension reinforcement steel bars at support total (from step 8)
Ast = 1900.66 mm2
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 1900.66 ⎞
⎜ bd ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.383
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 275 × 500 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, the shear strength of concrete (without shear reinforcement) for M 20
grade of concrete
⎡ ⎛ 1.383 − 1.250 ⎞ ⎤
τc = ⎢0.67 + (0.72 − 0.67) ⎜ N/mm2
⎣ 1.500 − 1.250 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
τc = 0.696 N/mm2
From IS : 456–1978
τc.max = 2.8 N/mm2
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Since, τc< τv < τc.max the calculations may be made for shear reinforcement. Provided two
legged vertical stirrups for
Vsu = (VFd – τc.bd)
⎛ 0.696 × 275 × 500 ⎞
Vsu = ⎜175.92 − ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 80.22 kN
3 .6 m
S u pe r im p o se d loa d 10 kN / m
S e lf w t. se pa ra te
L ive loa d 20 kN / m 2 75 m m 2 75 m m
2 00
C o m p re ssio n
re in force m e n t C ro ss - se ctio ns
Ve rtica l stirru ps 4 hysd ba rs 16 m m φ at
tw o leg ge d 8 m m φ fa ce o f free
h ysd ba rs 18 0 m m c/c sup po rt e n d
6 00 m m th ick w all
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 4.13 Detail of reinforcement in cantilever beam
⎛ π ⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 82 ⎟ = 100.53 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Spacing of the stirrups
0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d
sv = Vsu
0.87 × 415 × 100.53 × 500

sv =
88.22 × 1000
= 205.72 mm
Provide two-legged 8 mm diameter Hysd steel stirrups at 180 mm throughout the length.
PROBLEMS
4.1 A doubly reinforced rectangular beams is 260 mm wide. The effective depth of beam section is
550 mm and the effective cover to both tension and compression reinforcements from the
outer surfaces is 50 mm. The tension and compression reinforcements consist of 4 bars of 18
mm diameter and 4 bars of 16 mm diameter, respectively. Locate the neutral axis and
determine the moment of resistance of doubly reinforced beam. M 20 grade of concete and
hysd-steel reinforcement of Fe 415 quality are used. The two legged stirrups have been provided
at appropriate spacing.
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4.2 In Example 4.1,in case the grade of concrete is M 15 and mild-steel bars are used, locate the
neutral axis and determine the moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced rectangular
beam.
4.3 A doubly reinforced rectangular beam is 280 mm wide. The effecittve depth of the section is
650 mm. The effective cover to both tension and compression reinforcements from the ouher
surfaces is 50 mm. The tension and compression reinforcements consist of 4 bars of 16 mm
diameter and 4 bars of 10 mm diameter, repsectively. Determine the depth of neutral axis.
Find the moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam. M 20 grade of concrete and
Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are used.
4.4 Design a doubly reinforced rectangular beam simply supported at its both the ends to carry a
service live load of 20 kN/m and superimposed dead load of 16 kN/m over a clear span of 6.20
m. The width and overall depth of beam for the architectural reasons are kept as 360 mm and
600 mm respectively. Use M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-steel of Fe 415 quality.
4.5 Design a cantilever rectangular beam of span 3.20 m. The beam is to carry a superimposed
service live load of 16 kN/m and superimposed dead load of 12 kN/m. M 20 grade of concrete
and hysd steel bars of Fe 415 quality shall be used.
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Design of Flanged Beams
5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In a reinforced concrete construction, the slab is supported over beams. The use of simple
concrete slabs of moderate depth and weight is commonly limited to spans of 3 m to 5 m, where
it is desired to use concrete for long spans without excessive weight and material, the slab is
built monolithically with the reinforced concrete beams, the beams are considered as flanged
beams. The slab is assumed to act as flange of the beam as shown in Fig. 5.1. At the interior
portions of floor, the slab extends on both the sides of beams. Such beams as shown in Fig. 5.1
resembles to the shape of alphabet-T, therefore, these flanged beams are called as Tee-beams
(or simply T-beams), whereas at the end portions of the floor, the slab extends on one side of
beams. Such beams as shown in Fig. 5.1 resembles to the shape of inverted alphabet-L, therefore,
these flanged beams are called as L-beams.
b f1 b f2 b f3 b f4
C /L C /L C /L
L1 L2 L3
T - B ea m L - B e am
L - B e am
Fig. 5.1 Flanged beams
For reinforced concrete floors, roofs and decks, form-works are built for beam soffits and
sides and for the underside of the slabs. For the entire construction, the concrete is poured at
once from the bottom of deepest beam upto the top of slab. The shear reinforcement of beams
(viz., stirrups) and bent bars extend into the slab.
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The complete construction is cast integrally. A part of the slab acts with the upper part of the
beam and resists longitudinal bending compressive stresses. The portion of slab forms the
flange for the beam. While the part of beam below the slab forms web for the beam.
In the rectangular beams, the area of concrete above neutral axis (in case of simply supported
beams carrying transverse loads acting downward) is comparative small, and therefore, it
carries a compressive force, Fig. 3.4 (a). In case of T-beams, the width of beam at the top and
thereby the area of concrete in compression have been increased, which carries a larger
compressive force as compared to the rectangular beams. The portion of concrete below the
neutral axis is assumed to be cracked section (portion of concrete in tension). It serves the
purpose of embedding steel reinforcement in tension.
The assumptions made for theory of singly reinforced beams are also applicable for the
design of T-beams by limit state method. The stresses in concrete in compression in bending
and shear for different grades of concrete and those for steel reinforcement in tension are same
as specified for the design of singly reinforced beams and these values are adopted as specified
in IS : 456–1978.
T-beams are also built as doubly reinforced under the necessity as doubly reinforced
rectangular beams. In such cases, the steel reinforcement bars are also placed in compression
zone in addition to that in tension zone.
A Tee-beam may be considered as if it consists of two components [viz., a rectangular beam
of effective depth, d and breadth, bw and remaining flange of breadth, (bf – bw) and depth of
flange as Df] as shown in Fig. 5.1.
A bw A
bf
Df Df
d d
D +
dt d t´
bw bw 2 A = (b f – b w )
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) R e ctan gu la r w e b po rtio n (c) F lan g e p ortio ns
Fig. 5.2 Two components of T-beam
5.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF FLANGE

The width of flange, which is supposed to act as top flange of the beam cannot be found
theoretically so far. However, it is clear that the elements of the flange midway between the
webs of two adjacent beams, Fig. 5.1 are less highly stressed in longitudinal compression than
those elements directly over the webs of beams, as the deformation due to shear relieves the
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Design of Flanged Beams 339
more distant elements of some compressive stress. The actual longitudinal compression varies
due to this effect.
An effective width of flange, bf is used in the design of flanged beam. It is treated to be
uniformly stressed at the maximum value. It is smaller than the actual width of flange. It is
seen that the effective width of flange primarily depends on the span of beam, breadth of the
web, bw and thickness of flange, Df (depth of slab, Df). IS : 456–1978 recommends the following
effective width of flanges of T-beams and L-beams:
A. (i) For Symmetrical T-beams
bf = [(l0/6) + bw + 6. Df] ...(5.1)
(ii) For beams having a slab on one side only (L-beams)
bf = [(l0/12) + bw + 3.Df] ...(5.2)
The effective flange width, bf calculated as per Eq. 5.1 or Eq. 5.2, shall be not greater than
the breadth of web plus half the sum of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side,
viz., [0.5 (L1 + L2 + bw] or 0.5 (L2 + L3) + bw], Fig. 5.1.
Some of T-beams and L-beams are used in detached situation in which the flange is used
only for the purpose of providing additional compressive area. These beams are referred as
isolated beams. An isolated T-beam is a single T-beam with a constant flange width
(discontinuous at the ends). The effective width of flange for isolated beams as recommended
in IS: 456–1978 are as follows. T-beams are treated as isolated beams in case it is specially
mentioned.
B. (i) Isolated T-beams
10
bf = +b ...(5.3)
( 0 b) + 4 w
l /
(ii) Isolated L-beams
0.5 ⋅ l0
bf = +b ...(5.4)
( 0 / b) + 4 w
l
bf > [0.5 ( L1 + L2 ) + bw]
or bf > [0.5 ( L2 + L3 ) + bw]
where l0 is the distance between points of zero moments in the beams and b is the actual width
of flange. For continuous beams and frames l0 is assumed as 0.7 times the effective span.
5.3 LOCATION OF NEUTRAL AXIS

Depending upon the proportions (dimensions) of the cross-section, the area of steel reinforcement
in tension, the strengths of the materials, the neutral axis of a T-beam in one case may lie in
the flange (viz., the depth of neutral axis, x u is less than or equal to the thickness of flange or
depth of slab, Df) and in the second case, it may lie in the web, (viz., the depth of neutral axis,
x u is more than the thickness of slab, Df). The neutral axis of a T-beam in these two cases may
be found as follows.
A Tee-beam is shown in Fig. 5.3 (a). The strain and stress distribution diagrams for this
beam are shown in Fig. 5.3 (b) and (c), respectively. The stress distribution diagram consists of
a rectangular portion of depth [(3/7) xu Ω 0.43 xu] and a parabolic portion of depth [(4/7)
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xu @ 0.57 xu] as shown in Fig. 5.3, where xu is the depth of neutral axis of the beam section. The
various parameters of this stress-block as specified by IS: 456–1978 are also shown in Fig 5.3 (c).
εc u 0 .44 6 f c k
bf
Df 3
X
7 u
Xu
4
X
N e utral 7 u
N A
a xis
3 X = 0 .43 X
D
7 u u
d 4 X = 0 .57 X
u u
7
dt
εs Tsu
bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S train d istribu tio n (c) S tress diag ra m
Fig. 5.3 Strain and stress distribution diagrams for T-beam
5.3.1 Neutral Axis Lies within the Flange (i.e., xu < Df)
A T-beam section and the stress-distribution diagram are shown in Fig. 5.4 (a) and (b),
respectively. The various dimensions of T-beam (viz., the effective width of flange, bf the thickness
of slab or flange, Df, the effective depth of beam, d and the depth of neutral axis, are shown in
Fig 5.4 (a). The area of steel reinforcement in tension in the beam is Ast.
0 .44 6 f c k
bf
0 .4 2 x u
Xu Xu C cu
Df
N A N A
N a = N eu tra l a xis
d
( d – 0.42 x u )
C c u = 0.36 f ck . x u . b f
T s u = 0 .87 f y . A st
AST
dt Tsu
bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istrib u tio n dia g ram
Fig. 5.4 Neutral acis within flange
The depth of neutral axis, x u may be calculated by equating the compressive force in the
concrete in compression and the tensile force in the reinforcement in tension. It is to note that
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the cross-section of T-beam is treated as cracked section. That is, the area of concrete in tension
is neglected.
Ccu = (Average stress) . (Area of concrete)
Ccu = (0.36fck . xu . bf) ...(i)
Tensile force in reinforcement in tension
Tsu = (0.87fy . Ast) ..(ii)
The beam section is equilibrium.
Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu
0.36 fck. xu . bf = 0.87 fy . Ast
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast
xu = ...(5.5)
0.36 fckbf
⎛ xu ⎞ 0.87 fy ⎛ Ast ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(5.6)
⎝ ⎠ 0.36 fck ⎝ bf d ⎠
It is to note that the depth of neutral axis, x u and the ratio of depth of neutral axis to the
effective depth of beam, (x u/d) may be determined from Eq. 5.5 and Eq. 5.6 respectively.
5.3.2 Neutral Axis Lies outside the Flange, (i.e., xu > Df)
When the neutral axis of T-beam section lies outside the flange, it lies in the web of T-beam.
However, there are two possibilities depending upon whether the depth of flange (slab) Df is
less than or equal to 0.43 x u or Df is more than 0.43 x u. The comparison of Df with 0.43 x u (i.e.,
3/7 x u) is more rational as 0.43 xu is actual depth of rectangular portion of the stress block.
However, IS: 456–1978 (Appendix B) recommend that in case (D/d) is less than 0.2, the
flange of T-beam is considered as small. As a matter of fact, the depth of Df, is still compared
with 0.43 x u, but it is slightly approximately as below:
Df < 0.43x u
⎛ Df ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞
or ⎜ ⎟ < 0.43 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
For the balanced beam section, x u is equal to x u.max. The values of (xu/d) = (xu.max/d) may be
substituted in the above expression for different grades of steel
fy (x u.max /d) (0.43 xu/d)
250 0.53 0.43 × 0.53 @ 0.2279
415 0.48 0.43 × 0.8 @ 0.2064
500 0.46 0.43 × 0.46 @ 0T978
All these values of (0.43 x u/d) may be said approximately equal to 0.2 for practically balanced
beam section.
The depth of neutral axis, x u in these two separate cases many be calculated as follows :
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5.2.2.1 Df is less than or Equal to 0.43 xu (i.e, Df < 0.43 xu)

The total area of concrete in compression above neutral axis consists of two portions (viz., the
portion of concrete in compression in the web of the beam and the portion of concrete in
compression in the flange of beam excluding the web) as shown in Fig 5.5 (a). Therefore, the
0 .44 6 f c k
bf
0 .5 D f
Df C fcu
0 .43 x u
0 .4 2 x u
xu C wcu
0 .57 x u
N N e utral A
a xis
d
( d – 0.5 D f)
C w c u = 0 .3 6 f ck . x u . b w ( d -0.42 x u )
C fcu = 0 .44 6 f c k . D f (d f – b w )
AST
dt
Tsu
bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istrib u tio n diag ram
Fig. 5.5 Depth of Neutral axis (i.e. Df < 0.43 xu)
total compressive force, Ccu shall also consist of sum of compressive force in the concrete in the
web of width, bw, Cwcu and the compressive force in the concrete in the flange excluding web.
Cfcu
(i) Compressive force in concrete in web, Cwcu
Cwcu = 0.36 fck . x u . bw ...(iii)
(ii) Compressive force in concrete in flange excluding web, Cfcu
Cfcu = 0.446 fck . Df (bf – bw) ...(iv)
Since Df is less than or equal to 0.43 x u, the average stress in concrete in flange shall be that
which corresponds to the rectangular portion of the stress block that is, 0.446 fck. The stress in
the block is uniform or nearly uniform. Total compressive force
Ccu = (Cwcu + Cfcu) ...(v)
Tensile force in the reinforcement in tension
Tsu = 0.87fy Ast ...(vi)
The T-beam section is in equilibrium.
Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu ...(vii)
(Cwcu + Cfcu) = Tsu ...(viii)
Substituting the values of these forces
or [(0.36 fckx u. bw ) + 0.446 fck . Df . (bf – bw )] = 0.87 fy . Ast
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⎡0.87 fy ⋅ Ast – 0.446 fck ⋅ Df (bf − bw ) ⎤⎦

xu = ⎣ ...(5.7a)
0.36 fck ⋅ bw
The value of average stress in the rectangular portion of stress block 0.446 fck may be round
off as 0.45 fck. Then, Eq. 5.7 (a) may be written as under:
⎡0.87 fy ⋅ Ast – 0.45 fck ⋅ Df (bf − bw ) ⎤⎦

xu = ⎣ ...(5.7b)
0.36 fck ⋅ bw
5.2.2.2 Df is more than 0.43 xu, (i.e Df > 0.43 xu)

The T-beam section and the stress distribution diagram for above stated condition are shown
in Fig. 5.6. The compressive forces in the web portion of the beam and in the flange portion of
the beam are as follows:
(i) Compressive force in concrete in web, Cwcu. The web portion of T-beam is a rectangular
portion. It is similar to singly reinforced rectangular beam. The distribution of compressive
stress as shown in Fig. 5.6 (b) is in usual standard form as specified in IS: 456–1978. Therefore,
the compressive force in concrete in the web portion of T-beam
Cwcu = (Average stress)· (area of concrete)
∴ Cwcu = 0.36fck . xu. bw ...(ix)
5.2.3 Compressive Force in the Concrete in Flange Cfcu

The depth of flange, Df is more than 0.43 xu (i.e., depth of the rectangular portion of the stress
block) as shown in Fig 5.6(b). Therefore, the distribution of compressive stress over some depth
of the flange (i.e., the depth of flange equal to 0.43 is uniform. The average stress over this
depth is equal to 0.446 fck. The distribution of compressive stress over the remaining depth of
flange [i.e., the depth of flange equal to Df – 0.43 x u)] is parabolic. The distribution of stress
over the overall depth of flange is not uniform. In order to obtain the compressive force in the
flange portion of T-beam excluding web, the area of these two portions of the stress block is to
be determined. The process includes lengthy calculations. In order to simplify the calculations,
IS: 456–1978 recommended the concept of modified thickness of flange equal to yf. The average
compressive stress after this depth yf has been assumed to be uniform of intensity 0.446 fck
Ω 0.45 fck .
where,
yf = (0.15 x u + 0.65 Df) ...(5.8)
The modified depth of flange, yf should not be greater than the actual depth of flange, Df
(i.e., y f is not more than Df).
Therefore,
Cfcu = (Average stress) – (Area of flange)
∴ Cfcu = 0.446 fck . yf (bf – bw) ...(x)
Tensile force in the reinforcement in tension
Tsu = 0.87fy . Ast ...(xi)
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The beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, total compressive force in concrete in

compression is equal to total tensile force in the reinforcement in tension. The portion of concrete
in tension is neglected (that is, the beam section is considered as cracked section).
Hence,
Ccu = Tsu ...(xii)
Cwcu + Cfcu = Tsu ...(xiii)
Substituting the values of these forces
0.36 fck . xu . bw + 0.446 fck . yf . (bf – bw) = 0.87fy . Ast ...(5.9a)
⎡⎣0.87 fy ⋅ Ast – 0.446 fck ⋅ yf (bf − bw )⎤⎦
xu = 0.36 fck ⋅ bw ...(5.10a)
The value of 0.446 fck may be round off as 0.45 fck . In such a case,
0.36 fck . xu . bw + 0.45 fck . yf . (bf – bw) = 087fy . Ast ...(5.9b)
⎡0.87 fy ⋅ Ast – 0.45 fck ⋅ yf (bf − bw ) ⎤⎦

xu = ⎣ ...(5.10b)
0.36 fck ⋅ bw
0 .44 6 fc k
bf
0 .5 y f
Df C fcu
0 .43 x u
0 .42 x u
xu C wcu
0 .57 x u
N N e utral A
a xis
d
( d – 0.5 y t )
C w c u = 0.36 f ck . x u . b w ( d – 0.42 x u )
Ast C fcu = 0 .44 6 f c k . y f ( b f – b w )
dt T su
bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istrib u tio n dia g ram
Fig. 5 6 Depth of Neutral axis (i.e. Df > 0.43 xu)
5.4 BENDING (FLEXURAL) STRENGTH OF A FLANGED BEAM

The ultimate bending (flexural) strength of a reinforced flanged beam section is also known as
the ultimate moment of resistance of the beam section. The ultimate moment of resistance
of the reinforced flanged beam section depends upon the total compressive force in concrete in
compression (or tensile force in reinforcement in tension) and the lever arm distance. Both
these two values, in turn depends upon the depth of neutral axis (viz., the position of neutral
axis measured from the extreme fibre of concrete in compression. The position of neutral axis
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(i.e., the depth of neutral axis, xu) for the T-beam section has been obtained in three different
cases in Art 5.2. The moment of resistance of T-beam section has also been calculated in the
three different cases of the neutral axis as below.
5.4.1 Neutral Axis Lies within the Flange (i.e., xu < Df)
The compressive force and the tensile force for the above stated position of neutral axis as
shown in Fig. 5.4 have been expressed in the expression (i) and (ii) in Art. 5.3, respectively.
The lever arm distance (i.e., between two equal and parallel forces Ccu and Tsu, acting in the
opposite directions)
Z = (d – 0.42 x u) ...(i)
Moment of resistance of flanged beam calculated from the compressive force
Mccu = (Ccu . Lever arm) ...(ii)
Substituting the values of these two terms
Mccu = (0.36 fck . x u . bf) (d – 0.42 x u)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu ⎞
Mccu = 0.36 fck ⎜ u ⎟ ⎜1 − b d2 ...(5.11)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠ f
In case the value of (x u/d) is equal to the limiting value, the moment of resistance of T-beam
section shall be
0.421xu ⎞
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck ⎛ xu.max ⎞ ⎛⎜1 − ⎟ bfd
2 ...(5.12)
⎜ ⎝ d ⎟ ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
Moment of resistance of flanged beam calculated from the tensile force
M Tus = (Tsu . Lever arm) ...(iii)
Substituting the valves of these two terms
⎛ 0.42xu ⎞
M Tus = 0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − d ⎟⎠ ...(5.13)
⎝
The value of (0.42 x u/d) may be substituted from the relation
⎛ xu ⎞ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast
0.42 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.42 × ...(iv)
d
⎝ ⎠ 0.36 fck bf d
⎛ A ⋅f ⎞
M Tus = 0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − st y ⎟⎟ ...(5.14)
⎜ bf ⋅ d
⎝ ⎠
It is to note that when xu is less than Df, the moment of resistance of T-beam may be calculated
from the same expression for the rectangular beam without compression reinforcement, except
that breadth of rectangular beam b is substituted as breadth of T-beam flange, bf.
5.4.2 Neutral Axis Lies outside the Flange (i.e., xu > Df)
The moment of resistance of a T-beam may be treated as the sum of moment of resistance of the
concrete in the web of breadth, bw and that due to the concrete in the flange. However, it
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further depends on the thickness of flange, Df. The thickness of flange Df is small that is less
than 0.43 x u (or Df < 0.2 d) or the thickness of flange Df is large that is more than 0.43 x u (or Df
> 0.2 d). The moment of resistance of T-beam in two separate cases are determined as follows:
5.4.2.1 Df is less than or equal to 0.43 xu (i.e., Df < 0.2 d)

Total moment of resistance due to compressive forces shall be sum of moment of resistance of
compressive force in concrete in web, Cwcu and that due to compressive force in concrete in
flange Cfcu
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in web.
Compressive force in concrete in web as shown in Fig. 5.5
Cwcu = 0.36 fck . xu . bw ...(v)
Lever arm distance (i.e., distance between Cwcu and Tsu)
= (d – 0.42 x u) ...(vi)
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in web
Mcwcu = Cw.cu (d – 0.42 x u) ...(vii)
or Mcwcu = 0.36 fck . xu . bw (d – 0.42 x u)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛
u 0.421xu ⎞
or Mcwcu = 0.36 fck ⎜ d ⎟ ⎜1 − d ⎟ bw b2 ...(viii)
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in flange
Compressive force in concrete in web excluding flange as shown in Fig. 5.5
Cfcu = 0.446 fck . Df (bf . bw) ...(ix)
The compressive stress over the flange in this case is uniform or nearly uniform. The line of
action or this compressive force (i.e., the centroid of this compressive force) shall be at a distance
0.5 Df from the extreme fibre of concrete in campression. Therefore Lever arm distance
= (d – 0.5Df) ...(x)
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in flange
Mcfcu = Cfcu . (d – 0.5 Df)
Mcfcu = 0.446fck . Df (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 Df) ...(xi)
Total moment of resistance due to compressive forces in concrete
Mcu = (Mcwcu + Mcfcu) ... (xii)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
or Mcu = 0.36fck ⎜ u ⎟ . ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ bw . d2
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d⎠
+ 0.446fck . Df (bf –bw) (d – 0.5Df) ...(5.15)
Total moment of resistance shall be maximum when the depth of neutral axis shall be xu.max.
Therefore
⎛ xu.max ⎞ ⎛ xu .max ⎞
Mcu = 0.36fck . ⎜ d ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bw .d2
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
+ 0.446fck . Df (bf – bw)(d – 0.5Df) ...(5.16)
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Equation 5.16 may be written as under

Mcu = Mu.lim . (web) + 0.45fck Df . (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 Df) ...(5.17)
where,
⎛ xu. max ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu. max ⎞ 2
Mu.lim (web) = 0.36fck . ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ × bw d
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
It is to note that IS: 456–1978 specifies Eq. 5.17 for moment of resistance for above stated
condition in Appendix E.
5.4.2.2 Df is more than 0.43 xu (i.e., Df > 0.2 d)

When the thickness of flange Df is more than 0.43 xu (i.e., Df > 0.2 d) Eq. 5.16 or Eq. 5.17 is not
correct as the distribution of stress over the depth of complete flange is not uniform as shown in
Fig. 5.6.
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in web.
Compressive force in concrete in web as shown in Fig. 5.6
Cwcu = 0.36fck . xu . bw ...(xiii)
Lever arm distance (i.e., distance between Cwcu and Tsu)
= (d – 0.42x u) ...(xiv)
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in web
Mcwcu = 0.36fck . x u . bw (d – 0.42x u)
⎛ x ⎞⎛ 0.42xu ⎞ 2
or Mcwcu = 0.36fck . ⎜ u ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bw d ...(xv)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
Moment of resistance due to compressive in concrete in flange excluding web.
Compressive force in concrete in the flange excluding web as shown in Fig. 5.5
Cfcu = 0.446fck . yf . (bf – bw) ...(xvii)
Lever arm distance (i.e., distance between Cfcu and Tsu
= (d – 0.5y f) ...(xvi)
Moment of resistance due to compressive force in concrete in flange excluding web
Mcfcu = 0.446fck . y f (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 y f) ...(xviii)
Total moment of resistance due to compressive forces
Mcu = (Mcwcu+ Mcfcu) ...(xix)
x 0.42xu ⎞
Mcu = 0.36fck ⎛⎜ u ⎞⎛
2
or ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bw ⋅ d
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.446 fck . yf (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 y f) ...(5.18)
Total moment of resistance shall be maximum when the depth of neutral axis is xu.max.
Therefore
⎛ xu. max ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu.max ⎞ 2
Mcu = 0.36fck . ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ × bw d
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.446fck. yf . (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 y f) ...(5.19)
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In case 0.446fck is round-off as 0.45 fck, then

⎛ xu. max ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu. max ⎞ 2
Mcu = 0.36 fck . ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ × bw ⋅ d
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.445 fck. yf . (bf – bw) (d – 0.5 yf) ...(5.20)
where, the modified depth of flange, from Eq. 5.4
yf = (0.15 xu + 0.65 Df)
It is to note that IS: 456–1978 specifies Eq. 5.20 for moment of resistance for above stated
condition in Appendix B. IS: 456–1978 (Appendix B), further recommends that for (xu.max >
x u> Df) the moment of resistance may be calculated by Eq. 5.17 when (Df < 0.43 xu and when
(Df > 0.43xu) substitute x u for xu.max in Eq. 5.20.
Example 5.1 A singly reinforced slab 120 mm thick is supported by T-beam spaced 3 m
centre to centre. The effective depth and width of web are 580 mm and 450 mm respectively.
Eight mild steel reinforcement bars of 20 mm diameter have been provided in tension in two
layers as shown in Fig. 5.5. The effective cover to steel bars in lower tier is 50 mm. The effective
span of simply supported beams is 3.60 m. The grade of concrete is M 15. Determine the depth
of neutral axis and the moment of resistance of T-beam section.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 15. Characteristics strength of concrete M 15
fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(i)
Mild steel Fe 250 bars are used as tension reinforcement. Yield stress of steel bars
fy = 250 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Eight bars of 20 mm diameter are provided is in two layers as shown in Fig. 5.7. Area of steel
bars
⎛ π 2⎞
Ast = ⎜ 8 × × 20 ⎟ = 2513.27 mm2 ...(iii)
⎝ 4 ⎠
0 .44 6 f c k
bf
0 .4 2 x u
Xu C cu
N A N A
N a = N eu tra l a xis
d = 5 80 m m
C c u = 0.36 f c k . x u . b f ( d – 0.42 x u )
T s u = 0 .87 f y . A s t
Ast
40 m m
dt = 70 m m
50 m m Tsu
0 .5 L 1 0 .5 L 2
1 27 5 m m 4 50 m m 1 27 5 m m
1 .5 m 1 .5 m
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istrib utio n d iag ram
Fig. 5.7 Neutral axis within flange
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Step 1. Effective width of Flange of T-beam

From IS: 456–1978,
⎛l ⎞
bf = ⎜ 0 + bw + 6 Df ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝6 ⎠
Distance between points of zero moments in the beam
l 0 = 3.6 m ...(v)
Breadth of the web
b w = 450 mm ...(vi)
Thickness of flange (slab)
Df = 120 mm ...(vii)
Effective width of flange of T-beam
⎛ 3600 ⎞
bf = ⎜ + 450 + 6 × 120 ⎟ = 1770 mm ...(viii)
⎝ 6 ⎠
Check : Clear span to the left and right of the beam
L1 = L2 = (3000 – 450) = 2550 mm ...(ix)
From IS : 456–1978
bf |
> [0.5 (L1 + L2) + bw]
> [0.5 (2550 + 2550) + 450]
bf |
= 3000 mm ...(x)
Step 2. Depth of Neutral Axis of T-beam
T-beam section is shown in Fig. 5.7. It is first assumed that the neutral axis lies within the
flange (i.e., xu < Df).
Ccu = (0.36 fck . x u . bf) ... (xi)
Tsu = (0.87 fck . xu. bf) ...(xii)
The beam section is in equilibrium. The depth of neutral axis is calculated by equating Ccu
and Tsu. Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu
(0.36fck . x u . bf) = (0.87fck . Ast) ...(xiii)
Substituting the values of various terms, [from Eq. 5.1]
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 0.36 fck ⋅ bf
⎝ ⎠
xu = ⎛ 0.87 × 250 × 2513.27 ⎞ mm

⎜ 0.36 × 15 × 1770 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
x u = 57.19 mm ...(xiv)
It is less than Df = 120 mm. Hence, the neutral axis lies within the flange.
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Step 3. Moment of Resistance of T-beam

In order to determine the moment of resistance of T-beam as shown in Fig. 5.7, the depth of
neutral axis for the balanced beam section is calculated. From IS: 456–1978, for mild steel bars
of Fe 250 grade
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.53 ...(xv)
⎝ ⎠
d = 580 mm ...(xvi)
x u.max = (0.53 × 580) = 307.4 mm ...(xvii)
The actual depth of neutral axis, xu is less than xu.max. T-beam section is shown in Fig. 5.7 in
an under-reinforced beam section. The moment of resistance is calculated from the tensile force
in the steel bars provided as tension. Take moment of Tsu about the line of action of the
compressive force in concrete, Ccu. From Eq. 5.13
M Tsu = (T . Lever arm)
su
= [0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42 xu)] ...(xviii)

M Tsu = ⎡ 0.87 × 250 × 2513.27 × (580 − 0.42 × 57.19) ⎤ kN-m

⎢ 1000 × 1000 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
M Tsu = 309.92 kN-m
Example 5.2 In Example 5.1, in case the grade of concrete is M 20 and hysd-steel bars are
used, locate the neutral axis, and find the moment of resistance of the beam.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 20. Characteristic strength of concrete
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(i)
HYSD steel bars Fe 415 are used. Yield stress of the steel bars in tension
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
From Example 5.1,
Area of steel bars in tension
Ast = 2513.27 mm2 ...(iii)
Step 1. From Example 5.1,
bf = 1770 mm ...(iv)
Step 2. Depth of Meutral axis of T-beam
T-beam is shown in Fig. 5.7. It is first assumed that the neutral axis lies within the flange,
(i.e., xu< Df).
Ccu = (0.36 fck . xu . bf) ...(v)
Tensite force in steel bars in tension
Tsu = (0.87fy . Ast) ...(vi)
and Tsu. Therefore,
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Ccu = Tsu ...(vii)

(0.36fck . xu . bf) = (0.87. fy . Ast) ...(viii)
Substituting the values of various terms from Eq. 5.1
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 0.36 fck ⋅ bf
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 2513.27 ⎞

xu = ⎜ mm
⎝ 0.36 × 20 × 1770 ⎟⎠
x u = 71.20 mm ...(x)
It is less than Df = 120 mm. Hence, the neutral axis lies within the flange.
In order to determine the moment of resistance of T-beam, as shown in Fig. 5.7, the depth of
neutral axis for the balanced beam section is calculated. From IS: 456–1978, for HYSD steel
bars of grade Fe 415,
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48 ...(xi)
⎝ ⎠
d = 580 mm ...(xii)
x u.max = (0.48 × 580)
= 278.40 mm ...(xiii)
The actual depth of neutral axis x u is less than x u.max. T-beam section as shown in Fig. 5.7 is
an under reinforced beam section. The moment of resistance is calculated from tensile force in
the steel bars provided as tension.
Take moment of Tsu about the line of action of the compressive force in concrete, Ccu. Eq. 5.9
M Tsu = (Tsu . Lever arm)
M Tsu = [0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42x u)] ...(xvi)

0.87 × 415 × 2513.27(580 − 0.42 × 71.20 ⎤
M Tsu = ⎡
⎢ 1000 × 1000 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
M Tsu = 499.166 kN-m
Example 5.3 Actual width of the flange of an isolated T-beam is 2400 mm. The effective
depth and breadth of web are 600 mm and 450 mm, respectively. The effective cover to steel
reinforcement in tension in lower tier is 50 mm. The tension reinforcement consists of eight
steel bars 22 mm diameter provided in two layers 40 mm vertically apart as shown in Fig. 5.8.
The effective span of simply supported T-beam is 3.60 m. Determine the depth of neutral axis
and the moment of resistance of T-beam. The grade of concrete is M 20 and that of steel is Fe
415.
Solution The grade of concrete is M 15. Characteristic strength of concrete M 15
fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(i)
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Mild steel Fe 415 bars are used as tension reinforcement. Yield stress of steel bars
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Eight bars of 22 mm diameter are provided as shown in Fig. 5.8.
Area of steel bars in tension reinforcement
⎛ π 2⎞
Ast = ⎜ 8 × × 22 ⎟ = 3041.06 mm2 ...(iii)
⎝ 4 ⎠
Step 1. Effective Width of Flange of T-beam
T-beam is an isolated T-beam. From IS: 450-1978, effective width of flange
⎡ l0 ⎤
bf = ⎢ + bw ⎥ ...(iv)
(
⎣ 0l / b ) + 4 ⎦
Distance between points of zero moments
l 0 = 3.6 m ...(v)
Breadth of the web
b w = 450 mm ...(vi)
Depth of the flange (thickness of slab)
Df = 120 mm ...(vii)
Actual width of flange
b = 2400 mm ...(viii)
⎡ 3600 ⎤
bf = ⎢ + 450 ⎥ mm
⎣ (3600 / 2400) + 4 ⎦
bf = 1104.55 mm ...(ix)
b = 2 40 0 m m 0 .44 6 f c k
bf
0 .5 yf
Df 0 .43 x u C Fc u
0 .42 x u
Xu C wcu
D f = 12 0 m m 0 .57 x u
N N e utral A
a xis
d = 6 00 m m
( d – 0.5 y f )
C w c u = 0.36 f ck . x u . b w ( d – 0.42 x u )
C fcu = 0 .44 6 f c k . D f (d f – b w )
dt = 70 m m Tsu
50 m m
b w = 45 0 m m bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istribu tio n diag ram
Fig. 5.8 Depth of nrutral axis (Df > 0.43 xu)
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Step 2. Depth of Neutral axis of T-beam

2 (A) In case xu< Df
T-beam is shown in Fig. 5.8.
It is first assumed that the neutral axis lies within the flange, (i.e., xu< Df)
Compressive force in concrete incompression
Ccu = (0.36 fck . xu . bf) ...(x)
Tsu = (0.87fy . Ast) ...(xi)
and Tus, respectively
Ccu = Tus
(0.36 fck . xu . bf) = (0.87fck . Ast) ...(xii)
Substituting the values of various terms, [from Eq. 5.1]
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ bf ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 3041.06 ⎞

xu = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 0.36 × 20 × 1104.55 ⎠
= 138.06 mm ...(xiii)
Above assumption is not true. x u is more than Df = 120 mm. Hence, the neutral axis lies
outside the flange (i.e., it lies in the web x u > Df)
2 (B) In case Df < 0.43 xu
Compressive force in the web portion of beam
Cwcu = (0.36fck . x u . bw) ...(xiv)
Compressive force in the flange portion of beam excluding web
Cfcu = [0.446 fck . Df (bf. bw)] ...(xv)
Tensile force in the steel bars (reinforcement) in tension
Tsu = (0.87fy . Ast) ...(xvi)
The beam section is in equilibrium. The depth of neutral axis is calculated by equating total
compressive force and total tensile force. Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu
(Cwcu + Cfcu) = Tsu
[(0.36fck . xu . bw) + 0.446 fck . Df (bf – bw)] = 0.87fy . Ast)
xu = ⎡ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast − 0.446 fck ⋅ Df (bf − bw ) ⎤ ...(xvii)

⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.36 fck ⋅ bw ⎦
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 3041.06 − 0.446 × 20 × 120 × (1104.55 − 450) ⎤
xu = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ 0.36 × 20 × 450 ⎦
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⎡1097.97 × 103 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎛ 397.344 × 103 ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟ =122.64 mm ...(xviii)
⎜ 3.24 × 103 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Depth of flange (i.e., thickness of slab)
Df = 120 mm
Depth of rectangular portion of stress block
0.43 x u = (0.43 × 122.64) = 52.734 mm ...(xix)
Above assumption is not true. The depth of flange is more than 0.43 x u . That is Df > 0.43x u
The depth of neutral axis shall be found again.
2 (C) Depth of Flange, Df > 0.43 xu
Compressive force in the web portion of beam
Cwcu = (0.36fck . x u . bw) ...(xx)
Compressive force in the flange portion of beam excluding web.
Cfcu = [0.36fck . y f (bf – bw)] ...(xxi)
where (from IS: 456–1978)
yf = modified thickness of flange
yf = (0.15 x u + 0.65 Df) ...(xxii)
Tensile force in the steel bars (reinforcement) in tension
Tsu = (0.87fy . Ast) ...(xxiii)
The beam section is in equilibrium. The depth of neutral axis is obtained by equating total
compressive force and total tensile force
Ccu = Tsu
(Cwcu + Cfcu) = Tsu
(0.36fck . x u . bw) + [0.446 fck. y f (bf – bw)]
= 0.87 fy . Ast ...(xxiv)
(0.36 × 20 × x u × 450) + [0.446 × 20 × yf (1104.55 – 450)]
= 0.87 × 415 × 3041.06
3240 xu + 5838.586 y f = 10.98 × 105
3.24 x u + 5.838 y f = 10.98 × 100 ...(xxv)
Substituting the value of y f from the expression (xxii)
3.24 x u + 5.838 (0.15 xu + 0.65 × 120) = 1098
xu = 156.13 mm ...(xxvi)
0.43 x u = 67.136 mm
Df = 120 mm
That is, Df > 0.43 xu . Above assumption is true therefore,
yf = 0.15x u + 0.65 Df
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yf = (0.15 × 156.13 + 0.65 × 120) mm

= (23.42 + 78) = 101.42 mm
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 156.13 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.26 ...(xxvii)
d 600 ⎠
Step 3. Moment of Resistence of T-beam
In order to find the moment of resistance of T-beam as shown in Fig. 5.8, the depth of
neutral axis for the balanced beam section is determined. From IS: 456–1978 for HYSD steel
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
d = 600 mm
x u.max = (0.48 × 600) = 288 mm
The actual depth of neutral axis, xu is less than x u.max. T-beam sections as shown in Fig. 5.8
is an under-reinforced beam section. The moment of resistance is calculated from the tensile
force in the steel bars provided in tension. Then the line of action of resultant compressive force
is to be located. However, the moment of resistance of given beam section may be determined
by taking moment of compressive forces Cwcu and Cfcu about the line of action of the tensile
force. The depth of flange, Df is more than 0.43 xu (that is, Df exceeds 0.2 d). From IS: 456–
1978, (Appendix E).
Moment of resistance of the beam section, Eq. 5.14.
⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu ⎞ 2⎤
Mcu = ⎢0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ bw ⋅ d ⎥
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎦
+ [0.446fck . yf (bf – bw) (d – 0.5y f)] ...(xxviii)
⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 0.26 2⎤
Mcu = ⎢ × (1 − 0.42 × 0.26 ) 450 × 600 ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
⎡ 0.446 × 20 × 101.42 ⎤
+⎢ × (1104.55 − 450 )(600 − 0.5 × 101.42) ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
= (270.148 + 325.262) = 595.41 kN-m
Example 5.4 In Example 5.3, if the tension reinforcement consists of ten steel bars of 25 mm
diameter as shown in Fig. 5.9, determine the depth of neutral axis and the moment of resistance
of T-beam.
Solution
Step 1. Ten steel bars of 25 mm diameter are provided as shown in Fig. 5 9.
π
Ast = (10 × × 252) = 4908.739 mm2 ...(i)
4
From Example 5.3, (step 1)
bf = 1104.55 mm ...(ii)
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b = 2 40 0 m m 0 .44 6 f c k
bf
0 .5 Df
Df C fcu
0 .43 x u
0 .42 x u
Xu
D f = 1 20 m m C wcu
0 .57 x u
N N e utral A
a xis
d = 6 00 m m
( d – 0.5 y f )
C w c u = 0.36 f ck . x u . b w
( d – 0.42 x u )
C fcu = 0 .44 6 f c k . D f (d f – b w )
dt = 70 m m T su
50 m m
b w = 4 50 m m bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress d istrib utio n dia g ram
Fig. 5 .9 Depth of nrutral axis (Df < 0.43 xu)
Step 2. Depth of Neutral Axis of T-beam

2 (A) (In case xu < D) : From Eq. 5.5,
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 0.36 fck ⋅ bf
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 4908.739 ⎞

xu = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 0.36 × 20 × 1104.55 ⎠
= 222.853 mm ...(iii)
x u is more than Df = 120 mm. Hence, the neutral axis lies outside the flange (i.e., it lies in the
web, xu > Df).
2 (B) In case Df < 0.43 xu
The beam section is in equilibrium.The depth of neutral axis is calculated by equating total
compressive force and total tensile force. Therefore,
Ccu = Tsu
(Cwcu + Cfcu) = Tsu
[(0.36 fck . xu . bw) + 0.446fck . Df (bf – bw)]
= (0.87 fy.Ast) ...(iv)
⎛ 0.87 fy Ast − 0.446 fck ⋅ Df (bf − bw ) ⎞

xu = ⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(v)
⎜ 0.36 fck ⋅ bf
⎝ ⎠
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⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 4908.739 − 0.446 × 20 × 120 × (1104.55 − 450) ⎤
xu = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.36 × 20 × 450 ⎦
⎡1772.3 × 103 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎡1071.6699 ⎤
xu = ⎢ ⎥ = 330.76 mm ...(vi)
⎣ 3.24 ⎦
From IS: 456–1978 for Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = (0.48 × 600)
= 288 mm
The value of x u calculated above is more than the balanced section. Therefore, the beam
section is an over-reinforced section. For an over-reinforced section
Tsu = Ast . fs ...(vi a)
The value of fs is found corresponding to the strain in steel bars
⎛ d − xu ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xu ⎠
The iterative procedure is followed :
(i) First Cycle of Iteration
Assume x u = 288 mm equal to that of the balanced section
⎛ 600 − 288 ⎞
εs = 0.0035 . ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 288 ⎠
εs = 0.0038
From IS: 456–1978, from stress-strain diagram for HYSD steel
fs = 361.05 N/mm2
From the expression (v)
⎡ 361.05 × 908.739 − 0.446 × 20 × 120 × (1104.55 − 450) ⎤
xu = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.36 × 20 × 450 ⎦
⎡1772.3 × 103 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎡1071.6699 ⎤
xu = ⎢ 3.24 ⎥ = 330.76 mm
⎣ ⎦
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(ii) Second cycle of iteration

Assume xu = 330.76 mm
⎛ 600 − 330.34 ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 330.76 ⎠
εs = 0.00285
From IS : 456–1978, stress-strain curve for Hysd steel
fs = 351.72 N/mm2
⎡ 351.72 × 4908.739 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎡ (1726.50 − 700.63) × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ = 316.63 mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
(iii) Third Cycle of Iteration

⎛ 600 − 330.76 ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 300.76 ⎠
εs = 0.00313
∴ fs = 356.90 N/mm2
⎡ 356.90 × 4908.739 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤
xu = ⎢ 3
⎥
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎡ (1751.929 − 700.63) × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ = 324.475 mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
(iv) Fourth, Cycle of Iteration
⎛ 600 − 324.475 ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 324.475 ⎠
εs = 0.0030
∴ fs = 354.83 N/mm2
⎡ 354.83 × 4908.739 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤
xu = ⎢⎢ 3
⎥
⎥⎦
⎣ 3.24 × 10
⎡ (1744.76 − 700.63) × 103 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
xu = ⎢ 3
⎥⎦ = 321.34 mm
⎣ 3.24 × 10
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(v) Fifth Cycle of Iteration

⎛ 600 − 321.34 ⎞
εs = 0.0035 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 321.34 ⎠
εs = 0.00303
∴ fs = 354.83 N/mm2
⎡ 354.83 × 4908.739 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
⎡1741.76 − 700.63 × 103 ⎤

xu = ⎢ 3
⎥ = 321.338 mm
⎢⎣ 3.24 × 10 ⎥⎦
Assumed value of xu and the calculated values of x u are very close. Hence, convergence
occurs in the value of x u.
xu = 321.34 mm
Depth of flange (i.e., thickness of slab)
Df = 120 mm ...(vii)
Depth of rectangular portion of stress block
0.43x u = (0.43 × 330.76) = 142.23 mm ...(viii)
Df < 0.43x u ...(ix)
Therefore, it is seen that the xu is more than Df and Df is less than 0.43 x u (that is, Df < 0. 2d).
In order to find the moment of resistance of T-beam as shown in Fig. 5.9, the depth of
neutral axis for the balanced beam section is determined. From IS : 456–1978, for Hysd steel
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = (0.48 × 600) = 288 mm ... (x)
The actual depth of neutral axis, x u is more than x u.maxT-beam section as shown in Fig. 5.9
is an over-reinforced beam section. An over-reinforced beam section in limit state of collapse in
flexure is a theoretical case. However, the moment of resistance is calculated from the compressive
forces in the concrete in compression (i.e., concrete in web and flange excluding web)
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 321.34 ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5356 ...(xi)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 600 ⎠
Take moment of compressive forces Cwcu and Cfcu about the line of action of the tensile force.
The depth of flange Df is less than 0.43 xu (i.e., Df does not exceed 0.2d). From IS : 456–1978,
(Appendix E), moment of resistance of the beam section, Eq. 5.15,
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⎛x ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu ⎞
Mcu = [0.36fck . ⎜ u ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ bw . d
2
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.446fck . Df (bf –bw (d – 0.5 Df)] ...(xii)
⎡ 0.36 × 20 × 0.5356 2
Mcu = ⎢ (1 − 0.42 × 0.5356) 450 × 600
⎣ 1000 × 1000
0.446 × 20 × 120 ⎤
+ × (1104.55 − 450)(600 − 0.5 × 120)⎥ ...(xiii)
1000 × 1000 ⎦
Mcu = (484.191 + 378.340)
= 862.534 kN-m
5.5 DESIGN OF T-BEAMS

The grade of concrete and type of steel reinforcement are decided.
The effective span beams (either simply supported at both the ends or cantilever beams) are
determined as described in Art. 3.19. It is further described in step one Art. 3.36.
The dead loads and live loads are calculated as described in step two Art. 3.36. For dead load
and live load combination of loads, as per IS : 456–1978.
Service (working) loads for calculating the vertical deflections of the beams to check the
conditions of limit state of serviceability
w d = (D.L. + L.L.) ...(i)
Factored (design) loads for the design of beams for limit state of collapse in flexure (i.e., for
the strength of beams)
w Fd = ( γ fL
1
⋅ DL + γ fL2 ⋅ L.L ) ...(ii)
where, for dead load, the value of partial factor of safety of loads in 1.5. For live load, the value
of partial factor of safety of loads is also 1.5. Therefore,
w Fd = 1.5 (D.L. + L.L.) ...(iii)
It is to note that in order to calculate the self-weight of the beam, the size (viz., dimensions)
of the T-beam cross-section is preliminary estimated.
The slab spanning from beam to beam in each panel is designed as one way slab or slab
spanning in one direction. (The design of slab has been described in Chapter 7). The thickness
of slab i.e., the depth of flange of T-beam, Df thus becomes known. It is necessary to ensure the
integrity of compression flange of T-beam (viz., the slab) with web portion of T-beam. The steel
bars in the flange (slab) (viz., tension reinforcement) are provided in the direction transverse
to the main. In general, the slab reinforcement serves this purpose.
In case, the main reinforcement of the slab is provided in the direction parallel to the main
span of T-beams, the separate bars must be added in the transverse direction to the main span
to permit the overhanging flanges to act as cantilever beams and to carry the loads directly
applied. As per IS : 456–1978, such reinforcement shall not be less than 60 percent of the main
reinforcement at mid-span of the slab.
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Then, T-beams are designed as follows :

Step 1. In order to calculate the self-weight of T-beam, the various dimensions i.e., the
proportions of T-beam are decided according to guidelines described below:
5.5.1 Dimensions of T-beams

The overall depth of beam, Df the breadth of web, bw, the depth of rib, dr and the effective
width of flange, bf are adopted as below.
5.5.1.1 Overall Depth of Beam, D

In order to estimate the self-weight of T-beam, the overall depth of beam, D is assumed as one-
twelth to one-fifteenth (1/12 to l/15)th of simply supported span. An effective cover of 40 mm to
50 mm may be fixed.
5.5.1.2 Depth of Rib d

The vertical depth between the bottom of T-beam flange upto the centre of steel bars in tension
gives the depth of rib (web), dr. Therefore, the depth of rib
dr = (D – effective cover – Df) ...(iv)
5.5.1.3 Width of Web (breadth of rib), bw

The width of web (viz., the breadth of rib), bw as shown in Fig. 5.2 is adopted as one-third to
one-half of the depth of rib, dr. The width of web, bw is kept adequate to provide lateral stability.
5.5.1.4 Effective Width of Flange, bf

The effective width of flange, bf for T-beam is calculated from Eq. 5.1. For isolated T-beam, it
is determined from Eq. 5.3. The effective width of flange, by shall not be greater than the
breadth of web plus half the sum of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side
viz., [0.5 (L1 + L2) + bw or [0.5 (L2 +L3) + bw]. Figure 5.1 as specified in IS : 456–1978.
Step 2. The factored (design) moments, MFd are calculated by carrying out the
structural analysis.
Factored (design) constant
MFd = k.wFd . l2eff ...(v)
where
w Fd = factored (design) load. It is uniformly distributed load per unit length of the
span.
leff = effective span for the beam.
k = a constant. It depends upon the support conditions.
For example, for simply supported beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the value of k
is [(1/8) = 0.125]. Therefore,
1
MFd = . WFd . l2eff ...(vi)
8
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Step 3. Effective depth of T-beam

The effective depth of T-beam may be adopted as suggested for preliminary (viz., estimated)
dimensions of T-beam. In the similar manner, the width of web, bw, is also decided. The depth
of flange, Df (viz., thickness of slab) becomes known as the slab is designed prior to the design
of T-beam.
Step 4. Limiting value of moment of Resistance, M u.lim
After adopting the effective depth of T-beam, the design needs only the determination of
area of steel reinforcement. In case, the section of T-beam is to be a balanced section, then,
from IS : 456–1978.
(i) for the steel bars of grade Fe 250
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.53 ...(vii)
⎝ ⎠
(ii) for the steel bars of grade Fe 415
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48 ...(viii)
⎝ ⎠
(iii) for the steel bars of grade Fe 500
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.46 ...(ix)
⎝ ⎠
The depth of neutral axis for the balanced section x u.max and the depth of rectangular portion
of the stress block 0.43 x u.max for the balanced section are found.
The depth of flange, Df of T-beam is compared with the depth of rectangular portion of the
stress block. Consider the following case for T-beam section.
Df is less than 0.43 xu.max
In such a case, the distribution of stress over the depth of flange shall be uniform. It shall be
0.446 fck.
If the neutral axis lies below the flange as shown in Fig. 5.10, it is customary in design
practice to neglect the compressive force in the web of T-beam between the neutral axis and
the bottom face of the flanged. This portion is shown shaded (i.e., by double section lines) in
Fig. 5.10 (a).
The limiting values of moment of resistance of T-beam as a balanced section may be calculated
as below.
Mu.lim = [0.446fck . bf . Df (d – 0.5Df)] ...(x)
Instead of comparing the values of (x u/d) and (x u.max/d), as the value of x u is not so far
known, the value of MFd and Mu.lim are compared.
In case, the factored (design) moment, MFd is less than Mu.lim, T-beam shall be designed as
under-reinforced beam.
In case, the factored (design) moment, MFd is more than Mu.lim, T-beam shall be designed as
doubly reinforced beam.
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0 .44 6 f ck
bf
0 .5 D f
Df 0 .43 x u C cu
xu
N N e utral axis A
d ( d – 0.5 D f )
A st
df T su
bw
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S tress distrib ution d ia gra m
Fig. 5.10
Step 5. Depth of Neutral Axis

In the beginning, it may be assumed that the neutral axis lies within the flange, (xu< Df).
The factored design moment may then be equated to the moment of resistance of T-beam.
From Fig. 5.4,
MFd = Mccu ...(xi)
(i) xu is less than Df (xu < Df)
MFd = [0.36 fck . xu . bf (d – 0.42 x u)] ...(xii)
⎛ xu ⎞⎛ 0.42xu ⎞
MFd = [0.36fck . ⎜ ⎟⎜ 1− b . d2 ...(xiii)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎟⎠ f
In this expression (xii), all terms are known except the value of x u. The value of depth of
neutral axis may be calculated. In case, the calculated value of x u is less than Df, above
assumption is satisfied.
In case xu is more than Df following two cases are considered.
(ii) Depth of flange Df is not more than 0.2 d (i.e., Df > 0.43 xu)
When the depth of flange Df is not more than 0.2d (i.e., Df > 0.43 x u). Fig. 5.5, then the
factored (design) moment is equated to the moment of resistance of T-beam.
MFd = Mccu ...(xiv)
MFd = [0.36fck . x u . bw . (d – 0.42 xu)
+ 0.446fck (bf – bw) Df (d – 0.5 Df)] ...(xv)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x 2 ⎞
MFd = [0.36fck . ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u bw ⋅ d ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.446fck . (bf – bw) Df .(d – 0.5 Df)] ...(xv)
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In this expression (xv) also, all terms are known except the value of x u. The value of depth of
neutral axis, may be calculated. In case, above condition (viz., Df > 0.43 x u) is satisfied, it is
alright. Otherwise, next condition is considered.
(iii) Depth of flange Df is more than 0.2d (i.e., Df > 0.43 xu)
When the depth of flange Df is not more than 0.2d (i.e., Df > 0.43 x u, Fig. 5.6, then the
factored (design) moment is equated to the moment of resistance of T-beam.
MFd = Mccu ...(xvii)
MFd = [0.36 fck. xu . bw . (d – 0.42 x u)
+ 0.446 fck . (bf – bw) y f . (d – 0.5 y f)] ...(xviii)
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x 2 ⎞
MFd = [0.36fck . ⎜ u ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u bw ⋅ d ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
+ 0.446fck (bf – bw) yf (d – 0.5 yf)] ...(xix)
where
yf = (0.15 x u + 0.65 Df), but not more than Df.
In this expression (xviii), all the terms are known except the value of x u. The value of depth
of neutral axis, xu may be calculated. In case, the value of D is more than 0.43 x u, above
assumption is satisfied.
The calculated value of xu is now compared with the maximum value of the depth of neutral
axis, xu.max. In case xu is less than xu.max, T-beam section shall be designed as an under-reinforced
beam. In case, x u is more than x u.max, T-beam section shall be designed as doubly-reinforced
beam.
Step 6. Area of Steel Bars in Tension, Ast for under-Reinforced Beam
In an under-reinforced beam, the actual depth of neutral axis, x u remains less than xu.max
The stress in steel bars in tension shall be equal to 0.87fck. The area of steel bars in tension, Ast
is calculated by equating factored (design) moment to the moment of resistance of T-beam
section expressed from tension side. Therefore,
MFd = MTsu ...(xx)
MFd = [0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42x u) ...(xxi)
⎡ M Fd ⎤
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxii)
⎣⎢ 0.87 fy ⋅ (d − 0.42xu ) ⎦⎥
( Note. It is to note that in this expression (xxi), the lever arm depth (d – 0.42 xu) is slightly approximate and
it is little less than the accurate value. The accurate value of lever arm may be determined by locating the line
of action of the two compressive forces CWcu and CFcu. Then, the accurate lever arm value shall be the depth
measured between this resultant and the tensile force.
For the doubly reinforced T-beam section, the determination of area of steel reinforcement
in tension and compression have been discussed in the subsequent section.
Example 5.5 Design T-beams for a class room 6 m × 12 m in size. The thickness of a singly
reinforced slab is 120 mm. The top floor is also likely to be used as a class-room. Use M 15
grade of concrete and mild steel reinforcement.
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Solution
Design : For M 15 grade of concrete,
Characteristic strength of concrete
fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(i)
Mild steel Fe 250 bars are used as tension reinforcement. Yield stress of the steel bars
fy = 250 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Step 1. Effective Span
The beams shall be simply supported at both the ends. Assume the wall thickness of class
room as 600 mm. The effective span of T-beams
ES = Centre to centre of supports
⎛ 0.6 0.6 ⎞
or ES = ⎜ 6.00 + + = 6.6 m ...(iii)
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
Effective depth of T-beams may be assumed as 1/12 to l/15th of span. Therefore,
1
d = × 6.60 = 0.550 m
12
ES = C.S + d = (6 + 0.550) = 6.550 m ...(iv)
L1 L2
bw bw bw
( b w = 35 0 m m L 1 = L 2 )
3m 3m 3m 3m
0 .6 m
6m
0 .6 m
3m 3m 3m 3m
12 m
Fig. 5.11
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The effective span of T-beams shall be whichever is less. Therefore, ES shall be 6.550 m. Let
the effective cover be 50 mm. Then, the overall estimated depth of T-beams is (0.550 + 0.50)
= 0.600 m.
Dimensions of T-beams
The thickness of slab, Df is 120 mm and the overall depth of T-beams is 600 mm. The depth
of rib of T-beams
dr = (D – Df) = (600 – 120) = 480 mm ...(v)
The width of web (rib)
b w = 350 mm ...(vi)
5.5.2 Effective Width of Flange of T-beams

Effective width of flange of T-beams
⎛l ⎞
bf = ⎜ 0 + bw + 6 ⋅ Df ⎟
⎝6 ⎠
⎡⎛ 6.550 ⎞ ⎤
or bf = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + 0.350 + 6 × 0.120 ⎥
⎣⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎦
= 2161.66 mm ...(vii)
From Fig. 5.6, clear adjacent distance L1 = L2 = 2650 mm
bf |
> [0.5 (L1+L2) + bw]
or > [0.5 (2650 + 2650) + 350] = 3000 mm
bf |
5.5.3 Total Load

The dead load acting over each beam per 1 m length shall be as follows : Self-weight of slab
25 × (3× 0.120 × l) = 9 kN/m
Self-weight of rib
25 × 0.350 × 0.480 × 1 = 4.2 kN/m
Total dead load = 13.2 kN/m ... (viii)
The live load acting over each beam per 1 m length shall be as follows : From IS : 875–1987,
for class room, (i.e., for educational buildings).
Live load acting shall be 3 kN/m2
Live load per 1 m length of beam
3 × (3 × l) = 9 kN/m ...(ix)
5.5.4 Factored (Design) Load

Factored (design) load for dead load and live load combination
W Fd = (γ fL1 ⋅ D.L. + γ fL .L.L.

2
) ...(x)
From IS : 456–1978,
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Values of partial factor of safety for loads for dead loads and live loads
γ fL = γ fL2 = 1.5 ...(xi)
1
∴ W Fd = 1.5 (13.2 + 9) = 33.3 kN/m ...(xii)

The maximum bending moment MFd occurs at the centre
2
W ⋅l
MFd = Fd eff
8
33.3 × 6.550 × 6.550

MFd = = 178.58 kN-m ...(xiii)
8
Step 3. Effective Depth of Beam, d
The effective depth of T-beam may be assumed as suggested for preliminary (viz., estimated)
dimensions. Therefore,
d = 550 mm ...(xiv)
Width of the web of T-beam
b w = 350 mm ...(xv)
Depth of flange (thickness of slab) of T-beam
Df = 120 mm ...(xvi)
Step 4. Limiting value of moment of Resistance, Mu.lim
The area of steel bars to be provided as reinforcement is to be calculated. The effective depth
of beam is proposed to 550 mm as above. In case, the section of T-beam is to be a balanced
section, then from IS : 456–1978, for the steel bars of grade Fe 250.
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.53 ...(xvii)
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = (0.53 × 550) = 291.5 mm ...(xviii)
0.43 xu.max = (0.43 × 291.5) = 125.345 mm ...(xix)
The depth of flange, (Df = 120 mm) is less than the depth of rectangular portion of the stress
block (0.43 x u.max = 125.345), over the depth of flange Df. The distribution of stress is uniform
over depth, Df.
Neglecting the portion of concrete in compression in the web, the limiting value of moment of
resistance of T-beam as a balanced section.
Mu.lim = [0.446 × fck × bf × Df . (d – 0.5Df)] ...(xx)
⎡ 0.446 × 15 × 2116.66 × 120(550 − 0.5 × 120) ⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
Mu.lim = 850.34 kN-m ...(xxi)
MFd = 178.58 kN-m ...(xxii)
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The factored (design) moment is much less than Mu.lim, the beam shall be designed as under-
reinforced.
It may be assumed that the neutral axis lies within the flange. The factored (design) moment
may then be equated to the moment of resistance of beam.
MFd = Mccu ...(xxiii)
,
MFd = 0.36fck . bf . xu . (d – 0 42x u) ...(xxiv)
178.58 ×106 = 0.36 × 15 × 216.166 × xu × (550 – 0.42x u)
∴ xu = 28.441 mm ...(xxv)
Above assumption is satisfied. The neutral axis lies within the flange of T-beam.
Step 6. Area of Steel Bars in Tension
The actual depth of neutral axis, x u is less than x u.max [= (0.53 × 550) = 291.50 mm]. The
beam remains under-reinforced. The stress in steel bars in tension
fs = 0.87fck ...(xxvi)
Since,
MFd = MTsu
MFd = 0.87fy × Ast × (d – 0.42xu)
178.58 × 106 = 0.87 × 250 × Ast (550 – 0.42 × 2844)
⎡ 6 ⎤
178.58 × 10
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎢⎣ 0.87 × 250 × (550 − 0.42 × 28.44) ⎥⎦
Ast = 1525.97 mm2 ... (xxvii)

Provide 4 steel bars of 22 mm diameter. The area of steel bars in tension shall be 1520.53
mm2. The T-beam has been designed for limit state of collapse in flexure. The details of
reinforcement is shown in Fig. 5.14. This beam shall be designed for limit state of collapse in
shear in Example 5.8.
For the lever arm depth in the above expression of moment of resistance, a note under step
6, Art. 5.5 may be seen.
Example 5.6 In Example 5.3, design isolated T-beam. T-beam is to carry a factored (design)
moment of 520 kN-m. The grade of concrete is M 20 and that of the steel is Fe 415.
Solution
Design. From Example 5.3
Step 1. Characteristic strength of M 20 grade of concrete
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(i)
Yield stress of steel bars of grade Fe 415
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
fy = 1104.55 mm ...(iii)
Effective span of T-beam
leff = 3.60 mm ...(iv)
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Step 2. Factored (design) moment

MFd = 520 kN-m ...(v)
Effective depth of beam (given)
d = 600 mm ...(vi)
Width of the web
b w = 450 mm ...(vii)
Df = 120 mm ...(viii)
Step 4. Limiting value of Moment of Resistance M u.lim
The area of steel reinforcement is to be calculated. The effective depth of beam is 600 mm. In
case, the section of T-beam is to be a balanced section, then, from IS : 456–1978, for the steel
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48 ...(ix)
⎝ ⎠
x u.max = (0.48 × 600) = 288 mm ...(x)
0.43 xu.max = 0.43 × 288 = 123.84 mm
The depth of flange, (Df = 120 mm) is less than (0.43 x u.max = 123.84), the distribution of
rectangular stress block over the depth of flange is uniform. Neglecting the portion of concrete
in compression in the web, the limiting value of moment of resistance of T-beam as a balanced
section.
Mu.lim = [0.446 × fck × bf × Df . (d – 0.5Df)] ...(xi)
⎡ 0.446 × 20 × 1104.55 × 120(600 − 0.5 × 120) ⎤
Mu.lim = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
Mu.lim = 638.45 kN-m ...(xii)
MFd = 520 kN-m ...(xiii)
The factored (design) moment is less than Mu.lim, the beam shall be designed as a under-
reinforced beam.
may then be equated to the moment of resistance of beams.
Therefore,
MFd = 0.36fck . bf . xu(d – 0.42xu)
520 × 106 = 0.36 × 20 × 1104.55 × xu (600 – 0.42x u) ...(xiv)
xu = 118.86 mm ...(xv)
Above assumption is satisfied. The neutral axis lies within the flange of T-beam. The actual
depth of neutral axis, x u is less than x u.max [= (0.48 × 600) = 288 mm]. The beam remains
under-reinforced. Stress in steel bars
fs = 0.87fy ...(xvi)
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Step 6. Area of the Steel bars in Tension

Since Mfd = MTsu
MFd = 0.87fy . Ast . (d – 0.42 x u)
520 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × (600 – 0.42 × 118.86)
⎡ 6 ⎤
520 × 10
Ast = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.87 × 415 × (600 − 0.42 × 118.86) ⎥⎦
Ast = 2618.25 mm2

6. Art 5.5 may be seen.
Seven steel bars of 22 mm diameter of Fe 415 grade shall be provided in one layer with clear
cover of 50 m. Area of steel bars provided
⎛ π 2⎞
Ast = ⎜ 7 × × 22 ⎟ = 2660.93 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Width of the web of T-beam
b w = 450 mm.
Clear spacing between the two adjacent steel bars
(450 − 2 × 25 − 7 × 22 )
= = 41 mm.
6
The clear spacing between the bars is more than the diameter of steel bars, 22 mm and it is
also more than the size of aggregate + 5 mm, (i.e., 20 + 5 = 25 mm).
The T-beam has been designed for limit state of collapse in flexure. The details of reinforcement
is shown in Fig. 5.15. This beam shall be designed for the limit state of collapse in shear in
Example 5.9. It shall also be checked for limit state of serviceability.
5.6 DESIGN AIDS FOR T-BEAMS

The facilities and conveniences obtained by using the design aids have been described in Art.
3.37 (Design Aid for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams).
In the design of T-beams, the dimensions of the cross-section of T-beam are usually given or
decided as suggested by the guidelines for proportioning the preliminary dimensions. Either
the factored (design) moment, MFd is given or it is calculated from factored (design) loads found
by necessary calculations. The area of steel reinforcement needs to be calculated.
Depending upon the value of factored (design) moment, MFd and the limiting value of moment
of resistance of T-beam section, Mu.lim, a T-beam may be either singly reinforced beam (an
under-reinforced beam, or a balanced beam) or doubly reinforced.
The neutral axis of a T-beam may lie within the flange or outside the flange (i.e., in the web
portion of T-beam). The limiting value of moment of resistance of a T-beam section depends
upon the value of depth of neutral axis.
The limiting value of moment of resistance of a T-beam section also depends upon whether
the depth of flange, Df does not exceed 0.2 d (i.e., Df is not more than 0.43x u) or the depth of
flange Df exceeds 0.2 d (i.e., Df is more than 0.43x u).
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In SP : 16–1980 (Design aids for reinforced concrete to IS : 456–1978), some tables are
given. These tables may be used as an aid for the design of T-beams. For the three different
values of grades of yield Fe 250, 415 and Fe 500, Tables 57, 58 and 59, respectively are given
in SP : 16–1980. These tables are given for the different values of (Df /d) less than or equal to
0.20 and so also for (Df /d) more than 0.20. From the ratios of (Df /d) and (bf/bw ), the limiting
moment of resistance factor Mu.lim (fck . bw . d2) is calculated for singly reinforced T-beams. The
design of T-beam with the aid of Tables 57, 58 and 59 has been explained by illustrating
examples.
Example 5.7 In Example 5.3, design isolated T-beam. T-beam is to carry a factored design
moment of 520 kN-m. The grade of concrete is M 20 and that of the steel is Fe 415. Use tables
given in SP : 16–1980.
Solution
Design : From Example 5.3
Step 1. Characteristic strength of M 20 grade of concrete
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(i)
Yield stress of steel bars of grade Fe 415
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
bf = 1104.55 mm ...(iii)
Effective span of T-beam
leff = 3.60 m ...(iv)
Step 2. Factored design moment
MFd = 520 kN-m ...(v)
d = 600 mm ...(vi)
Width of the web
b w = 450 mm ...(vii)
Depth of the flange
Df = 120 mm ...(vii)
Step 4. Limiting moment of Resistance factor for singly reinforced T-beams,
(M u.lim/fck . bw . d2)
Depth of flange
Df = 120 mm Effective depth of T-beam
d = 600 mm
⎛ 120 ⎞
Ratio of (Df/d) = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2 ...(ix)
⎝ 600 ⎠
Width of web of T-beam
b w = 450 mm
bf = 1104.55 ...(x)
Yield stress of steel bars
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(xi)
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From Table 5.8, SP : 16–1980 (Design aids for reinforced concrete to IS : 456–978)
4 (A) Ratio (Df /d) < 0 2 (i.e., Df < 0.43 xu)
Factor for limiting moment of resistance R = (Mu.lim /fck . bw . d2)
For (Df /d)ratio = 0.2
For (bf /bw) = 2.0, R = 0.218
For (bf /bw) = 3.0, R = 0.299
For (bf /bw) = 2.455
⎡ (0.299 − 0.218) ⎤
R = ⎢0.218 + × (2.455 − 2.000)⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
= [0.218 + 0.0368] = 0.2548
Limiting value of the moment of resistance of T-beam section
Mu.lim = R . fck . bw . d2
⎛ 0.2548 × 20 × 450 × 600 × 600 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 825.552 kN-m
MFd = 520 kN-m
The factored (design) moment is less than Mu.lim, the beam shall be designed as a under-
reinforced beam.
may be equated to the moment of resistance of beam. Therefore,
MFd = 0.36fck . bf . xu . (d – 0.42x u)
520 × 106 = 0.36 × 20 × 1104.55 × x ×(600 – 0.42x u)
∴ xu = 118.86 mm
The assumption for neutral axis made is satisfied. The neutral axis lies within the flange of
T-beam. From IS : 456–1978
x u.max = (0.48 × 600) = 288 mm
The actual depth of neutral axis, xu is less than x u.max. The beam remains under-reinforced.
Stress in steel bars
fs = 0.87fy
Step 6. Area of the Steel bars in Tension
Since MFd = MTsu
MFd = 0.87 fy . Ast . (d – 0.42x u)
520 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × (600 – 0.42 × 118.86)
⎡ 6 ⎤
520 × 10
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ mm2
⎢⎣ 0.87 × 415 × (600 − 0.42 × 118.86) ⎥⎦
Ast = 2618.25 mm2
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6, Art. 5.5 may be seen.
Seven steel bars of 22 mm diameter of Fe 415 grade shall be provided in one layer with clear
cover of 50 mm. Area of steel bars provided is Ast = 2660.93 mm2. For clear spacing between the
bars, Example 5.6 may be seen.
The T-beam has been designed for limit state of collapse in flexure. The details of reinforcement
is shown in Fig. 5.11. This beam shall be designed for the limit state of collapse in shear in
Example 5.5 also be checked for limit state of serviceability.
5 .7 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY FOR FLANGED BEAMS

The need for limit state of serviceability for singly reinforced rectangular beams have been
described in Art. 3.20. The limits for the ratio of span of the beam to its effective depth for the
singly reinforced beam have also been specified in Art. 3.22 (while discussing the methods of
controlling the deflections).
For the doubly reinforced beams, the requirements for limit state of serviceability have been
described in Art. 4.8.
1 .00
0 .95
0 .90
R ed uction fa ctor
0 .85
0 .80
0 .75
0 .70
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
R a tio o f w e b w id th to flan ge w id th b w / b f
Fig. 5.12 Reduction factors for ratios of span to effective depth for flanged beams
When the flange beams (T-beams or L-beams) are to be checked, the requirements specified
for the rectangular beams are modified. The flanged beams are considered as an equivalent
rectangular beams of section with its width equal to the effective flange width, bf and the
effective depth equal to d. In the rectangular beams, the area of concrete in tension (though
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being considered as cracked and usually neglected) provides stiffening effect to the beam. In
comparison with the rectangular beams, the flanged beams have small area of concrete in
tension. Therefore, the stiffness of flange beams is reduced.
For singly reinforced and doubly reinforced flanged beam, the reinforcement percentages
for use are based an area of cross-section equal to bf d. After applying the necessary modification
factors either for tension reinforcement and for compression reinforcement (if the beam is doubly
reinforced) a reduction factor is further applied to ratios of the span to depth. The reduction
factor is noted from Fig. 5.12 (as recommended in code IS : 456–1978) corresponding to the
ratio of width of web to width of flange (bw– bf). However, the calculations for deflections are
done only in exceptional cases and compared with the permissible values.
It is to note that the method given for flanged beams may sometimes deviate from rule. In
case, the flanges are ignored and the beam is considered as a rectangular beam, the value of
span to the effective depth ratios thus obtained (the percentage of steel being based on bw . d)
shall always be on the safer side.

The limit state of collapse in shear for singly reinforced beam has been described in Art. 3.38.
And that for doubly reinforced beam has been described in Art. 4.11.
The provision for shear in code IS : 456–1978 limits the nominal shear τv at factored (design)
shear force, Vfd for beam which does not contain web reinforcement. In case, τv is more than
the design shear stress of concrete, then the shear reinforcement is provided as specified in the
code. In case the nominal shear stress, τv is less than the shear stress in concrete, τv , than, the
nominal shear stress, τv then nominal or minimum shear reinforcement is provided. However,
due nominal shear stress, τv should not exceed τc.max, otherwise, the beam section has to be
redesigned.
5.9 SHEAR STRESS IN T-BEAMS

A singly reinforced T-beam is shown in Fig. 5.13 (a). The distribution of shear stress in T-beam
is also shown in Fig 5.13 (b).
The intensity of shear stress at any plane at a height y above the neutral axis, in general is
given by
VFd ⋅ Ay
τ = ...(i)
I ⋅z
where, z is the width of larger being considered. The intensity of shear stress within the flange
(upto bottom of flange) increases parabolically.
VFd ⋅ Ay
τ1 = ...(ii)
I ⋅ bf
Just below the flange, the width of beam decreases suddenly to bw. Therefore, the shear
stress increases suddenly.
VFd ⋅ Ay
τ2 = ...(iii)
I ⋅ bw
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bf τv
xu Df
xu
N N e utral τ1 A
a xis
τ2
d
(d – x u)
τ
τv
df
bw
τv = N om ina l sh ea r stress
(a ) T-b ea m se ctio n (b ) S h ea r d istribu tion diag ra m
Fig. 5.13 Shear stresses in T-beam
The shear stress further increases parabolically and becomes maximum at the neutral axis.
VFd
τmax = ...(iv)
bw ⋅ jd
Below the neutral axis, the shear stress remains constant. The concrete below the neutral
axis in tension is neglected and the beam section is considered as cracked section upto neutral
axis. The shear stress below the neutral axis
VFd
τ = ...(v)
bw ⋅ jd
As per IS : 456–1978, the distribution of shear stress across the complete depth is considered
as uniform and it is called as nominal shear stress, symbolically represented by τv,
VFd
where τ = b ⋅d
w
5.10 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT BARS

The development length of main reinforcement bars in tension, which is necessary in T-beam
is same as described for singly reinforced rectangular beams in Art. 3.54. The anchorage
requirements for plain steel bars has been described in Art. 3.55.
Sometimes T-beam are also made doubly reinforced. For such T-beams, development length
of reinforcement in compression which is essential in these beams is same as described for
doubly reinforced rectangular beams in Art. 4.13. The anchorage requirements for plain steel
bars have been described in Art. 4.14.
The necessity of curtailment of tension reinforcement, the theoretical length of reinforcement
curtailment and the actual length of reinforcement curtailment for T-beams are same as those
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described for the singly reinforced rectangular beams in Art. 3.57. The conditions for curtailment
of the flexural reinforcement in tension zone and the special requirements near points of zero
moments for curtailment in tension are also same as those for singly reinforced beams described
in Arts. 3.57 and 3.58, respectively.
Example 5.8 In Example 5.5, design the T-beam for shear and check the reinforcement bars
for the development at support.
Solution
Design : From Example 5.5,
Step 1. Effective span of beam
Es = leff = 6.550 m ...(i)
Effective depth of T-beam
d = 550 mm ...(ii)
b w = 350 mm ...(iii)
wfd = 33.3 kN/m ...(iv)
Width of support
bs = 600 mm ...(v)
The beam is simply supported. The critical section for shear force is at a distance d from the
face of the support.
VFd ⋅ leff ⎛b ⎞
V Fd = − wFd ⎜ s + d⎟
2 ⎝2 ⎠
33.3 × 6.550 ⎛ 0.6 ⎞

= − 33.3 ⎜ + 0.55 ⎟ kN ...(vi)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ VFd ⎞
τv = ⎜ b ⋅ d ⎟ N/mm2
⎝ w ⎠
⎛ 80.753 × 103 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.419 N/mm2
⎜ 350 × 550 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Step 3. From Example 5.5,
4 steel bars of 22 mm diameter of Fe 250 grade have been provided as tension reinforcement.
These bars continue upto ends as shown in Fig. 5.14.
Ast = 1520.53 mm2 ...(vii)
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ 100 × 1520.53 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎛⎜ ⎟ = 0.790 percent ... (viii)
⎝ bw ⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ 350 × 500 ⎠
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IS : 456–1978
⎡ ⎛ 0.790 − 0.750 ⎞ ⎤
τc = ⎢0.54 + (0.60 − 0.54) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1.00 − 0.750 ⎠ ⎦
= 0.55 N/mm2 ...(ix)
From IS : 456–1978
Maximum permissible shear stress in concrete, for M 15 grade of concrete
τc.max = 2.5 N/mm2 ...(x)
The nominal shear stress, τv is less than the permissible shear stress, τc in concrete. The
nominal shear stress, τv is also less than τc.max. The beam needs only minimum (nominal) shear
reinforcement.
Two legged vertical shear stirrups 8 mm φ Fe 250 grade are provided. Area of vertical shear
stirrups
⎛ π 2⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 8 ⎟ = 100.531 mm2 ...(xi)
⎝ 4 ⎠
Spacing for nominal (minimum) shear reinforcement, sv
⎛ Asv ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ f ⎟⎟
⎝ bw ⋅ sv ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
⎛ Asv ⋅ fy ⎞ ⎛ 100.531 × 250 ⎞

sv = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 179.52 mm ...(xii)
⎝ 0.4 × bw ⎠ ⎝ 0.4 × 350 ⎠
Two legged vertical stirrups 8 mm φ Fe 250 grade are provided at 160 mm spacing centre to
centre throughout the span.
Step 5. Cneck for Development Length
As per IS : 456–1978, at simple supports, the positive moment (i.e., tension) reinforcement is
limited to a diameter such as that Ld calculated for fd does not exceed [1.3 (Ml . Fd/V1 . Fd) + L0]
viz.,
⎡⎛ M1 ⋅Fd ⎞⎤
> ⎢⎜⎜1.3 V
Ld | + L0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ ...(xiii)
⎣⎢⎝ 1⋅ Fd ⎠ ⎦⎥
Moment of resistance of beam section at support (as a rectangular beam)
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎜ d − f ⋅ b ⎟
⎝ ck w ⎠
⎡ 0.87 × 250 × 1520.53 ⎛ 250 × 1520.53 ⎞ ⎤

M1 = ⎢ ⎜ 550 − 15 350 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎝ × ⎠⎦
M1 = 157.950 kN-m
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Factored (design) shear force at support

⎛ 33.3 × 6.550 ⎞
V1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 109.058 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞ ⎛ 1.3 × 157.950 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.883 m
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ 109.058 ⎠
⎛b ⎞
L0 = ⎜ s − x1 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
The end cover x 1 is 25 mm and the width of the support bs is 100 mm.
Therefore,
⎛ 600 ⎞
L0 = ⎜ − 25 ⎟ = 275 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ M1 ⎞
⎜1.3 + L0 ⎟ = (1.883 + 0.275) = 2.158 m
⎝ V1 ⎠
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4Tbd ⎠
1 ⎛ 0.87 × 250 × 22 ⎞
= ⋅ ⎟ = 1.196 m
1000 ⎜⎝ 4 × 1.00 ⎠
S h ea r stirrup s 8 m m φ. F e 25 0
@ 1 60 m spa cin g c/c
H o ld in g b ars 1 6 m m φ. Fe 25
5 50 m m
50 m m
4 S te el b ars 2 2 m m φ Fe 2 50
E ffe ctive sp an
bs bs
Fig. 5.14 Details of Reinforcement in T-beam
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The development length Ld does not exceed [(1.3 M1/V1) + L0]. The requirement of IS :
The details of main reinforcement and shear reinforcement are shown in Fig. 5.14.
For the lever arm depth for calculating the moment of resistance, M: by the expression used
above, a note under 6, Art. 5.5 may be seen.
Example 5.9 In Example 5.6, design isolated T-beam for shear. T-beam is to carry a factored
(design) shear of 280 kN. Also check the tension reinforcement steel bars at support for the
development length.
Solution
Design : From Example 5.6
d = 600 mm ...(i)
b w = 450 mm ...(ii)
V Fd = 280 kN ...(iii)
⎛ VFd ⎞ ⎛ 280 × 103 ⎞

⎟ = ⎜⎜ 450 × 600 ⎟⎟ = 1.037 N/mm
τv = ⎜ 2 ...(iv)
⎝ bw ⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Seven steel bars of 22 mm diameter of Fe 415 grade have been provided in one layer with
clear cover of 50 mm. These bars continue upto ends as shown in Fig. 5.15.
Ast = 2660.93 mm2
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 2660.93 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.986 percent ...(v)
⎝ bw ⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ 450 × 600 ⎠
IS : 456–1978
⎡ ⎛ 0.986 − 0.750 ⎞ ⎤
τc = ⎢0.56 + (0.62 − 0.56) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1.00 − 0.750 ⎠ ⎦
= 0.617 N/mm2 ...(vi)
From IS : 456–1978
Maximum permissible shear stress in concrete for M 20 grade of concrete
τc.max = 2.8 N/mm2 ...(vii)
The, nominal shear stress,τv calculated above is more than the permissible shear stress, τc in
concrete. The nominal shear stress, τV is less than τc.max. The beam needs shear reinforcement.
Step 4. Shear reinforcement
V Fd = 280 kN ...(viii)
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Shear resistance to be provided by the shear stirrups

Vsu = (VFd – τc . bw . d)
⎛ 0.617 × 450 × 600 ⎞
= ⎜ 280 − ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= (280 –166.59) = 113.41 kN ...(ix)
Two legged vertical stirrups 8 mm diameter Hysd steel Fe 415 are provided.
Area of vertical shear stirrups
⎛ π 2⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 8 ⎟ = 100.531 mm2 ...(x)
⎝ 4 ⎠
Shear resistance of the vertical stirrups provided at a spacing, sv
Vsu = ⎛ Asu × 0.87 fy ⋅ d ⎞ ...(xi)

⎜ ⎟
⎝ sv ⎠
Spacing of the vertical stirrups near supports
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Vsu ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 100.531 × 600 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 113.41 × 1000 ⎠
= 192.03 mm ...(xii)
Provide the vertical stirrups at 180 mm uniform spacing throughout the span of the span.
The details of tension reinforcement and the shear reinforcements are shown in Fig. 5.15.
Tw o leg gg e d stirrup s H Y S D stee l ba rs
8 m m φ o 1 8 m m c/c
60 m m
50 m m
S e ve n H Y S D stee l b a rs
22 m m φ
E ffe ctive sp an
C le a r spa n
b s = 6 00 m m b s = 6 00 m m
Fig. 5.15
Step 5. Check for development length

As per IS : 456–1978, at simple supports, the positive moment (tension) reinforcement is
limited to a diameter such as that Ld calculated for fd does not exceed [(13 M1/V1 + L0] viz., from
Eq. 4.43.
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⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞
Ld |
> ⎜ + L0 ⎟ ...(xiii)
⎝ V1 ⎠
Moment of resistance of beam section at support
M1 = 0.87 fy . Ast ⎛ d − fy ⋅ Ast ⎞

⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ bw ⎠
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 2660.93 ⎛ 415 × 2660.93 ⎞ ⎤

M1 = ⎢ ⎜ 600 −
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎝ 20 × 450 ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥
M1 = 458.56 kN-m ...(xiv)
Shear force at support
V 1 = 280 kN ...(xv)
⎛ 1.3 M1 ⎞ ⎛ 1.3 × 458.56 ⎞
⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 280 ⎟⎠ = 2.129 m ...(xvi)
1
⎛b ⎞
L0 = ⎜ s − x1 ⎟ ...(xvii)
⎝2 ⎠
The end cover x 1 is 25 mm and the width of support bs is 600 mm.
Therefore,
⎛ 600 ⎞
L0 = ⎜ − 25 ⎟ = 275 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Development length
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 22 ⎞ 1
Ld = ⎜ ⎟× = 2.404 m
⎝ 4 × 1.2 × 1.60 ⎠ 100
⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞
⎜ + L0 ⎟ = (2.129 + 0.275)
⎝ V1 ⎠
= 2.404 m
The development length Ld does not exceed [(1.3 M1/V1) + L0]. The requirement of IS :
5.11 L-BEAMS
When the slab is casted monolithically on one side (only) with a beam, a portion of slab acts as
a flange of the beam. Such beams are referred as L-beams. The total uniformly distributed load
acting over the slab acts as an eccentric load from the vertical axis of the beam, as shown in
Fig. 5.16 (a). As a result of this, the beam has to support a ultimate load W Fd and a twisting
moment, MTu as shown in Fig. 5.16 (b). Due to load W Fd , the beam is subjected to bending
moment and transverse shear, and these internal forces are resisted by the rectangular portion
of beam and its flange. In addition to bending moment and transverse shear, the twisting
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moment, MTu tends to twist the beam about its longitudinal axis and there is a tendency of
angular rotation of the beam, and the beam is subjected to torsion. This torsion has to be
resisted by the rectangular portion of the beam alone. The flange does not provide torsional
resistance. The twisting moment is also called as torsional moment and torsional stresses develop
in the beam as shown in Fig. 5.16 (c).
w L oa d
bf
ω Per U n it L en gth M om e nt
W. e = mt
Df
d e
w
dt
bw
(a ) L -be am se ction (b ) Fo rces o n be am section (c) S tresses d ue to to rsio n
Fig. 5.16
While considering torsion in reinforced concrete structures, it is useful to understand the

difference between primary torsion and secondary torsion. Primary torsion, is sometimes called
equilibrium torsion or statically determinate torsion. It exists when the external load is
supported by torsion. The twisting moment, MTu acting along the length of the beam as above
is the example of primary torsion. It is equilibrated by the resisting torque. The secondary
torsion is also called compatibility torsion or statically indeterminate torsion. It arises from
the requirement of continuity, i.e., compatibility of deformation between adjacent parts of
structures. Based on static equilibrium alone, the torsional moments (secondary torsion) cannot
be found. The equilibrium torsion exists in statically determinate structures. In the statically
indeterminate structures, both the types of torsions are possible. A given load produces
compatibility torsion is an indeterminate structure in case the torsion may be eliminated by
releasing redundant restraints, and the equilibrium is maintained despite this release. IS :
456–1978 implies that for a member subjected to equilibrium torsion, it is necessary to provide
adequate reinforcement to ensure that the member is capable of resisting the complete torsion
need by statics. The compatibility torsion may, at the discretion of the designer, be neglected
in the design calculations by ignoring the torsional resistance of the member. In case, it is
desired to consider the compatibility torsion, the torsional rigidity may be obtained by assuming
the modulus of rigidity, ε equal to 0.4 Ec and the torsional stiffness equal to half of the St.
Venant value found for the plain concrete section. [Reference : CP : 110–1972, ‘The structural
use of concrete’ (Part I, Design, materials and workmanship), British Standards Institution,
London]. The values of St. Venant torsional constants for torsional constants for rectangular
sections are given below.
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The values of St. Venant torsional constants, K for rectangular section are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Values of St. Venant Torsional Constant (K = k.bD3)
(D/b) k (D/b) k
1.0 0.14 2.5 0.25
1.2 0.17 3.0 0.26
1.5 0.20 4.0 0.28
2.0 0.23 5.0 0.29
The depth of neutral axis and the moment of resistance of L-beams are found as these are
determined for T-beams.
In L-beams, it is assumed that the neutral axis is parallel to the compression flange and
that the distribution of stresses will be the same as accepted for symmetrical T-beams.
Professor Bach by conducting tests for unsymmetrical beams (L-beams) proved that the
neutral axis in L-beams slopes upward towards the side provided with the flange and may
even intersect the flange. The maximum stresses in concrete occur at the rectangular corners.
The stresses in steel are not influenced much be the unsymmetrical arrangement of the flange.
For the various expressions developed for this conditions reference may be made in the document
by Karl Hager “Vorlesungen iiber Theorie des Eisenbetons”.
5.12 TORSION IN PLAIN CONCRETE MEMBERS

A prismatic member of plain concrete subjected to equal and opposite twisting moment, MTU at
the ends is shown in Fig. 5.17. The material of the member is elastic. According to St. Venant’s
torsion theory, the torsional shear stresses are distributed over the cross-section as shown in
Fig. 5.17 (c). The maximum shear stresses occur at the middle of wide faces. The magnitude of
τ max is equal to
Mt
τ max = 2
...(5.21)
α ⋅b d
where, α is the shape factor. The values of shape factor α are given in Table 5.2.
σ = –τ σ = –τ
σ = –τ
Mf σ = –τ Mt
(a ) P e ar fa ce
τ σ = –τ
σ= τ D τc .m a x
Mf τ σ = –τ σ= τ
Mt
(b ) Fron t fa ce
Fig. 5.17 Twisting moment over a prismatic member
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Table 5.2 Values of shape factor, α

(D/b) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
α 0.208 0.231 0.246 0.256 0.267 0.282
(D/b) 5.0 6.0 8.0 1.00 ∞ —
α 0.290 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.313 —
Its value is approximately equal to 0.25.b and D are the shorter and the longer sides of the
rectangle, respectively. In case, the material of prismatic member is inelastic, the distribution
of torsional shear stresses shall be as shown by the dotted lines. However, the magnitude of the
maximum torsional shear stress is still given by Eq. 5.17. But a larger value is assumed for the
shape factor, α.
Consider an element at or near the wide surface as shown in Figs. 5.17 (a) and (b); the rear
and the front faces of the prismatic member. The shear stresses act in pairs on the element. In
the text books on strength of materials, it is shown that this state of stress corresponds to equal
tensile and compressive stresses on the faces of the element at 45° to the direction of shear. The
nature of these inclined tensile stresses are of the same type as those caused by transverse
shear. But the torsional shear stresses are of opposite signs in the two halves of member,
Fig. 5.17 (c). The corresponding diagonal tensile stresses in the two halves are perpendicular
to each other, Figs. 5.17 (a) and (b).
A crack develops at some accidentally weaker section and spreads immediately across the
beam, as shown in Fig. 5.18, when the diagonal tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of
the concrete. It is seen that this tension crack (on the near face, Fig. 5.18) develops at practically
45% i.e., in the direction perpendicular to the diagonal tensile stresses. When the diagonal
tensile stresses are smaller, the cracks on the two narrow faces are of more indefinite inclination.
The fracture line on the near face connects the crack at the short faces. An entire fracture
surface across the prismatic member is formed and it results in the failure of the member.
4 5°
Fig. 5.18
This warped fracture surface may be replaced by a plane section inclined at 45° to the axis,
as shown in Fig. 5.19 (a) for the purpose of analysis.
a a
Mt
Mt
Mt M tb 4 5°
M tt M tb
4 5° M tt
a a
(a ) In clin ed face (b ) S ide vie w (c) F orce diag ram
Fig. 5.19
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Professor T.T.C. Hsu has shown in the paper titled as ‘Torsion of Structural Concrete—Plain
Concrete Rectangular Sections, in torsion of structural concrete published in ACI special
publication SP–18, 1968 (pp 203–238) that on such a plane, the failure is more nearly by
bending than by twisting. The applied twisting moment, MTU may be resolved into two
components Mtb and Mu. The component, Mtb causes bending about the axis a–a of the failure
plane as shown in Fig. 5.19 (b).
Then,
Mtb = MTu . cos 45° ...(i)
The section modulus of failure plane about a–a
1
Z = (D. cosec 45°) . b2 ...(ii)
6
The maximum tensile bending stress in the concrete
M tb M Tu 〈 cos 45° ⋅ 6 sin 45°
f tb = = 2 ...(iii)
Z D ⋅b
or f tb = 3 ⋅ M Tu ...(5.22)
2
b ⋅D
It is to note that the tensile stress so determined is identical with the St. Venant shear stress
1
τmax or with the corresponding diagonal tension stress f for α = .
3
In case, ftb were the only stress acting, crack develops when ftb is equal to fr, where, fr is the
modulus of rupture. For normal density concrete, the modulus of rupture
1
fcr = 0.62 ( fc ′ )
2
...(5.23)
There exists a compressive stress in bending f. For biaxial state of stress, the tensile strength
of concrete reduces by about 15 percent in the presence of equal perpendicular compressive
bending stress. As a result of which, a crack develops and the failure of prismatic member
1
occurs at approximately ftb = 0.85, fr = 0.50 ( fc ′ ) . Let the value of ftb be designed as the
2
cracking stress, fcr,

1
fcr = τcr = 0.50 ( fc ′ )

2
where ...(5.24)
By substituting fcr for ftb in Eq. 5.18, the magnitude of twisting moment, MTu which will
crack and failure of plain rectangular concrete member occurs, may be determined,
2
1 b D
MTu = Mtcr = 0.50 ( fc ′ ) 2 ...(5.25)
3
5.13 TORSION IN REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS

In reinforced concrete members, longitudinal bars along with closely spaced stirrups are used
to resist torsion.
Professor T.T.C. Hsu has shown in the paper titled as ‘Torsion of Structural Concrete—
Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Rectangular Member in Torsion of Structural Concrete,
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published in ACI special publication SP–18, 1968 (pp 261–306) has shown from test results
that in case longitudinal bars are used alone, the torsional strength
b of members hardly increases. It increases at the most by 15 percent.
b1 The longitudinal bars provide torsional strength by dowel action.
In case the longitudinal splitting occurs, then, the dowel action is
particularly weak and unreliable. The torsional strength of
members reinforced only with longitudinal steel bars predicted by
Eq. 5.24 and Eq. 5.25 is satisfactory and somewhat conservative.
The torsional strength of members reinforced with longitudinal bars
D1 D along with transverse reinforcement is greatly increased.
Figure 5.20 shows an adequately reinforced rectangular
member. The crack develops in concrete at a torque equal to or
only somewhat more than that necessary for reinforced member
and given by Eq. 5.25. These cracks occur in a spiral pattern. It is
Fig. 5.20 assumed in the code that the intersections of the failure planes
with the three sides of the beam (viz., DC, CB, BA) will be three
straight lines spiralling at a constant angle around the beam. The fourth side of the failure
surface (viz., AD) has compression zone of uniform depth making an angle with the normal
d' R e ar face
(E leva tio n)
Mt a' Mt
S ide vie w a S ide vie w
B o tto m fa ce
(P lan )
b
c' Fro n t fa ce
(E leva tio n)
Mt Mt
b ' 45°
S ide vie w S ide vie w
d Top fa ce
(P lan )
c
Fig. 5.21
cross-section. Figure 5.21 shows the pattern abcd for one single crack. Inclination of ab and cd
is φ (in plain). A large number of such spiral cracks form at close spacing in a reinforced
concrete member. The torsional resistance of the concrete decreases (after cracking) to about
half of the uncracked member. The reinforcement resists the remaining torsion or twisting
moment. Figure 5.22 shows the redistribution of internal resistance. It is seen from torque-
twist diagram that at cracking torque, the twist continues at constant torque. The concrete
does not resist any torque. After cracking of the concrete, the reinforcement provides the
resistance against torsion. At failure, the crushing of concrete occurs along a line as a–d, Fig.
5.21 (a). In a well designed member, the crushing of concrete should occur after the beginning
of yielding of stirrups.
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M cr
M to
Mt
Torq ue
Tw ist θ X
Fig. 5.22 Torque twist diagram for reinforced concrete
The torsional strength of a reinforced concrete member may be found by considering the
moment equilibrium condition of the internal forces which are transmitted across the potential
failure surface, abcd. (Fig. 5.21). This failure surface may be seen as bounded by a 45° tension
crack across one wider face, by φ° (an angle between 45° and 90° two tension cracks across the
narrower faces, and the zone of concrete crushing along a–d. A concrete compression zone
develops adjacent to a–d. A concrete compression zone develops adjacent to a–b. Basically, the
failure is flexural type, as it occurs for plain beams.
A partially cracked failure surface abcd is shown in Fig. 5.23. A concrete compression zone
develops adjacent to failure surface abcd. Vn and Vv are the horizontal and vertical forces,
respectively in the shear stirrups (provided as transverse reinforcement at regular spacing, sv).
The number of horizontal legs of shear stirrups (top or bottom).
(b1 ⋅ cot φ )
Nh = ...(i)
sv
The number of vertical legs of shear stirrups (front or rear), opposite to compression zone
D1
Nv = ...(ii)
sv
From the tests, it was seen that at failure, the vertical legs of the shear stirrups yield and the
horizontal legs are normally not stressed to yielding. The twisting couple developed by the
horizontal forces in the stirrups.
b1 ⋅ cot φ
Mt.h = Nh .Vh . D1 = ⋅ fsv ⋅ Aφv ⋅ D1 ...(iii)
sv
b1 ⋅ D1
or Mt.h = kh . ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ...(iv)
sv
where
Av = area of one leg of the stirrup
fsv = tensile stress in horizontal leg of the stirrup (= 0.87fy)
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fy = yield stress
kh = cot. φ . (fsv/fy) ...(v)
M t = To rqu e
Sv = S p acin g fo r stirru ps
d'
Pc R
Mt Vc Mt
a'
(a ) R e ar face (E levation )
a
Vh Vh
b
(b ) B o tto m fa ce (P lan )
c'
Vv Vv Vv
Mt Mt
b'
(c) Fron t fa ce (E le va tion )
d
V h Vh Vh
c
(d ) To p face (P la n)
a b c d = Fa ilure surface
Fig. 5.23 Skewed bending of a prismatic member
The torque produced by the vertical forces of the stirrups near the front face may be found
as follows. It is to note that equilibrating forces near the face in the compression zone, are
fairly indeterminate. The indeterminate forces consist, of a shear force Vv and a compressive
force Pc in the concrete and the forces in the stirrup legs located in that zone.
Since the member is in equilibrium, all these forces have a resultant force , R. The resultant
force R is equal to and acts in the direction opposite to the sum of vertical forces Vv in the shear
stirrups. The torque produced by the vertical forces in the shear stirrups may be expressed as
follows :
D1
Mt.v = Nv .Vv . Xv = ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ⋅ kv ⋅ X1 ...(vi)
Sv
b1 D1
or Mt.v = kv . ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ...(vii)
Sv
where xv is the lever arm of the internal forces Vv and Rr and and kv = (xv/x1). The total torque
produced by the forces is therefore,
Mt = Mt.h + M ...(viii)
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Substituting the values of Mt.h and Mt.v

b1 ⋅ D1 b ⋅D
Mt = kh ⋅ ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) + kv ⋅ 1 1 ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ...(ix)
Sv Sv
b1 ⋅ D1
or Mt = (kh + kv ) ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ...(x)
Sv
b1 ⋅ D1
or Mt = αt ⋅ ⋅ Aφv ⋅ (0.87 fy ) ...(5.26)
Sv
where α t = (kh + kv) ...(xi)
kh and kv constants have not been found analytically so far.
From the reference cited above, it is shown that αt depends basically on the ratio of cross-
sectional dimensions.
⎛ D1 ⎞
α t = 0.66 + 0.33 . ⎜ ⎟ ≤ 1.50 ...(5.27)
⎝ b1 ⎠
The torque due to concrete in compression zone, Mt.o is about half of the critical torque, Mt.cr
(Eq. 5.25). Conservatively. Mt.o may be taken 40 percent of Mt.cr. Then,
´ bD
Mt.o = 0.40 × 0.50 ( fc ) 1/2 2 ...(xii)
3
´ bD
or Mt.o = 0.20 ( fc ) 1/2 2 ...(5.28)
3
The total nominal torsional strength is sum of Mt.o and Mt. Therefore,
Mt .n = Mt.o + Mt
´ bD b ⋅D
or Mt .n = 0.20 ( fc ) 1/2 2 + αt ⋅ 1 1 Aφv ⋅ σ y ...(5.29)
3 Sv
It is to note that the nominal torsional torque develops when the stirrups are closely spaced
sufficiently and a failure surface intersects a sufficient number of stirrups.
The longitudinal steel bars provided as reinforcement in the members anchor the stirrups,
particularly at corners and enables them to develop their full yield strength. These longitudinal
steel bars provide at least some resisting torque because of the dowel forces. These dowel forces
develop where the bars cross torsional cracks. After cracking, the spiral cracks widen and
become more pronounced. As a result of this, the members subjected to torsion tend to lengthen.
These longitudinal steel bars counteracts the lengthening tendency of members and control
the crack width.
It is seen from the tests that for Eq. 5.25 to valid, the volume of longitudinal reinforcement
in a unit length of the member should be between 0.7 and 1.5 times the total volume of stirrups
in that length. In the design of members for torsional strength, these two volumes are kept
equal. For this purpose, the total area of longitudinal reinforcement.
At = 2 Aφv .
(b1 + D1 ) ...(5.30)
Sv
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5.14 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN TORSION

In general, where the torsional resistance or stiffness of members has not been taken into
consideration in the analysis of the structure, the specific calculations for torsion will not be
necessary. The adequate control of any torsional cracking is provided by the needed nominal
shear reinforcement. Where the torsional resistance or stiffness of members is taken into
consideration in the analysis, the members are designed for torsion.
The torsional reinforcement is not calculated separately from that needed for bending and
shear. Instead, the total longitudinal reinforcement is obtained for a hypothetical bending
moment which is a function of actual bending and torsion. Similarly, the web reinforcement is
obtained for a hypothetical shear which a function of actual shear and torsion.
The critical sections shall be sections located at a distance less than a distance d from the
face of the support, where d is the effective depth of the beam. These sections may be designed
for the same torsion as calculated at a distance, d.
5.14.1 Reinforcement in Members Subject to Torsion

The reinforcement for torsion, when needed, shall consist of longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement, which are designed as follows.
5.14.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement

IS : 456–1978 recommends that the longitudinal reinforcement shall be designed to resist an
equivalent bending moment. M eL1
1. Equivalent Bending Moment (MT < Mu)
M eL1 = (Mu + MT) ...(5.31)
where Mu = bending moment at the cross-section of beam.
1 (A) Beams of Solid Rectangular Cross-Section
1 ⎛ D⎞
MT = M ⎜1 + b ⎟ ...(5.32)
1.7 Tu ⎝ ⎠
D
MT = 0.588 MTu ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ ...(5.33)
⎝ b⎠
where
MTu = torsional moment
D = overall depth of beam
b = breadth of beam
1 (B) Flanged Beams
1 ⎛ D⎞
MT = M ⎜1 + ⎟ ...(5.34)
1.7 Tu ⎝ bw ⎠
⎛ D⎞
MT = 0.588 MTu ⎜1 + ⎟ ...(5.35)
⎝ bw ⎠
where b w = breadth of the web of flanged beam.
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Professor Iyengar, K.T.S., and N, Ram Prakash [Recommendations for the Design of
Reinforced Concrete Beams for Torsion, Bending and Shear, Bridge and Structural Engineer,
March, 1974] derived the following expression by equating the internal and external moments
and by approximation
1 ⎛ D⎞
Ast .1 (0.87 fy ) ⋅ ( jd )1 = M u + MT ⎜1 + b ⎟ ⋅ cot α
1.7 ⎝ ⎠
where
Ast.1 = area of longitudinal steel on face-1, that is, flexural tensile face
(jd) 1 = lever arm when the longitudinal steel Ast.1 yields
The lever arm distance (jd)1 is taken as that corresponding to flexure without torsion.
Therefore, Ast.1 (0.87 fy). (jd)1 is taken as the equivalent bending moment Mel.1 to be resisted.
The angle α varies from 45° to 90°. The test data on angle of crack, α is quite insufficient. A
conservative value of angle α equal to 45° is used. Therefore, above expression results as
follows :
1 ⎛ D⎞
M eL1 = Mu + M T ⎜1 + ⎟ ...(5.36)
1.7 ⎝ b⎠
This expression is same as Eq. 5.31, where, the value of MT is substituted in Eq. 5.36.
2. Equivalent Bending Moment (MT > Mu)
In case the numerical value of MT as defined above is more than the numerical value of the
moment, Mu, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided on the flexural compression
face, such that the beam can also withstand an equivalent bending moment, MeL.2.
MeL.2 = (MT – Mu) ...(5.37)
The moment MeL.2 is being considered as acting in the opposite sense to the moment Mu.
When the longitudinal steel at flexural compressive face reaches the design strength before
failure (from moment equilibrium conditions, following expression is obtained).
⎡ 1 ⎛ D⎞ ⎤
Ast.3 (0.87 fy ) ⋅ ( jd )3 = ⎢1.7 M T ⎜1 + b ⎟ − M ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
where,
Ast.3 = longitudinal steel on face 3
(jd)3 = lever arm when Art. 3 begins yielding, then,
MeL.2 = ⎡⎣ Ast.3 (0.87 fy ) ⋅ ( jd )3 ⎤⎦
∴ MeL.2 = (MT – Mu)
This expression is same as Eq. 5.33 recommended in code IS : 456–1978. The cross-section of
the beam resists an equivalent bending moment. The angle of crack α is assumed as 45°. The
torsion in the beam predominates.
5.14.3 Transverse Reinforcement

The transverse reinforcement consisting of two legged closed hopps enclosing the corner
longitudinal bars, shall be provided. The area of cross-section, Asv of the transverse
reinforcement is obtained from the following expression.
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2 (A) For Beams of Solid Rectangular Cross-Section
⎡⎛ M Tu ⋅ Sv ⎞ ⎛ Vu .Sv ⎞⎤
Asv = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 1 d1 × 0.87 fy
b ⋅ ⎠ ⎝ 2.5d1 × 0.87 fy ⎠ ⎦⎥
The cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement shall not be less than
⎡ (τ − τ ) ⎤
Asv <| ⎢ ve c ⎥ ...(5.38)
⎣⎢ 0.87 fy ⎦⎥
where,
Vu = shear force
sv = spacing of the stirrup reinforcement
b 1 = centre to centre distance between corners bars in the direction of the width
d 1 = centre to centre distance between corners bars in the direction of the depth
b = breadth of the member
fy = characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
τve = equivalent shear stress. It shall be defined for combined shear and torsion
τc = shear strength of concrete
2 (B) For Flanged Beams
⎡⎛ MTu ⋅s
v
⎞ ⎛ V .s
u v
⎞⎤
Asv = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ...(5.39)
b ⋅
⎣⎢⎝ 1 1 d × 0.87 f y ⎠ ⎝ 2.5d1 0.87 fy ⎠ ⎦
× ⎥
⎡(τ − τ ) ⋅ b ⎤
Asv = ⎢ ve c w ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.87 fy ⎥⎦
where,
b w = breadth of the web of the flanged beam.
It is to note that where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the
same portion of the beam, the total shear resistance shall be calculated as the sum of the
resistances for the various types separately.
It is to further note that the area of the shear stirrups shall not be less than the minimum
shear reinforcement. It is given by
( Asv )⋅min ⎛ 0.4 ⎞

> ⎜ ...(5.41)
b ⋅ sv ⎜ fy ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
It is defined earlier for the singly reinforced rectangular beams.
It is to note that only the outer two legs of the closed stirrups are to be considered for calculating
the torsional resistance contribution by shear (web) reinforcement. In case, the stirrups consists
of more than two legs, the interior legs are to be neglected.
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5.15 MEMBERS WITHOUT SHEAR STIRRUPS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED

TORSION AND SHEAR
In general, the beams are subjected to bending moments and shear forces. Sometimes, in
addition to this, the beams also carry torsion. In uncracked member, the shear forces and
torsion both produce shear stresses. Simultaneously acting bending shear and torsion interact
in such a way that the strength of member is reduced as compared with that it would carry
bending shear or torsion alone. So far, no satisfactory theories of this complex interaction have
yet been developed.
Professor U. Erosy and P.M. Ferguson have done extensive experimental tests. They have
published the paper titled as ‘Concrete Beams Subjected to Combined Torsion and Shear—
Experimental trends in torsion of structural concrete’ in ACI special publication SP-18, 1981
(pp 441–460). Let Mt.o and V0 be cracking torque and shear of the member when subjected,
respectively to torsion or flexural shear alone. The cracking torque for the members without
shear stirrups is given by (Eq. 5.28).
2
´ 1/ 2 b D
Mt.o = 0.20( fc ) ⋅ ...(i)
3
The cracking shear for the members without shear stirrups is given by
V 0 = 0.17 ( fc´ ) 1/2 . b . d ...(ii)
1 .0 C ircu la r
in te raction
0 .9 curve
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
( M t.c / M t 0 )
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 .1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 .5 0 .7 0.8 0.9 1 .0 X

(V c / V o )
Fig. 5.24 Interaction diagram for combined torsion and bending shear
Let Mtc and Vc be the torsional capacity and shear capacity of the member (without shear
stirrups subjected to combined torsion and shear), respectively. The circular-interaction equation
(given below) based on numerous test results may be satisfied.
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⎡⎛ V ⎞2 ⎛ M ⎞2 ⎤
⎢⎜ c ⎟ + ⎜ tc ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ Vo ⎠ ⎝ M t .o ⎠ ⎥ = 1 ...(5.42)
⎣ ⎦
This interaction equation, Eq. 5.38 may be graphically represented as shown in Fig. 5.24.
This interaction curve is quite favourable. These two modes do not interfere with each other
very strongly. For example, in case a member carries a torque Mt.o/2 (i.e., one half of its pure
torsion capacity), it is seen from the curve that the member may simultaneously carry about
0.85 V0 (i.e., only 15 percent less than it would carry, if no torsion were present at all).
The value of Mt.o is noted from Eq. 5.28 instead of from Eq. 5.25. Equation 5.25 represents
the torsion strength of previously cracked concrete. Equation 5.28 gives the strength after
prior cracking. The cracking of a member subjected to the combined action of bending, shear
and torsion occurs long before torsional failure. This fact is not certain in all or even the majority
of the cases.
5.16 MEMBERS WITH SHEAR STIRRUPS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED TORSION

AND SHEAR
In Art. 5.13, it has been shown that the nominal torsional strength Mt.o (Eq. 5.29) of members
reinforced with the longitudinal steel bars and shear stirrups and subjected to torsion alone is
given by the torsional strength of concrete in compression zone alone, Mt.o (Eq. 5.28) and the
torsional resistance of the steel bars, Mt (Eq. 5.26).
Professor D.L. Osborn, B. Mayoglou and A.H. Mattock in their paper titled as ‘Strength of
Reinforced Concrete Beams with Web Reinforcement in Combined Torsion, Shear and Bending,
published in Journal of ACI, Vol. 66, No. 1, January, 1969 (pp. 31–41) have shown by
experimental evidence that the strength of such reinforced members carrying simultaneously
torsion and torsion is fairly thinly scattered, so far.
Based on the papers published by professors T.T.C. Hsu and E.L. Kemp titled as ‘Background
and Practical Application of Tentative Design Criteria for Torsion in Journal of ACI, Vol. 66,
No. 1, January 1969 (pp. 12–23) and Professors P. Lampert and B. Thurlimann titled as
‘Ultimate Strength and Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams in Torsion and Bending’ in Int.
Assoc. Bridge and Structural Engineering Publication 31–1, Zurich, 1971 (pp 107–131) and
Tentative Recommendations for the Design of Reinforced Concrete Members to Resist Torsion’
in ACI Committee 438, Journal of ACI, Vol. 66, No. 1 January, 1969 (pp 1–8), following
approach may be considered reasonable and it correlates satisfactorily and conservatively.
For member with a shear stirrups, the position of the total torsion carried by the concrete is
found by the same type of interaction equation (Eq. 5.38) as in members without stirrups.
The excess torque over and above that resisted by the concrete may be carried by the same
amount of reinforcement provided in members subjected to torsion and shear as would be
necessary for purely torsional members.
5.17 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN SHEAR AND TORSION COMBINED

A beam may carry shear and torsion both. The resulting stresses due to shear and torsion both
acting together are additive on the same faces of the beam. The strength of beam to resist
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shear and torsion simultaneously is less than that when either shear or torsion acts alone.
There is possibility of two types of failures when the shear and torsion act together. In one type
of failure, the torsion is combined with moderate shear forces. In second type of failure, the
torsion is combined with high shear forces. This second type of failure is similar to shear failure
in bending alone.
The provision of transverse reinforcement as described in Art. 5.14 and as recommended in
code IS : 456–1978 is intended to avert both types of failures. In order to simplify the calculations,
equivalent shear is calculated as recommended by IS : 456–1978 as under :
5.17.1 Equivalent Shear

The equivalent shear is obtained from the following expression:
For beams of solid rectangular cross-section
⎡ ⎛M ⎞⎤
Ve = ⎢Vu + 1.6 ⎜ Tu ⎟ ⎥ ...(5.43)
⎣ ⎝ b ⎠⎦
For flanged beam of web of width, bw
⎡ ⎛M ⎞⎤
Ve = ⎢Vu + 1.6 ⎜ Tu ⎟ ⎥ ...(5.44)
⎣ ⎝ b ⎠⎦
where,
Ve = equivalent shear
Vu = ultimate shear
b = breadth of the rectangular beams.
5.17.2 Equivalent Shear Stress

The equivalent shear stress is calculated as below :
For beams of solid rectangular cross-section
⎛ V ⎞
τwc = ⎜ e ⎟ ...(5.45)
⎝b⋅d ⎠
For flanged beam of web of width, bw
⎛ Ve ⎞
τwc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.46)
⎝ bw ⋅ d ⎠
The value of of τve shall not exceed the value of τc.max for the respective grade of concrete. In
case the exceeds τc.max, the beam section should be redesigned.
In case the equivalent shear stress, τve does not exceed the allowable shear stress in plain
concrete, τc, the minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided as expressed in Eq. 5.37.
However, if τve exceeds τc, both the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement shall be provided
as expressed by Eqs. 5.32, 5.33, 5.34 and 5.35 and Eqs. 5.37, 5.38, 5.39 and 5.40, respectively.
The magnitudes of torsional moment MTu and shear Vu decide the need of shear (transverse)
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reinforcement. The above expressions recommended by IS : 456–1978 enables the check to be

applied in single step. These expressions have been developed [Collins, M.P., Walsh, P.F.,
Archer, F.E. and Hall, A.S. and reported in their paper titled as ‘Ultimate Strength of Reinforced
Concrete Beams Subjected to Combined Torsion and Bending’, SP–18, Torsion of structural
concrete, ACI, March 1966, Detroit] empirically. These expressions give results on the
conservative side. The upper limit on τve is specified to avoid crushing of web of concrete before
the yielding of shear reinforcement takes place.
The minimum reinforcement is needed to improve the ductility of the beam and to exclude
failure due to shear.
In case, the value of τve is more than τc and less than τc.max, the cross-sectional area of
transverse reinforcement needed to avoid failure is to be calculated in accordance with Eqs.
3.83, 3.88 or 3.90.
The cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement needed to check the failure due to higher
shear forces combined with torsion, may be calculated as per Eqs. 5.37, 5.38, 5.39 or 5.40.
However, the larger of the above values shall govern the cross-sectional area of the transverse
reinforcement to be provided.
5.18 DISTRIBUTION OF TORSION REINFORCEMENT

When a member is designed for torsion, the torsion reinforcement shall be provided as follows:
5.18.1 Transverse Reinforcement

The transverse reinforcement shall be provided in the space rectangular closed stirrups placed
perpendicular to theaxis of the member.
The spacing to the shear stirrups, sv shall not be more more than the least of following.
(a) Short dimension of the stirrup, x 1
(b) 0.25 times (x1 + y 1), where y 1 is the long dimension of the stirrup
(c) 300 mm.
It is to note that the single legged stirrups and U-shaped (open-shape) stirrups are not to be
used for resisting torsion. These stirrups shall not be effective the inclined stirrups and bent up
bars are also not recognised for torsion reinforcement.
5.18.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement

IS : 456–1978 recommends that the longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed as close as it is
practicable to the corners of the cross-section and in all cases, there shall be at least one
longitudinal bar in each corner of the stirrups to form closed stirrup and to provide satisfactory
anchorage to the stirrups.
In case the cross-sectional dimension of the member is more than 450 mm, additional
longitudinal bars shall be provided to satisfy the requirements of minimum reinforcement and
spacing specified by IS : 456–1978.
That is, the side face reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces. Total area of such
reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent of the web area. This shall be distributed
equally on two faces at a spacing not more than 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less.
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Example 5.10 A rectangular beam section is 320 mm wide and 500 mm deep with 50 mm
effective cover. The beam section is to be subjected to factored (design) moment of160 kN-m and
factored (design) shear force 30 kN. In addition to these, the beam section is also subjected to
factored (design) torsional moment of 12 kN-m. Concrete of grade M 20 and steel reinforcement
of grade Hysd Fe 415 shall be used. Design the beam.
Solution
Design :
V Fd = 30 kN ...(i)
MFd = 160 kN-m ...(ii)
Factored torsional moment
MTu = 12 kN-m ...(iii)
Width of rectangular beam
b = 320 mm ...(iv)
d = 550 mm ...(v)
Equivalent shear force from Eq. 5.39
⎡ ⎛M ⎞⎤
Ve = ⎢VFd + 1.6 ⎜ Tu ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ b ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1.6 × 12000 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢30 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN
⎣ ⎝ 320 ⎠⎦
= 90 kN ...(iv)
Equivalent nominal shear stress, Eq. 5.41
⎛ V ⎞
Tve = ⎜ e ⎟
⎝b⋅d ⎠
⎛ 90 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 320 × 550 ⎠
= 0.511 N/mm2 ...(vii)
Step 2. In case, the rectangular beam section is balanced, then
Limiting moment of Resistance of beam Section
⎛ xu. max ⎞⎛ 0.42xu.max ⎞ 2
Mu.lim = 0.36 fck ⎜ ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ × bd ...(viii)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
For Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415, from IS : 456–1978
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48 ...(ix)
⎝ ⎠
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Substituting in the expression (ix),

320 × 550 × 550 ⎤
Mu.lim = [0.36 × 20 × 0.4 (l – 0.42 × 0.48) ×
1000 × 1000 ⎥⎦
Mu.lim = 267.10 kN-m ...(x)
Factored (design) moment MFd = 160 kN-m is less than the limiting moment of resistance
Mu.lim = 267.10 kN-m. The beam section shall be an under-reinforced section.
Step 3. Actual Depth of Neutral Axis
It is determined by equating the factored (design) moment, MFd and the moment of resistance
of the under-reinforced beam section, MCcuas the beam section is in equilibrium.
MFd = MCcu
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ 0.42xu ⎞ 2
160 × 106 = [0.36 fck ] ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1− ⎟ × bd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ 320 × 550 × 550 ⎤

or 160 = ⎢0.36 × 20 × ⎜ u ⎟ × ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟ × ⎥
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
⎛ xu ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.2574 ...(xi)
⎝ ⎠
Actual depth of neutral axis
xu = (0.257 × 550) = 141.58 mm ...(xii)
Step 4. Area of Steel Reinforcement for Tension
The under-reinforced beam section is in equilibrium. Therefore, the area of steel reinforcement
for tension, Ast may be calculated by equating factored (design) moment, MFd and the moment
of resistance of the beam section from tension side, MTsu.
MFd = [0.87fy . Ast(d – 0.42x u)]
160 × 106 = [0.87 × 415 × Ast × (550 – 0.42 × 141.58)]
⎛ 6 ⎞
160 × 10
∴ Ast = ⎜ ⎟ mm2
⎜ 0.87 × 415 × 490.54 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Ast = 903.40 mm2 ...(xiii)
Provide 4 Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 of 18 mm diameter. Area of steel reinforcement
provided in tension.
Ast = 1017.88 mm2 ...(xiv)
Provide 2 holding bars of 16 mm diameter on the compression side of the concrete
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 1017.88 ⎞

⎜ b×d ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.578 ...(xv)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 320 × 550 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, the permissible shear in concrete
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τc M 20 grade of concrete and (100 Ast/bd) = 0.578
⎡ ⎛ 0.57 − 0.500 ⎞ ⎤
τc = ⎢0.48 + (0.56 − 0.48) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 0.750 − 0.500 ⎠ ⎦
τc = 0.4987 N/mm2 ...(xvi)
Equivalent nominal shear stress
τve = 0.511 N/mm2 ...(xvii)
Equivalent nominal shear stress, τve is more than the permissible shear in concrete, x c, [that
is, (τe = τc)]. Therefore, longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided to resist equivalent bending
moment, Mel .
1
Longitudinal reinforcement. Factored (design) at the beam section
MFd = 160 kN-m ...(xviii)
⎛ D⎞ 1
MT = MTu ⎜1 + ⎟ ×
⎝ b ⎠ 1.7
12 ⎛ 600 ⎞
MT = × 1+
1.7 ⎜⎝ 320 ⎟⎠
MT = 20.794 kN-m ...(xix)
MeL.1 = (MFd + MT)
= (160 + 20.294) = 180.294 kN-m ...(xx)
The numerical value of MT does exceed the numerical value of MFd. The beam section does
not need reinforcement for compression for equivalent bending moment MeL.1 = (MT – MFd).
The equivalent bending moment MeL.2 remains less than the limiting value of moment of
resistance, Mu.lim. Therefore, the beam remains under-reinforced. Moment of resistance of the
beam section may be checked for MeL.1. Therefore
MTsu = [0.87 × fy × Ast (d – 0.42x u)]
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 1017 × (500 − 0.42 × 141.58) ⎤
MTsu = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 × 1000 ⎦
MTsu = 180.12 kN-m ...(xxi)
The moment of resistance MTsu is practically equal to equivalent bending moment MeL.1 .
The reinforcement provided for tension is sufficient.
Centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of width of the beam
b 1 = (320 – 2 × 25)= 270 mm ...(xxi)
Centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of depth of the beam
b 1 = (600 – 2 × 50) = 500 mm ...(xxii)
Let the steel bars of grade Hysd Fe 415 of 8 mm diameter be provided for shear reinforcement.
Area of two-legged shear stirrups
⎛ π 2⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 8 ⎟ = 100.531 mm2 ...(xxiii)
⎝ 4 ⎠
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From IS : 456–1978, the area of shear reinforcement
⎡⎛ MT
u.sv
⎞ V ⋅s
u v
⎤
Asv = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎥ ...(xxiv)
b
⎢ 1 1
⎣⎝d ⋅ (0.87 f y ) ⎠ 2.5d1 (0.87 fy ) ⎥
⎦
⎡⎛ 6
12 × 10 × sv ⎞ ⎛ 3
30 × 10 × sv ⎞⎤
Asv = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎜ 270 × 500 × 0.87 × 415 ⎟ ⎜ 2.5 × 500 × 0.87 × 415 ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
Asv = [(0.2462sv) + 0.0665sv)]
⎛ svA ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.31267 ⎠
⎛ 100.531 ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟ = 321.526 mm ...(xxv)
⎝ 0.31267 ⎠
As per IS : 456–1978, total shear reinforcement shall not be less than (Asv)total ,where
⎡ (Tve − Tc ) ⋅ b ⋅ sv ⎤
(Asv)total = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxvi)
⎣⎢ 0.87 ⋅ fy ⎦⎥
In other words, above recommendation may be written as below. In case the cross-section
area of shear reinforcements are kept equal, then spacing calculated from the expression (xxiv)
above shall not be more than
⎡ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⎤
sv = ⎢ ⎥ ...(xxvii)
⎢⎣ (Tve − Tc ) ⋅ b ⎥⎦
⎡ 0.87 × 415 × 100.53 ⎤

sv = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ (0.511 − 0.4987) × 320 ⎦
= 9221.64 mm ...(xxvii)
As per IS : 456–1978, the spacing of the stirrups should not be more than the shorter
dimensions of stirrups
x 1 = (320 – 2 × 25) = 270 mm ...(xxix)
So also, the spacing of the stirrups should not be more than 0.25 times (shorter plus longer
dimensions of stirrups)
= 0.25 × (x1+ y1)
= 0.25 [270 + 500 + 18] mm
= 197 mm ...(xxx)
So also sv = (0.75 × 500) = 412.5 mm ... (xxxi)
The spacing of shear stirrups is kept 180 mm
So also as per IS : 456–1978, when the cross-sectional dimension of the member exceeds 450
mm, additional longitudinal bars shall be provided to satisfy the requirements of minimum
side face reinforcement and spacing. Since,
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Effective depth,
d = 550 mm > 450 mm
Side face reinforcement as per IS : 456–1978
0.1
= × (web area)
100
⎛ 0.1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 320 × 550 ⎟ = 176 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
Provide 4 Hysd steel bars 8 mm diameter as shown in Fig. 5.25 area of additional
reinforcement provided as side face reinforcement
⎛ π 2⎞
= ⎜ 4 × × 8 ⎟ = 201.062 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
The details of shear reinforcement is shown in Fig. 5.26.
b = 320 m m
Tw o ste el b ars
1 6 m m φ (H olding b ars)
Fo ur stee l b ars
8 m m φ side fa ce
6 00 m m re inforcem e nt
5 50 Tw o leg ge d
mm she ar stirru ps
h ysd stee l b ars 8 m m φ
Fo ur stee l b ars tension
re inforcem e nt 18 m m φ
25 mm 25 mm
Fig. 5.25 Details of Reinforcement
Tw o leg g ed she ar stirru ps

h ysd stee l b a r 8 m m φ a t 1 80 m m spa cin g
Tw o h ysd ste el ba rs 1 6 m m φ (h olding b ars)
4 H ysd ste el ba rs 1 8 m m φ
te nsio n reinforce m e nt
bs C le a r spa n bs
Fig. 5.26
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PROBLEMS
5.1 A singly reinforced slab 100 mm thick is cast integrally with the web. The centre to centre
spacing between T-beams is 2.8 m. The effective depth and breadth of web are 560 mm and
320 mm, respectively. The effective cover to mild-steel reinforcement 4 bars of 18 mm diameter
is 40 mm. The effective span of simply supported beams is 3.80 m. The grade of concrete is M
15. Determine the depth of neutral axis of T-beam cross-section. Also determine the moment
of resistance (flexural strength) of the beam.
5.2 In Problem 5.1 in case the grade of concrete is M 20 and hysd-steel bars Fe 415 are used,
locate the neutral axis and find the moment of resistance of T-beam cross-section.
5.3 A singly reinforced slab 100 mm thick is cast monolithically with the web. The centre to
centre spacing between T-beams is 3.20 m. The effective depth and the width of web are 520
mm and 380 mm, respectively. Eight mild-steel bars have been provided in tension in two
layers. The centre to centre distance between the steel bars in two layers is 40 mm. The
effective cover to steel bars in lower layer is 40 mm. The effective span of simply supported
beam is 3.80 m. The grade of concrete is M 15. Determine the depth of neutral axis and the
moment of resistance (flexural strength) of T-beam section.
5.4 In Problem 5.3, in case the grade of concrete is M 20 and hysd steel bars Fe 415 are used,
locate the neutral axis and find the moment of resistance (flexural strength) of T-beam section.
5.5 Design T-beams for a class-room 5 m × 9 m in size. The thickness of singly reinforced slab to
100 mm. The top floor is also likely to be used as a class-room. A finishing surface of 20 mm
thick shall be provided over the slab use M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel reinforcement.
Also design the shear force reinforcement and check the main reinforcement bars at supports
for the development length.
5.6 Design T-beams in Problem 5.5 in case, M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-steel bars of Fe 415
shall be used. Also design the shear force reinforcement and check the main reinforcement
bars at supports for the development length.
5.7 A factored (design) moment of 180 kN-m and a factored (shear) force of 40 kN are acting over
a rectangular beam of size 280 mm × 600 mm with 40 mm effective. A factored (design)
torsional moment of 16 kN-m is acing over the beam. Design the beam section. Use M 20
grade of concrete Hysd steel bars of grade, Fe 415.
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Design of Continuous
6 Beams
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams supported by more than two supports and which cover more than one span are called
continuous beams. In continuous beams, one support is usually kept as an immovable hinged
support and the other supports are kept as hinged roller supports. The intermediate supports
have reactions and hogging moments. These intermediate supports act like fixed supports
except that these supports allow rotations on their both sides. The rotation at an intermediate
support on its one side is equal and of opposite sign of that on the other side. The value of
rotation at an intermediate support is influenced not only by the loads on the spans of either
side of it but also by all other loads on all the spans of the continuous beam. The continuous
beams are the indeterminate structures. The values of reactions at the supports cannot be
determined simply by the application of laws of equilibrium. In order to find the factored bending
moments and factored shear forces at all the points on the continuous beam, either the reactions
or the factored bending moments are first calculated. The usual procedure is to obtain the
factored bending moments at the supports. There are various methods of analysing the
continuous beams described in the various text books of strength of materials and theory of
structures.
The continuous beams are often more economical than the simply supported beams of same
span. The maximum factored bending moment in a continuous beam is much less than that in
a corresponding simply supported beam. The values of factored bending moment and the
factored shear at any section of the beam depend in additions to loads, on the effective spans.
After determination of moments and shears, the beam is proportioned so that no section is
strained under the factored (design) loads. The design of beams of uniform section is controlled
by the sections of maximum bending moments and the shears. In case of variable section,
economy may be achieved by making the beams sufficiently strong for the larger part of the
beam and reinforcing it at points of high moments or shears.
The continuous beams are used for both, the buildings and the bridges. There is difference
between the continuous beams used in bridges and those used in building frames. In continuous
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span bridges, the continuous beam simply rests upon the intermediate supports (viz., piers)
and the beam is not monolithically connected with the supports. The continuous beam may be
supported by small intersecting girders. In such cases of the continuous beam, full bending
moment from one span is transferred directly to the adjoining span and the beams are sensitive
to unequal loading. The positive bending moment are based upon unequal loading of the
adjoining spans.
In building frames, the continuous beam remains connected with the intermediate columns.
The bending moment from one span is not transferred directly in full to the adjoining span. A
part of this bending moment is shared by the columns. The effect of the loading in one span
upon the adjoining span is much smaller than for the continuous beams in the bridges. Similar
provision is necessary for unequal loading.
6.2 EFFECTIVE SPAN

A continuous beam may have one end simply supported as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) or one end
1
fixed as shown in Fig. 6.1 (b). In case the width of the support is less than th of the clear
12
span, the effective span of the member that is not built integrally with its supports shall be
taken as dear span plus the effective depth of beam or centre to centre of supports, whichever is
less. Therefore
E.S = C.S + d ...(6.1)
or E.S = centre to centre of supports
1 1
or E.S = C.S + 2 bs + 2 bs ...(6.2)
where, E.S is the effective span, C.S is the clear span, Lc and bs is the width of the support.
1
In case, the width of supports is wider than th of the clear span, Lc or 600 mm whichever
12
is less, then, the effective span shall be taken as follows:
(i) For end span with one end simply supported (free) and the other continuous
The effective span shall be equal to the clear span plus half the effective depth of the beam or
the clear span plus half the width of the discontinuous supports, whichever is less. Therefore,
1
E.S = C.S + 2 d ...(6.3)
1
or E.S = C.S + 2 bs ...(6.4)
(ii) For end span with end fixed and the other continuous
The effective span shall be the clear span between supports. Therefore
E.S = C.S ...(6.5)
(iii) For the intermediate supports
The effective span shall be the clear span between supports. Therefore
E.S = C.S ...(6.6)
It is to note that in case of span with roller or rocker bearings, the effective span shall always
be the distance between the centres of bearings.
In the analysis of continuous frame, considering the frame as a whole, the effective span of
a member subjected to bending shall be the distance between the centre to centre lines of
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Design of Continuous Beams 405
supporting members. Even though the moments are calculated on the basis of effective span,
in monolithic construction, it is permissible to design the section at the support on the basis of
the moment at the face of the support.
Lc Lc
LS
2
bs E n d sp an bs In te rio r spa n bs
(a ) E n d sp an w ith on e en d free
(S im ply su pp orted )
Lc Lc
bs E n d sp an bs In te rio r spa n bs
(b ) E n d sp an w ith on e en d fixed con tinu ou s be am
Fig. 6.1
6.3 CRITICAL SECTION FOR MOMENT

IS : 466–1978 permits the representation of a frame (structure having monolithic construction
between beams and columns) by a simple line diagram, based dimensionally on the centre line
distance between columns (and by extension, between floor beams). Actually the sectional
dimensions of the beams and columns amount to sizable fraction of their respective lengths.
The bending moment diagram for continuous beams is generally quite steep in the region of
support as shown in Fig. 6.2. Let this bending moment be M1. Let the moment at support face
be M2. There is a substantial difference between M1 and M2. In case the bending M is used in
proportioning the member, the section of member shall be unnecessary large. IS : 456–1978
recommends, that for the monolithic construction, the moments computed at the face of the
supports (columns) shall be used in the design of members at those sections. As such, it accounts
for the finite width of the supports.
However, for the columns, the curve for the bending moment is not very steep, so that the
difference between the centre-line moment and the moment at the face (top or bottom) of the
beam is small and it may be ignored.
For the non-monolithic construction, obviously, such reductions are not possible at the support.
The design of section of beam members begins in the mid-span regions.
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C e ntre lin e of
colum n
A B
M2
C e ntre C e ntre
line o f b ea m M1
line o f b ea m
S u pp ort
w id th
A, B = points of contraflexure
M1 = actual BM as per analysis at the centre of support
M2 = BM at the face of the support (column) for design
BM = bending moment
Fig. 6.2
6.4 COEFFICIENTS FOR MOMENTS FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

IS : 456–1978 specifies the coefficients for moments for continuous beams. These coefficients
are also given in many of standard text books of theory of structures.
Unless more exact estimates are made, for beams of uniform cross-section which support
substantially uniformly distributed loads over three or more spans which do not differ by more
than 15 percent of the longest span, the bending moments in the design may be obtained using
the coefficients given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Coefficients for Moments
Type of loading Span moments Support moments
Near middle At middle of At support next to At other interior
of end span interior span the end supports support
Dead load and
imposed +1/12 +1/24 –1/10 –1/12
load (fixed)
Imposed load
(not fixed) +1/10 +1/12 –1/9 –1/9
( Note. For obtaining the factored bending moments, these coefficients shall be multiplied by the factored
(design) load and the effective span.
These coefficients given in Table 6.1 are close to those which would be obtained from accurate
analysis of an infinite number of equal spans on point supports and correspond roughly to
those applicable to the worst conditions for the equal spans. The concession for using the
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coefficients with spans which differ by 15 percent is allowed by taking the advantage of moment
redistribution. Therefore, IS : 456–1978 does not allow further moment redistribution. These
coefficients will apply mainly to one-way slabs and to secondary beams used at fairly close
spacing. It is worth to note that these coefficients are not applicable to beams carrying two-way
slabs. The load redistribution in two-way slabs (viz., along long and short spans) is not uniform.
IS : 456–1978 further recommends that for moments at supports where two unequal spans
meet or in case where the spans are not equally loaded, the average of the two values for the
negative moment at the support may be taken for the design.
When the end support of a beam is built into a masonry wall, the wall provides only partial
restraint. Depending upon the fixity the moment may cover a range WL/120 to WL/12 IS :
456–1978 recommends that the beam may be designed to resist a negative moment WL/24,
where W is the total design load and L is the effective span.
6. 5 CONCRETE BUILDING FRAMES

The reinforced concrete building frames have usually the monolithic construction. In the
monolithic construction, the concrete in floor slabs, beams, girders and columns is placed
continuously. A typical monolithic construction is shown in Fig. 6.3 and the slab, beams, girders
and the column have been shown. The beams B1, B2 and B3 are the intermediate beams and these
B3
B3
B6
B3
B3
B6
B3
B3
X X
B2
B2
B5
B2
B2
B5
B2
B2
B1
B1
B4
B1
B1
B4
B1
B1
(a ) P lan
(b ) S e ctio n a t X X
Fig. 6.3 Concrete building frame
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beams are supported, on the girders. These beams are built monolithically with the girders as
shown in Fig. 6.4 (a). The beams B4, B5 and B6 and the beams situated on the column lines.
These beams are supported by the columns. The beams G1, G2 and G3 are beams of comparatively
large dimensions and these beams are called girders. These girders go directly into the columns.
The beams B4, B5 and B6 are the continuous beams and these beams are built integrally
with the upper and lower columns as shown in Fig. 6.4 (b). The girders G1, G2 and G3 are also
the continuous beams and these beams are also casted monolithically with the upper and lower
columns as shown in Fig. 6.4 (c). The continuous slab is supported on the beams.
B1 B2 B3
LB1 LB 2 LB 3
(a ) B e am s m on olith ic w ith girde rs
B4 B5 B6
LB4 LB 5 LB 6
(b ) B e am s m on olith ic w ith colu m ns
G1 G2 G3
LG4 LG2 LG 3
(c) G irde rs m o n olith ic w ith co lu m n s
Fig. 6.4
For the accurate analysis, the building frames which may consist of number of storeys are
analysed as rigid frames as two dimensional structures in longitudinal direction and against
as two dimensional structures in transverse direction. For the approximate analysis and practical
purposes, however, the beams and the girders and the adjacent columns may be isolated as
substitute frames as shown in Fig. 6.5. The far ends of the columns are assumed as fixed. The
stiffness factors for the beams, girders and the columns are first assumed and later on, these
are revised. The supporting beams and girders possess some torsional rigidity which may be
supported by using equivalent supporting columns with fixed far ends.
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These substitute frames are analysed for the gravity loads and the moments and shears at
any floor or roof level are determined. A substitute frame for the floor level EF of a multi-storey
building shown in Fig. 6.5 (a) is shown in Fig. 6.5 (b). It is permissible simplification of the
frame for the analysis.
B4 B5 B6
LB 4 L B5 LB6
(a )
G1 G2 G3
LG1 LG2 LG 3
(b )
Fig. 6.5 Beams and Adjacent columns
In IS : 456–1964, it was permissible to calculate the bending moments in the beams of a

frame by assuming that the beams are continuous over supports and capable of free rotation at
the supports. This assumption is approximately correct for analysing the effects of vertical
loads. But IS : 456–1978 (third revised version of code does not permit this assumption).
The effects of deflections and axial deformations (which may arise) are generally negligible
and these are not taken into consideration. Therefore, the method of analysis recommended by
the code is first order method of analysis. However, in case of slender columns, the additional
moments developed by the slenderness of the column must be added to the primary values of
bending moments in the beams and columns.
In case, the flat slabs are designed by the equivalent frame method and if these are subjected
to gravity loads, only, a further approximation to the substitute frame will be possible.
For the lateral loads (wind and earthquake forces), IS : 456–1978 recommends that the
simplified methods (such as portal method) are used to calculate moments, shears and reactions
for the symmetrical structures. The portal method of analysis and the various assumptions
made in the method are given in author’s volume second (Design of Steel Structures). It is
reasonable to use the approximate methods since considerable uncertainty prevails regarding
the determination of magnitude as well as the distribution of the wind earthquake forces.
For the unsymmetrical methods or very tall structures (structures having more than 20
storeys), more vigorous methods should be used.
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J K
G H
P Q R S T U F
E
C D
B
A
(a )
E P Q R S T U
F
(b )
Fig. 6.6
6.6 ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD FOR BENDING MOMENT

The arrangement of live load to be used in the analysis of slabs, beams and girders to produce
the most severe effect at any point in the frame structure theoretically needs consideration of
S tiffne ss
H h alve d
E P
(a ) S u b-fram e
S tiffne ss S tiffne ss
h alve d H h alve d
Q R
(b ) S u b-fram e
Fig. 6.7
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the whole frame. This may not be necessary as the frame [for example, as shown in Fig.
6.6 (a)] may be considered by drawing substitute frames [for example, as shown in Fig. 6.6 (b)]
at any floor/roof level. The substitute frame [Fig. 6.6 (b)] may be broken down into sub-frames
as shown in Figs. 6.7 (a) and (b).
The position of live loads to be used in the analysis for the continuous beam EPQRSTUF
shown in Fig. 6.8 (a) may be decided by drawing the influence line diagrams, for bending
moment in the central portion of span QR and at a section just to the left (infinitesimally
distance) of support R as shown in Figs. 6.8 (b) and (c), respectively. From the influence line
diagrams, the position of uniformly distributed live load may be observed for the following :
1. For maximum positive moment within a span (for example, span, RS)
The uniformly distributed live load may be placed over that span (viz., span RS) and all
other alternate spans (viz., spans EP, ST and UF).
2. For maximum negative moment within a span (for example, span R)
The uniformly distributed live load may be placed over two adjacent spans to that span (viz.,
span RS) and all other alternate span (viz., RS, and PQ and TU).
3. For maximum negative moment at a support (for example, support R)
The uniformly distributed live load may be placed over the two adjacent spans to that support
(viz., support R) and all other alternate spans (viz., QR, RS and EP and TU).
4. For maximum positive moment at a support (viz., support, R)
The uniformly distributed live load may be placed over the two span beyond each of the two
spans adjacent to that support (viz., support R and beyond adjacent spans QR and RS) and all
other alternate spans (viz., PQ, ST and UF).
E P Q X R S T U F
(a ) C o ntinu o us b ea m EPQ R STU F
(b ) I.L.D . fo r m o m e nt a t section in cen tra l po rtion of spa n Q R
(c) I.L.D . fo r m o m e n t a t section infinite sima lly to le ft of su pp o rt R
Fig. 6.8
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IS : 456–1978 recommends as follows as regards the arrangement of live load :

(a) The consideration may be limited to the combinations of :
(1) design load on all spans with full design live load on two adjacent spans; and
(2) design dead load on all spans with full design live load on alternate spans.
3
(b) When the design live load does not exceed th of the design dead load, the load
4
arrangement may be design dead load and design live load on all the spans.
It is recommended in IS : 456–1978 in a note that for beams and slabs continuous over
support, consideration as described in paragraph (a) above may be assumed.
6.7 COMPRESSION STEEL AT SUPPORT

In continuous beams at the support, the bottom of beam is subjected to compression. Frequently,
additional compressive area is provided by reinforcement in the compressive area of the beam.
Thus, the continuous beam is the beam reinforced at top and bottom. This reinforcement in
compression (compress steel) takes its share of the stresses and strengthens the beam in its
compression zone. In addition to this, this compressive steel increases the stiffness of the beam.
There are three methods of providing this additional compressive reinforcement.
First method. In a reinforced concrete beam, part of the bottom steel is bent up and the rest,
usually fifty percent of the steel area, is carried horizontally to the supports as shown in
Fig. 6.9. This compressive steel reinforcement bars get their maximum compression at the edge
of the support. As such these bars are extended into the supports for a sufficient length beyond
the edge of the support to provide requisite development length. This is the simplest method of
providing reinforcement in compression and it is used wherever possible.
C o lu m n C o lu m n
P B e am Q B e am R B e am S
Ld Ld
L d = R eq uisite d evelop m en t len gth
Fig. 6.9 Reinforcement in compression at support
Second method. In case the area of compression reinforcement provided as explained above
by the straight bars from span QR is not sufficient, additional reinforcement in compression
may be provided by extending into the support, Q under consideration the straight bars from
adjoining span, PR as shown in Fig. 6.10. The length of the extended bar, measured from the
edge of the support depends upon the bending moment and provides the requisite development
length. The compression reinforcement from both sides of the support consists of the sum of the
horizontal bars from both the spans, PQ and QR.
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Ld Asc Asc Ld
Ld Ld
Fo r sup p ort Q / R
A s c = C o m p re ssio n reinforcem e nt fro m ad jo in in g sp an P q /R s
Fig. 6.10
Each horizontal bar at support Q is subjected to compressive stresses from the span PQ as
also equal compressive stresses from the adjoining span PQ as shown in Fig. 6.11. From
Fig. 6.11, it is clear that the compressive stresses from span QR act in the opposite direction to
Fig. 6.11
the compressive stresses in the adjoining span PQ and so also at support, R. Therefore, the
compressive stresses in the bar are balanced and not added. The compressive stresses in the
bar from one span acts as reaction to the compressive stress from the other span. The compressive
stresses in one bar are equal to those, as if the bar had been extended from one span.
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Third method. Sometimes, the total area of compression reinforced provided as explained in
the second method is also not sufficient. Then, the additional reinforcement is provided by
short bars placed at the support at the bottom of the beam. The length of these bars depends
upon the bending moment. The minimum length (projections beyond the column faces on each
side) should be atleast be requisite development length for the expected compressive stresses.
6.8 TENSION STEEL AT SUPPORT

After calculating the area of steel reinforcement in tension in the centre of span and deciding
the number and size of the bars, the requirement at the supports is studied, keeping in the
view the values of maximum positive and negative bending moments at the centre of the span
and at the support, respectively.
1. In case the maximum positive and negative bending moments are equal. When the
continuous beam consists of a number of equal spans and the depth of beam is uniform, the
arrangement of steel for the tension at the support is simple. The positive reinforcement is
provided such that it may be divided into two equal portions. One-half of these bars are kept
straight and the other half are bent up as shown in Fig. 6.10 and carried across the support,
(say support Q) into the adjoining span PQ. These one-half bars bent up resist the tension at
the support. An equal area of steel is brought across from adjoining span (say, PQ) into the
span (span QR) under consideration. Total number of the bars at the support becomes equal to
that in the centre. The requirement as to the area of steel in tension at the support is satisfied.
Then, the points of bending up the bars may be decided.
The bending moment at the first interior support is equal to the positive bending moment in
the centre of the end span, but it is 20 percent more than the bending moment at the centre of
the interior spans. The area of steel reinforcement needed is proportional to the bending moment
1 1
since the depths are equal. When of the steel in the end span and of the steel from the
2 2
interior span are bent up and carried across the interior support, the area of steel available at
the support for the negative bending moment remains about 10 percent less than needed. The
difference in the area of steel may be provided by extra bars of proper lengths in the top of the
beam at the support.
At the end support where there is wall, the negative bending moment is wl2/16. One half the
total number of bars brought from the bottom does not provide sufficient reinforcement for the
negative bending moment. At the same time, this reinforcement does not extend for enough
from the column to take care of the tensile stresses at all the points. In such case, additional
bars are placed with a hook at the support and extending to a point upto a distance 0.2l from
the edge of the support.
2. In case the maximum negative bending moment is larger than the maximum positive
bending moment. The negative bending moment at support and the positive bending moment
at the centre of span of a continuous beam running into the columns are wl2/12 and wl2/16,
2
respectively, rd of the bottom steel may be bent-up and carried across the support to provide
3
the necessary area of steel reinforcement in tension.
In such cases, the straight bars may not be sufficient to take care of the compressive stresses.
Then, it is good practice to bend up smaller number of bars and extra bars are provided to
complete the required area of steel in tension at the support.
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3. In case, the bars are not bent-up. Sometimes the reinforcement bars are kept straight
both for the positive and negative bending moments. In short and deep beams, such arrangement
is made. The bent-up bars do not reach the top at proper place to be effective. Some of the
straight bars are kept straight and extend the full length of the beam while the remaining
extend on both sides beyond the points of contraflexures.
The top bars at the support should extend on both the sides of an intermediate support
beyond the points of contraflexures. At the extreme end support, where there is wall should be
hooked and other bars should extend beyond the point of contraflexure.
In continuous beam in which the spans are not equal, the design must be done after study
with more care.
6.9 TENSION STEEL AT CENTRE OF SPAN

Required cross-sectional area of reinforcement in the tension in the centre of each span is
calculated independently. In beams of small widths, the number of bars should not be less
than two. In beams of large width, the number of bars should not be less than four. The bars
of largest diameter which one is suitable for the development length (viz., bond) should be
selected. It reduces the number of bars and therefore the cost of handling. The number of bars
provided should be such that which allow the needed proportion of bars to be bent up. In case
1
the bending of bars of is intended, an even number of bars may be provided.
2
As far as possible, the bars should be placed in one layer. The width of beam may be increased
sufficiently to accommodate all the bars in one layer. When the bars are provided in two layers,
the depth of beam increases. A strip of concrete equal to width of beam and thickness equal to
diameter of bar plus 12 mm goes waste.
6.10 HAUNCHES IN CONTINUOUS BEAMS

In continuous beams, at the support, the bottom surface carries compressive stresses. In one
method, compression area is increased by providing compressive reinforcement as described in
Art. 6.7. In another method, the compression area is increased by increasing the depth of the
beam at the support by a shallow haunch. This method is less desirable under ordinary
conditions as compared to first method. In many cases, the haunch is objectionable from the
architectural point of view. While there is saving in steel, the excess of cost of forms tends to
overbalance this saving.
A haunch is useful, where it is desirable to avoid excessive compression reinforcement or
where more lateral stiffness is needed for the structure. Trial procedure is used to find the
required depth of haunch.
The depth of haunch may also be determined from the rectangular beam formula. The effect
of compression reinforcement may be neglected, because for deep haunches, the bars are placed
some distance from the extreme fibre. In any case, the error is on the safe side.
Under ordinary conditions, the calculations may be done only for the maximum bending
moment. In case, the continuous beams acts like an inverted T-beam, the point at which the
slope of the haunch may be readily determined as following.
Let Mb be the negative bending moment next to the support and Mr be the moment of
resistance of the inverted T-beam without the haunch controlled by the concrete for the uniformly
distributed loaded beam. Let x be the length of haunch measured from the face of the column
and Lc be the clear span of the beam. Then
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⎛ M b − M r ⎞ Lc
x = ⎜ ⎟⋅ (approximately) ...(6.7)
⎝ Mb ⎠ 5
1
Equation 6.7 is based upon the fact that the point of contraflexure is at approximately of
5
1
the span. It is assumed that the moment between the support and the th point varies by
5
straight line. Therefore, the ratio of difference between the bending moment, Mb and the
moment of resistance, Mr to the bending moment is same as the ratio of the distance from the
1
point where the haunch is required to the point of contraflexure is not approximately at th
5
the span, this fraction may be changed accordingly.
6.11 EXTENSION OF REINFORCEMENT

The extension length of reinforcement depends upon the nature of bending moment whether
positive or negative. IS : 456–1978 recommends as follows.
1
1. For positive bending moment. In the continuous beams, the th of positive moment
4
reinforcement shall extend along the same face of the member into the support, to a length equal
to Ld/3 as shows in Fig. 6.12.
When the flexural member is part of the primary lateral load resisting the system, the positive
reinforcement required to be extended into the support as described above, shall be anchored
to develop its design stress the tension at the face of the support.
S e ctio n X X a t ze ro X B M
≥ d
Ten sion
re in force m en t ≥ 12 φ
(fo r – ve B M (1 /16 ) L c
≥
≥ L d /3
B a rs co n tin ue d R e in force m e n t
o n s a m e fa ce (Fo r + ve B M )
1 /4th o f + ve B M
re in fo r c e m e nt
X
Fig. 6.12
1
2. For negative bending moment. At least rd of the total reinforcement provided for
3
negative moment at the support (viz, tensile reinforcement) shall extend the point of zero
bending moment for a distance not less than the effective depth of the member or 12 times the
1
diameter of bar or th of the clear span, Lc whichever is more as shown in Fig. 6.12.
6
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6.12 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

The continuous beams are designed for limit state of collapse for flexure and for limit state of
collapse for shear as described in following steps. The spacing of beam is fixed and the slab is
designed. Then, the continuous beams are designed:
Step 1. The dead and live loads per unit length along the span of beam are calculated. The
estimated dead load (self-weight) of the beam per unit length is added to calculated dead load
for the materials attached with the slab. The factored (design) load. W Fd is calculated by
multiplying with the respective partial factors of safety for loads (viz, γfL = 1.5).
Step 2. The factored bending moments of the various spans (span moments and support
moments) and the factored shear forces at the various supports are calculated using the respective
coefficients as given in IS : 456–1978, knowing the conditions of restraints at the ends.
Step 3. The depth of beam is then fixed in proportion to clear spans. In a continuous beam
of equal spans, it is desirable to keep uniform depth for all the spans, although the factored
(design) bending moments in the end spans are more than those at the centre of spans.
The continuous beams are designed either as doubly reinforced beams or as T-beams. The
doubly reinforced beams are designed as described in Chapter 4. The T-beam sections are
designed as described in Chapter 5. The depth of beam for continuous span must be satisfactory
for all spans. As such the decision for the proper depth for a continuous span is somewhat
complicate. It is desirable to keep same depth for all beams even if some beams are subjected to
a disproportionate large bending moment at the support and a large amount of reinforcement
is provided in compression for such beams. After determining the depth of beam and width of
web, the design is continued further.
Step 4. The areas of reinforcement needed in the various spans of the beam for positive and
negative bending moments are calculated. The number and size of bars for positive bending
moment are decided as described in Art. 6.9.
Step 5. The areas of bars and their extension for compression and tension reinforcement at
the supports are kept as described in Arts. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.11.
Step 6. The bending of bars is then decided as described in subsequent Article (Art. 6.16).
Step 7. The web reinforcement is then designed as described for the rectangular simply
supported beams in Chapter 3 depending upon the factored (design) shear forces at various
locations.
Step 8. The continuous beams designed for factored (design) moments and factored (design)
shear forces are checked for limit state of serviceability as described in Art. 6.17. The shear in
continuous beams, the coefficients for shear force and arrangement of live load for shear force
have been described in Art. 6.13, 6.14, 6.15 and 6.16, respectively.
6.13 BENDING OF BARS

The bars are bent with due consideration for the bending moments. The bars are bent far
enough from the centre of span where the bending moment has reduced sufficiently to allow
the reduction for the reinforcement. The bars are bent at different locations for the uniformly
distributed loads and for the concentrated loads.
In small beams, the bars are bent at one location at each end. It reduces the types of bars
and facilitates the construction. However, it is better to bend the bars at different locations. It
gives better distribution of reinforcement in the beam and increases the effectiveness as diagonal
tension reinforcement.
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In case the bars are bent at one location, the large number of bars are closely spaced and
form an inclined plane which obstructs the flow of concrete. This inclined plane becomes a
plane of weakness, specially when the bars are not placed exactly in position. The proper
distribution of the locations of bending of bars avoids such conditions.
There is a natural tendency to bend the bars symmetrically in the cross-section. Though the
symmetrical arrangement in a section is preferable, it is not absolutely necessary. The bars
may be bent at two locations with unsymmetrical arrangement in a cross-section.
In simply supported beams, and in continuous beams, the maximum bending moments reduce
to zero at the points of support and at points of contraflexure. Therefore, for beams of constant
cross-section, the required area of reinforcement at the intermediate position reduces
proportionately. As such, a part of the positive moment reinforcement may be bent up at proper
locations and utilized it either as negative moment reinforcement or as diagonal tension
reinforcement. The decrease in area of steel depends upon the decrease of bending moments,
the bending moment diagrams may be used as a guide and the sketches for bending of the bars
may be prepared. There are maximum and minimum distances of bending of the bars at top
and at bottom of beam α, explained hereunder:
6.13.1 Maximum Distance for Bending Up Bars

The maximum distance of a bent up bar from the edge of the support at the bottom of a beam
should not exceed 0.25 L. As far as the positive bending moments concerned, the bars may be
bent nearer towards the support and the distance of bent up bar from the support may be
smaller than the maximum distance specified as above.
6.13.2 Minimum Distance for Bending Up Bars

The minimum distance of a bent up bar from the edge of the support at the top of a beam
should not be less than 0.15 L. As far as the negative bending moment is concerned, the bars
may be bent farther from the support at top and the distance of bent up bar from the support
may be more than the minimum distance specified as above.
While deciding the actual bending of the bars, the diagonal tension should also be considered.
It is advisable to consider the possibility of small in accuracies in bending of bars. Therefore,
the location at the bottom for bending of bar may be a few millimetres nearer the support and
the position at the top a few millimetres farther from the support, than the theoretical values.
In practice, the position of bending of bars at the bottom is accordingly assumed and the bar
is bent at an angle 45° or more. The position of bending of bar at the top is obtained automatically.
In case, the distance from the support to this top position is equal to or more than the minimum
specified, it is satisfactory. In case, the position at the top comes too nearer the support, a
steeper angle may be used.
6.14 SHEAR IN CONTINUOUS BEAMS

The design of shear reinforcement is dependent on the variation of shear forces along the
span. The factored shear force at any section due to the factored (design) loads should be
calculated. In case the live load consists of concentrated loads such as in the design of highway
bridge, spans, accurate calculations of such maximum shears at all the sections should be done.
The critical section for shear may be considered at the face of the support and the factored
(design) shear forces may be calculated and used in the design of the member at that section. The
exceptions to this have been described in Chapter 3 design of singly reinforced rectangular beams.
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6.15 COEFFICIENTS FOR SHEAR FORCE FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Unless more exact estimates are made, for beams of uniformly distributed loads over three or
more spans which do not differ by more than 15 percent of the longest span, the factored shear
forces used in design may be obtained by using the coefficients for shear as per IS : 456–1978
as given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Coefficient for shear
Types of at end support At end At support next to end support At all other
Loading support interior support
Outer side Inner side
Dead load and 0.40 0.60 0.55 0.50
imposed load (fixed)
Imposed load not fixed 0.45 0.60 0.60 0.60
( Note. For obtaining the shear force, above coefficient shall be multiplied by the factored (design) load.
For beams, built into masonry wall which develop partial restraint, for shear coefficients given in Table 6.2
at the end support may be increased by 0.05.
6.16 ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD FOR SHEAR FORCE

The influence line for end support at Q of span QR in a substitute frame of a rigid frame is
shown in Fig. 6.13 (b). It may be seen that, in the case of uniformly live load, the position of
load for maximum end shear is identical with that for maximum negative end moment. The
position of load for maximum shear at one end shall be different from that for maximum shear
at the other end. The position of load is decided by drawing the influence line diagrams for that
support.
E P Q R S T U F
(a ) C o ntinu ou s b ea m EPQ R S TU F
(b ) In flu e nce lin e fo r m axim u m en d sh ea r a t Q of sp an Q R
Fig. 6.13
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6.17 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

The limit state of serviceability for the singly reinforced rectangular beams has been described
in Art. 3.20. The effects of deflections and the methods of controlling deflections have been
described in Arts. 3.21 and 3.22, respectively. The method of calculating immediate deflections
has been described in Art. 3.23. The short-term (immediate) deflection may be calculated by
the usual methods for elastic deflections using the short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete,
Ec and an effective moment of inertia, Ieff. Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete,
Ec = 5700 ×(fck)1/2 ...(6.8)
6.17.1 For Simply-supported Beam

Effective moment of inertia of the beam section as specified by IS : 456–1978.
⎡ ⎤
⎢ I cr ⎥
Ieff = ⎢ ⎥ ...(6.9)
⎢ ⎛ M cr ⎞ ⎛Z ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ bw ⎥
⎢1.2 − ⎜ M ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ d ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − d ⎟ ⋅ b ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
But (Icr< Ieff < Igr) ...(6.10)

where,
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked section
Mcr = cracking moment
= (fcr.Igr/yt )
fcr = modulus of rupture of concrete
Igr = moment of inertia of the gross-section about the centroidal axis, neglecting the
reinforcement
yt = distance from the centroidal axis of gross-section, neglecting the reinforcement,
to the extreme fibre in tension
M = maximum moment under service loads
Z = lever arm
x = depth of neutral axis
d = effective depth
bw = breadth of web, and
b = breadth of compression face
Equation 6.9 for the effective moment of inertia is valid for the simply supported beams.
6.17.2 For Continuous Beams

In the continuous beam, the end moment arises due to restraint, (e.g., interior supports of the
continuous beam and encastre ends in fixed beams), the deflection shall be less. It is considered
for by modifying the values of Ieff, (that, the values of Icr, Igr and Mcr) as recommended by IS :
456–1978 as under :
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Professors, A.W. and Miles, J.R. [‘Proposals for, the Control of Deflection in the New Unified
Code’ Concrete, Vol. 3, No. 3, in arch, 1969, (page 101–110) have given the basis of this
modification.
The short-term (immediate) deflection shall be calculated by using Eq. 6.3. The values of Icr,
Igr and Mcr to be used in Eq. 6.9 are modified as recommended in IS : 456–1978 by the following
expression:
⎡ ⎛ X1 + X 2 ⎞ ⎤
Xe = ⎢k1 ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎟ + (1 − k1 ) ⋅ X 0 ⎥ ...(6.11)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
where,
Xe = modified value of X
X1, X2 = values of X at the supports
X 0 = value of X at mid-span
k 1 = coefficient as given in Table 6.3, and
X = value of Icr, Igr and Mcr as appropriate.
The values of k1 depends upon the value of k 2,
where
⎛ M1 + M 2 ⎞
k2 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(6.12)
⎜ MF + MF ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
where,
M1, M2 = moments at supports
M F1 , M F2 = fixed end moments.
Table 6.3 Values of coefficients, k1

k2 k1 k2 k1
0.5 or less 0 1.0 0.50
0.6 0.03 1.1 0.73
0.7 0.08 1.2 0.91
0.8 0.16 1.3 0.97
0.9 0.30 1.4 1.00
The long-term deflections (viz., deflections due to shrinkage and deflections due to creep)
are determined as described for the doubly reinforced beam, Art. 4.8.
6.18 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENTS IN AN IDEAL ELASTIC-PLASTIC

MATERIALS
In order to understand the redistribution of moments, the plastic method of analysis has been
briefly introduced in Art. 1.17, Chapter 1. Further, before discussing the ultimate load behaviour
of reinforced concrete beams, the behaviour of the beams made of an ideally elastic-plastic
material (viz., steel) is briefly referred.
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An ideally elastic-plastic material (viz., steel) has stress-strain relation and moment-curvature
characteristics as shown in Fig. 6.14 (a) and Fig. 6.14 (b), respectively.
A beam of an ideally elastic-plastic material (viz., steel) is considered. This beam is subjected
to increasing loads. Therefore, the beam also carries increasing moment, M. Upto service
(working) loads, the moment increases linearly with the curvature, φ at that section of the
beam. The stress in the material of beam remains within the elastic limit. In general, the
structural analysis is carried out assuming an elastic system. There occurs a distribution of
moments throughout the length of beam. That is, the bending moments developed at the
different sections of the beam have different values depending upon the support conditions of
the beam and the nature of the loads. In indeterminate beam (viz., the propped beam, the
beam fixed at the supports and the continuous beam), the beam may have sagging bending
moments (i.e., positive) and hogging bending moments (i.e., negative) over different portions
of length of the beam, simultaneously. At different sections of the beam, the beam may have
peaks in the positive and negative portions of the bending moment diagram. The values of
bending moments at these different peaks may be equal or unequal. The values of bending
moments at these peaks may be referred as the maximum bending moments and from the
absolute maximum bending moment, these values shall be in descending order.
Id ea lise d Id ea lise d
fy
A ctu al
M om en t, M
S tress, f
S train ε C u rva tu re
(a ) S te ss-strain re la tion sho p (b ) M om e nt cu rvatu re cha racte ristics
Fig. 6.14 An Ideal elastic-plastic material
When the loads are increased beyond the service (working) loads, the section of beam having
absolute maximum bending moment attains the value of plastic moment of resistance, Mp.
(It is assumed that the beam is of uniform section throughout the length). A plastic hinge is
developed at this section.
A plastic hinge is defined as an yielded zone due to bending in a structural member, at
which an infinite rotation (a large rotation over a small length of beam) may take place at a
constant plastic moment of resistance of the section, Mp. Except, the moment Mp, the plastic
hinge allows large rotation and it acts as a real (mechanical) hinge. At a section of a beam
having a plastic hinge, the value of bending moment, M remains constant equal to Mp and it
does not increase, even if the loads are further increased. Theoretically, a plastic hinge is
assumed to form at a distinct section, at which the plastic hinge permits free rotation and the
length of a plastic hinge (as yielded zone) is considered as zero.
When the loads are further increased, the value of bending moment at a section already
having a plastic hinge remains constant and the rotation at this section increases, and the
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redistribution of moments occurs. The increase in loads is now resisted by the remaining
sections of the beam, which are less stressed. The formation of plastic hinges at the subsequent
peaks occurs until a mechanism is formed and the beam fails.
6.18.1 Redistribution of Moment

When the load is gradually increased beyond the service (working) load, the moment at a
critical section (viz., the section that is most highly stressed in the elastic range) reaches the
plastic moment and a plastic hinge is formed. As the load is further increased, this plastic
moment value at the plastic hinge is maintained and the section rotates. Other less highly
stressed sections maintain equilibrium with the increased load by a proportionate increase in
moment. This process of moment transfer due to successive formation of the plastic hinges is
called as redistribution of moment. It continues until the failure load is attained.
The redistribution of moment is a consequence of the action of the plastic hinges. The reserve
strength of an indeterminate structure when loaded beyond the elastic limit increases due to
redistribution moment.
The concept of redistribution of moment has been illustrated by a beam fixed at both the
supports and a continuous beam of two spans in the subsequent sections.
When the loads are increased beyond the service (working) loads, the elastic analysis does
not remain applicable because of effects of non-linearity. The stress-strain curve as shown in
Fig. 6.14 (a) is an idealized stress-strain curve. It does not remain linear. The moment-curvature
characteristics as shown in Fig. 6.14 (b) is also an idealized one. The actual noment-curvature
characteristics for actual structures is shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 6.14 (b). This change
from elastic to plastic is gradual.
It is important to note in plastic analysis and design of an ideal elastic-plastic material
(viz., steel) one makes the use not only of the plastic theory of bending (the plastic moment
condition) but also of redistribution of the moment (which is the basis of the mechanism
condition).
6.19 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENT IN A FIXED BEAM

A fixed beam is a single beam is analysed by Clapeyron’s theorem of the three moments, the
fixed beam is considered to have imaginary spans on its left and right sides with infinite moment
of inertia. In this sense, a fixed beam may also be referred as a continuous beam having three
spans.
A fixed beam, AB carrying uniformly distributed load throughout its span is shown in
Fig. 6.15 (a). The bending moment diagram for the beam in the elastic range is shown in
Fig. 6.15 (b).
Total load acting over the beam
W = (w.L) ...(i)
where,
w = intensity of load per unit length of the beam
L = span of the beam
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Bending moment at supports

⎛ WL ⎞
MA = MB + ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 12 ⎠
Bending moment at the centre
⎛ WL ⎞
MC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 24 ⎠
w = ( ω. L )
⎛L ⎞ ⎛L ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
A B
(a ) U n ifo rm ly d istribu ted loa d
M c = ( W L / 2 4)
WL
24
WL E F
8 WL
12
M A = ( W L /1 2 ) M B = ( W L /1 2 )
(b ) B en ding m om e nt diag ram
(w ith in e la stic ra ng e)
E1 E F F1
WL WL
1 6´ 16
WL E1 F1 WL
16 16
(c) B e n din g m om e nt diag ram (a t co llap se )
B M D a t co llap se
B M D a t yie ld
a t cen tre line
B M D w ith in elastic ran g e
(d ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia g ram (a t yield a nd colla pse )
Fig. 6.15 Redistribution of moments in an ideal elastic–plastic material
It is to note that the bending moments at the supports MA = MB are more than the bending
moment at the centre, MC.
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When the load is gradually increased beyond the elastic range, the values of moments at
supports MA and MB (being equal and maximum) reach the value of fully plastic moment of
resistance of the section, MP. The plastic hinges are formed at both the supports, simultaneously.
This reduces the beam to statically determinate structure. The beam acts like a beam hinged at
both the supports. The load corresponding to the formation of first plastic hinge (plastic hinges,
if they form simultaneously) is called as yield load. Then
W = Wy ...(iv)
⎛ Wy L ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = MP
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 12 M P ⎞
Wy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ L ⎠
The value of bending moment at this stage at the centre, C
⎛ Wy L ⎞ ⎛ M P ⎞
MC = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 24 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The additional moment capacity is still available at the centre of beam, C.
When the load is further increased, the values of moments of both the supports remain
constants, Mp. The increase in load is resisted by the beam AB having plastic hinges at A and
B, both the supports. The increase in loads causes increase in the values of the bending moments
at all the other sections where the plastic hinge does not exist. The less stressed central section
receives additional moment. Amongst the various sections other than the supports A and B,
the value of bending moment at C is maximum. Therefore, the value of bending moment at C
also increases and reach the value of fully plastic moment at C. Then,
Mc = Mp ...(vii)
A plastic hinge is also formed at C. With the formation of three plastic hinges (at supports A
and B, earlier and at the centre C now), the beam is reduced to a mechanism having two links
AC and BC as shown in Fig. 6.16 (c) and the beam fails. The load corresponding to the failure
is referred as collapse load or ultimate load.
Actually, the mechanism referred above is a pseudo or quasi-mechanism as the plastic hinges
exist at the ends of links AC and CB instead of real hinges. These links AC and CB are bent
between the plastic hinges (due to applied moments, MP) instead of being straight. After the
formation of all the plastic hinges, the further motion is just like that of a linkage. The deflections
of all the points on the members after the collapse shall be straight.
Let ∆W be an additional load taken by the beam upto the collapse after the yield. Then
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ MP ⎞
⎜ 8 ⋅ ∆W ⋅ L ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 4M ⎞
P
∆W = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ix)
⎝ L ⎠
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Total collapse load

WC = (W y + ∆W)
⎛ 12 M P 4 M P ⎞ ⎛ 16 M P ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ + = ...(x)
⎝ L L ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
Maximum design bending moment at supports for beam fixed at both the ends
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(xi)
⎝ 12 ⎠
Maximum design bending moment for the beam at collapse
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(xii)
⎝ 16 ⎠
Percentage reduction in the design moment
⎡ (WL /12) − (WL /16) ⎤
β = ⎢ ⎥ × 100 = 25 percent ...(xiii)
⎣ (WL /12) ⎦
The reduction in the design moments divided by hypothetical elastic moment is called as
ratio of moment reduction. It is denoted by β.
The bending moment diagram at collapse is shown in Fig. 6.15 (c). Two bending moment
diagrams corresponding to yield and to collapse are shown in one diagram in Fig. 6.15 (d). The
shaded portion represents the simple beam moment diagram that due to redistribution of moment,
is superimposed upon the existing moment diagram. It corresponds to the increase of load
between yield and collapse. Between yield and collapse, the redistribution of moment has taken
place.
The ideal elastic-plastic material (viz., steel) exhibits true plastic material with unlimited
ductility and the section has large rotational capacity.
Points of Contraflexure in Beam. It is seen from Fig. 6.15 (b) that there are points of
contraflexure at E and F in the beam at the elastic stage. Whereas from Fig. 6.15 (c), it is seen
that there are points of contraflexure at E1 and F1 in the beam at the collapse stage. These
points of contraflexures at E and F at the elastic stage shift their positions from E to E1 and F
to F1. From Fig. 6.15 (c), it is observed that in lengths EE1 and FF1, the bending moments are
sagging. It is because of the assumption that the supports where plastic hinges have formed,
have large rotational capacity.
In practice, the strength of material differs largely. Therefore, it is not possible to state
whether the actual moment of resistance shall be smaller than the design moment of resistance
or more. As such, the bending moments in lengths EE1 and FF1 may be hogging.
Deflected Shape of Beam. The deflected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 6.16 (b).
Three curves shown in Fig. 6.16 (b) correspond to yield, collapse and arbitrary deflection obtained
by continued straining at the collapse load. After the collapse load, the beam continues to
deform under constant load.
After formation of plastic hinges at the supports, the plastic hinge action begins at the ends
and the beam behaves as if it were simply supported except that the end moments remain
constant at Mp. The deflection increases at somewhat faster rate. The rate of increase of deflection
is that of simply supported beam of equal length.
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W = ω.L
C
( L /2) ( L /2)
A (a ) Fixe d beam ca rryin g U D L B
A t yield
A t co llap se
(b ) D e fle cted sha pe s of b ea m
A B
C
(c) M ech an ism
Fig. 6.16
Load-deflection Diagram. The load-deflection diagram is shown in Fig. 6.17. It is seen

from this diagram that when the load, W reaches the value equal to the yield load, W y, the
plastic hinges are formed at the supports. The segment OA represents the load-deflection curve
for the beam fixed at the supports.
It is clear from the load-deflection diagram, Fig. 6.17 that the formation of each plastic hinge
reduces one degree of indeterminacy of the structure. Therefore, after formation of two plastic
hinges at the supports, the subsequent load-deflection relationship shall be that of a new and
simpler structure (that is, a beam hinged at both the ends). The segment AB represents the
load-deflection curve of a beam hinged at both the ends but loaded within the elastic range.
The segment BC represents an arbitrary deflection occurring at constant load, W c (the collapse
load).
B C
WC
A
S e gm e nt AB
L oa d
S e gm e nt O A
O D e fle ctio n
Fig. 6.17 Load-deflection diagram
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6.20 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENTS IN A TWO-SPAN CONTINUOUS

BEAM WITH CONCENTRATED LOADS AT EACH MID-SPAN
The intermediate supports of continuous beams act as fixed supports except that the rotations
at the joints take place. The outer supports, if these are simply supported, act as hinged supports
and outer spans act as propped cantilever beams. The intermediate spans act as fixed beams.
In case, any one span fails, the whole of the continuous beam becomes useless. In case of a
continuous beam of uniform section, the span which is heavily loaded fails first as compared to
the other supports.
A two span continuous beam with concentrated loads at each mid-span is shown in Fig. 6.18
(a). This continuous beam has single degree statical indeterminacy. The value of moment at
support B (considering moment at B to be redundant) may be obtained by any method of
elastic structural analysis.
Moment at support B
⎛ 3 ⎞
MB = ⎜⎝ ⋅ W ⋅ L ⎟⎠ ...(i)
16
⎛ 6 ⎞
or MB = ⎜ ⋅ W ⋅ L ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 32 ⎠
Moment under concentrated load
⎛ 5 ⎞
MD = ME= ⎜ ⋅ W ⋅ L⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 32 ⎠
It is seen that the value of moment at the intermediate support B is more than those at D
and E, the bending moment diagram for the value of loads within the elastic range is shown in
Fig. 6.18 (b).
W W
A D B E C
( L /2) ( L /2) ( L /2) ( L /2)
(a ) A tw o -sp a n co ntinu ou s be a m
MD MB ME
X X
(b ) B e nd ing m o m en t d ia gra m within elastic ra n ge
MD = MP ME = MP
MB = MP
(c) B e nd ing m om en t d ia g ram at colla pse X = shift of po isition s

o f p oints of co ntrafle xu res
Fig. 6.18 Redistribution of moments
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A plastic hinge is formed at B first as compared to the other sections (as the load is gradually
increased, the moment at support B, becomes MB = Mp). The load at this stage is referred as
yield load.
MB = MP
⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜⎝ 32 ⋅ Wy L ⎟⎠ = MP
Wy ⎛ 32 M P ⎞ ...(iv)
= ⎜⎝ 6 ⋅ L ⎟⎠
Moment at D and E at yield load
⎛5 ⎞
MD = ME = ⎜ ⋅ M P ⎟ ...(v)
⎝6 ⎠
In case, the load is further increased gradually, the moment at B, MP remains constant and
the section rotates. The increase in moment is resisted by other sections. The moments at all
other sections. The moments at all other sections increase. Other less highly stressed sections
maintain equilibrium with the increased load by a proportionate increase in moment. This
process of moment transfer due the successive formation of plastic hinges is called redistribution
of moments and continues until the failure or collapse load (i.e., ultimate load) is reached.
Let the increase in load be ∆W, so that, the moments at D and E reach the value equal to
plastic hinge moment. The increase in moment at D and E
∆W ⋅ L 1
= M
4 6 P
⎛4 M ⎞
∆W = ⎜ ⋅ P ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝6 L ⎠
After formation of plastic hinges at B and D in span AB, there becomes three total hinges.
The beam AB becomes a beam mechanism and the span AB collapses. Similarly, after formation
of plastic hinges at B and E in span BC, there becomes three total hinges. The beam BC
becomes a beam mechanism and the span BC collapses. Since, the moments at D and E are
equal, both these sections attain plastic moments, MP simultaneously and two plastic hinges at
D and E also form simultaneously. Therefore, two spans AB and BC also collapse simultaneously.
Collapse load
WC = (W y + ∆W) ...(vii)
⎛ 32 4 ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ M P + ⋅ M P ⎟
⎝ 6 6 ⎠
⎛ 6 ⋅ MP ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ L ⎠
The bending moment diagrams at collapse is shown in Fig. 6.18 (c). All the three necessary
conditions (mechanism, equilibrium and plastic moments) of plastic analysis are satisfied.
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Ratio of moment reduction for the section at support B (intermediate support B)

⎡ (3 /16) ⋅ WL − (1 / 6)WL ⎤
∆M = ⎢ ⎥ × 100 = 11.1 percent ...(ix)
⎣ (3 /16)WL ⎦
The structural design which takes into consideration the redistribution of moments, in
which the cross-section of the structural members are proportioned on the basis of their ultimate
strength, is called plastic design or limit design. The terms limit design should not be confused
with limit state design. The limit design refers only to the design which takes into consideration
the redistribution of moment. However, the question of how the individual cross-section of the
members are to be proportioned after the design moments have been obtained remains open.
In an ideal elastic-plastic material (i.e., the structural steel), the plastic design is an established
design method. Professors Baker, Sir John and Heyman, J [‘Plastic Design of Frames 1 ;
Fundamentals’, Cambridge University Press, 1969, (pp. 228)], Professor Heyman, J [“Plastic
Design of Frames 2 : Applications, Cambridge University Press, 1971, (pp. 292)] have given
authoritative description of subject.
6.21 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENTS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

In reinforced concrete, the ultimate strength procedures are recommended in CP 110 for design
of individual member sections, but limit design as such is only partially recognized and then
only indirectly. Professor Cohn, M.Z., has given the method of limit design [‘Limit Design for
Reinforced Concrete Structures’, (ACI Bibliography No. 8), American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1968. Professor P. Kumar has given limit design [‘Collapse Load of Deep Beams in Reinforced
Concrete,’ Magazine of Concrete Research, 29, No. 98, March 1977, (pp. 42–43)]. Reference
may also be made on this Discussion by Professors Kong, F.K. and Kubik, L.A. Whether limit
design is acceptable for concrete structures depends very much on adequate ductility in plastic
hinge regions.
The moment-curvature relationship for the structural concrete members is shown in Fig.
6.19. The moment curvature relation for an under-reinforced beam resembles that for an ideally
elastic-plastic material, Fig. 6.14 (b). An under-reinforced beam has large rotational capacity.
However, that for an over-reinforced beam resembles that for a brittle material. Figure 6.19
represents the simplified picture of the truth. The precise shape of moment-curvature (M–φ)
curve depends on the quality of steel reinforcement, percentage ratio of steel, and for doubly
reinforced beams, it depends on the difference of percentage ratio of steel reinforcement in
tension and compression [viz., (pt – pc)]. The presence of an adequate cross-sectional area of
stirrups will increase ductility appreciably and additionally.
An under-reinforced section carrying gradually increasing bending moment behaves
elastically at the initial stages. It displays a pronounced non-linear and somewhat plastic
behaviour at large values of bending moments. The magnitudes of deformations at yield and
at collapse would be obtained by the relative quantities of steel reinforcement and concrete in
the section and their stress-strain characteristics.
The actual moment-curvature curve for an under-reinforced section, Fig. 6.19 is shown by
the dotted line. It is usually idealized as bi-linear shown by the full likes.
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M om e nt-cu rvatu re plot fo r
O ver-re in fo rced sectio ns
B a la nced section s
U n de r-re inforce d
section s
M = M o m ent
(Id ea lise d )
(A ctu al)
(C o llap se )
φ = C u rva tu re
Fig. 6 .19 Moment-curvature relationship for structural concrete
In code IS : 456–1978, it is recommended that the redistribution of moments may be done in

continuous beams and frames (that is, the redistribution of moments is applicable to statically
indeterminate structures and not to statically determinate structure) provided the following
conditions are satisfied.
The redistribution of moment occurs in statically indeterminate structures before failure as
a result of inelastic deformation of the reinforced concrete sections. This redistribution allows a
reduction in the support moments of a continuous beam. As a result of which the cross-sectional
area of steel reinforcement needed is reduced (viz., the congestion of reinforcement at the
supports is reduced). Such redistribution of moments occurs whenever the beginning of failure
is reached whether at support or in the span.
6.21.1 Conditions for Redistribution of Moments : (As per IS : 456–1978)

1. The equilibrium between the internal forces and external loads is maintained.
2. The ultimate moment of resistance provided at any section of a member is not less than
70 percent of the moment at that section obtained from an elastic maximum moment diagram
covering all appropriate combinations of loads.
3. The elastic moment at any section in a member due to a particular combination of loads
shall not be reduced by more than 30 percent of the numerically largest moment given anywhere
by the elastic maximum moments diagram for the particular member, covering all appropriate
combination of loads.
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4. At the sections where the moment capacity after redistribution is less than that from
the elastic maximum moment diagram, the relationship given below shall be satisfied.
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ ∆M ⎞
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ≤ 0.6 ...(6.13)
where,
xu = depth of neutral axis
d = effective depth, and
∆M = percentage reduction in moment
In current British design practice also, the bending moments in the members of a continuous
structure are found by elastic analysis. Code CP 110 allows such elastic moments to be adjusted
to take into consideration the redistribution of moments. Where such adjustments increases
the moment of resistance to be provided at a section, no limit is imposed on such increase; but
where a reduction results, the moment reduction ratio should not exceed as in Eq. 6.14
∆M ⎛ x ⎞
> ⎜ 0.6 − u ⎟ or 0.3 ...(6.14)
100 ⎝ d ⎠
For singly reinforced beam, (x u/d) increases with the percentage ratio of steel, pt.
For doubly reinforced beam, it increases with the difference in the percentage ratios of steel
in tension and compression, (pt – pc). Therefore, ∆M ratio is related indirectly to the ductility.
In the working stress method, the redistribution of moment upto ±15 percent is permitted.
So also the maximum distance between bars in tension is recommended in IS : 456–1978. In
beams, the horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars near the tension face of a
beam shall not be greater than the values given in Table 6.4 depending on the value of
redistribution carried out in analysis and the characteristic strength of the reinforcement, fy.
Table 6.4 Clear distance between bars (as per IS : 456–1978)
Percentage redistribution to or from section considered
fy – 30 – 15 0 + 15 + 30
Clear distance between bars
N/mm 2 (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
250 215 260 300 300 300
415 125 155 180 210 235
500 105 130 150 175 195
In case the coefficients given in Table 6.1 for the determination of moments are used, then,
the redistribution of moments shall not be done as the same has already been included.
5. In structures in which the structural frame provides the lateral stability the reductions
in moment allowed, by condition 3, shall be restricted to 10 percent for structures over 4 storeys
in height.
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6.22 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENT IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

FIXED BEAM
An encastre reinforced concrete beam of span L carrying an ultimate uniformly distributed
load, W is shown in Fig. 6.20 (a). The self-weight of the beam is assumed to be zero. The elastic
bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.20 (b).
λW
In case the beam is designed to resist a hogging moment at the supports of instead of
12
WL
, then, the beam yields at the supports at a load λW and, in order to carry the design load
12
of W, the mid-span section is to be designed to resist a sagging moment [as shown in Fig.
6.20 (c)]
⎡WL ⎛ WL λWL ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ +⎜ − ...(i)
⎣ 24 ⎝ 12 12 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡WL WL ⎤
= ⎢ + (1 − λ )⎥ ...(ii)
⎣ 24 12 ⎦
Concrete has limited ductility in terms of ultimate compressive strain and this limits the
ductility of a beam in terms of rotation capacity.
As the value of λ decreases, the magnitude of rotation, after initial yield, is increased. Thus,
the value of λ should not be so small that the rotation capacity is exhausted. It should also be
noted that the rotation capacity needed at collapse is the function of the difference between the
elastic moment and the reduced design moment.
Thus, it is convenient to think in terms of this difference
⎛ Wl λWL ⎞
= ⎜ − ...(iii)
⎝ 12 12 ⎠⎟
Then, the ratio of moment reduction may be defined as
⎡ ⎛ Wl λWL ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ 12 − 12 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ⎠⎥
∆M = ⎢ ...(iv)
⎢ Wl ⎥
⎢ 12 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
∆M = (1 – λ) ...(v)
An upper limit to ∆M has to be imposed, when there is a reduction in moment, because of the
limited ductility of the concrete.
The magnitude of redistribution allowed also has to be limited for another reason. Although
a beam designed for a certain magnitude of redistribution will develop adequate strength, it
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could exhibit unsatisfactory serviceability limit state behaviour, since at this stage, the beam
would behave essentially elastically. As the difference between the ultimate elastic moment
and the reduced design moment increases, the behaviour at the serviceability limit state, in
terms of stiffness (and, thus, cracking) deteriorates. Therefore the magnitude of redistribution
must be restricted.
Therefore, the conditions specified by the code IS : 456–1978 in Art. 6.21 must be fulfilled
while considering the redistribution of the moments. The equilibrium is maintained as shown
in Fig. 6.20 (b (i)). The beam is designed to resist the redistribution of moments as shown in
Fig. 6.20 (c (iii)). In the regions AB (shift of position of point of contraflexure), the sagging
reinforcement is provided. As per the second condition, the resistance moment at any section
should not be less than that appropriate to chain dotted line, Fig. 6.20 (b (ii)). By providing
reinforcement to resist 70 percent of the maximum elastic moments, it is ensured that the
elastic behaviour is obtained upto 70 percent of the ultimate load (i.e. at the service load). In
the British Code CP 110, the service load is in the range 0.58 to 0.76 of the ultimate load and
hence, the limit of 70 percent is reasonable.
U ltim ate loa d W
L
B
(i) U ltim ate loa d
( W L / 2 4)
(W L / 8 )
( W L / 12 )
(ii) E lastic be nd in g m o m en t d ia gra m
⎡⎛ W L ⎞ ⎛ W L Wl ⎞⎤
⎢⎜⎝ 2 4 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 1 2 − λ ⋅ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
WL
( W L / 12 ) R e distrib ute d B M D
Y
E lastic B M D
(iii) B en d in g m o m e nt diag ra m after red istribu tio n
Fig. 6.20 (a)
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R e distrib ute d B M D
A A WL
8
B ( W L / 8) B
Fre e bm d
(i) O ve ra ll (S ta tic) E qu ilib riu m
R e distrib ute d B M D
0 .7 w l / 24
E lastic B M D at Y
service lo ad
Y = R ed istribu tio n E lastic B M D
= ( ∆m /1 00 ) ( W L /12 ) a t u ltim a te lo a d
(ii) S ervicea b ility con ditio n
A A
B B
(iii) E la stic u lim a te m om e nt en ve lo pe
Fig. 6.20 (b)
Example 6.1 An encastre reinforced concrete beam of span L carrying an ultimate uniformly
distributed load is shown in Fig. 6.20 (a (i)). Draw bending moment diagram for 18 percent
redistribution.
Solution
Step 1. Moments before Redistribution
The elastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.20 (b).
Hogging moment at supports
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 12 ⎠
Sagging moment is maximum at the centre of span
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 24 ⎠
Sum of absolute values of these two moments
⎛ WL WL ⎞ ⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ + = ...(iii)
⎝ 12 24 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
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For a simply supported beam of span L carrying ultimate uniformly distributed load, free
bending moment at the mid-span
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 8 ⎠
The values of two moments in the expressions (iii) and (iv) are equal.
Step 2. After 18 percent Redistribution
Hogging moments at supports reduced by 18 percent
⎛ 18 ⎞
λ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 1 − 18 ⎞
(l – λ) = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= 0.82 ...(v)
⎛ WL ⎞
Reduced moment = ⎜1 − λ ) ⋅
⎝ 12 ⎠⎟
⎛ 0.82 × WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = (0.06833 WL) ...(vi)
⎝ 12 ⎠
The sagging moment increases to maintain the static equilibrium total ordinate of free bending
moment diagram after 18 percent redistribution remains unchanged
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = (0.125 WL) ...(vii)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Maximum sagging moment after 18 percent of redistribution
= (0.125 – 0.06833) . WL
= (0.05667 WL) ...(viii)
As a result of redistribution of moments, the hogging moment at the supports and the sagging
bending moments at the mid-span becomes practically equal. The design results in more
economical beam.
The point of contraflexure shifts from the point B to A as shown in Fig. 6.20 (b (ii)).
It is to note that as per the second condition specified by code IS : 456–1978, the ultimate
moment of resistance provided at any section of a member should not be less than 70 percent of
the moment at that section obtained from an elastic analysis using the design loads.
Example 6.2 An encastre reinforced concrete beam of span 5.68 m carries an ultimate
uniformly distributed load of 18 kN/m. Draw bending moment diagram.
Solution
Hogging moment at supports
⎛ w ⋅ L2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 12 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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⎛ 18 × 5.68 × 5.68 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 48.394 kN-m ...(i)
⎝ 12 ⎠
Sagging moment at the centre
⎛ w ⋅ L2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎛⎜ 18 × 5.68 × 5.68 ⎞⎟ = 72.59 kN-m ...(ii)
⎜ 12 ⎟ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
⎛ WL ⎞
Reaction at support = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= (0. 5 × 18 × 5.68) = 51.12 kN ...(iii)
Let the distance of point of contraflexure from left support be x. Then
2
wx
Mx = 51.12 x − – 48.394 = 0
2
= 9x 2 – 51.12x + 48.394 = 0
x = 1.2 m ...(iv)
Step 2. After Redistribution of Moment
As per third condition of redistribution of moments specified in the code IS : 456–1978, the
elastic bending moment shall not be reduced by more than 30 percent. Therefore,
Reduced hogging moment at support
= (1– 0.30) × 48.394 kN-m
= 33.8758 kN-m ...(v)
Maximum sagging moment at mid span
= (72.59 – 33.8758) kN-m
= 38.7142 kN-m ...(vi)
Let the distance of point of contraflexure from the left support be x1. Then
2
M x1 = 51.12x1 – 9x1 – 33.8758 = 0
2
= 9x1 – 51.12x 1 + 33.8758 = 0
x 1 = 0.766 m ...(vii)
The bending moment diagram after redistribution of moment is shown in Fig. 6.20 (a (iii)).
Step 3. Elastic bending moment at x = 0.766 m from left support
⎛ 2 ⎞
18 × 0.766
= ⎜ 51.12 × 0.766 − − 48.394 ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= (–14.517 kN-m) ...(viii)
There occurs 100 percent redistribution of moment at the section and beyond it. The maximum
permissible redistribution in code IS : 456–1978 is 30 percent. Therefore, at the section, after
redistribution of moment, the section should have moment
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⎛ 70 ⎞
= ⎜− × 14.517 ⎟ = –10.162 kN-m
⎝ 100 ⎠
The envelope of bending moment diagram resulted after redistribution is shown in Fig. 6.20 (b
(iii)).
6.23 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENT IN A REINFORCED CONCRETE FIXED BEAM

CARRYING A CONCENTRATED LOAD AT MID-SPAN
A fixed reinforced concrete beam of span L carrying an ultimate concentrated load W at mid-
span is shown in Fig. 6.21 (a). The elastic bending moment diagram corresponding to the
ultimate concentrated load W is shown in Fig. 6.21 (b).
Step 1. The moments before redistribution are as under :
Hogging moments at supports
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Sagging moment at mid-span
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Sum of absolute values of these two moments
⎛ WL WL ⎞ ⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ + = ...(iii)
⎝ 8 8 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 4 ⎠⎟
For a simply supported beam of span L carrying a concentrated load, free bending moment
at the mid-span
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 4 ⎠
The values of two moments in the expressions (iii) and (iv) are equal.
Step 2. The moments after redistribution are as below :
Code IS : 456–1978 permits maximum reduction of moments by 30 percent.
Reducing hogging moments (at ultimate load) at supports
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ 0.70 × ...(v)
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
Maximum sagging moment at mid-span for static equilibrium
⎡⎛ WL ⎞ ⎛ WL ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ 0.70 × 8 ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎡WL ⎤ ⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎢ × (2 − 0.70) ⎥ = 1.30 × ⎜ ⎟
⎣ 8 ⎦ ⎝ 8 ⎠
= 0.1625 WL ...(vi)
The resulting bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.21 (d). It may be noted that the
position of point of contraflexure shifts from B to A.
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( L /2) ( L /2)
(a ) U ltim ate lo ad
( W L /8 )
( W L /4 )
B B
( W L /8 )
(b ) E lastic B M D at U ltim ate loa d
( W L /4 ) – 0 .70 W
8
( W L /4 )
A A 0 .70 W
8
(c) B M D a fter red istribu tio n of m o m en ts
B M D a fte r re d istrib utio n

E lastic B M D
(a t u ltim ate loa d)
B B
E lastic B M D
(a t service lo a d)
(d ) S u pe r-im p ose d B M D s
Fig. 6.21
The region AB is under sagging moment at the ultimate condition. However, there is hogging
moment over the region AB at the service condition. The ultimate load condition needs no
reinforcement at the top of beam in the portion AB. In case, the reinforcement is not provided
in the portion AB at top, consequently, the wide cracks would develop these at the service
condition. In order to guard against cracking, code IS : 456–1978 specified the following condition:
(Mu < 0.10Me) ...(vii)
where,
Mu = ultimate moment of resistance provided at any section of the beam.
Mt = Moment at that section obtained from an elastic maximum-moments diagrams
covering all appropriate combinations of ultimate loads.
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The reduction of 30 percent of the elastic moment is valid for the sagging moments as well as
for the hogging moments. The limit of 30 percent has been specified from practical consideration,
mainly to restrict the demand for rotation capacity of the concrete structure at critical section.
Even on economic considerations, it would rarely be desirable to reduce the bending moments
by more than 30 percent.
It is to note that no limit is placed on the magnitude by which moments may be increased
(either at mid-span or at supports). The moments may be reduced anywhere along the beam
regardless of whether the section is at support or near the mid-span.
The redistribution of the moment at a section may be obtained only if the section has sufficient
ductility, that is, the rotation capacity.
A check has been specified in the fourth condition for the re-distribution of moments in the
code IS : 456–1978 as the rotation capacity of the reinforced concrete section is limited. The
depth of neutral axis at collapse provides a reasonable although it be approximate estimate of
the rotation capacity of the section. Also, the demand on the rotation needed at a section would
increase with the percentage redistribution. These two considerations from the basis of the
inequality of fourth condition of redistribution of moments specified in code IS : 456–1978.
(x u/d) is the neutral axis depth factor of the section resisting the reduced moment (that is,
moments after redistribution). The inequality should be applied only when the moment at a
section is reduced and only the magnitude of (∆M/100) without any sign attached, should be
inserted.
For singly reinforced beam sections
The factor (x u/d) increases with the steel ratio (Ast/b.d)
For doubly reinforced beam sections
The factor (x u/d) increases with the value of difference of the steel ratios in tension and
compression [that is, (Ast/b.d) and (Ast/b.d).
The appreciable redistribution of moments is possible only with the under-reinforced beam
sections.
For mild steel plain bars of Fe 250 and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 and Fe 500, the
limiting values of (x u/d) have been specified in the code IS : 456–1978. In case, the sections are
designed in such a way that these limiting values are closely approached, the moment reduction
ratio (∆M/100) cannot exceed 7 percent for mild steel and 12 percent for cold-worked deformed
bars of grade Fe 415, as against 30 percent maximum allowed in the code.
However, in a general case, generous overall dimensions with lesser area of tension steel
can be chosen, (x u/d) values obtained through compatibility conditions for limiting values of
the strains specified in the code IS : 456–1978 and then the inequality requirement may be
checked.
Finally, this fourth condition of the redistribution of moments specified in the code, involving
the depth of neutral axis x u, will rule out the possibility of redistribution (that is, reduction) in
the moments in a column unless, the axial load in the column is very small.
Example 6.3 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span L carries two concentrated loads (W/
2) each where W is the ultimate load as shown in Fig. 6.22 (a). Draw bending moment diagram
after 24 percent of redistribution of moment.
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(a ) U ltim ate loa d
( W L /1 8)
WL B B
6
( W L /9 )
(b ) E lastic B M D (at ultim a te lo ad )
W L – 0 .76 W L
6 9
WL
6
0 .76 W L
9
(c) B M D a fter red istrib u tio n of m o m en t

(S tatic eq uilibrium )
B M D a fte r re distrib utio n
E lastic B M D
(a t u litm ate loa d)
E lastic B M D
(a t service lo a d)
(d ) S u pe r Im p ose d B M D s
Fig. 6.22
Solution
Step 1. Moments before redistribution
⎛W ⎞
W1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝2⎠
Hogging moments at supports
⎛ W a ⋅ b2 W ⋅ a ⋅ b2 ⎞
= ⎜ 1 12 1 + 1 22 2 ⎟
⎜ L L ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ W L 4 L2 W 2L L2 ⎞
= ⎜ 21 ⋅ ⋅ + 21 ⋅ ⋅ ⎟
⎜L 3 9 L 3 9 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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⎛ 4 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ W1 L + ⋅ W1 L ⎟
⎝ 27 27 ⎠
⎛2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ W1 ⋅ L ⎟
⎝9 ⎠
⎛2 W ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × × L ⎟ = ⎜ WL ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝9 2 ⎠ ⎝9 ⎠
Reaction at the support
⎛W ⎞
= W1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2⎠
⎛L⎞
Sagging bending moment under the concentrated load of a distance ⎜ ⎟ from the left support
⎝3⎠
⎛ L 1 ⎞
= ⎜ W1 ⋅ − ⋅ WL ⎟
⎝ 3 9 ⎠
⎛W L 1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ − WL ⎟
⎝ 2 3 9 ⎠
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ WL ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 18 ⎠
Sum of the absolute values of moments of expressions (ii) and (IV)
⎡⎛ WL ⎞ ⎛ WL ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎣⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 18 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 6 ⎠
⎛L⎞
Bending moment under the concentrated load at a distance ⎜ ⎟ from the left support, in
⎝3⎠
case, the beam is simply supported at both the ends
⎛ WL ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
The magnitude of moment in the expressions (v) and (vi) are equal. The moment in each
expression is called free bending moment.
Step 2. Moments after 24 per cent of redistribution
Hogging moments at the supports
⎡ WL ⎤
= ⎢(1 − 0.24) ×
⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
= (0.0844 WL) ...(vii)
Sagging moment may be found from the condition of the static equilibrium. Total sum of
hogging and sagging moments shall be equal to free bending moment. Therefore, sagging
moment under the load
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⎡⎛ WL ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − (0.0844 WL ) ⎥
⎣⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎦
= (0.1666 – 0.0844) WL
= (0.0822 WL) ...(viii)
The bending moment diagram after the redistribution of moments is shown in Fig. 6.22 (c).
It is to note that the points of cantraflexures B, B in elastic bending moment diagram. Shift to
points A, A in the bending moment diagram after redistribution.
Example 6.4 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span L = 5.40 m carries two concentrated
loads (each 12 kN) at one-third points as shown in Fig. 6.23 (a). Draw bending moment
diagram after redistribution of moments as permitted by code IS : 456–1978.
Solution
The loads are shown in Fig. 6.23 (a)
Hogging moments of supports
⎛ WL ⎞ ⎡ (12 + 12) × 5.4 ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥
⎝ 9 ⎠⎣ 9 ⎦
= 14.4 kN-m ...(i)
Sagging moments under the loads
⎛ WL ⎞ ⎡ (12 + 12) × 5.4 ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥ = 7.2 kN-m ...(ii)
⎝ 18 ⎠ ⎣ 9 ⎦
Sum of absolute values of two moments of the expressions (i) and (ii) is called free bending
moment i.e., the value of bending moment for the corresponding simply supported beam
= (14.4 + 7.2) = 21.6 kN-m ...(iii)
Reaction at support = 12 kN ...(iv)
Let the distance of point of contraflexure from left support be x. Then
Mx = (l2 × x – 14.4) = 0
⎛ 14.4 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.2 m ...(v)
⎝ 12 ⎠
The elastic bending moment diagram at ultimate load is shown in Fig. 6.23 (b).
Step 2. Moments after Redistribution
IS : 456–1978 permits maximum redistribution of 30 percent
Reduced hogging moment
⎡ WL ⎤
= ⎢(1 − 0.30 )
⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
= (0.7 × 14.4)
= 10.08 kN-m ...(vi)
Total ordinate of free-body moment remains unaltered. Therefore,
Maximum value of sagging moment (21.6 – 10.08) = 11.52 kN-m
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U ltim ate loa d = 24 kN
1 2 kN 1 2 kN
1 .8 m 1 .8 m 1 .8 m
(a ) U ltim ate loa d
1 4.4 kN -m 7 .2 kN -m
1 .2 m 1 .2 m
2 1.6 kN -m
B B
(b ) E lastic B M D (at ultim a te lo ad )
1 0.08 kN 11 .5 2 kN -m
0 .84 m 0 .84 m
21 .6 kN -m
(R e distrib ution = 30 p erce nt)
(c) B M D after red istribu tio n of m om en t

(sta tic e qu ilib riu m )
0 .84 m 0 .84 m
1 .2 m 1 .2 m
(d ) E n ve lo pe to B M D s
Fig. 6.23
The position of point of contraflexure shifts from B to A after redistribution of moments. Let
the distance of point of contraflexure at A be x1.
Then
Mx = (12 × x 1 – 10.08) = 0
⎛ 10.08 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.84 m ...(viii)
⎝ 12 ⎠
The bending moment diagram after redistribution of moments is shown in Fig. 6.23 (c).
Elastic bending moment at a distance 0.84 m from the left support
= (12 × 0.84 – 14.4) = – 4.23 kN-m
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After redistribution, this section should be able to carry a moment = (0.7 × 4.32) = – 3.024
kN-m. Resulting bending moment envelope is shown in Fig 6.23 (d).
Example 6.5 A reinforced concrete continuous beam ABCD consists of three spans. The
exterior spans AB and CD are 6 m each and the interior span BC is 8 m. The characteristic
dead load (inclusive of self-weight) is 24 kN/m and the characteristic imposed load is 30 kN/
m. Draw the bending moment envelope (or the maximum moment diagram) for the ultimate
condition.
Solution. The advantage of redistribution of moments shall be availed to equalize the bending
moments at the various critical sections, as far as position.
Following three loading cases shall be considered depending upon the position of live load.
However, it is to note that the dead load always exists on each span.
Case 1 : For maximum hogging moment (designated negative) at the interior support B.
Two spans AB and BC carry (dead + live) loads while the span CD carries dead load only as
shown in Fig 6.24 (a)
Case 2 : For maximum sagging moment for the interior span BC.
The span BC carries (dead + live) loads while the spans AB and CD carry dead loads only as
shown in Fig 6.25 (a).
Case 3 : For maximum sagging moments at the exterior spans AB and CD.
The spans AB and CD carries (dead-live) loads while the interior span BC carries only dead
load.
Strictly, there shall be a fourth case, which one is mirror reflection of Case 1 as shown in
Fig. 6.22 (a).
All the three cases mentioned above have been considered individually and the elastic bending
moment diagrams at ultimate load and the bending moments after the redistribution of moments
have been drawn as under:
Case 1.
Step 1. Factored load on each span
Span AB
w Fd = (1.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
= (l.5 × 24 + 1.5 × 30) = 81 kN/m ...(i)
Span BC
w Fd = (1.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
= (l.5 × 24 + 1.5 × 30) = 81 kN/m ...(ii)
Span CD
w Fd = (1.0 D.L.)
= (1.0 × 24) = 24 kN/m ...(iii)
Above loads are shown in Fig. 6.24 (a).
Step 2. Factored (design) moments
Elastic bending moments (determined by moment distribution method) are asunder:
Hogging moments at interior supports
MBA = MBC = 443.52 kN-m ...(iv)
MCD = MCD = 289.70 kN-m ...(v)
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(D e ad loa d + L ive lo ad )
(D e ad loa d)
A B C D
6m 6m
(a ) L oa ds o n sp an AB , BC , a nd C D (ca se 1 )
6 48
4 43 .50
1 76 .4 1 42 .74
2 89 .70
3 64 .50 3 6.8 5
2 21 .75 3 66 .61 1 08
2 .08 7 m
4 .17 9 m
(b ) E lastic be nd in g m o m en t d ia gra m (kN -m )
6 48
2 09 .26 8 3 10 .46 4
2 02 .79
3 64 .50 6 .60 5
2 56 .62 7 1 08
2 .36 1 m
4 .72 2 m
(c) B e n din g m om e nt diag ram (kN -m ) after re distrib ution of m om e nts (sta tic e q uilib riu m )
Fig. 6.24 (Case 1)
Sagging moments at mid-span for the spans as below :

⎛ w ⋅ l2 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜ − 0.5 M BA ⎟
⎜ 8 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 443.52 ⎞
= ⎜ − =142.74 kN-m ...(vi)
⎝ 8 2 ⎠⎟
w ⋅l ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞
443.52 − 289.70 ⎞ ⎤
Span BC = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎛⎜ 289.70 + ⎟⎥
⎜ 8 ⎟ ⎢ 2 ⎠⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦
⎡⎛ 81 × 8 × 8 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − (366.61)⎥ = 281.39 kN-m ...(vii)
⎣⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ w ⋅ l2 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ − 0.5 M CD ⎟
⎜ 8 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 289.70 ⎞
= ⎜ − = – 36.85 kN-m ...(viii)
⎝ 8 2 ⎠⎟
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The bending moment shall be maximum where the shear force changes sign.
Reaction at the support A
⎛ 81 × 6 443.50 ⎞
RA = ⎜ − = 169.08 kN ...(ix)
⎝ 2 6 ⎠⎟
Shear force at a section at a distance x from the left support A
Vx = (169.08 – 81 . x) = 0
⎛ 169.08 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.087 m ...(x)
⎝ 81 ⎠
Maximum bending moment
2
⎛ 2.087 ⎞
Mx = ⎜169.08 × 2.08781 ×
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= (352.87 – 176.469) = 176.4 kN-m ...(xi)
Point of contraflexure,
x´
169.08 × x´−81 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 169.08 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.175 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
Free bending moments for the following spans
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Spans AB = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 364.5 kN-m ...(xii)
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 81 × 8 × 8 ⎞
Span BC = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 648 kN-m ...(xiii)
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 108 kN-m ...(xiv)
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
Point of contraflexure
x´
169.08 × x´−81 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 169.08 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.175 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
It is no note that the sum of the values of hogging and sagging moment at the mid-span of
each span shall be equal to the ordinate of free bending moment. For example for mid-span of
⎛ 443.52 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜142.74 + = 364.5 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
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Span BC = (281.39 + 366.61) = 648 kN-m

⎛ 289.70 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ −36.85 + = 108 kN-m
⎝ 20 ⎟⎠
Step 3. Bending moments after Redistribution
IS : 456–1978 permits maximum redistribution equal to 30 percent Hogging moments at
interior supports after redistribution of moments
Support B = MBA = MBC = (0.7 × 443.52) = 310.464 kN-m
Support C = MCB = MCD = (0.7 × 289.70) = 202.79 kN-m
Sagging moments at mid-span for spans as below for equilibrium
⎛ 310.464 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜ Free BM − ⎟⎠ kN-m
⎝ 2
= (364.50 – 155.232) = 209.268 kN-m
⎡ ⎛ 310.464 − 2027.9 ⎞ ⎤
Span BC = ⎢Free BM − ⎜ 202.79 + ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎦
= [648 – (202.79 + 53.837)] kN-m
= [(648 – 256.627)] = 391.373 kN-m
⎡ 202.79 ⎤
Span CD = ⎢Free BM − = kN-m
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
= [(108 – 101.395)] = 6.605 kN-m
Reaction at support A after redistribution of moment
⎛ 81 × 6 310.464 ⎞
RA = ⎜ − ⎟ =191.256 kN
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Shear force at a section at a distance x i from the left support A
Vx1 = 191.256 – 81 x 1 = 0
xx = (191.256/81) = 2.361 m
Maximum bending moment after redistribution occurs at a section where the shear force
changes sign
2
⎛ 81 × 2.361 ⎞
Max. B.M. = ⎜191.256 × 2.361 − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= (451.555 –225.76) kN-m = 225.795 kN-m
Complete bending moment diagram after redistribution of moment is shown in Fig. 6.24 (c).
81 × x´ × x´
191.256 × x´– = 0
2
⎛ 191.256 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.722 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
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Case 2.
Step 1. Factored local an each span
Span AB = wFd = (1.0 D.L.)
= (1.0 × 24) = 24 kN/m ...(i)
Span BC = wFd = (1.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
= (1.5 × 24 + 1.5 × 30) = 81 kN/m ...(ii)
Span CD = wFd = (1.0 × D.L.)
= (l.0 × 24) = 24 kN/m ...(iii)
Above loads are shown in Fig. 6.25 (b).
(D e ad loa d + L ive lo ad )
(D e ad loa d) (D e ad loa d)
A B C D
6m 8m 6m
(a ) L oa ds on sp an s AB , BC , and C D (case 2)
6 48
3 24 3 24 3 24
54 54
1 08 3 24 1 08
(b ) E lastic be nd in g m o m en t d iagra m (kN -m )
6 48
2 26 .80 2 26 .80
5 .40 5 .40
1 08 1 08
(c) B e nd ing m om en t diag ram (kN -m ) a fter red istributio n

o f m o m en t (sta tic e qu ilib riu m )
Fig. 6 .25 (Case 2)

Elastic bending moments (obtained by moment distribution method) are as under:
Hogging moments at interior supports
MBA = MBC = 324 kN-m ...(iv)
MCB = MCD = 324 kN-m ...(v)
⎛ Wl2 324 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 162 ⎟ = – 54 kN-m ...(vi)
⎝ 8 ⎠
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⎛ Wl2 ⎞
Span BC = ⎜ − 324⎟ kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 81 × 8 × 8 ⎞
= ⎜ − 324 ⎟ = 324 kN-m ...(vii)
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 324 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ − kN-m
⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 162 ⎟ = – 54 kN-m ...(viii)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Reaction at the support A
⎛ Wl2 324 ⎞
RA = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ kN
⎝ 2 6 ⎟⎠
⎛ 24 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 54 ⎟ = 18 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
Vx = (18 – 24 . x) = 0
⎛ 18 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 m.
⎝ 24 ⎠
⎛ 24 × 0.752 ⎞
= ⎜18 × 0.75 − ⎟⎟ kN-m
⎜ 2
⎝ ⎠
= (135 – 9.0) = 4.5 kN-m
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 108 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 81 × 8 × 8 ⎞
Span BC = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 648 kN
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 108 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
x´
18 × x´−24 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 18 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5 m
⎝ 24 ⎠
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It is to note that the sum of the values of hogging and sagging moments at the mid-span of
each span shall be equal to the ordinate of free bending moment. For example for mid-span of
Span AB = (– 54 + 162) = 108 kN-m
Span BC = (324 + 324) = 648 kN-m
Span CD = (– 54 + 162) = 108 kN-m
IS : 456–1978 allows maximum redistribution equal to 30 percent.
Hogging moments at interior supports after redistribution of moments
Support B = MBA = MBC = (0.7 × 324)
= 226.80 kN-m
Support C = MCB = MCD = (0.7 × 324)
= 226.80 kN-m.
Sagging moments at mid-span for span as below for equilibrium
⎛ 226.80 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜ Free B.M − kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= (108 –113.40) = – 5.40 kN-m
Span BC = (Free B.M. – 226.80) kN-m
= (648 – 226.80) = 421.20 kN-m
⎛ 226.80 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ Free B.M − kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= (108 –113.40)
= –5.40 kN-m
Reaction at the support A after redistribution of moment,
⎛ 24 × 6 226.80 ⎞
RA = ⎜ − = 34.2 kN
⎝ 2 6 ⎟⎠
Shear force at a section at a distance x x from the left support A
Vx1 = (34.2 – 24 × x 1) = 0
⎛ 34.2 ⎞
xl = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.425 m
⎝ 24 ⎠
Maximum bending moment after redistribution occurs at a section where the shear force
changes sign
⎛ 24 × 1.4252 ⎞
Max. BM = ⎜⎜ 34.2 × 1.425 − ⎟⎟ kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
= (48.735 – 24.368)
= 24.368 kN-m
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Complete bending moment diagram after is redistribution of moments is shown in Fig

6.25 (c).
x´
34.2 × x´−24 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 34.2 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.85 m
⎝ 24 ⎠
Case 3
Step 1. Factored load an each span
Span AB = W Fd = (1.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
= (l.5 × 24 + 1.5 × 30) = 81 kN/m ...(i)
Span BC = wFd = (1.0 × D.L)
= (1.0 × 24) = 24 kN/m ...(ii)
Span CD = wFd = (l.5 D.L. + 1.5 L.L.)
= (l.5 × 24 + 1.5 × 30) = 81 kN/m ...(iii)
Above loads are shown in Fig. 6.26 (a).
Elastic bending moment (Found by moment distribution method) are as under:
Hogging moments at the interior supports
MBA = MBC = 206.84 kN-m ...(iv)
MCB = MCD = 206.84 kN-m ...(v)
⎛ Wl2 206.84 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 103.42 ⎟ = 261.08 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞
Span BC = ⎜⎜ − 206.84 ⎟ kN-m
⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 24 × 6 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 103.42 ⎟ = – 14.85 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 206.84 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 8 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 ⎞
= ⎜ − 103.42⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
= 261.08 kN-m
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Reaction at the Support A
⎛ 81 × 6 206.84 ⎞
RA = ⎜ − kN
⎝ 2 6 ⎟⎠
= 208.53 kN
(D e ad lo a d + L ive lo ad ) (D e ad lo a d + L ive lo ad )
(D e ad lo a d)
A B C D
6m 8m 6m
(a ) L oa ds o n sp an s AB , BC , an d C D (c ase 3)
3 64 .50 3 64 .50
2 06 .84 1 4.8 5 2 06 .84
1 03 .48 1 92 1 03 .42
(b ) E lastic b e nd in g m o m en t d ia gra m (k N -m )
3 64 .50 3 64 .50
1 92
1 44 .78 8
(c) B e nd in g m om en t d ia g ram (kN -m ) a fte r re d istrib utio n o f

m o m e n t (sta tic e qu ilib riu m )
Fig. 6.26 (Case 3)

Vx = 208.53 – 81 × x = 0
⎛ 208.53 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.574 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
⎛ 2.5742 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 208.53 × 2.574 − 81 × ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= (536.756 – 268.332)
= 268.425 kN-m
x´
208.53 × x´−81 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 208 × 8 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.149 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
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⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 364 50 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 24 × 8 × 8 ⎞
Span BC = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 192 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ Wl2 ⎞ ⎛ 81 × 6 × 6 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 364 50 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
It is to note that the sum of the values of hogging and sagging moments at the mid-span of
each span shall be equal to the ordinate of free bending moment. For example for
⎛ 206.84 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜ 261.08 + = 364.50 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Span BC = (–14.85 + 206.84) = 192 kN-m
⎛ 206.84 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ 261.08 + = 364.50 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
IS : 456–1978 permits maximum redistribution equal to 30 m percent. Hogging moments at
interior supports after redistribution of moments.
Support B = MBA = MBC = (0.7 × 206.84) = 144.788 kN-m
Support C = MCD = MCD = (0.7 × 206.84) = 144.788 kN-m
Sagging moments at mid-span for span as below for equilibrium
⎛ 144.788 ⎞
Span AB = ⎜ free B.M − ⎟⎠ kN-m
⎝ 2
= (364.50 – 72.394) = 292.106 kN-m
Span BC = (free B.M. –144.788) kN-m
= (192 –144.788) = 47.212 kN-m
⎛ 144.788 ⎞
Span CD = ⎜ free B.M − ⎟⎠ kN-m
⎝ 2
= (364.50 – 72.394) = 292.106 kN-m
Reaction at the support A after redistribution of moment
RA = ⎛ 81 × 6 − 144.788 ⎞ = 218.868 kN
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 2 ⎠
Shear force at a section at a distance x x from the left support A
Vx1 = (218.868 – 81 × x 1) = 0
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⎛ 218.866 ⎞
x1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 2.702 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
x´
218.866 × x´−81 × x´× = 0
2
⎛ 218.866 × 2 ⎞
x´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.404 m
⎝ 81 ⎠
Maximum bending moment after redistribution occurs at a section where the shear forces
changes sign.
2
⎛ 81 × 2.702 ⎞
Max. B.M. = ⎜ 218.866 × 2.702 − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 295.681 kN-m
Complete bending moment diagram after redistribution of moments is shown in Fig. 6.26 (c).
Three elastic bending moment diagrams shown in Fig. 6.24 (b), Fig. 6.25 (b) and Fig. 6.26 (b)
are then superimposed as shown in Fig. 6.27. The hogging and sagging bending moments of
case 1 for spans AB and B C predominate. Whereas the sagging moments of case 3 predominate
for span CD.
(a ) E lastic be nd in g m o m ent d ia gra m s
(b ) B e nd in g m om en t d ia g ram s (a fte r re distributio n,

static e quilib riu m )
In de x
(C a se 1 ), C ase 2 ), (Case 3 )
Fig. 6.27 Superimposed bending moment diagrams
For comparison, the elastic moment envelope may be drawn from dotted lines for strains AB
and BC and from firm line for span CD. The elastic moment envelope may be legitimately be
used to proportion the beam sections for the limit state of collapse in flexure. The use of the
redistributed moments as shown in Fig. 6.27 (b) leads to a more even distribution of reinforcement
throughout the beam and also to some overall saving in steel.
When the beam is finally designed, a check should be made that ∆M needed ratios do not
violate the condition specified in the code IS : 456–1978. The ratios of effective depth of neutral
axis to effective depth of beam, (x u/d), as finally designed must not exceed 0.3 at B.
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6.24 CURTAILMENT OF STEEL BARS IN CONTINUOUS BEAM

British code of Practice, CP 100 has recommended simplified rules for the curtailment of steel
bars in the continuous beams of equal spans as follows :
1. At least 20 percent of the tension steel bars at the support should continue through the
spans of the remainder half (viz., fifty percent) should extend a distance 0.25 × 1 or 45 times φ,
(the diameter of bar) whichever is greater, and the other half should extend a distance of 0.15
× l or 45 times whichever is greater.
2. At least 30 percent of the tension steel bars at mid-span should extend to the support.
The remainder should extend within 0.15 × l of the interior supports and 0.10 × l of the exterior
supports.
3. At simply supported end, the detailing should be as given for the slabs.
6.25 FIRE RESISTANCE

The fire resistance of a beam depends on the width of beam and the concrete cover to the main
reinforcement. For example, if the concrete cover is not less than 25 mm and the width of beam
is not less than 110 mm, then, the fire resistance may be taken as at least one hour. For the
further details, the reference may be to British Code of Practice, CP 110.
PROBLEMS
6.1 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span L carrying an ultimate uniformly distributed load.
Draw bending moment diagram for 20 percent redistribution.
6.2 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span 6.20 m carries an ultimate uniformly distributed
load of 24 kN/m. Draw bending moment diagram after redistribution of moments.
6.3 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span 5.8 carries a concentrated ultimate load of 80 kN at
a distance 2.4 m from the left support and at a distance 3.4 m from the right support. Draw
bending moment diagram after redistribution of moments.
6.4 A reinforced concrete fixed beam of span 6.6 m carries two concentrated loads of 20 kN each
at a distance 2.2 m, that is, at one-third points. Draw bending moment envelope after
redistribution of moments.
6.5 A reinforced concrete continuous beam consists of two spans each of 6 m. The characteristic
dead load is 18 kN/m and the characteristic live load of 24 kN/m. Draw bending moment
envelope after maximum redistribution.
6.6 A reinforced concrete continues beam consists of three spans. The exterior spans AB and CD
are 5.4 m each and the interior span BC is 6.8 m. The characteristic dead load (inclusive of
self-weight) is 20 kN/m and the characteristic imposed load is 32 kN/m. Draw bending moment
envelope (or the maximum moment diagram) for the ultimate condition.
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PART IV : DESIGN OF SLABS
Design of Slabs Spanning

7 in One Direction
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The reinforced concrete slabs may be supported on two parallel (opposite) long edges only and
free of any support along the two parallel (opposite) short edges. The structural action of the
slab is essentially one-way. The loads are carried by the slab in the direction perpendicular to
the supporting beams (supports) as shown in Fig. 7.1. Such slabs are called as slabs spanning
in one direction. These are also called as one-way slabs.
W a ll/be a m
O ne -w a y
S lab sla b
spa n
W a ll / b e am
Fig. 7.1 Slab spanning along one direction
The reinforced concrete slabs may also be supported on all its four sides as shown in Fig. 7.2.
The structural action of the slab is two-way. The loads are carried by the slab along its short
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span, (viz. the width of slab) and along its long span, (viz., the length of slab in different
proportions) depending upon the ratio of long span to short span. In case, the ratio of long span
to short span is more than 2, the most of the load is carried along the short direction to the
supporting sides and the structural action is practically one-way, even though the supports are
provided on all the four sides. In such cases of the slabs, the slabs are designed as spanning in
one direction (viz., one-way).
The short strip is subjected to significant bending moment and hence curvature almost complete
length of slab. The long strip essentially remains flat and practically without bending moment
except near the supports.
A C
(S ho rt spa n)
W id th = L x x
B e am
S lab
w idth
spa n
1m
B D
L en gth = L y y
(L on g sp an )
Fig. 7.2
The slabs spanning in one-direction (viz., in the direction of bending one-way) are analysed
and designed identical to that for a rectangular beam of one metre (1000 mm), width in cross-
section as shown in Fig. 7.3 and clear span as AB. Figure 7.2 (viz., the distance between
supporting sides). The curvature and consequently bending moments are same in all the strips
spanning in the short direction between the supported sides. The curvature and the bending
moment along the long strips parallel to the supporting edges remain zero. As such, a one-way
slab consists of a set of rectangular beams placed side by side.
Because of the membrane action of the slab [Reference : ACI Committee 224 ‘Cracking
Deflection and Ultimate Load of Concrete Slab System’ (ACI Publication SP–30), American
Concrete Institute Detroit 1971, and Wood R.H. ‘Slab design : past, present and future
(a paper in this SP 30), (pp 203–21), the real strength of slabs are much higher than, say, the
so called upper bound values given by yield line analysis.
M 15 and M 20 grades are commonly used for the concrete in slabs. Similarly, mild steel bars
and hysd-steel bars are commonly used as reinforcement for the slabs.
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Design of Slabs Spanning in One Direction 459
σc bc
b = 1 00 0 m m
C
C o ncrete in co m pre ssion
N A O
N e utral axis jd = ( d – n /3)
con crete in ten sion (n eg le cted ) (d – n )
T
S S S C o ve r ( σs t /m )
(a ) S lab (b ea m ) section (b ) B e nd in g stress

A s t = A re a of stee l in te nsio n d istribu tio n diag ra m
S = C e n tre to ce n tre sp a cing of b ars
Fig. 7.3
7.2 DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN ONE DIRECTION

One-way slab is designed as a rectangular beam of one metre width (1000 mm) in cross-section
as shown in Fig. 7.3 as a balanced section to satisfy the strength requirement (viz., limit state
in collapse in flexure). The grade of concrete and the quality of steel bars to be used for
reinforcement are decided. The slab is designed following the steps described below.
Step 1. Following values of limiting ratios (x u.max/d) for the grade of concrete and quality of
the steel are noted from IS : 456–1978 for the balanced section.
Characteristic value of steel, fy Values of limiting ratios (xu.max/d)
250 N/mm2 0.53
*0.531
415 N/mm2 0.48
*0.479
500 N/mm2 0.46
*0.456
Various letter symbols used above have been already introduced in Chapter 3 (design of
singly reinforced rectangular beams).
Step 2. For calculating the factored (design) bending moment and shear force occurring at
any sections, the effective span is required.
7.2.1 Effective Span

(i) For simply supported slabs. The effective span, ES for the simply supported slab is found as
for such beams as described in Art. 3.19. The effective span is that calculated from Eqs. 3.43
and 3.44 and whichever is less.
(ii) For cantilever slabs. The effective span ES is calculated from Eq. 3.45.
(iii) For continuous slabs. The effective span ES is decided by considering the support width
and restraint conditions for the end span as described in Art. 6.2.
* These values are noted from (SP 16–1980)
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Step 3. For calculating maximum bending moment and shear force, it is also necessary to
know the types of loads to be supported by the slab.
Loads. The dead loads of materials attached and supported by the slab are obtained by
knowing the unit weight of the materials. The self-weight of the slab is calculated by estimating
the thickness of slab. The width of slab for design is taken as width of beam as 1000 mm.
7.2.2 Estimation of Thickness of Slab

The thickness of slab is estimated by considering the span/depth ratio described in Art. 3.22
depending upon end restraint conditions. Exact depth necessary to resist the resulting maximum
bending moment is obtained in the subsequent steps.
The self-weight of slab may be found by considering unit area of slab and thickness of the
slab. The self-weight of slab shall be the unit-weight of reinforced concrete multiplied by volume
of concrete as above. It is added to the dead loads attached.
The intensity of uniformly distributed live load per square metre is noted from IS : 875–1984
for the type of floor and its use (e.g., residential, class room, hostel, restaurant or workshop).
Total load to be supported by slab per unit length along the short span is obtained. The
characteristic values of loads so obtained shall be multiplied by the partial safety factor for
loads, γfL and factored (design) load is found.
Step 4. Required thickness of slab is determined after calculating the factored (design) bending
moment, MFd resulting due to the factored (design) load, the effective span of the slab and the
support conditions.
(i) For slabs simply supported over supports. The factored (design) bending moment, MFd
for uniformly distributed load over the whole span occurs at the centre and MFd is calculated as
W FdL/8 where W Fd is ultimate load and L is the effective span of the slab.
(ii) For slabs continuous over supports. The slabs continuous over supports are designed
by calculating the bending moments for the continuous beams used the bridges and as described
in Chapter 6.
(iii) For slabs monolithic with supports. IS : 456–1978 recommends that the bending
moments in slabs constructed monolithically with the supports shall be calculated by taking
such slabs either as continuous over supports and capable of free rotation, or as members of
continuous framework with the supports, taking into account the stiffness of such supports. If
such supports are formed due to beams which justify fixity at the support of slabs, then the
effects on the supporting beam, such as, the bending of the web in the transverse direction of
the beam and the torsion in the longitudinal direction of the beam, wherever applicable, shall
also be considered in the design of the beam.
For the purpose of calculation of moments in slabs in a monolithic structure, it will generally
be sufficiently accurate to assume that the members to the ends of such slab are fixed in
position and direction at the ends from their connections with the slabs.
7.2.3 Effective Depth of Slab

One-way slab is designed as a beam of 1000 mm width as balanced section. As such the factored
(design) bending moment due to external loads, MFd is equated to moment of resistance of the
beam section calculated from compressive force in concrete. Therefore,
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Mc.cu = MFd (3 b = 1000 mm)

(0.36 fck . b . xu)(d – 0.43xu) = MFd ...(7.1)
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞ 2
(0.36 fck . ⎜
d ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bd = MFd ...(7.2)
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
In Eq. 7.2 fck, (xud), b and MFd are known. Therefore, the effective depth, d is obtained by
solving Eq. 7.2. A suitable concrete cover as described in step 5 is added to the effective depth,
d and the overall depth of slab, D (thickness of slab) is suitably round-off. It is compared with
the estimated thickness assumed above. It is seen that these two values do not differ much.
Step 5. A certain thickness of concrete cover outside of the outermost surface of the steel
reinforcement bars for the reasons described in Art. 3.18 as recommended by IS : 456–1978 as
follows :
7.2.4 Cover to Reinforcement

The clear cover for the reinforcement (for tension, compression or shear or any other) shall be
15 mm minimum.
The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should usually be 5 mm less than the
minimum cover to the reinforcement (viz., 15–5 = 10 mm).
Step 6. Following reinforcements are provided in slabs.
7.2.4.1 Main Reinforcement

The steel bars are provided as reinforcement to satisfy the strength requirement. The steel
bars provided as main reinforcement are provided along the span of slab (viz., short side).
The area of steel reinforcement in tension, Ast is calculated from Eq. 3.41 by equating
MT .su = MFd ...(v)
0.87 fy . Ast . (d – 0.42 xu) = MFd ...(7.3)
⎡ M Fd ⎤
Ast = ⎢ ⎥ ...(7.4)
⎣⎢ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ (d − 0.42xu ) ⎦⎥
The value of x u shall be substituted as under
0.36 fck . b . xu = 0.87 fy . Ast
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
∴ xu = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.5)
⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⎠
The area of steel for main reinforcement is determined by solving the quadratic equation so
obtained for Ast.
8 mm, 10 mm and 12 mm diameter bars are usually used for the main reinforcement bars.
1
As per IS : 456–1978, the diameter of reinforcing bars shall not exceed th of the total
8
thickness of the slab. Instead of deciding the number of bars used as tension reinforcement,
in beams, the spacing of bars, s is found as follows by consider 1 m width of slab as shown in
Fig. 7.3 (a).
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The number of bars in 1 m (1000 mm) provided at a spacing, s from centre to centre of
adjacent bars
1000
= ...(vi)
s
In case, Aφ the area of cross-section of the bar used, then the number of bars in 1 m may also
be written as below :
Ast
= ...(vii)
Aφ
Equating the expressions (vi) and (vii),
Ast 1000
= ...(viii)
Aφ s
⎛ 1000 ⋅ Aφ ⎞
or s = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.6)
⎝ Ast ⎠
The requirements for reinforcement for maximum reinforcement, spacing of reinforcement
and minimum distance between individual bars have been described in Art. 3.17 for
reinforcement in beams. The reasons for providing the limit for maximum reinforcement are
partially for economy (as the saving in steel associated with increasing the effective depth is
more than to compensate for the cost of the additional concrete) and partially because thin
slabs with high steel ratios would be likely to allow large deflections, IS : 456–1978 recommends
for the minimum reinforcement in slabs as under:
The reinforcement in either direction in slabs shall not be less than 0.15 per cent of the total
cross-sectional area (viz., bD). However this value can be reduced to 0.12 percent when high
yield strength deformed bars are used.
IS : 456–1978 has specified this requirement for the minimum value of the main reinforcement
to resist the stresses developed due to temperature and shrinkage. The minimum area of
reinforcement recommended is empirical. It is intended to take care of shrinkage and
temperature stresses. This reinforcement is called distribution reinforcement.
7.2.4.2 Distribution Reinforcement

The distribution reinforcement, Ad in one-way slab is provided in the direction (parallel to long
span) perpendicular to the main reinforcement (provided in the direction parallel to short span).
The requirement for the distribution reinforcement has been specified in IS : 456–1978 as the
requirement for the minimum reinforcement described in above paragraph. Usually 6 mm and
8 mm diameter bars are used for the distribution reinforcement. The spacing for the distribution
reinforcement bars, sd is calculated as below:
⎛ 1000 × Aφ ⎞
sd = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ad ⎠
The necessity for providing the temperature and shrinkage reinforcement has been described
in the subsequent articles separately.
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7.2.4.3 Spacing of Reinforcement

The spacing of steel bars for the main reinforcement is governed by the crack control requirements
as explained for beams in Art. 3.32.
The horizontal distance (viz., the spacing) between parallel main reinforcement bars as
calculated from Eq. 7.6 shall not be more than three times the effective depth of a solid slab or
450 mm whichever is smaller.
The horizontal distance (viz., spacing) between parallel reinforcement bars provided against
shrinkage and temperature shall not be more than five times the effective depth of a solid slab
or 450 mm, whichever is smaller.
The shear force in slab seldom controls the design of one-way slabs, specially if small tensile
steel percentage is used. It will be seen that the shear resisting capacity of the concrete, τc . bd,
will almost without exception be well above the needed strength at the service loads.
All the tensile reinforcement bars resisting the positive moment are either kept straight and
carries into the support or 50% are bent up into the compression zone. The bars are provided
with sufficient anchorage. The location of the bent up bars is based on the requirement of area
of steel only. The straight bars are usually extended into the support at least 150 mm. The
locations for bent up bars at the bottom face and at the top face from the support have been
described in detail in Chapter 6, design of continuous beams.
The total thickness of slab is usually rounded to the next higher 6 mm for slab upto 150 mm
thickness, and to the next higher 12 mm for thicker slabs.
Step 7. The slab designed for limit state of collapse in flexure (viz., for the strength
requirement) as above shall be checked for the limit state of serviceability described in the
subsequent article.
7.3 TEMPERATURE AND SHRINKAGE REINFORCEMENT

Concrete structural components need extensive consideration for the effects of temperature
specially for safety against fire in buildings. In the design of roof slabs, spanning in one direction,
concrete tanks which are used to store hot liquids, concrete chimneys, and expansion joints in
concrete in roads and airport payments, the effects of temperature are seen with all importance.
The tensile strength of concrete is very small. The concrete cracks even at low values of tensile
strain 0.00015. The change in temperature develops tensile strains and results in cracking of
concrete. The extent of cracks depends upon the coefficient of thermal expansion of the concrete
and the variation of daily temperature.
7.3.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete, α

The change in unit length of a concrete structural component caused due to one degree change
in temperature’is called as coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction of coderetre, α. It
depends on the type of cement, aggregate used, the quantity of cement in concrete mix, the
relative humidity and dimensions of structural component section. The value of coefficient of
thermal expansion of concrete α is 0.000010 per °C. The value of thermal expansion for concrete
with quartzite, sandstone, granite, basalt and limestone coarse aggregates are given in IS :
456–1978. These values range from 1.3 × 10–5 to 6 × l0–5 per °C. In case the structural
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components are rigidly connected to the immovable supports, then, the tensile stresses develop.
It is worth to note that the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is practically same as that
for the concrete. Therefore, there is no differential temperature stresses between the steel bars
provided as reinforcement and the surrounding concrete.
7.3.2 Variation in Temperature

The variation in daily temperature depends upon season. This variation in winter is less and in
summer is more. There may be maximum daily variation of about 22°C in summer.
For the variation of about 22°C in daily temperature, a strain equal to α.∆T = 0.10 × 10–4 ×
22 = 0.0022 may develop and the concrete will crack. For M 15 grade of concrete, the value of
coefficient of thermal expansion, α is 0.10 × 10–4. The value of Young’s modulus of Elasticity Ec
is 5700 fck = 5700 15 = 2.2074 × 10+4 N/mm2. The stress developed for one degree change in
temperature is
1 ⋅ α × Ec 1 × 0.10 × 10 −4 × 2.2074 × 10 +4
= = 0.2759 N/mm2
(1 − v ) (1 − 0.2)
and the tensile stress developed for 22°C change in temperature is
22 × 0.10 × 10 +4 × 2.2074 × 10 +4
= 6.07 N/mm2. The estimated tensile strength of M 15
(1 − 0.2)
grade of concrete is 0.7 fck = 0.7 15 = 2.711 N/mm2. The value of tensile stress 6.07 N/mm2
is more than the tensile strength of the concrete. Therefore, the cracking of this concrete occurs.
Even a variation of 2.711/0.2759 = 9.826°C in temperature is sufficient to crack the concrete.
In the design of roof slabs, concrete arches and prestressed concrete structures, it is essential
to consider the effects of shrinkage. Total shrinkage of concrete depends upon the constituents
of concrete, size of the member and the environmental conditions. The concrete shrinks as the
wet cement paste hardens. The shrinkage of concrete is approximately proportional to the
quantity of cement paste in the concrete regardless of the composition of the paste. By using
the smallest quantity of water and cement compatible with other requirements (such as strength
and workability) and by thorough moist curing of sufficient duration, the shrinkage in concrete
may be minimised. High relative humidity also reduces the extent of shrinkage. The saturation
usually eliminates shrinkage or may cause slight expansion.
The linear coefficient of shrinkage varies from 0.00025 to 0.00050. The approximate value
of the total shrinkage strain for design may be taken as 0.0003 (as per IS : 456–1978), which
corresponds to tensile stress of 5.25 N/mm2, tensile stresses will develop in a concrete member
in case it is restrained and the decrease in length due to shrinkage is not allowed. For M 15
grade of concrete, the estimated tensile strength is 0.7 15 = 2.2074 N/mm2, which one is less
than the tensile stress 5.25 N/mm2 developed. As a result of which, the random cracks will
develop in the roof slabs. This causes the weakening of strength of concrete and it may aggrevate
the disintegration. Besides taking all the precautions, the shrinkage of concrete in small extent
is normally unavoidable.
The combined effect of temperature and shrinkage is to develop tensile stresses which develop
cracks in concrete.
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The temperature and shrinkage reinforcement (viz., distribution reinforcement) is provided

to counteract the expansion and contraction and resists the stresses developed due to these
effects jointly or individually. The purpose of providing the distribution reinforcement is to knit
the structure together and to avoid the localised cracks. The cracks are distributed in such a
way that the numerous very small cracks (which remain often invisible to eyes) are formed.
These hair line cracks are not detrimental. As a result of distribution reinforcement provided,
the few large cracks do not form. The distribution reinforcement is provided in the direction
normal (parallel to long span) to the main reinforcement (provided parallel to short span) in
floors and roof slabs where the main reinforcement extends in one direction only. The reinforcing
bars of small diameter and in sufficient area are provided as close to the surfaces as practicable.
Hysd-bars with irregular surfaces keep mechanical bonds with the concrete and these bars are
more effective in distributing the cracks than round mild steel bars which are having smooth
surface.
The area of temperature and shrinkage reinforcement depends upon the conditions and
degree to which these cracks are to be reduced. In water tight construction, more distribution
reinforcement should be provided. The area of steel that is needed to distribute the cracks is not
definite. IS : 456–1978 recommends that the distribution (minimum) reinforcement may be
assumed not less than 0.15 per cent of the total cross-section of concrete. It may be assumed as
0.12 per cent when the high strength deformed bars are used.
7.4 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

In the design of slab, the real criterion is often serviceability particularly the limit state of
deflection. The slab designed for the strength requirement shall be checked by the requirement
of the serviceability. The procedure for calculating the deflections applies equally to slabs.
However, in all the normal cases, it is sufficient to control deflection by limiting the span/depth
ratio as explained in Art. 3.22.
As regards the limit state of cracking, the specifications recommended in IS : 456–1978
as regards the spacing between the steel bars are in general sufficient for most design.
Example 7.1 Design a simply supported slab over a class-room of size 5 m × 10 m. A finishing
surface of cement concrete of 20 mm shall be provided over the slab. The slab shall be used as
a class-room floor. M15 grade of concrete and mild steel reinforcement shall be used.
Solution
Design : The class-room of given size is shown in Fig. 7.4.
The clear length and clear width of the class-room are 10 m and 5 m respectively.
The ratio of clear length to clear width
10
= 2 ...(i)
5
The slab is to be designed as slab spanning in one direction over the clear span of 5 m. The
section of slab is designed as a beam ABCD of 1 m width as shown in Fig. 7.4 and as balanced
section, following the steps described as below :
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Step 1. Design constants

The design constants for M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel reinforcement for the balanced
section are as follows :
From IS : 456–1978 for fy = 250 N/mm2
(x u.max/d) = 0.53 ...(i)
A D
0 .3 m
C la ss R oo m
5m
B e am
w id th
1m
0 .3 m
B C
10 m
Fig. 7 4
Step 2. Estimation of slab thickness

The thickness of effective is estimated from span to effective depth ratio specified for satisfactory
control of the vertical deflection in IS : 456–1978. Therefore, the effective depth, d for the
simply supported slab
Span
d = ...(ii)
20 × modification factor
For M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel reinforcement, the percentage ratio of steel for the
balanced section, pb.lim is 1.316 percent and therefore, the modification factor is 1.6. Therefore,
5 × 1000
d = = 156.25 mm
20 × 1.6
The overall thickness of slab may be assumed as 200 mm and the effective cover may be
considered as 20 mm. Therefore, the effective depth (estimated) may be taken as 180 mm.
The slab is designed as beam over a clear span of 5000 mm. The width of supporting walls is
assumed as 300 mm. Therefore, the effective span
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ES = ⎜ 5000 + × 3000 + × 300⎟ = 5300 mm
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
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or ES = (5000 + 180) = 5180 mm,

whichever is less. Therefore, the effective span, L is 5.180 m.
Step 4. Load
The dead load consists of weight of finishing surface of cement concrete and the self weight
of the slab. These loads are calculated for unit area of the slab.
Self-weight of the slab
(1×1 × 0.20) × 25 = 5.00 kN/m2
Weight of finishing surface
(1 ×1 × 0.020) × 24 = 0.48 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load = 5.48 kN/m
Live load for the floor for class-room
(1 × 1) × 4 = 4.00 kN/m2
Characteristic live load = 4.00 kN/m
The intensity of uniformly distributed factored (design) load per 1 metre length along AB,
Fig. 7.4 acting over the simply supported beam ABCD
w Fd = (1.5 × 5.48 + 1.5 × 4.00) kN/m
= 14.22 kN/m ...(iii)
Step 5. Factored (design) Maximum bending Moment
The maximum bending moment, M for the simply supported beam occurs at the centre
wFd 14.22 × 5.18 × 5.18
MFd = =
8 8
= 47.695 kN-m
Step 6. Required Effective depth, d and overall thickness
For the balanced section of 1 m wide beam, (viz., b = 1000 mm).
From Eq. 7.2
⎛ xu ⎞ ⎛ xu ⎞ 2
⎜ d ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bd = MFD
0.36fck .
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
0.36 × 15 × 0.53 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.53) × 1000 d2 = 14.22 × 106
0.1483 × 15 × 1000 × d2 = 14.22 × 106
d = 79.95 mm
Effective cover = 20 mm
Overall thickness = (79.95 + 20)
= 99.95 mm
Assume overall depth D (thickness) as 175 mm
Therefore, the effective depth, d is 155 mm
(Span/effective depth) ratio
5 × 1000
= 32.26 @ 132
155
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Step 7. Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension

From Eq. 7.5
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
xu = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⎠
Substituting this in Eq. 7.3
⎡ ⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⎞ ⎤
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ ⎢d − ⎜ ⎥ = MFD
⎣⎢ ⎝ 0.36 fck ⋅ b ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
Substituting the numerical values
⎡ ⎛ 0.87 × 250 × Ast ⎞ ⎤ 6
0.87 × 250 × Ast ⎢155 – 0.42 × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 14.22 × 10
⎣ ⎝ 0.36 × 15 × 1000 ⎠⎦
3.37125 ×104 Ast– 3.6794 Ast2 =14.22 ×106
Ast2 – 9162.499 Ast + 3864786.8 = 0

Therefore, Ast = 443.247 mm2
Step 8. Spacing of main Reinforcement
Provide 10 mm φ mild steel bars
Aφ = 78.54 mm2
Centre to centre spacing between main steel bars
1000 × Aφ 1000 × 78.54
s = = = 177.19 mm
Ast 443.247
Provide 10 mm φ mild steel bars at 150 mm centre to centre spacing between the adjacent
bars, parallel to short span, AB Fig. 7.4. The clear spacing (50 – 10 = 40 mm) is more than the
diameter of bar and it is also more than (5 mm + size of the aggregate say 10 mm). The
maximum allowable spacing is 3 × effective depth (3 × 155 = 465 mm) or 450 mm.
Step 9. Clear cover for main Reinforcement
⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜ 20 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 20 − 2 ⎟ = 15 mm
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
and it is not less than the diameter of bar, 10 mm.
Step 10. Distribution Reinforcement
The mild steel distribution reinforcement, Ad (formerly called as temperature and shrinkage
reinforcement) is provided as minimum reinforcement parallel to long span
0.15
Ad = × Cross-sectional area
100
or A d = 0.15 × 1000 × 175 = 262.5 mm2

100
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Provide 8 mm mild steel bars

Aφ = 50.265 mm2
The spacing of distribution reinforcement bars
sd = 1000 × 50.265 =191.485 mm

262.5
(say) = 150 mm, (centre to centre)
The maximum allowable horizontal clear distance between parallel reinforcement bars
provided against temperature and shrinkage is
(5 × effective depth = 5 × 155 = 775 mm)
or 450 mm whichever is less. Actual spacing is less than maximum allowable.
The details of main reinforcement in tension and the distribution of reinforcement are shown
in Fig. 7.5.
1 0 m m φ m ild ste el ba rs
@ 1 50 m m c/c
1 75 m m
8 m m φ m ild stee l
0 .4 m b ars @ 1 50 m m c/c 0 .4 m
0 .3 5m 0 .3
Fig. 7.5
Alternate main steel bars have been bent up near the supports. These bars may be bent 0.15
of span short of the support (viz., 0.15 × 5.18 = 0.777 m). However, these bars have been bent
at 0.4 m from the face of support.
Step 11. Check for the Development Length at Support
Ld
(a) The minimum length of bar embedded into the simple support is
3
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ φ ⎞ ⎛ 0.87 × 250 × 10 ⎞

Ld = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 543.75 mm
⎝ 4 τbd ⎠ ⎝ 4 × 1.00 ⎠
Ld ⎛ 543.75 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 181.25 mm
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
Actual length of the bar embedded into the support (viz., width of support-end cover = 300–
25 = 275 mm).
(b) At simple supports or at point of zero moments, the following condition of development
length should also be satisfied. That is,
⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞
Ld > ⎜ + L0 ⎟
⎝ V ⎠
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Actual area of steel in tension near supports

1 ⎛ 443.247 × 177.19 ⎞ 2
= × ⎟ mm
2 ⎜⎝ 150 ⎠
= 261.8 mm2
The moment of resistance of section at support for the available reinforcement in tension.
Alternate bars bent up
⎛ Ast . fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
250 × 261.8 × 155 ⎛ 261.8 × 250 ⎞

or M1 = 0.87 × ⎜1 − 1000 × 155 × 15 ⎟
1000 × 1000 ⎝ ⎠
= 8.577 kN-m
The shear force at support
14.22 × 5.18
V Fd = = 36.83 kN-m
2
M1 8.577
VFd = 36.83 = 0.233 m
The anchorage length beyond the centre of support
⎛b ⎞
L0 = ⎜ s − x´+13 φ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 300 ⎞
⎜ − 15 + 13 × 10 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
or L0 = = 0.265 m
1000
⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞
⎜ V + L0 ⎟ = (1.3 × 0.233 + 0.265) = 0.568 m
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1.3M1 ⎞
Ld = 0.544 m does not exceed ⎜ + L0 ⎟ = 0.568 m.
⎝ V ⎠
Hence, it is safe for the anchorage length.
Step 12. The shear force in slabs used to be very small and the slabs do not need shear
reinforcement.
7.5 SLAB CONTINUOUS OVER WALLS

The slabs spanning in one direction (supported on all the four edges or supported on two
opposite longitudinal edges may be continuous over more than two wall supports and which
may cover more than one short spans as shown in Fig. 7.6 (a). The slab is continuous over
short spans lx1 , lx2 and lx3. .
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The ratio of long span to short span for each panel is more than 2. Therefore, the slab is
considered as one way (slab spanning in one direction) continuous slab. This slab is designed
as a continuous rectangular beam ABCD, Fig. 7.6 (a) having one metre width (1000 mm) in its
cross-section as shown in Fig. 7.3 as a balanced section. The deflection shape of this continuous
beam carrying uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. 7.6 (b). The bending moment and
shear force diagrams for the beam ABCD are shown in Figs. 7.6 (c) and (d), respectively. It is
seen from Fig. 7.6 (c) that the bending moments are positive at mid-spans and negative at
supports. The design of continuous beams has been described in Chapter 6.
A B C D
W idth = 1 m
ly
lx 1 lx 2 lx 3
(a ) S lab con tinu ou s over w alls

L oa d p e r un it le ng th
(b ) D e fle cted sha p e o f slab
(c) B e n din g m om en t diag ram
(d ) S h ea r force diag ram
Fig. 7.6
The effective spans for various individual spans for different conditions of supports (for end
span with one end fixed and for end spans with one end free) are found as described in Art. 6.2
and as recommended in IS : 456–1978.
The assumptions as regards relative stiffness and moment of inertia for the structural analysis
(viz., for the determination of bending moments and shears) should be consistent for all members
of the structure throughout the analysis.
The arrangement of live load over the various span for calculating the maximum values of
bending moments and shears (at supports and at mid-spans) depends upon the influence lines
for the beam. It has been described in detail in Art. 6.6.
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The critical sections and coefficients for moments for the continuous beams as recommended
by IS : 456–1978 have been described in Arts. 6.3 and 6.4, respectively. The span moments
(near middle of end span and near the middle of interior span) and support moments (at
support next to the end support and at all other interior supports) are calculated for the total
uniformly distributed load per unit length acting over the beam of one metre width.
L oa d p er un it le ng th
S lab
S p an
a a
(a ) C o ntinu o us b ea m
(b ) S h ear force diag ram
Th eo re tica l
BM
M od ifie d
BM
M1 M2
(c) B e ndin g m om en t diag ram
Fig. 7.7
The critical sections and coefficients for shear for the continuous beams are recommended by
IS : 456–1978 have been described in Arts. 6.10 and 6.11, respectively. The shear force at the
end support, at support next to the end support (outer side and inner side) and at all other
interior supports are found for the load acting over the beam.
In actual construction, the support walls have definite width. In theoretical analysis, the
support provides concentrated reactions along a line). The values of bending moment are
modified due to the effect of support-width as shown in Fig. 7.7. It is seen that the values of
bending moment at support reduce. The values of shear force remain maximum at the face of
support. Therefore, it is not necessary to calculate the shear forces at the lines of actions of
support reactions.
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The details of reinforcement in compression and tension at the supports and those of
reinforcement in tension at mid-span have been described in Arts. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9.
The slab spanning in one direction and continuous over wall supports may be designed
following the various steps described above.
Example 7.3 Three garages are to be built side by side with masonry walls as shown in Fig.
7.6. The clear dimensions of each garage are 4 m and 10 m. A continuous reinforced concrete
slab is to be provided to roof the garages. A finishing surface 20 mm thick shall be provided
over the roof. The roof shall be used as the residential floor. Design the slab.
Solution
Design : The ratio of long span to short span is 10/4 = 2.5 for slab over each garage. As such
the slab is designed as slab spanning in one direction (viz., one way slab) over the clear span of
4 m. The slab is designed as a continuous beam ABCD of 1 m width as shown in Fig. 7.6 and as
balanced section following the steps described below.
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and hysd steel reinforcement for the balanced
section of the beam are as under. From IS : 456–1978, for M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-
steel
fck = 20 N/mm2
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Pm.lim = 0.960 percent
Step 2. Estimation of thickness of slab
Thickness of slab is estimated from span to effective depth ratio specified for the satisfactory
control of the vertical deflection in IS : 456–1978. Therefore the effective depth, d for the
continuous slab
⎛ span ⎞
d = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 26 × modification factor ⎠
For M 20 grade of concrete and hysd steel, the percentage ratio of steel for the balanced
section of the beam, pB is 0.960 percent and therefore, the modification factor, from IS : 456–
1978 is 1.2. Therefore
⎛ 4000 ⎞
d = ⎜ = 128.21 mm
⎝ 26 × 1.2 ⎟⎠
Providing effective cover of 25 mm, the overthickness of the slab may be kept as (128.21 + 25)
= 153.21 mm say 160 mm. Therefore the effective depth of slab shall be (160 – 25) = 135 mm.
The continuous slab as designed as continuous beam over each clear span of 4000 mm. The
width of supporting walls is assumed as 450 mm. Therefore, the effective spans are as follows:
End span with one end free (simply supported)
The width of support is wider than
⎛ span ⎞ ⎛ 4000 ⎞
⎜ 12 ⎟ = ⎜ 12 ⎟ = 333.33 mm
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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1
ES = CS + ×d
2
1
= 4000 + × 135 = 4067.5 mm
2
1
or ES = CS + × 450 = 4225 mm
2
∴ ES = 4.0675 m (whichever is less)
Intermediate span
The effective shall be clear span between the supports
ES = CS = 4.00 m
Step 4. Load (at service condition)
The dead load consists of weight of finishing surface and the self-weight of the slab. These
loads are calculated for unit area of the slab.
(1 × 1 × 0.020) × 24 = 0.48 kN/m2
(1 × 1× 0.160) × 25 = 4.00 kN/m2
Live load for the floor for residential building
(1 × 1 × 2) = 2.00 kN/m2
Total load per unit area
= 648 kN/m2 say @ 6.50 kN/m2
The intensity of uniformly distributed load per metre length along the span is 6.5 kN/m as
shown in Fig. 7.8.
6 .5 kN -m
A B C D
4 .06 75 m 4 .45 0 m 4 .06 75 m
(a ) C o ntinu ou s b ea m
(1 6.0 8 9 – 11 .7 8)
(1 3.4 4 – 5.8 9 ) = 7.5 5 kN -m (1 3.4 4 – 5.8 9 ) = 7.5 5 kN -m
11 .78 11 .78
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gram
1 3.2 2 1 3.2 2 1 4.4 6 1 4.4 6 1 3.2 2 1 3.2 2
2 .90 2 .90 0 .00 0 .00 2 .90 2 .90

10.32 k N 16.12 k N 14.46 k N 14.46 k N 16.12 k N 10.32 k N
(c) R e action s (S h ea rs) at sup po rts
Fig. 7.8
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Step 5. (A) Bending moments (By moment distribution method)

The analysis of continuous beam ABCD, Fig. 7.8 for calculating the bending moments is
carried out by the method of moment distribution. The width of beam section for the continuous
beam ABCD is 1000 mm. The relative stiffness of the member is based on the moment of inertia
of the section determined on the basis of gross section (cross-section of the member ignoring the
reinforcement).
Relative stiffness of end spans
l 1 1000 × 1603
= × = 83.917×103 mm3
l 12 4067.5
Relative stiffness of intermediate span. In this method, the effective span is taken distance
between centre of support
l 1 1000 × 1603
= × = 76.704 ×103 mm3
l 12 4450
End supports are hinged supports. Therefore, the relative stiffness of the end members
3 l 3
× = × 83.917 × 103 = 62.938 × 103 mm3
4 l 4
Distribution factors
BA 62.938 × 103
For span = = 0.451
CD (62.938 + 76.704) × 103
76.704 × 103
For span BC = = 0.549
(62.938 + 76.704) × 103
Bending moments at supports
MB = Mc = 11.78 kN-m (negative)
Bending moments at mid-spans
AB ⎛ 1 ⎞
Span = ⎜13.44 − × 11.78⎟ = 7.55 kN-m (positive)
CD ⎝ 2 ⎠
Span BC = (16090 – 11.78) = 4.31 kN-m (positive)
Since characteristic loads (viz., at service condition)
(DL + LL) = 6.50 kN/m
Factored (design) load (ultimate load)
w Fd = 15 (DL + LL)
= 15 × 650 = 9.75 kN-m
Factored (design) moments
AB
Span = 7.55 × 1.5 = 11.325 kN-m
CD
Span BC = 4.31 × 1.5 = 6.465 kN-m
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Step 5. (B) Reaction at Supports

Reactions at outer support A and D shall be reaction for simply supported span + reaction for
the moment at the intermediate support B. Therefore,
RA = RD = 7.5 × 4.0675 − 11.78 = 10.32 kN

2 4.0675
B
Reactions at intermediate support shall be reaction for simply supported span AB and
C
BC + reaction for the moment at the intermediate support B + reaction for the difference of
moments at supports B and C. Therefore,
⎡ 6.5 × 4.0675 6.5 × 4.450 11.78 ⎤
RB = RC = ⎢ + + + 0⎥
⎣ 2 2 4.0675 ⎦
= 30.58 kN
RBA = 16.12 kN and RBC = 14.46 kN
Reactions for factored (design) loads
RBA = 1.5 × 30.58 = 45.87 kN
RBA = 1.5 × 16.12 = 24.18 kN
RBC = 1.5 ×14.46 = 21.69 kN
Step 5. (C) Bending moments (by using coefficients)
( Note. As per the procedure described in IS : 456–1978, the bending moments and shear forces (reactions at
support) are found by utilising the coefficients given in tables.
For spans AB and CD

Total characteristic dead loads
W D.L = 4.48 × 4.0675 = 18.22 kN
Total characteristic live loads
W L.L = 2 × 4.0675 = 8.135 kN
For span BC (Effective span = 4 m)
Total characteristic dead load
W DL = 4.48 × 4 = 17.92 kN
Total characteristic live load
W L.L = 2 × 4 = 8 kN
Support moments (due to characteristic loads)
Bending moment due to dead load
At support next to the end support
1
MBA = MCD = – × 18.22 × 4.0675 kN-m
10
= –7.411 kN-m
1
MBC = MCB = – 17.92 4
10
= –7.168 kN-m
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Bending moment due to imposed live load

1
MBA = MCD = – × 8.135 × 4.0675 = – 3.676 kN-m
9
1
MBC = MCB = – × 8 × 4 = – 3.555 kN-m
9
Total support moment
MBA = MCD = (–7.411 – 3.686) = –11.087 kN-m
MBC = MCB = (–7.168 – 3.555) = –10.723 kN-m
Since, the loads considered are characteristic loads and the factored (design) loads shall be
1.5 times these loads.
Factored (design) moments at supports
MBA = MCD = 1.5 × (–11.087) kN-m
MBC = MCB = 1.5 × (–10.723) kN-m
Span moments (due to characteristic load)
Bending moment due to dead load (at service conditions)
Near middle of end span
AB 1
Span = × 18.22 × 4.0675 = + 6.176 kN-m
CD 12
At middle of the interior span
1
Span BC = × 8 × 4 = 4.0675 kN-m= +2987 kN-m
24
Bending moment due to imposed live load (at service conditions)
Near middle of the end span
AB 1
Span = × 8.135 × 4.0675 = +3.309 kN-m
CD 10
At middle of the interior span
1
Span BC = × 8 × 4 = +2.667 kN-m
12
Total span moments (at service conditions)
AB
Span = (6.176 + 3.309) = + 9.485 kN-m
CD
Span BC = (2.987 + 7.667) = +5.654 kN-m
Factored (design) moments (at ultimate load)
AB
Span = 1.5 × 9.485 = 14.23 kN-m
CD
Span BC = 1.5 × 5.654 = 8.48 kN-m
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It is to note that the span moments found by using coefficients given in IS : 456–1971 are
more than found by moment distribution method.
Shear forces (due to characteristic loads)
Shear force due to dead load (at service conditions)
At the end support = 0.4 × 18.22 = 7.288 kN
Outer side = 0.6 × 17.92 = 10.752 kN
Inner side = 0.55 × 17.92 = 9.856 kN
Shear force due to imposed live load (at service conditions)
At the end support = 0.45 × 8.135 = 3661 kN
Outer side = 0.6 × 8 = 4.8 kN
Inner side = 0.6 × 8 = 4.8 kN
Total shear force (at service conditions)
At the end support = (7.288 + 3.661) = 10.949 kN
Outer side = (10.752 + 4.8) = 15.552 kN
Inner side = (9.856 + 4.8) = 14.656 kN
Factored (design) shear force
At the end support = 1.5 × 10.949 = 16.434 kN
Outer side = 1.5 × 15.552 = 23.328 kN
Inner side = 1.5 × 14.656 = 21.984 kN
It is also to note that the shear forces found by using the coefficient given in IS : 456–1978
are generally more than found by moment distribution method.
7.5.1 Moments at the Face of Supports

As per IS : 456–1978, for monolithic construction, the moments calculated at the face of supports
are to be used in the design of members at those sections. The moments at the face of supports
are calculated by approximate calculations. The moments at the face of supports are found as
follows :
At support B (outer side) [due to characteristic load]
⎛ 11.78 − 16.12 × 0.452 ⎞

MBA = ⎜ ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 8.137 kN-m (negative)
MBA = 1.5 × 8.137 = 12.21 kN-m
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At support B (inner side) [due to characteristic load]
⎛ 11.78 − 14.46 × 0.452 ⎞

MBC = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 8.512 kN-m (negative)
MBC = 1.5 × 8.512 =12.768 kN-m
Step 6. Check for overall thickness of slab
Absolute factored (design) maximum bending moment is 1.5 × 11.78 kN-m = 17.67 kN-m.
The effective depth required for the slab to resist this bending moment from Eq. 7.2,
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u. max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u. max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) × 1000 × d2 = 17.67 × 106
2.7593 ×1000 × d2 = 17.67 × 106
d = 80.024 mm
Effective cover assumed = 25 mm
Overall thickness 105.024 mm required is less than the estimated thickness 160 mm (adopted)
[for span/effective depth ratio requirement]
Step 7. Reinforcement for the slab
Tension reinforcement at bottom face
At the middle of end span for positive bending moment calculated using coefficients from IS:
456–1978.
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
MFd = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
st ⎛ A × 415 ⎞
1.5 × 9.485 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast ×135 × ⎜1 −
1000 × 135 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
A st2 – 6505.872 Ast + 1.8990256 × 106 = 0

Ast = 306.32 mm2
At the middle of interior span
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
MFd = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
st ⎛ A × 415 ⎞
1.5 × 5.654 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast ×135 × ⎜1 −
1000 × 135 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
A st2 – 6505.872 Ast+ 1.1320075 × 106 = 0

Ast = 178.918 mm2
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Tension reinforcement at top face

At the top of supports for negative bending moment calculated using co-efficients from IS :
456–1978 (moments at the face of supports)
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
MFd = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
1.5 × 8.512 × 106 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 135 × ⎜1 −
⎝ 1000 × 135 × 20 ⎟⎠
A st2 – 6505.872 Ast + 1.7042178 × 106 = 0

Ast = 273.444 mm2
Provide 10 mm diameter hysd-bars
Aφ = 78.54 mm2
Spacing of the steel bars
1000 × 78.54
s =
306.32
= 256.398 mm
10 mm diameter bars provided at 200 mm spacing centre to centre at the bottom surface (in
the end span and in the interior span) and top surface (at the top of supports as shown in
Fig. 7.9).
1 0 m m φ h ysd ba rs @ 2 00 c/c
Ad 8 m m φ H ysd b ars @ 2 00 m m c/c
1 60 m m
4m 4m 4m
0 .45 0 m 0 .45 0 m 0 .45 0 m 0 .45 0 m

Fig. 7.9
Step 8. Distribution (minimum) Reinforcement in the slab

Distribution (temperature and shrinkage) reinforcement equal to 0.12 per cent of the total
cross-sectional area is provided in the direction perpendicular to the main reinforcement (viz.,
parallel to the top long span of the slab). Therefore,
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 160 = 192 mm2
100
Provide 8 mm diameter hysd-bars. Spacing for the distribution reinforcement
Aφd = 50.625 mm2
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Sd = 1000 × 50.265 = 26.799 mm

192
8 mm diameter bars are provided at 200 mm c/c shown in Fig. 7.9.
The nominal shear stress used to be very small and the slab does not need shear reinforcement.
7.6 DESIGN AIDS FOR DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN ONE DIRECTION

Bureau of Indian Standards has developed Tables and Charts as design aids for reinforced
concrete slabs spanning in one direction.
7.6.1 Tables as Design Aids

These tables have been given in SP : 16–1980. With the aid of these Tables, the spacing of
bars, sv for different values of diameter of bars, φ for the factored (design) moments, MFd may
be obtained.
SP : 16–1980 includes forty Tables. These Tables may be grouped into four groups as follows:
Group 1. Tables 5 to 14 are for fck = 15 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2.
These tables are for 100 mm to 250 mm thickness of the slabs.
These Tables are for 100 mm to 250 mm thickness of the slabs.
7.6.2 Charts as Design Aids

These Charts have been included in SP : 16–1980. With the aid of these Charts, the percentage
area of steel for the different thickness of the slab and for different values of the factored
(design) moment may be determined.
2. (A) Charts for flexure
Chart 1 is for fck = 15 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2.
This chart is for 50 mm to 300 mm thickness of the slab.
This chart is also for 50 mm to 300 mm thickness of the slab.
This chart is for 50 mm to 300 mm thickness of the slab.
Chart 16 is for fck = 20 N/mm2 and fy = 500 N/mm2. This chart is also for 50 mm to 300 mm
thickness of the slab.
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2. (B) Charts for control of deflection

Charts 21, 22 and 23 are for fy = 250 N/mm2, 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2, respectively. The
maximum ratio of span to effective depth ratio for the different values of fck = 15 N/mm2,
20 N/mm2 and 25 N/mm2, respectively and percentage of tension reinforcement may be found.
The values of (span/effective depth) ratio given in these charts are for simply supported
spans upto 10 m. For spans over 10 m, these values are multiplied by (10/span) where span
shall be in metres.
For the continuous slab, these values for simply supported condition are multiplied by 1.30.
For the cantilevers upto 10 m, these values from the Charts are multiplied by 0.35. For the
cantilevers over 10 m, these charts are not valid.
The use of these Tables and Charts developed as design aids for the reinforced concrete slab
has been explained in the illustrative example.
7 .7 SHEAR IN SLABS
The shear strength of slabs is controlled by the same principles as for the beams.
The shear stress in slabs is not commonly very critical. The nominal shear stress, τv is calculated
from Eq. 3.76 (b) as
VFd
τv = ...(i)
b⋅d
where VFd is the factored shear force at the critical section, b is the width of slab under
consideration, and d is the effective depth.
Professor Taylor, H.P.J. in this paper titled as ‘shear strength of large beams’ published in
Proc. ASCE, 98, No. ST–11, November, 1972 has shown by tests that shallow members fail at
higher nominal shear stress. For slabs of overall thickness 300 mm or less, the allowable shear
stress in solid slab is obtained as k.τc, where k is the modified shear stress co-efficient, which
varies linearly from k = 1.00 for a slab thickness of 300 mm or more to k = 1.30 for a slab
thickness of 150 nim or less. (Other values of k are given in Table 7.2). The factor k varies
linearly from k = 1 00 for a slab thickness of 300 mm to k = 1.30 for a slab thickness of 150 mm
(or less).
Table 7.2 Values of Modified Shear Stress Coefficient K (As Per Is : 456–1978)
Overall depth of 300 275 250 225 200 175 150
slab (mm) or more or less
k 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
( Note. This does not apply to flat slab.

The values of τc (shear strength of plain cement without shear reinforcement) may be noted
from Table 3.2 or from IS : 456–1978.
The failure of slab in shear is likely to occur at the face of contact of the support. In case the
resting face of the slab is different from the load face, the shear failure may occur at a distance,
d from the face of contact supports.
The use of shear reinforcement in slabs less than 200 mm thickness is considered impracticable.
The nominal shear stress in the slabs should not exceed half the allowable shear stress. This
restriction is reasonable for slabs subjected to concentrated loads.
The depth of slab is commonly adjusted so that the requirement for shear is satisfied.
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7.8 CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT IN SLABS

The specifications recommended for the curtailment of tension reinforcement in flexural member in
code IS : 456–1978 and described for beams in Art. 3.57 and 3.58 are also applicable for the slabs.
In practical design, the bending moment diagrams are often not drawn for members of
secondary importance and the theoretical cut-off points are not then known without further
calculations British Code CP–110 allows the following simplified rules to be applied, where the
slabs support substantially uniformly distributed loads.
7.8.1 Simply Supported Slabs

Not less than 50 percent of the tension steel bars provided as reinforcement at mid-span should
extend for at least 12φ (where φ is the diameter of steel bars) or its equivalent in hooks or bends
beyond the centres of supports. The remaining 50 percent should extend to within 0.08 × l
(where l is the span length) of the supports.
7.8.2 Cantilever Slabs

At least 50 percent of the tension reinforcement steel bars at the support should extend to the
end of the cantilever. The remaining 50 percent should extend a distance of 0.5 × l or 45 times
φ which is greater.
7.8.3 Continuous One-way Slabs of Equal Spans (Where the live loads do not exceed
the dead loads)
All tension reinforcement over the supports should extend a distance of 0.1 × l or 45 times φ
whichever is greater, and at least 50 percent should extend 0.3 × l into the span. The tension
reinforcement at mid-span should extend to within 0.2 l of interior supports and within 0.1 × l
of the exterior supports and at least 50 percent should extend into the supports.
It is to note that above rules for simply supported slabs and for the cantilever slabs are also
applicable for the simply supported beams and the cantilever beams.
7.9 FIRE RESISTANCE OF SLABS

The fire resistance of a slab depends on the overall thickness of the slab and on the concrete
cover to the main tension reinforcement. For example, if the concrete cover is not less than 15
mm and the slab thickness is not less than 100 mm, then, the fire resistance may be taken as at
least one hour. If the cover is not less than 25 mm and the thickness is not less than 150 mm,
then the fire resistance may be taken as at least four hours. For further details, the reference
may be made to British Code CP : 110.
Example 7.4 Calculate the main reinforcement for a slab with the data for Example 7.1.
Use flexure Charts and Rables included in SP : 16–1980.
Solution
Design. From Example 7.1,
Factored (design) moment per metre of the slab
MPd = 47.695 kN-m/m ...(i)
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Overall depth of slab

D = 175 mm ...(ii)
Grade of concrete mix
fck = 15 N/mm2 ...(iii)
Characteristic strength of the steel bars to be provided as tension reinforcement
Fe = 250 ...(iv)
∴ fy = 250 N/mm 2 ...(v)
1. Use of tables for slabs. Table 11 (SP : 16–1980) is for moment of resistance of slabs in
kN-m per metre width for fck= 15 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2 and for 175 mm thickness of slab.
For 50.17 kN-m/m moment of resistance (practically equal to 47.695 kN-m/m), the diameter of
bar is 12 mm and the spacing of the bars is 60 mm.
Alternatively. For 47.84 kN-m/m moment of resistance of the slab, 16 mm diameter of the
steel bars may be provided at 110 mm spacing.
It is to note that the reinforcement given in Tables (SP : 16–1980) are based on a cover of 15
mm or bar diameter whichever is more.
2. Use of flexure chart. It is assumed that 10 mm diameter steel bars shall be used with
15 mm clear cover.
Effective depth of slab
d = [(175 – 15) – (10/2)] = 155 mm
For fy = 250 N/mm2 and fck = 15 N/mm2
From Table D (SP : 16–1980)
⎛ M u. lim ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ = 2.24 N/mm
⎝ bd2 ⎠
⎛ 2.24 × 1000 × 155 × 155 ⎞

Mu.lim = ⎜ ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
Mu.lim = 53.816 kN-m/m
MFd = 47.695 kN-m/m
Actual bending moment 47.695 kN-m/m is less than the limiting value of the moment of
resistance 53816 kN-m/m.
From chart 1 (SP : 16–1980), for
MFd = 47.695 kN-m/m, and
Effective depth
d = 155 mm
100 Ast
= 1.1
bd
⎛ 1.1 ⎞
Ast = ⎜ × 1000 × 155 ⎟ = 1705 mm2/m
⎝ 100 ⎠
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For 12 mm diameter of bar

Aφ = 113.097 mm2
Spacing of the bars,
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟ = 66.33 mm
⎝ 1705 ⎠
Provide 12 mm diameter bar at 60 mm spacing.
3. Use of Chart for control of Deflection. The slab is simply supported and its clear
span is 5 m only.
⎛ Span ⎞ ⎛ 5 × 1000 ⎞
Actual ratio of ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 32.258 mm
⎝ Effecive depth ⎠ ⎝ 155 ⎠
Percentage of tension reinforcement needed is pt = 11 percent. From Chart 1 (SP : 16–1980),
⎛ Span ⎞
for fck = 15 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2 ⎜ Effecive depth ⎟ ratio = 26.
⎝ ⎠
It is to note that the allowable ratio 26 is less than the actual ratio of 32.5. The depth of slab
may be increased by (32.5/26). In that case, the slab shall also be safe in deflection.
PROBLEMS
7.1 Design a simply supported slab over a class-room of size 3.5 m × 8 m. A finishing surface of
cement concrete of 20 mm shall be provided over the slab. The slab shall be used as a class
room floor. M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-bars shall be used.
7.2 A one way slab is provided over a clear span 4.8 m. The slab is simply supported over two
opposite longitudinal sides 7 m widse. The overall thickness of slab is 230 mm and the effective
thickness of slab is 200 mm. Two concentrated loads of 68 kN each are acting on the slab in
one line parallel to unsupported edge at a distance of 1500 mm the distances upto the centroid
of the loads from the supported one edge is 2000 mm and 3200 mm, respectively. The ground
contact are for each of these loads is 380 mm × 200 mm. Find the effective widths for each of
these loads and calculate the bending moments per metre width at mid-span.
7.3 Three shops are to be constructed side by side with masonry walls. The clear dimensions of
each shop are 3.20 m and 6.80 m. A continuous reinforced concrete slab is to be provided to
roof the shops. A finishing surface 20 mm thick shall be provided over the roof. The roof shall
be used as the residential floor. Design the slab.
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Design of Slabs Spanning
8 in Two Directions
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The reinforced concrete slabs supported on all its four sides on beams or walls having the ratio
of long span less than or equal to 2 (two) are called as slabs spanning in two directions or
referred as two way slabs. The structural action in such slabs is two way. The loads are carried
by the slab along short span and long span both. The bending moments and deflections in a
two-way slab are considerably less than those in a one-way slab for similar loading and similar
support conditions. The deflected surface of such slabs has double curvature. These slabs resist
bending moments along both the spans. These slabs have reinforcement in two perpendicular
directions parallel to the supporting edges. The reinforcement (steel) in direction is considered
as main steel. The thickness of two-way designed slab shall be smaller than the thickness of
slab designed as one-way slab for similar loading and similar support conditions. Therefore,
these slabs are more economical. These slabs are rectangular slabs. These slabs are frequently
used specially in large, continuous monolithic floor systems.
The yield line theory or any other acceptable method may be used for the analysis and
design of two way slab. Alternatively, IS : 456–1978 method given in Appendix C (IS : 456–
1978) may be followed.
8.2 BEHAVIOUR OF SLABS SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS

The rectangular slab spanning in two directions having supported edges enough stiff (i.e.,
which may be considered as unyielding) carrying uniformly distributed load deforms into a
dished surface rather than a cylindrical surface as in case of one-way slab. Such slab bends in
both principal directions. Therefore, the bending moments develop in both the directions. The
values of bending moments remain proportional to curvatures.
These slabs are highly indeterminate. These slabs have complex behaviour A differential
equation of four order arises in case these slabs are analysed by classical theory. This differential
equation may be solved for vertical deflections and the stresses. However, the solution of such
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Design of Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 487
differential equation is very tedious. Therefore, approximate method (which gives satisfactory
results when such slabs are analysed and designed) are used for the analysis of such slabs.
A slab spanning in two directions simply supported on its all the four edges is shown in Fig.
8.1 when this slab is loaded with uniformly distributed load and the load is increased till the
failure is reached, and the cracks as shown by dotted lines develop at its bottom surface due to
ly
A X1 X2 B
y1
E F
lx
4 5°
D
Y2 C
ly = L on g sp an , lx = sho rt sp an sim p ly
sup po rte d slab spa nn in g in tw o d ire ction s
Fig. 8.1
positive (viz., sagging) moments. The bending of slab near the corner (e.g., A) occurs along the
line X1Y1 perpendicular to crack EA, whereas the bending of slab in the centre occurs along
X2Y2 perpendicular to crack EF. In ultimate method of design, the method is based on the
pattern of the cracks (viz., yield lines).
8.3 GRASHOFF–RANKINE METHOD

Grashoff–Rankine proposed an elementary or simplified approach of analysis of a highly
indeterminate system of two-way slab having simply supported edges (which may be considered
unyielding). In this approximate method, the complete system is considered as equivalent simple
determinate system of slab carrying uniformly distributed load w per unit area. The flexural
performance of the slab may be visualized by considering the simply supported slab consisting
of series of interconnected longitudinal and lateral strips (viz., two mutually perpendicular
intersecting slab strips). Figure 8.2 shows two central strips of unit width of the two way
rectangular slab with lx, and ly, as short span and long span, respectively. These strips AB and
CD act approximately as simple beam. The strip AB carries uniformly distributed load wy per
unit length along long direction and the strip CD carries uniformly distributed load wx per unit
length along short direction. The load w is shared by these two strips such that the deflections
of two central strips at the point of intersection are equal.
These imaginary strips are actual part of the same monolithic slab. The actions of adjacent
strips to these strips are neglected. Therefore
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w = wx + wy ...(i)
and yAB = y CD ...(ii)
4
5 w y ⋅ ly 5 wx ⋅ lx4
∴ ⋅ = ⋅ ...(iii)
384 El 384 El
ωx p e r un it le ng th
A B Y CD
lx
ly
ωy p er un it le ng th
yA B
Fig. 8.2
It is assumed that the moments of inertias Ix and Iy are equal, (viz., Ix = Iy= I) and there is no
torsion.
4
wx ⋅ lx4 = w y ⋅ ly
4
⎛ ly ⎞
or wx = w y ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ lx ⎠
From the expressions (i) and (iv)
⎛ ly4 ⎞
wx = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w ...(8.1)
⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ lx4 ⎞
and wy = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w ...(8.2)
⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ly ⎞
Let the ratio of long span to short span ⎜ ⎟ be r. Then, from Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2
⎝ lx ⎠
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1 ⋅w 1 ⋅w
wx = 4
= ...(v)
⎛l ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
1+⎜ x ⎟⎟ ⎜1 + 4 ⎟
⎜l ⎝ r ⎠
⎝ y ⎠
or wx = rx . w ...(8.3)
1 1⋅w
and wy = 4
⋅w = ...(vi)
⎛ ly ⎞ r4 + 1
⎜⎝ l ⎟⎠ + 1
x
or wy = ry . w ...(8.4)
⎛ r4 ⎞
where, rx = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟
⎟ ...(8.5)
⎝1 + r ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
and ry = ⎜ ⎟ ...(8.6)
⎝ 1 + r4 ⎠
When, r = 1, wx = 0.5 w and wy = 0.5 w
When, r = 2, wx = 0.9412 w and wy = 0.0588 w
It is worth to note that when the ratio of long span to short span, r is equal to 2, the load
transferred to short span is 94.12 percent and that to long span is 5.88 percent only. Therefore,
⎛ ly ⎞
when ⎜ ⎟ ratio exceeds 2, the slab is designed as one way slab. It is to further note that above
⎝ lx ⎠
relations are true at the middle of the two strips only.
The maximum bending moment at the middle of the strip CD, Fig. 8.2 (viz., along short
span)
4
wx ⋅ lx2 ⎛ ly ⎞ w ⋅ l2
x
Mx = =⎜ ⎟⋅
8 ⎜ ly + lx4 ⎟ 8
⎝ ⎠
4
⎛ ly ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ lx ⎠ w ⋅ lx2
or Mx = ⋅
⎡⎛ l ⎞4 ⎤ 8
⎢ ⎜ y ⎟ + 1⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 ⎛ r4 ⎞ 2
or Mx = ⎜ ⎟⎟ w ⋅ lx ...(8.7a)
8 ⎜⎝ 1 + r 4 ⎠
Mx = αx . w . lx2 ...(8.7b)
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4
⎛ ly ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ lx ⎠ 1 ⎛ r4 ⎞
where αx = ⋅ = ⎜ ⎟⎟
8 ⎡⎛ l ⎞4 ⎤ 8 ⎜⎝ 1 + r 4 ⎠
y
⎢⎜ ⎟ + 1 ⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The maximum bending moment at the middle of the strip AB, Fig. 8.2 (viz., along span)
w2y ⋅ ly2 ⎛ l4 ⎞ w ⋅ ly2

My = =⎜ 4 x 4 ⎟⋅
8 ⎜ ly + lx ⎟ 8
⎝ ⎠
2
1 w 2 ⎛ ly ⎞
My = ⋅ lx ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⋅
⎡⎛ l ⎞ 4 ⎤ 8 ⎝ lx ⎠
y
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + 1⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 ⎛ r2 ⎞
w l2
My =
8
⎜⎜
1 + r ⎟⋅ ⋅ x
2 ⎟ ...(8.8a)
⎝ ⎠
My = αy . w. lx2 ...(8.8b)
The values of ax and ay may be tabulated as in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Co-efficients for bending Moments for Slabs (Spanning in two directions at slabs (Spanning
in two directions at right angles) simply supported on four sides
(ly/lx) 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

αx 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099
αy 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.951
(ly/lx) 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
αx 0.104 0.133 0.118 0.122 0.124
αy 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014
It is worth to note that the coefficients for bending moments αx and αy for slabs (spanning in
two perpendicular directions at right angles) simply supported on four sides based on Grashoff
and Rankine theory have been adopted and specified in IS : 456–1978 for design of such slabs.
It is further to note that there is no provision for torsion.
8.4 RESTRAINED SLABS

The corners of a two-way slab (if these are not prevented from lifting) have a tendency to
lift. In such slabs provisions are not kept to resist torsion at corners. When the corners of
the slab are prevented from lifting, the slab is called as restrained slab. In the restrained slab,
the maximum bending moment and deflection are smaller than those for the simply supported
slabs where the corners are not held down. The behaviour of restrained slab carrying uniformly
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distributed load is identical to thin elastic plate. In restrained slab, it is essential to provide
adequate provisions to resist torsion at corners, since torsion develops at the corners.
The slab is supported along all the four edges. The edges of slab may be simply supported,
fixed, partially fixed and continuous. At least the edge is not kept free, since the free edge
does not have any support, (for example, free edge a cantilever slab). The simply supported
edges have all supports. The simply sported edges do not resist any bending moments and
permit free rotations without any bending restraint. Such slab edges are also referred as
discontinuous edges. The fixed edges resist the bending moments developed and do not allow
rotations. The continuous edges continue over adjacent spans. In the continuous edges,
rotations occur and these edges resist bending moments. The slopes at a common support
depend upon the loading on the adjacent panels. In the continuous beams, the slopes
on two sides remain equal and the rotations also remain equal though they are of opposite
sign. The fixed and continuous edges they are referred as continuous edges.
C C DC
lx C C C DC C C
C C C
ly ly ly
(a ) (b ) (c)
C C DC
lx C DC DC DC C C
DC C DC
ly ly ly
(d ) (e ) (f)
C DC DC
lx DC DC C DC DC DC
DC DC DC
ly ly ly
(g ) (h ) (i)
C = con tin uo u s ed ge
D C = d isco n tin uo us e d ge
Fig. 8.3 Two way rectangular slab panels
Two-way slabs are classified depending on continuity and discontinuity of long edges or
short edges in nine standard cases as shown in Fig. 8.3. The continuous and fixed edges are
marked as continuous (letter C is used) by thick lines. The simply supported edges are marked
as discontinuous letters CD are used) by thin lines.
1. All the four edges of two-way slab are fixed/continuous, Fig. 8.3 (a).
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2. One short edge of the slab is discontinuous (three edges continuous) Fig. 8.3 (b).
3. One long edge of the slab is discontinuous (three edges continuous), 5.83(c).
4. Two adjacent edges of the slab are discontinuous (two adjacent edges continuous),
Fig. 8.3 (d).
5. Two short edges of the slab are discontinuous (two long edges continuous), Fig. 8.3 (e).
6. Two long edges of the slab are discontinuous (two short edges continuous), Fig. 8.3 (f).
7. Three edges of the slab are discontinuous (one long edge continuous), Fig. 8.3 (g).
8. Three edges of the slab are discontinuous (one short edge continuous), Fig. 8.3 (h).
9. All the four edges of the slab are discontinuous, Fig. 8.3 (i).
Two-way restrained slabs are analysed and designed by the following methods:
1. Marcus method.
2. Pigeaud’s method.
3. IS : code method.
These methods have been described in the subsequent articles.
8.5 MARCUS METHOD

The bending moments calculated for two-way slab by Grashoff–Rankine method (in which
torsion is not considered) are more than the bending moments in slab when determined by
considering the torsion. Dr. H. Marcus of Germany proposed a simplified and approximate
approach to find bending moments by considering the necessary torsional effects. The values
of bending moments obtained by Marcus method vary by only 2 percent from those determined
by rigorous elastic plate theory.
A simply supported rectangular slab is shown in Fig. 8.4. Consider strip AXB of unit width.
AXB, Fig. 8.4 (b) shows the deflected shape of the strip along long span. The deflected shape of
strip AXB is assumed parabolic. Equation of this parabolic shape with A as the origin is follows.
4a
y = ⋅ x ⋅ (l y − x ) ...(8.9)
ly2
By differentiating Eq. 8.9 with respect to x

dy 4a
= 2 ,(ly − 2x ) ...(8.10)
dx ly
ly
The slope at distance x = , θ may be obtained from Eq. 8.10. Therefore
4
4a ⎛ ly ⎞ 2⋅a
θ = 1 −2⋅
2 ⎜ y ⎟= ...(8.11)
ly ⎝ 4 ⎠ ly
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ly
( l x /2 )
A X O B
lx
( l x /2 )
(a ) Tw o - w a y sim ply su pp orted slab ωy pe r u nit len gth
A B
X θ
(b ) D e fle cted sha pe o f strip A × B
Fig. 8.4
⎛ ly ⎞ ⎛ 2⋅a ⎞
This slope θ at X of the strip AB at ⎜ x = ⎟ twists the strip CD by an angle ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . From
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ ly ⎠
theory of torsion, the torsion in strip CD,
∆TCD G ⋅θ
= ...(i)
J ⎛ lx ⎞
⎜2⎟
⎝ ⎠
where J = torsional constant
J = Ix + Iy Ω 2I
It is assumed that Ix = ly = L.
Young’s modulus of elasticity, E
⎛ 1⎞
E = 2G ⎜1 + ⎟ Ω 2G ...(ii)
⎝ m⎠
⎛1⎞
where ⎜ ⎟ is the Poisson’s ratio. It is assumed as zero. Substituting for J and G in the
⎝m⎠
expression (i)
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E
2I ⋅
∆TCD = 2 ⋅ 2a
⎛ lx ⎞ ly
⎜2⎟
⎝ ⎠
4 EI ⋅ a
or ∆TCD = ...(8.12)
lx ⋅ ly
By summing from Eq. 8.12, total torsional moment for full length along long span AB may
be found as under
4 EI ⋅ a 4 EI ⋅ a
∑∆TCD = ⋅ ly = ...(iii)
lx ⋅ ly lx
Torsional moment acting over strip AB of unit width
∑∆T 4 EI ⋅ a
TAB = = ...(8.13)
ly lx2
From Grashoff – Rankine method, the uniformly distributed load acting along AB, from
Eq. 8.2,
lx4
wy = ⋅w ...(iv)
(l 4
y + lx2 )
The maximum bending moment occurring at the middle of the strip AB
w y ⋅ ly2
Mý́ = ...(v)
8
The maximum deflection occurring at the middle of the strip AB
4
5 w ⋅ ly
a = ⋅ ...(vi)
384 EI
The torsion at middle of the strip AB may be found by substituting the values of from the
expressions (iv), (v) and (vi) in Eq. 8.13
2 2
4 EI 5 w y ⋅ ly 8 ly
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ...(vii)
lx2 384 8 1 EI
5 M ´´
y ly2
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ 2 ...(8.14)
6 2 lx
Dr. H. Marcus arbitrarily increased the value of torsional moment, Tm a the middle of strip
⎛ 2wy ⎞
AB along long span by a ratio ⎜ ⎟ and the final value ol torsional moment at the middle of
⎝ w ⎠
the strips AB is obtained as below :
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2
5 ⎛ wy ⎞ ⎛ ly ⎞ ´´
Tmf . AB = ⋅⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅ My ...(viii)
6 ⎝ w l
⎠ ⎝ x⎠
The bending moments at the middle of the strips AB and CD are as under
w y ⋅ ly2
M ´ý = ...(ix)
8
wx ⋅ lx2
M x´´ = ...(x)
8
w y ⋅ ly2
Let M ý = ...(xi)
8
w ⋅ lx2
M x´ = ...(xii)
8
From the expression (ix) and (xii)
M ´ý 2
⎛ w y ⎞ ⎛ ly ⎞
M x´
= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(xiii)
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ lx ⎠
Substituting for right side of the expression (xiii) in the expression (viii).
( )
2
´´
5 My
Tmf . AB = ⋅ ...(8.15)
6 M x´
Similarly, the final value of torsional moment at the middle of the strip CD may be written
as under:
( )
´´ 2
5 Mx
Tmf . CD = ⋅ ...(8.16)
6 M ý
From Eq. 8.15, it is seen that the part of load on the strip AB will cause twisting of the
transverse strip CD and the remaining part of the load on AB will cause bending. Therefore,
the final value of bending moment on the strip AB is reduced by Tmf . AB . Similarly, from Eq. 8.16,
it is observed that the part of load on the strip CD will cause twisting of the strip AB and the
remaining part of the load on CD will cause bending. Therefore, the final value of bending
moment on the strip CD is reduced by Tmf.CD. The net values of bending moments in the strips
AB and CD are as under :
⎛ ´´
5 My ⎞
Myf .AB = M ´ý ⎜1 − ⋅ ⎟
⎜ 6 M x´ ⎟⎠
⎝
or Myj . AB = Cy . M ´ý ...(8.17)
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⎛ 5 M x´´ ⎞
and Mxf . CD = M x´´ ⎜1 − ⋅ ⎟
⎜ 6 M ý ⎟⎠
⎝
or Mxf . CD = Cx . M x´´ ...(8.18)

where Cx and Cy are Marcus correction factors for the bending moment expressions given by
Grashoff–Rankine, and
⎛ ´´ ⎞
5 M
Cy = ⎜1 − ⋅ y´ ⎟ ...(8.19)
⎜ 6 Mx ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 5 M x´´ ⎞
and Cx = ⎜1 − ⋅ ⎟ ...(8.20)
⎜ 6 M ý ⎟⎠
⎝
Equation 8.19 and 8.20 for the correction factors Cy and Cx respectively may be simplified as
under: From the expressions (xiii) and Eq. 8.2.
M ´ý 2
⎛ w y ⎞ ⎛ ly ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⋅ 2 ⎟
⎜
M x´ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎜⎝ lx ⎟⎠
lx4
wy = ⋅w
(l 4
y + lx4 )
M ´ý lx4 ⎛ ly ⎞
2
Therefore, = ⋅⎜ ⎟
M x´ (l 4
y + lx4 ) ⎝ lx ⎠
2
⎛ ly ⎞
M ´ý ⎜ ⎟
⎛ r2 ⎞
⎝ lx ⎠
or = =⎜ 4 ⎟ ...(xiv)
M x´ ⎡⎛ l ⎞4 ⎛ l ⎞4 ⎤ ⎜⎝ r + 1 ⎟⎠
y
⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ x ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Similarly,
M x´´ ⎛w ⎞ l
2
M ý
= ⎜ x ⎟ ⋅ x2
⎝ w ⎠ ly
⎛ ly4⎞
and wx = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w
⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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M x´´ ⎛ ly4 ⎞ ⎛ l2 ⎞
Then = ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ x ⎟
M ý ⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟ ⎜ ly2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ly4 ⎞
⎜ 4⎟
M x´´ ⎜ lx ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 1
or M ý
= ⋅
⎡⎛ l 4 ⎞ ⎛ l 4 ⎞⎤ ⎛ ly2 ⎞
⎢⎜ x4 ⎟ + ⎜ x4 ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎜ 2⎟
⎢⎣⎜⎝ ly ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜ lx ⎟
⎝ ⎠
M x´´
⎛ r4 ⎞ 1 ⎛ r2 ⎞
or = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟ ⋅ 2 = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟ ...(xv)
M ý
⎝ r +1 ⎠ r ⎝ r +1 ⎠
The values from expressions (xiv) and (xv) may be substituted in Eqs. 8.19 and 8.20,
respectively. Therefore
⎛ 5 r2 ⎞
Cy = ⎜⎜1 − ⋅ ⎟ ...(8.21)
⎝ 6 1 + r 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 5 r2 ⎞
and Cx = ⎜⎜1 − ⋅ ⎟ ...(8.22)
⎝ 6 1 + r 4 ⎟⎠
As such, Marcus correction factors for both the directions their simplified form may be denoted
as under:
⎛ 5 r2 ⎞
⎜ 1
C = ⎜ 6 ⋅ 1 + r4
− ⎟⎟ ...(8.23)
⎝ ⎠
Marcus correction factor may be calculated from Eq. 8.23 and it is applied to the values of
bending moments as per Grashoff–Rankine theory (Eqs. 8.7 and 8.8). The final values of
bending moments at the middle of strips AB and CD of unit width along long and short spans
be written as under:
Myf. AB = C . αx . w . lx2 ...(8.24)
Mxf . CD = C . αy . w . l2 ...(8.25)
x
⎛ ly ⎞
when ⎜ ⎟ = r = 1, the value of correction factor C is 0.583. The bending moment for a square
⎝ lx ⎠
⎛ ly ⎞
slab with the corners held down reduces by 41.66 percent. For ⎜ ⎟ = r = 3, the value of correction
⎝ lx ⎠
factor C is 0.9085. The bending moment will reduce by 9.146 percent.
Thus, it is seen that a highly indeterminate slab may be reduced to an equivalent simple
system. Marcus correction approach gives a simple and quick procedure for the analysis and
design of a two-way slab.
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Values of Marcus correction factors have been tabulated in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2 Marcus Correction (Reduction) factors, C
Correction factors
⎛ ly ⎞
Ratio r = ⎜ ⎟ C C´
⎝ lx ⎠
1.00 0.861 0.583
1.05 0.862 0.585
1.10 0.864 0.595
1.15 0.866 0.599
1.20 0.870 0.610
1.25 0.874 0.622
1.30 0.878 0.635
1.40 0.888 0.663
1.50 0.897 0.691
1.60 0.906 0.718
1.75 0.918 0.754
2.00 0.935 0.804
2.50 0.957 0.870
3.00 0.970 0.909
( Note. The values of Marcus correction factors, C´ (above) are for slab simply sopported along all the four
edges.
8.6 PIGEAUD’S METHOD

Pigeaud has also analysed the restrained slabs and suggested the modified coefficients slightly
to accommodate the then experimental results. The bending moments of strips of unit width
along short span and long span were found by Grashoeff–Rankine from Eqs. 8.7 (a) and
8.7 (b), respectively as follows :
⎛ r 4 ⎞ w ⋅ lx2
Mx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⋅
4 ⎟ ...(i)
⎝1 + r ⎠ 8
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ w ⋅ ly
and My = ⎜ ⎟⋅ ...(ii)
⎝ 1 + r4 ⎠ 8
These expressions (i) and (ii) were also expressed by Grashoeff–Rankine as below:
w ⋅ lx2
Mx = rx ⋅ ...(iii)
8
w ⋅ ly2
My = ry ⋅ ...(iv)
8
Grashoeff–Rankine has also tabulated the values of rx and ry for different values of ratio, r
as given in Table 8.3. Pigeaud has modified these expressions as under:
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´ w ⋅ lx2
Mx = rx ⋅ ...(v)
8
w ⋅ ly2
My = ry´ ⋅ ...(vi)
8
Pigeaud has also tabulated the values of modified coefficients rx´ and ry´ for different values
of ratio, r and these are also given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Grashoeff-Rankine and Pigeaud’s coefficients for bending moments
Coefficients for bending moments
⎛ ly ⎞
Ratio r = ⎜ ⎟ Grashoeff–Rankine Pigeaud
⎝ lx ⎠
rx ry rx´ ry´
1.00 0.500 0.500 0.300 0.300
1.05 0.549 0.451 0.330 0.271
1.10 0.594 0.406 0.360 0.246
1.15 0.636 0.364 0.389 0.222
1.20 0.675 0.325 0.418 0.202
1.25 0.709 0.291 0.446 0.183
1.30 0.741 0.259 0.474 0.166
1.40 0.790 0.207 0.526 0.137
1.50 0.835 0.165 0.575 0.114
1.60 0.868 0.132 0.621 0.095
1.75 0.904 0.096 0.682 0.073
2.00 0.941 0.059 0.768 0.048
2.50 0.975 0.025 0.829 0.023
3.00 0.988 0.012 0.972 0.012
( Note. Grashoeff-Rankine efficients rx and ry are for rectangular slabs (simply-supported and corners not held
´
down. And Rankine coefficients rx´ and ry are for simply supported/fixed edges with corners held down.
8.7 WESTERGAARD’S METHOD

Westergaard, H.M. and W.A. Slater published a paper titled as ‘Moments and Stresses in
Slabs’ in proceedings of ACI, Vol. 17,1921. Westergaard. H.M. published a separate paper
titled as ‘Formulae for the Design of Rectangular Floor Slabs and the Supporting Girders’ in
proceedings ACI, Vol. 22, 1926. Depending upon experimental results, Westergaard modified
the moment coefficients slightly in the method of analysis and design of restrained slabs.
Westergaard’s method remained predominant in many codes of practice for the last sixty years.
This method is still prevailing in many codes of practice. In the past, IS : 456–1964 specified
the modified moment coefficients developed by Westergaard.
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Example 8.1 A rectangular slab (supported on its all the four edges and corners are not
held down) is provided over a room 4.8 × 6.2 m. Determine the factored (design) bending
moments developed. The dead load consisting of weight of finishing surface and self-weight of
the slab is 5.48 kN/m2. The live load likely to act over the slab is 4 kN/m2. Use Grashoeff–
Rankine method.
Solution The slab is simply supported on both the edges. The width of supporting walls is
assumed as 600 mm. Therefore, the effective short span is as follows. The effective depth of slab
is assumed as 150 mm.
Step 1. Effective spans
ES = CS + d
= (4800 + 150) = 4950 mm ...(i)
1 1
ES = CS + . by + . bx
2 2
1 1
= (4800 + × 6000 + × 600) = 5400 mm ...(ii)
2 2
∴ ES = 4950 mm (whichever is small) ...(iii)
The effective long span
ES = (6200 + 150) = 6350 mm ...(iv)
1 1
or ES = (6200 + × 600 + × 600) mm
2 2
= 6800 mm ...(v)
ES = 6350 mm (whichever is small) ...(vi)
Step 2. Total uniformly distributed load
Characteristic dead load = 5.48 kN/m2
Characteristic live load = 4 kN/m2
Total load = 948 kN/m2 ...(vii)
w Fd = 1.5 × 9.48 = 14.22 kN/m
Ratio of long span to short span
ly 6350
r = = = 1.283 ...(viii)
lx 4950
Step 3. Bending moments for the slab
Bending moments for the middle strip of unit width along short span using Grashoeff–
Rankine method.
1 ⎛ r4 ⎞ 2
Mx = ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅ wFd ⋅ lx
8 ⎜⎝ 1 + r 4 ⎟⎠
wFd ⋅ ly2
or My = ry ⋅ ...(ix)
8
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Bending moments for the middle strip of unit width along long span using Grashoeff–Rankine
method.
2
1 ⎛ l ⎞ wFd ⋅ ly
My = ⋅ ⎟⋅
8 ⎝⎜ 1 + r 4 ⎠ 8
wFd ⋅ ly2
or My = ry ⋅ ...(x)
8
Grashoeff–Rankine coefficients rx and ry are noted from Table 8.3.
Ratio (long span/short span)
1.25 1.30 1.283
rx = 0.709 0.741 0.730
ry = 0.291 0.259 0.270
The factored (design) bending moments for the middle strips of unit width along—long and
short spans due to factored (design) loads are as under:
9.48 × 4.9502
Mx = 0.730 × 1.5 × = 31.794 kN/m
8
9.48 × 6.3502
My = 0.270 × 15 × = 19.352 kN/m
8
Example 8.2 Determine the factored (design) bending moments in Example 8.1 using
Pigeaud’s method. The corners of the slab are held down.
Solution Bending moments for the middle strips of unit width along short and long spans
are given by the expressions (v) and (vi), Art. 8.6 by Pigeaud’s method.
´ wFd ⋅ lx2
Mx = rx ⋅ ...(i)
8
´ wFd ⋅ ly2
My = ry ⋅ ...(ii)
8
From Example 8.1, the ratio of long span to short span, r is 1.283. Pigeaud’s coefficients rx´
and ry´ are noted from Table 8.3.
Ratio (Long span/short span)
1.25 1.30 1.283
rx´ = 0.446 0.474 0.464
ry´ = 0.183 0.166 0.172

The factored (design) bending moments are as follows :
9.48 × 4.9502
Mx = 0.464 × 15 × = 20.208 kN/m
8
9.48 × 6.3502
My = 0.172 × 15 × = 12.327 kN/m
8
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8.8 IS : 456–1978 METHOD

The slabs spanning in two directions at right angles and carrying uniformly distributed load
are designed by IS : 456–1978 method by using the coefficients for the bending moments for
the rectangular panels supported on four sides given in Appendix-C, IS : 456–1978. The slabs
spanning in two directions are classified in two categories, (i) simply supported slabs and (ii)
restrained slab. These two categories of the slabs are analysed and the bending moments are
calculated as follows.

The corners of simply supported slabs are not prevented from lifting. The corners remain to
free lift. These slabs do not have adequate provisions to resist torsion at corners. The maximum
moments per unit width for the short span and for the long span are calculated from the
following expressions :
Mx = αx . wFd . lx2 ...(8.26a)
My = αy . wFd . ly2 ...(8.27a)

where w Fd = factored (design) uniformly distributed load per unit area
lx and ly = lengths of short span and long span
Mx and My = bending moments on the strips of unit width of spanning along short span, lx
and long span ly respectively
αx and αy = coefficients for calculating bending moments (given in Table 8.1)
It is worth to note that the coefficients given in Table 8.1 are derived from Grashoff–Rankine
formulae which are based on the equality of deflections of two strips of the slabs, (one each
along the directions parallel to the supporting edges) at the middle at the intersection.
8.8.2 Restrained Slabs

The restrained slabs are the slabs, the corners of which are prevented from lifting. The slabs
are subjected to uniformly distributed loads. The slab is supported on all the four edges. The
edges of slab may be simply supported (viz., discontinuous edges), or fixed or continuous (viz.,
continuous edges). Depending on the various edge supports, the restrained slabs have been
classified in nine categories as shown in Fig. 8.3 and described in Art. 8.4.
The bending moment Mx for strip of unit width spanning along short span, lx (viz., along x-
axis) and the bending moment My for strip of unit width spanning along long span, ly (viz.,
along y-axis) carry only one subscript, but each moment in reality is a function of both the axes
x and y. Each moment varies on the plane of middle line with the maximum at the middle point
and reduces in a sinusoidal manner. The critical moment on the critical strip, for example, the
bending moment Mx depends on the boundary conditions at x = 0 to x = lx. The bending moment
Mxat x = (Lx/2) for y = 0 to y = ly varies close to a sinusoidal variation. The depth of slab and the
reinforcement depend on the value of critical moment at the central unit strip. Therefore, the
spacing of reinforcement for Mx along y-axis varies with maximum at the edges (i.e., y = 0 to y
= ly), and the minimum at central unit strip. In order to minimize the problem of detailing of
the reinforcement, IS : 456–1978 specified that the slab is divided into strips as follows :
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The restrained slabs are considered as divided parallel to short span and parallel to long
span directions into middle strip and edge strips as shown in Fig. 8.5 (a), (b), respectively. The
maximum bending moments are calculated for the middle strips. The maximum bending
moments per unit width for the short span and for the long span are determined from the
following expressions
Mx = αx . wFd . lx2 ...(8.26b)
My = αy . wFd . lx2 ...(8.27b)

where W Fd, lx, ly, Mx and My are same as defined for the simply supported spans described
above. αx and αy are the coefficients for finding the bending moments for the middle strips and
the redistribution is not made. These coefficients are based on the modern concept of yield line
theory and adjusted to take into consideration the fact that, the slab is divided into middle and
M idd le strip
lx
E dg e strip
E dg e strip
3 .l
8 4 x 8
(a ) S trip s p a ralle l to sh ort sp an
E d ge strip ( l x / 8)
M id dle strip 3 .l x
4
E d ge strip ( l x / 8)
ly
(b ) S trip s p a ralle l to lon g sp an strips o f re straine d slab
Fig. 8.5
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edge strips. Arbitrary parameters, such as the ratio of support moment to span moment (M
support/M span), have been selected to give moments that correspond to those which would be
obtained from the elastic analysis. The values of coefficients for the nine cases of the restrained
slab are given in Table 8.4 as given in IS : 456–1978.
It must specially be noted that lx2 appears in both Eq. 8.26 (b) and 8.27 (b) for the bending
moments Mx and My.
3
It is to note that the IS : 456–1978 refers the moment per unit width in th of the total
4
width of the slab and the middle strip, which is three-fourth of the total width is reinforced.
Therefore the sum of coefficients for positive and negative bending moments recommended by
IS : 456–1978 is approximately 1.33 times the corresponding values derived by Marcus theory.
8.9 TENSION REINFORCEMENT FOR TWO-WAY EDGE-SUPPORTED SLABS

The tension reinforcement required to resist the positive bending moment, Mx is provided parallel
to the short direction near the bottom face of the slab and calculated as follows:
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⋅x ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast.x . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = M Fd.x ...(i)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
The tension reinforcement required to resist the positive bending moment, My is provided
parallel to the long direction on the top of bars along short direction, as the bending moment
My is smaller than Mx. The effective depth for the upper layer of the reinforcement becomes
smaller than that for the lower layer of the reinforcement by one bar diameter, [viz., (d–φ)].
The area of steel reinforcement is obtained as below :
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast⋅ y ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast.y ⎜ d − ⎟ = M Fd. y ...(ii)
⎝ b ⋅ fck − φ ⎠
The straight reinforcement bars are either cut-off where no longer required or bent-up to
resist the negative bending moment. The position of points of zero moments depend upon the
side ratio, the ratio of live load to dead load and the support conditions at the edges. Therefore,
the reinforcement are provided, extended, cut-off or bent-up as recommended in IS : 456–1978
for simply supported and restrained slabs to facilitate a simple detailing procedure as follows:
5 0 p erce nt of A s t. x
e xte n ds to sup po rt
A s t.y
5 0 p erce nt of A s t.x
0 .1 l x E xte nd s to w ithin 0 .1 l x 0 .1 l x
o f sup po prt
A s t.x = M id sp an re fo rcem en t a lo n g x -a xis
Fig. 8.6
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Table 8.4 Bending moment coefficient for rectangular panels supported on four sides
Case Type of panel and moments Short span coefficients ax Long span
No. considered (Values of ly/lx) coefficients ay
for all
values off ly/lx
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (S) (9) (10) (11)
1. Interior panels (Fig. 8.3a)
Negative moment at continuous 0.032 0.037 0.043 0.047 0.051 0.053 0.060 0.065 0.032
edge
Positive moment at mid-span 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.039 0.041 0.045 0.049 0.024
2. One short edge discont inuous.
(Fig. 8.3b)
edge
3. One long edge discontinuous:
(Fig. 8.3c)
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edge
Positive moment at mid span 0.028 0.033 0.039 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.059 0.065 0.028
4. Two adjacent edges discontinuous
(Fig. 8.3d)
Design of Slabs Spanning in Two Directions
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edge
5. Two short edges discontinuous:
(Fig. 8.3e)
Negative moment at continuous 0.045 0.049 0.052 0.056 0.059 0.060 0.065 0.069 —
edge
Contd.
505
Table 8.4 Contd.
506
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (S) (9) (10) (11)
6. Two long edges discontinues:
(Fig. 8.3f)
Negative moment at continuous — — — — — — — — 0.045
edge
7. Three edges discontinuous
(one long edge continuous) :
(Fig. 8.3g)
Negative moment at continuous 0.057 0.064 0.071 0.076 0.080 0.084 0.091 0.097 —
edge
Positve moment at mid span 0.043 0.048 0.053 0.057 0.060 0.064 0.069 0.073 0.043
8. Three edges discontinuous
(One short edge discontinuous)
(Fig. 8.3h)
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Negative moment at continuous — — — — — — — — 0.057
Limit State Design
edge
Positive moment mid-span 0.043 0.051 0.059 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.087 0.096 0.043
9. Four edges discontinuous:
(Fig. 8.3i)
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( Note. The restrained slabs shall have provision for torsion at corners.

At least 50 percent of the tension reinforcement provided at mid-span should extend to the
supports. The remaining 50 percent should extend to within 0. 1.lx or 0.1.ly of the support as
appropriate as shown in Fig. 8.6.

The reinforcement is restrained slab is provided near the bottom face or top face depending
upon whether the bending moment is positive or negative. The reinforcement extends to within
the specified distance depending upon the edges of slab are continuous or discontinuous. IS :
456–1978 recommends the detailing as follows :
(a) Reinforcement for positive bending moment for the middle strip. The terision
reinforcement provided at mid-span in the middle strip for positive bending moment shall
extend in the lower part of the slab (viz., near the bottom face of slab) within 0.25.l of a
continuous edge or 0.15.l of a discontinuous edge as shown in Fig. 8.7.
D isco ntinuo us
C on tinuou s
e dg e
e dg e
M id -sp a n
0 .15 l re in force m e nt 0 .15 l
o f m id dle strip
Fig. 8.7
(b) Reinforcement for negative bending moment over continuous edge. The negative bending
moment develops over the continuous edge of a middle. For the negative bending moments,
the reinforcement is provided in the upper part (viz., near the top face) of the slab. This
reinforcement (100 percent) extends a distance 0.15.l from the support on one side and 0.15.l
0 .15 l 0 .15 l 0 .15 l 0 .15 l
0 .30 l 0 .30 l 0 .30 l 0 .30 l
(a ) S traigh t b ars (b ) B e nt up b ars
Fig. 8.8 Reinforcement over continuous edges
from the support on the other side as shown in Fig. 8.8. Fifty percent of this very reinforcement
extends a distance 0.30l from the support one side and 0.30. l from the support on the other
side.
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(c) Reinforcement for negative bending moment over discontinuous edge. The negative
bending moment may develop at a discontinuous edge of the slab depending upon the degree
of fixity of the slab. In ordinary cases, this bending moment may be assumed one-half of the
positive bending moment at the span. IS : 456–1978 recommends that, in general, tension
reinforcement equal to 50 percent of that provided at mid-span extending 0.1l into the span as
shown in Fig. 8.9 will be sufficient.
0 .1 l 5 0 p erce nt of A s t
A s t = R e in force m e nt a t m id -spa n
Fig. 8.9 Reinforcement over discontinuous edge
(d) Reinforcement in edge strips. The area of reinforcement in edge strip, parallel to that
edge shall be equal to the minimum reinforcement required for slab, (viz., the reinforcement
shall not be less than 0.15 percent of the cross-sectional area of the edge strip for mild steel and
0.12 percent of the cross-sectional area of the edge strip for hysd-steel).
The minimum reinforcement in each direction for two-way slabs is that required for
temperature and shrinkage crack control. The spacing of tension reinforcement resisting the
bending moment in two-way slab at the critical sections must not exceed twice the thickness of
slab.
Above simplified recommendations of the extensions of steel bars (reinforcement) from the
support or into the span in IS : 456–1978 have been made keeping in view the requirement for
the development length. It is considered that the adequate provision for torsion at the corners
of the restrained slab as described in the subsequent article shall necessarily be made.
8.10 TORSION REINFORCEMENT FOR TWO-WAY EDGE SUPPORTED SLABS

Kirchoffs shear force develops due to the combination of transverse shear force and the twisting
moment in the slabs. This shear force tends to lift the corners of the slabs from the supports.
When the corners of slab are prevented from lifting up, this tends to crack the slab at the
bottom along the panel diagonal, and at the top perpendicular to the panel diagonal. Therefore,
the corners of slab need special reinforcement at both the bottom and top of slab. Formerly, the
reinforcement used to be provided at the top of the slab in the direction parallel to the diagonal,
while at the bottom of the slab in the direction perpendicular to the diagonal. Alternatively,
either layer of steel may be placed in two bands parallel to the sides of the slab. IS : 456–1978
recommends this alternative way of providing the torsional reinforcement in the two-way slab.
(a) (i) IS : 456–1978 that the torsional reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where
the slab is simply supported on both edges meeting at that comer, (viz., at the corners where the
two adjacent edges are discontinuous).
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(ii) The torsional reinforcement shall be provided at the top and bottom of the slab, each
with layers of bars placed parallel to the sides of the slab.
(iii) This torsional reinforcement extends from the edges a minimum distance in each direction
equal to one-fifth of the shorter span.
L on g sp an ly
(D isco ntinu ou s ed g e)
X X
( l x / 5) ( lx / 5)
Torsio n
(D iscon tin u ou s ed ge )
lx A at A T D lx
(C on tin uo u s e d ge)
5 at D T /2 5
S h ort spa n lx
E a ch layer re inforce m e n t
a t A = (3/4) as
a t B , D = (3/8 ) A s
lx lx
5 B Torsio n C 5
at B T/2 N o . C o rner
at C T=0 R e in f.
( l x / 5) ( lx / 5)
N e ed ed
(T = O )
(C o ntin uous e dg e)
T = Fu ll to rsio na l m o m en t
A s = M ax m id -spa n reinforce m ent
(a ) P lan
lx Torsio n al R e in forcem en t
5 p rovid ed in fo u r la yer
3A E a ch layer 3A
4 s re in force m en t 8 s
(O n ly to rsio na l re in f. is sho w n)
(b ) E levatio n (C ross - se ctio n a t X .X )

D e ta ils of torsion re in forcem en t in restra in ed sla b
Fig. 8.10
(iv) The area of reinforcement in each of these four layers shall be three-quarters of the
area required for the maximum mid-span moment in the slab.
Let As be the area of reinforcement required for the maximum mid-span for the strip of unit
width in the slab. Then, above recommendations of IS : 456–1978 may be illustrated as shown
in Fig. 8.10.
(b) IS : 456–1978 recommends that torsional reinforcement equal to half that described
above [a (i) to (iv)] shall be provided at a corner contained by edges over only one of which the
slab is continuous, (viz., at the corner where one edge is discontinuous and other edge is
continuous).
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(c) IS : 456–1978 recommends that the torsion reinforcement is not provided at any corner
contained by the edges over both of which the slab is continuous, (viz., at the corners where two
adjacent edges are continuous).
8.11 DESIGN OF SLAB SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS

The rectangular panel of a slab spanning in two directions simply supported on its all the four
edges (with corners not held down) or restrained on its all the four edges (with corners held
down) is designed by following the steps described below. The grade of concrete and the quality
of steel bars to be used for reinforcement are decided. The slab is designed conforming the
procedure recommended in IS : 456–1978.
Step 1. The design constants for the grade of concrete and quality of the steel (viz., modular
ratio of concrete, m, depth factor for neutral axis, ks, the lever arm factor, jB and the factor for
the moment of resistance, RB) are determined for the balanced section.
Step 2. The restrained slabs are divided parallel to short span and parallel to long span
directions into middle strips and edge strips as shown in Fig. 8.5 (a) and (b) respectively. The
strips of unit width of middle strips of short span and long span are considered.
The effective spans for the strips of unit width of middle strips parallel to short and long
spans are found (as described in Art. 7.2, Step 2) depending upon the support conditions of
opposite edges.
Step 3. The loads supported by the strips of unit width of middle strips parallel to short and
long spans are determined in order to calculate the bending moments as below:
Loads. The dead loads of materials attached and supported by the slab are found by knowing
the unit weight of the materials. The self-weight of slab is obtained by estimating the thickness
of slab.
8.11.1 Estimation of Thickness of Slab

The thickness of slab is estimated by considering the span depth ratio described in Art. 3.22
depending upon end restraint conditions.
As per recommendation of IS : 456–1978, for slab spanning in two directions, the shorter of
two spans should be used for calculating the span to effective depth ratios. For slabs of small
spans (upto 35 m) with mid steel reinforcement, the span to overall depth ratios given below
(Table 8.5) may generally be assumed to satisfy vertical deflection limits for loading class upto
3 kN/m2. For high strength deformed bars of grade Fe 415, the values given for mild steel are
multiplied by 0.8.
Table 8.5 Span to overall depth ratios
Span to overall depth ratio
Edge support
mild steel hysd-steel
Simply supported 35 28
Continuous 40 32
Actual depth of slab required to resist the maximum bending moment is obtained in the
subsequent steps.
The self-weight of slab may be calculated by considering the unit area of the slab and its
thickness. It is added to the dead loads attached.
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The intensity of uniformly distributed live load per square metre is noted from IS : 875–1984
for the type of floor and its use.
Total load per metre length to be supported by strips of unit width of middle strips along
short and long spans are obtained.
Step 4. Required thickness of slab is calculated after determining the maximum bending
moments Mx and My for the strips of unit width of the middle strips of short and long spans,
respectively.
8.11.2 Simply Supported Slab

The maximum bending moments per unit width for the short and the long span of the simply
supported slab are calculated from Eqs. 8.26 (a) and 8.27 (a) as below:
Mx = αx . wFd . lx2 ...(i)
My = αy . wFd . lx2 ...(ii)
The value of co-efficients αx and αy for the simply supported slab (with corners not held
down) are noted from Table 8.1.

The maximum bending moments per unit width for the short and the long spans of the restrained
slab (viz., corners held down) are determined from Eqs. 8.26 (b) and 8.27 (b) as under:
Mx = αx . wFd . lx2 ...(iii)
My = ay.wFd . lx2 ...(iv)
lx
The values of co-efficients ax and ay for the ratio = r for the respective support conditions
ly
of the edges from Table 8.4. The absolute maximum bending moment M out of Mx and My is
noted and the effective depth of the slab is determined as under:
(3 b = 1000) ...(v)
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u. max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u.max ⎟ = bd2 = |M| ...(vi)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
where|M| is absolute maximum factored (design) moment.
The minimum clear cover for the reinforcement (for tension, compression or shear or any
other) recommended in IS : 456–1978 is 15 mm. By adding the appropriate effective cover to
effective depth and rounding off, the overall thickness of slab is decided.
Step 5. Following tension reinforcements as described and detailed in Art. 8.9 are provided
in the slab.
8.11.4 Main Reinforcement

The area and spacings of steel reinforcements in tension, Ast.x and Ast.y and sx and sy for the
strips of unit width of the middle strips along short and long spans, respectively are determined
as follows :
⎛ fy . Ast⋅x ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast.x ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd.x ...(vii)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
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⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ y ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ y ⎜ d − − φ ⎟ = MFd.y ...(viii)
⎝ b ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ 1000 Aφ⋅x ⎞
sx = ⎜ ...(xi)
⎝ Ast⋅x ⎟⎠
⎛ 1000 Aφ⋅ y ⎞
sy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(x)
⎝ Ast⋅ y ⎠
where Aφx and Aφy are the areas of one steel bar provided in the middle strips along short and
long spans, respectively and as shown in Fig. 8.11 (a).
M s. x
E s. x
E c. x
D iscon tinu ou s ed ge
A s t.x
y
0.0 1 5 l x
Es.
C o ntinu ou s e dg e
y
M s.
lx
0.25 lx
y
E s.
A s t.y
C o ntinu o us e dg e
0 .01 5 ly 0 .25 ly
lx
(a ) P o sitive re in force m en t a t b ottom of slab (M id dle strip )
Ec. x
Ec. x
Es. x
0 .1 lx
Es. y
C o ntin uo us e dg e
D isco ntinu o us e dg e
5 0 % A s t.x
5 0 % A s t.y
M s. y
0 .30 l x
0 .15 l x
Es. y
0 .10 ly 0 .15 l y
0 .30 l y
(b ) N e ga tive re in force m e n t a t to p of sla b (m idd le strip )
Fig. 8. 11
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Reinforcement in edge strips are provided as described in Art. 8.9 section (d) as minimum
reinforcement necessary (viz., temperature and shrinkage reinforcement) and as shown in
Fig. 8.11 (b).
Step 6. Torsional Reinforcement
Torsional reinforcement is provided at the corners depends upon the restrained conditions of
the edges containing the corners whether simply supported (viz., discontinuous) or continuous
as described and detailed in Art 8.10 in sections (a), (b) and (c), and as illustrated in Fig. 8.10.
Example 8.3 Design a rectangular slab (supported on its all the four edges) over a class-
room of size 4.8 m × 6.2 m. Two adjacent edges of the slab are discontinuous and the remaining
two edges are continuous. A finishing surface of cement concrete of 20 mm shall be provided
over the slab. The slab shall be used as a class-room floor. M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-
steel bars shall be used.
Solution
Design : The short and long spans of slab are 4.8 m and 6.2 m, respectively. The ratio of
long span to short span
⎛ ly ⎞ ⎛ 6.2 ⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 1.292 ...(i)
⎝ lx ⎠ ⎝ 4.8 ⎠
This ratio is less than 2. The slab is to be designed as slab spanning in two directions (viz.,
two-way slab).
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and hysd steel reinforcement for the balanced
section are as under. From IS : 457–1978, for M 20 grade of concrete, and hysd-steel,
(x u.max/d) = 0.48
Factor for the moment of resistance (b = 1000 mm)
(Mu.lim/bd2 ) = 2.76
Maximum percentage of tensile reinforcement
Pt.lim = 0.96
Step 2. Estimation of thickness of slab
Thickness of slab is estimated from span to effective depth ratio specified for the vertical
deflection in IS : 456–1978. The short span shall be used for two-way slab. Therefore, the
effective depth, d for the slab simply supported on one side and continuous over the other side
(average value of 20 and 26, viz., 23 is used)
⎛ short span ⎞
d = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 23 × modification factor ⎠
For M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-steel, the percentage ratio of steel for the balanced section
pB is 0.4392 per cent and therefore, the modification factor, from IS : 456–1978 is 12. Therefore
⎛ 4800 ⎞
d = ⎜ ⎟ = 173.91 mm ...(ii)
⎝ 23 × 1.2 ⎠
Providing effective cover of 25 mm, the overall thickness of the slab may be kept as (173.92
+ 25) = 19891 mm = @ 200 mm. Therefore, the effective depth of slab shall be (200 – 25) =
175 mm.
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The slab is discontinuous (viz., simply supported) on one side and continuous on the other
side. The width of supporting walls is assumed as 600 mm. Therefore the effective short span is
as follows :
The width of support 600 mm is wider than
⎛ 4800 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 400 mm
⎝ 12 ⎠
1
Then ES = CS + d
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ 4800 + × 500 ⎟ = 4875 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
and ES = CS + ⋅b
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ 4800 + × 600 ⎟ = 5100 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
∴ ES (short) = 4.875 m (whichever is less) ...(iii)
The effective long span shall be as under:
The width of support 600 mm is wider than
⎛ 6200 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 516.66 mm
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
Then ES = ⎜ 6200 + × 150 ⎟ = 6275 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
ES = ⎜ 6200 + × 600 ⎟ = 6500 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
ES (long) = 6.275 m (whichever is less) ...(iv)
Step 4. Load
The dead load consists of weight of finishing surface and the self-weight of the slab. These
loads are calculated for unit area of the slab.
(1 × 1 × 0.020) × 24 = 0.48 kN/m2
(1 × 1 × 0.020) × 25 = 5.00 kN/m2
Characteristic dead load
D.L. = 5.48 kN/m2
Live load for the class-room floor
(1 × 1 × 4) = 4.00 kN/m2
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Total load per unit area

= 9.48 kN/m2 say Ω 950 kN/m2
W Fd = (1.5 × 9.50) = 14.25 kN/m2
Ratio of effective long span to effective short span
⎛ 6275 ⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.287 ...(v)
⎝ 4875 ⎠
Step 5. Factored (design) Bending moments
The slab shall be divided into middle and edge strips.
8.11.5 Width of Strips

Width of strips of short span
3
Middle strip = × 6275 = 4706.25 mm
4
1
Edge strip = × 6275 = 784.375 mm
8
Width of strips of long span
3
Middle strip = × 4875 = 3656.25 mm
4
1
Edge strip = × 4875 = 609.375 mm
8
Bending moments per unit width strip of the middle strips
Mx = αx . wFd . lx2 ...(vi)
My = αy . wFd. lx2 ...(vii)
The coefficients ax and ay are noted from IS : 456–1978 for ratio
⎛ ly ⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.287
⎝ lx ⎠
Ratio r
1.20 1.30 1.287
αx + ve = 0.045 0.049 0.0485
– ve = 0.060 0.065 0.06435
αy + ve = — — 0.035
– ve = — — 0.047
Factored (design) moment for short and long spans
MFdx(+ ve) = 0.0485 14.25 × 4.8752 kN-m
= 16.485 kN-m.
MFdx(– ve) = 0.06435 × 14.25 × 4.8752 kN-m
= 21.795 kN-m
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MFdy(+ve) = 0.035 × 14.25 × 4.8752 kN-m

= 11.853 kN-m
MFdy (–ve) = 0.047 × 14.25 × 4.8752 kN-m
= 15.915 kN-m
Absolute maximum factored (design) bending moment out of the four above values
MFd = 15.915 kN-m ...(viii)
8.11.6 Effective Depth of the Slab, d
⎛x ⎞⎡ ⎛x ⎞⎤
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u. max ⎟ ⎢1 − 0.42 ⎜ u. max ⎟ ⎥ bd 2 = M
⎝ d ⎠⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦ Fd
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 [1 – 0.42 × 0.48] × 1000 × d 2 = 21.795 × 106

2.7593 × 1000 × d2 = 21.795 × 106
d = 88.875 mm
Effective cover = 25 mm
Overall thickness of slab
= (88.875 + 25) = 113.875 mm
Let the overall thickness of slab be 200 mm and for the requirement of span to effective
depth ratio and therefore the effective depth of slab shall be
d = (200 – 25) = 175 mm.
Step 6. Tension Reinforcement in middle strips
The tension reinforcement for the +ve and negative values of the bending moments required
are as follows : 10 mm φ hysd-steel bars shall be used
For bending moment, MFdx (+ ve)
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⋅x ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅x ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠ = MFdx
⎛st ⋅x A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast.x ×175 ⎜1 − 1000 175 20 ⎟ = 16.425 × 106
⎝ × × ⎠
7.492 A st2 ⋅x – 6.3184 × 104 Ast.x + 16.425 × 106 = 0
A st2 ⋅x – 8433.768 Ast.x + 219.24 ×104 = 0

Ast.x (+ve) = 268.50 mm2
For bending moment, MFdy (–ve)
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⋅x ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅x ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠ = MFdx
⎛st ⋅x A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast.x ×175 ⎜1 − 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟ = 21.795 × 106
⎝ ⎠
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7.49 A st2 ⋅x – 6.3184 × 104 Ast.x + 21.795 × 106 = 0
A st2 ⋅x – 8433.768 Ast.x + 290.91 ×104 = 0

Ast.x (–ve) = 360.33 mm2
For bending moment, MFd.y (+ve)
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast⋅ y ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast⋅ y ⋅ d ⎜1 − = MFd.y
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎟⎠
⎛ Ast⋅ y × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast.y ×175 ⎜1 − = 11.853 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
7.492 Ast2 ⋅ y – 6.3184 × 104 Ast.y + 11.853 × 106 = 0
Ast2 ⋅ y – 8433.768 Ast.y + 158.96 × 104 = 0

Ast.y (+ve) = 199.96 mm2
For bending moment, MFd.y (–ve)
⎛ fy ⋅ Ast⋅ y ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast⋅ y ⋅ d ⎜1 − = MFdx
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎟⎠
⎛ Ast⋅ y × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast.y×175 ⎜1 − = 15.915 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
7.492 Ast2 ⋅ y – 6.3184 × 104 Ast.y + 15.915 × 106 = 0
Ast2 ⋅ y – 8433.768 Ast.y + 212.43 ×104 = 0

Ast.y (–ve) = 259.88 mm2
Area of cross-section of 10 mm φ bar
Aφ = 78.5398 mm2
8.11.7 Spacing of Bars

Spacing of the bars for Ast.x (+ve)
sx . (+ve) = 100 × 78.5398

268.50
= 292.51 mm say @ 200 mm c/c
100 × 78.5398
Spacing of the bars for Ast.x (–ve) = = 217.966 mm
360.33
say @ 150 mm c/c
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Spacing of the bars for Ast.y (+ ve)

100 × 78.5398
sy.(+ve) = = 392.777 mm
199.96
say @ 250 mm c/c
Spacing of the bars for Ast.y (–ve)
100 × 78.5398
sy.(–ve) = = 302.21 mm
259.88
say @ 190 mm c/c
Step 7. Reinforcement in edge strips
Hysd-steel bars are used. Therefore, the reinforcement (for temperature and shrinkage) in
edge strips
0.12 × 1000 × 175
= 210 mm2
100
Provide 8 mm diameter bars
Aφ = 5026 mm2
100 × 50.26
Spacing = = 239.33 mm
210
Say = 230 mm c/c
Step 8. Torsional Reinforcement
Three-fourth of maximum mid-span reinforcement
3
⋅ As. max = 0.75 × 360.33 = 270. 248 mm2
4
3
⋅ As. max = 0.75 × 360.33 = 135.124 mm2
8 2
(i) Torsional reinforcement at corners contained by two discontinuous edges
Reinforcement is provided in four layers. Reinforcement in each layer
3
⋅ As. max = 270.248 mm2
4
8 mm φ bars are provided. Therefore spacing of bars in each layer
1000 × 50.26
= =185.98 mm
270.248
Say = 120 mm.
(ii) Torsional reinforcement at corners contained by one discontinuous edge and one
continuous edge
Reinforcement is provided in four layers. Reinforcement in each layer
3
⋅ As. max = 135.124 mm2
8
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8 mm φ bars are provided. Therefore spacing of bars in each layer

1000 × 50.26
= 371.96 mm
135.124
Say = 240 mm
(iii) Torsional reinforcement at corner contained by two continuous edges. Torsional
reinforcement is not provided at such corners.
1 1
× short span = × 4875
5 5
= 975 mm
The details of positive and negative reinforcement in tension for the middle strips,
reinforcement for the edge strips of the slab and the torsional reinforcement at the corners of
the slab are shown in Fig. 8.12 and Fig. 8.13.
Es. x Es. x
7 06 m
M s. x
0 .78 4 m 0 .78 4 m
0.60 9 m
C o rne r 1 0 m m φ hysd b a rs @ 20 m m c/c

y
x
E s.
C o rne r
0 .15
A A s t.x
D
lx = 4 .8 75 m
D is-C on tin uo u s e d ge
C o ntin uo us e dg e
3 .65 6 m
y
M s.
x
0 .25
0.5 0 9 m
C o rne r C o rne r
y
E s.
B C
A st. y
0 .01 5 ly C o ntinu ou s edg e

0 .25 l y
lx = 6.27 5 m
(a ) P o sitive rein force m e n t a t b ottom o f slab (M id dle strip)
Torsio na l reinforc em e nt pro vid ed

to p an d b o tto m in fo ur la ye rs
R e in force m e n t in e ach la ye r
( lx / 5)
8 m m φ h ye d ba rs at
corn ers b , d 2 40 m m c/c
lx C o rne r a 1 20 m m c/c lx
5 corn er c ze ro 5
(b ) To rsion al re in force m en t a t corne rs
Fig. 8.12
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M s. x
7 06 m
0 .1 lx
D is co n tin uo us edg e
C on tin uo us
X
ed ge
5 0 % A s t. y 5 0 % A s t.x X
3.6 5 6 m
M s. y
0 .30 l x
0 .1 5 l x
0 .10 ly 0 .15 ly
0 .30 l y
(a ) N e ga tive re in force m e n t a t to p of sla b (m idd le strip )
0 .10 ly 1 0 m m φ hysd @ 25 0 m m c/c 0 .15 ly

A s t. y
10 m m φ
h ys d @
1 9 0 m m c /c 0 .30 ly 1 60 m m
1 0 m m φ hysd @ 20 0 m m c/c
A s t. x
6 .2 m
(b ) C ro ss se ctio n a t xx
Fig. 8.13
8.12 SHEAR IN TWO-WAY SLAB

In two-way slab simply supported along its four edges, it is seen in Grashoeff–Rankine method
that the uniformly distributed load w per unit area is shared along the short span as wx and
along the long span as wL. From Eq. 8.1,
⎛ ly4 ⎞
wx = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w
⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
4
⎛ ly ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ lx ⎠ ⋅w
or wx =
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞ 4 ⎛ l ⎞4 ⎤
⎢⎜ y ⎟ + ⎜ x ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
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⎛ r4 ⎞
w
or wx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⋅
4 ⎟ ...(i)
⎝1 + r ⎠
From Eq. 8.2,
⎛ lx4 ⎞
wy = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w
⎜ ly4 + lx4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
4
⎛ lx ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ lx ⎠ ⋅w
or wy =
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞ 4 ⎛ l ⎞4 ⎤
⎢⎜ y ⎟ + ⎜ x ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ lx ⎠ ⎝ lx ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
⎛ 1 ⎞
or wy = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅w ...(ii)
⎝ 1 + r4 ⎠
The values of bending moments found by using wx and wy values of loads are reasonably
satisfactory. However, the values of reactions at edge support are quite different from these
determined experimentally, as the slab spans along X1Y1 (Fig. 8.1) near the corner A, and in
similar manner near other corners.
The shears in two-way slab may be obtained by assuming that the load from area AED
(Fig. 8.1) is carried by the short edge DA and that from area AEFB is carried by the long edge
AB. Total shear in slab across DA
= intensity of load × area AED (Fig. 8.1)
2
1 ⎛ lx ⎞ w ⋅ lx
= w × × lx × ⎜ ⎟ = ...(iii)
2 ⎝2⎠ 4
Average shear per unit width along DA
1 w ⋅ lx2 w ⋅ lx
= ⋅ = ...(iv)
lx 4 4
The maximum average shear per unit width occurs at the middle of DA. For all practical use,
it may be assumed as
⎛ l ⎞
= ⎜w ⋅ x ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 3⎠
Total shear in slab across AB (Fig. 8.1)
= intensity of load × area AEFB
⎛ AB + EF ⎞ lx
= w⋅⎜ ⎟⋅
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
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1⎡ ⎛ l ⎞⎤ l
= w ⋅ ⎢l y + ⎜ l y − 2 ⋅ x ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ x
2⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ 2
w ⋅ lx (2ly − lx )
= ...(vi)
4
Average shear per unit width along AB
⎛ l ⎞
ly ⎜ 2 − x ⎟⎟
w ⋅ lx ⎜ ly
= ⋅ ⎝ ⎠
ly 4
⎛ l ⎞
w ⋅ lx ⋅ ⎜ 2 − x ⎟⎟
⎜ ly
= ⎝ ⎠ ...(vii)
4
The use of shear reinforcement in slabs less than 200 mm thickness is considered impracticable.
The nominal shear stress in the slabs should not exceed half the permissible shear stress. The
permissible shear stress in slabs as per IS : 456–1978 has been discussed in Art. 7.6. The depth
of slab is commonly adjusted so that the requirement for shear is satisfied.
PROBLEMS
8.1 A rectangular slab (supported on its all the four edges and comers are not held down) is
provided over a room 3.6 m × 4.6 m. Determine the factored (design) bending moments
developed. The dead load consisting of weight of finishing surface and self-weight of the slab
is 4.60 kN/m2. The live load likely to act over the slab is 2 kN/m2. Use Grashoeff–Rankine
method.
8.2 Determine the bending moments in Problem 8.1 using Pigeaud’s method. The corners of
the slab are held down.
8.3 Design a rectangular slab (supported on its all the four edges) over a residential room of
size 3.8 m × 5.4 m. Two short edges of the slab are discontinuous. A finishing surface of
cement concrete of 20 mm shall be provided over the slab. The slab shall be used as a
residential floor. Use M 20 grade of concrete and hysd-steel bars.
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Design of Flat Slabs
9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The reinforced concrete slabs with or without drops, supported generally without beams by
columns with or without drops as shown in Figs. 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 are called flat slabs. The flat
slabs are also referred as two-way column-supported slabs. In flat slabs, the slabs are cast
integrally with the columns and beams are not provided. The flat slabs may be solid or may
have recesses formed on the soffit comprises of a series of ribs in two directions. The recesses
x
Flat sla b
DE
9 0° d x
2
C o lu m n
D
(X X - critical section fo r she a r)
Fig. 9.1 Flat slab without drop and column without column head
may be formed by removable or permanent filler blocks. The flat slabs as shown in Fig. 9.1
(viz., flat slabs without drop and column without column head) are built where the span is
small and the load is light. Such flat slabs are termed as flat plates. The flat slabs as shown in
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Fig. 9.2 (viz., flat slabs without drop and column with column head) are constructed where,
large bending moments develop round the columns. The top of column is enlarged in the shape
of an inverted frustum, referred as the column head or column capital. The columns with
column capital are referred as flared columns. The flat slabs as shown in Fig. 9.3, (viz., flat
slabs with drop and column with column head) are made where the large shear forces also
develop along with large bending moments. The thickness of slab around the column is increased
to resist the shear (or diagonal tension). This thickened portion or increased thickness of slab is
known as the drop panel, or simply the drop. Initially, the flat slabs were developed for heavy
loads and large spans and typically using the flared column capital and often the thickened
slab around the column (a drop panel). The flat slabs have long been recognized as the most
economical construction for heavy service loads upto 5 kN/m2.
Flats slab
X
DE
B C C1 B1
X d 4 5° 4 5°
2
A A1
C o lu m n O
D
X X – critical se ctio n for sg e ar
(con crete in a re as a bc a nd A 1 B 1 C 1 are n egle cted in ca lculation s)
Fig. 9.2 Flat slab without drop and column with column head
The flat slabs have the advantage of being practically flat (plain) from the underside. The
diffusion of light from the plain ceiling is more than other surfaces. The flat slab construction
is less vulnerable in case of fire than beam and girder construction because of the absence of
exposed corners. The formwork for flat slab is simple. The use of concrete is more logical in flat
slab construction than in beam and girder construction. In beam and girder construction, the
load is transferred from slab to the beam, then from beam to the girder to the column. In flat
slab construction, the load is transferred directly by the slab to the column. The load irrespective
of its position on the slab is carried by the whole slab. Therefore, in flat slabs, overstressing due
to concentration of load is not possible. Because of absence of the beam, the ceiling height of
each storey may be reduced. Owing to its many advantages, the flat slab construction has
practically superseded beam and girder construction for span upto 10 m and service loads upto
5 kN/m2.
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Design of Flat Slabs 525
Flat slab
X X1
DE
C C1
X d
2 X1
d
2
C o lu m n O
(X X – C ritical sec tion fo r she ar ad ja ce nt to d rop )

(X 1 X 1 – C ritica l se ctio n for sh ea r im m e diate ly a djac e nt to co lu m n)
Fig. 9.3 Flat slab with drop and column with column head
The columns, column heads, slabs and drop panels are the various elements of the flat slab.
9.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SLABS

Originally Professor O.W. Norcross patented the flat slab floors in the United States on April
29, 1902. Since then, several systems of providing reinforcement (namely, the four-way system,
two-way system, three-way system and the circumferential system developed and patented.
Professor C.A.P. Turner an American was one of the early advocates of a flat-slab system
(called as mushroom system. Professor Turner explained the functioning of slab by intuition
and applied a proof load to the completed slab. From 1910 to 1920, numerous flat slab structures
were load tested. These slab performed well under test. In 1947, Professor. J. Neisl Thompson
and Professor Phil M. Ferguson carried out such a test on a flat slab constructed about in 1912.
The flat slab although cracked badly but its strength was seen surprising.
Professor J.R. Nichols (‘Statical Limitation upon the Steel Requirement in Reinforced Concrete
Flat Slab Floors’ Trans. ASCE, Vol. 77, 1914), Professor H.M. Westergaard and Professor W.A.
Slater (‘Moments and Stresses in Slabs’, Proc. ACI, Vol. 17, 1921), Professor Joseph A. Wise
(‘Calculation of Hat Plates by the Elastic Web Method’, ACI Journal, Proceedings, Vol. 24,
1928), H.M. Westergaard (‘Formulae for the Design of Rectangular Floor Slabs and Supporting
Girders’, ACI Journal, Proceedings, Vol. 22, 1926).... are several investigators who developed
the various methods of analysis of flat slabs.
9.3 ELEMENTS OF FLAT SLABS

The columns supporting the flat slabs, column heads (also known as column capitals) and drop
panels (simply termed as drops) are the various elements of the flat slabs and these have been
explained in Art. 9.1. These elements of flat slabs have been defined in IS : 456–1978 and the
rules have been given for the proportioning of these elements as under.
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9.3.1 Column Heads

The column heads or the column capitals are provided on the top of columns as shown in Fig.
9.2 and Fig. 9.3 to increase the capacity of slab to resist two-way shear. The portion of a column
head which lies within the largest right circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of 90°
COC. Figures 9.2 and 9.3 shall be considered for design purposes this cone COC1 defines a
theoretical 45° failure plane. The portion of concrete in the areas (e.g., triangles ABC and
A1B1C1 in Fig. 9.2) would be ineffective in transferring shear into the column and therefore
these areas of concrete are not included in the calculations.
9.3.2 Drops
Drops are commonly provided for the purpose of decreasing the shear stresses around the
column supports. The drops provided should be rectangular in plan and have a length in each
direction not less than one-third of the panel length in that direction. For the exterior panels,
the width of drops at right angles to the non-continuous edge and measured from the centre
line of the columns shall be equal to one-half the width of drop for the interior panels.
The thickness of the drops (the extra or additional thickness than the overall depth of the
slab) may be at least 0.25 times the thickness of the slab.
The drops when provided also decrease the area of reinforcement for negative bending
moments at the supports.
9.3.3 Panels
The panels of flat slabs are the portions of slab bounded on each of its four sides by the centre-
lines of the columns.
9.3.4 Thickness of Flat Slab

The thickness of flat slab shall be generally controlled by considerations of span to effective
depth ratios. For calculating the modification factor for percentage of reinforcement in tension,
the average percentage of steel across the whole width of the panel at mid-span should be
used. The minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm.
For the slabs with drops satisfying the sequirement for drops given above, span to effective
depth ratios are applied directly.
For the slabs with drops which do not satisfy the requirements for drops given above, the
span to effective depth ratios shall be multiplied by 0.9.
For the span to effective depth ratio, the longer span shall be considered.
For the purpose of design the flat slab is considered as divided in each direction into column
strip and middle strip as shown in Fig. 9.4. The column strip and the middle strip are defined
as below.
1. Column strip, CS. The column strip of a flat slab is defined as a design strip having
width of 0.25 l2, but its width should not be greater than 0.25 lx on each side of the column
centreline.
2. Middle strip, MS. The middle strip of a flat slab is defined as a design strip bounded on
each of its opposite sides by the column strip.
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D C
C o lu m n strip C S A B
M id dle strip M S A B l2
C o lu m n strip C S AB
A B
l1
(a ) S p an s l 1 a nd l 2 fo r B M a lo ng A B
( C S = 0 .25 l 2 > 0 .2 5 l1 )
D C
Colum n strip C S B C
Colum n strip C S B C
M idd le strip M S BC
l1
A B
l2
(b ) S p an s l1 a nd l2 fo r B M a lo ng B C
( C S = 0 .2 5 l 2 > 0.2 5 l1 )
Fig. 9.4
The span l1 is the distance measured from centre to centre of supports in the direction in
which the total bending moment, m0 is calculated. The span l2 is the distance measured from
centre to centre of supports in the direction transverse to the span l1.
3. Clear span. The clear span is defined as the distance measured from face to face of
column capitals, brackets or walls in the direction of span, l1. The clear span should not be less
than 0.65 l1. This suggests that the maximum total width of column head is limited to 035 lx for
the purpose of design.
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IS : Code has used the symbol ln to represent the clear span. It is suggested that this symbol
may be modified as l1–n which indicates that it is to be measured in the direction of span, l1.
9.4 STATICS OF A FLAT SLAB

Professor J.R. Nichols in 1914 has shown in his paper titled as ‘Statical Limitation upon the
Steel Requirement in Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab Floors’ published in ASCE Trans Vol.
77,1914 that as per requirement of statics, total design moment for a span, Mo is equal to the
sum of the negative moment, Mn and the positive moment, of that span (viz., Mo = Mn + Mp).
However, the present procedures are primarily based upon the papers published by Westergaard
(H.M. Westergaard and W.A. Slater, ‘Moments and Stresses in Slabs’ Proc. ACI, Vol. 17, 1921
and H.M. Westergaard, Formulae for the Design of Rectangular Floor Slabs and Supporting
Girders, ACI, Journal, Proceedings, Vol. 22, 1926).
D E C
7 6
8 5
l2
1 4
2 3
A F B
( l1 / 2 ) (l1 / 2 )
(a ) In te rio r p an el of a fla t slab
l1 – n = ( l1 –2 D E )
3
(b ) L oa ding on spa n
Mp
Mo
Mn
(c) B e nd in g m om en t d ia gram
Fig. 9.5
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An interior panel of a flat slab as shown in Fig. 9.5 subjected to uniformly distributed dead
and live load w per unit area and surrounded with similar equally
loaded panels is considered. The straight boundaries are all lines D E
of symmetry. This indicates that the straight boundaries are 7
free from shear and torsion. Therefore, all the shear and torsion
8
are carried around the curved corner sections which follow the
column head.
D E = E ffective d ia m ete r
Let the slab is sub-divided along the middle of panel, along o f colum n he a d
the line EF. This line is a line of zero shear and torsion. The
total load on the slab area (rectangle ABCD minus four quadrant
areas) is supported by the vertical shears at the four quadrantal
arcs 1–2, 3–4, 5–6 and 7–8. The load on the half panel (rectangle DE
AFBD minus two quadrantal areas) W 1 acts downwards at the 1 2
centroid of loaded area as shown in Fig. 9.6. This load acting on 2

half panel. A Fl1 – n
2
⎛ l ⋅l ⎞πDE2 (a )
W 1 = w ⎜⎜ 1 2 − ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 2 8 ⎟⎠ l1 l1
4 4
The moment of this load about AD D
Mn WI Mp
⎛ w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 l1 π ⋅ DE2 2 DE ⎞
MAD.W = ⎜⎜ ⋅ −w ⋅ ⎟
3 π ⎟⎠ A WI
⎝ 2 4 8 X
DE DE
( X = — E xact. — A pprx. )
2 3
⎛ w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 ⋅ l1 w π ⋅ DE3 ⎞ (b )
or MAD.W = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ...(ii)
8 12 Fig. 9.6
⎝ ⎠
The upward shear W 1 is uniformly distributed around the quadrants 1–2 and 7–8. The
resultant acts at a distance (DE/π) from AD. The moment of this shear about AD
⎛ l ⋅l π DE2 ⎞ DE
MAD.S = w ⎜⎜ 1 2 − ⎟⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2 8 ⎠ π
⎛ w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 DE w ⋅ DE3 ⎞
or MAD.S = ⎜⎜ ⋅ − ⎟⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 2 π 8 ⎠
Algebraic sum of moments MAD.W and MAD.S
⎛ w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 ⋅ l1 w ⋅ DE3 w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 DE w ⋅ DE3 ⎞
MAD = ⎜⎜ − − ⋅ + ⎟⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 8 12 2 π 8 ⎠
Let (W = w . l1 .l2), then
⎛ w ⋅ l1 w ⋅ l1 ⋅ l2 DE w ⋅ DE3 w ⋅ DE3 ⎞
MAD = ⎜⎜ − ⋅ − + ⎟⎟
⎝ 8 2 π 12 8 ⎠
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⎛ w ⋅ l1 W DE W D3 ⎞
or MAD = ⎜⎜ − ⋅ + ⋅ E ⎟
⎝ 8 2 π l1 ⋅ l2 3 × 6 ⎟⎠
w ⋅ l1 ⎛ 4 DE D3 ⎞
or MAD = ⎜⎜1 − + 2E ⎟ ...(v)
8 ⎝ π ⋅ l1 3 l1 ⋅ l2 ⎠⎟
The expression (v) for net moment MAD may be approximated to the terms within the long
parenthesis reasonably well as under.
DE D
The error is of 0.5 percent low for = 0.1 and 0.5 percent high for E = 0.2. It is 1.3
l1 l1
DE D D
percent high for = 0.25 and 2 percent for E high for E = 0.30.)
l1 l1 l
2
W ⋅ l1 ⎛ 2 ⋅ DE ⎞
MAD = ⎜1 − ⎟ ...(9.1)
8 ⎝ 3 ⋅ l1 ⎠
This static analysis does not explain the distribution of total design moments into its two
components positive moment and negative moment. It also does not explain the variation of
these moments along the width of slab. The possible torsional moments around the column
head likely to act due to non-uniform tangential bending are also neglected in this static analysis.
The static analysis fails to give the total picture as regards the behaviour of large areas of this
type of construction.
The static analysis and the experimental tests carried out on the flat slab were co-related.
The interior panel of flat slabs acts in some form of an arch, and there is a horizontal thrust.
Under favourable condition, the arching action greatly strengthens interior panel. It adds
some reserve strength to edge panels. Looking to the extent of the reserve strength of flat slabs
in experimental tests carried in 1960, ACI code recommended the use of
⎛ w ⋅ l2 ⋅ l12 − n ⎞
Mo = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ w ⋅ l1 − n ⎞
or Mo = ⎜ ⎟ ...(9.2)
⎝ 1 ⎠
where, W = (w . l2 . l1 – n)
This value of total design moment, Mo is based upon the clear spans l1 – n between the
square supports. In case the supports are not square or rectangular, these are replaced (for
calculating the value of l1 – n with square columns of equal area.
9.5 BEHAVIOUR OF FLAT SLABS IN BENDING

In case two-way slabs are supported by relatively shallow and flexible beams, a number of new
considerations (as regards local behaviour of slabs surrounding the internal columns with
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CSBC CSBC
M SBC
D C
CSAB
M SAB
In te rio r
p an el
CSAB
A B
(a ) A ctu al w idth o f colum n strip s an d m id dle strips o f a n in terior pa ne l
CSBC CSBC
M SBC
D C
CSAB
M SAB
In te rio r
p an el
CSAB
A B
(b ) A ssum e d w idths o f colum n strip s an d m id dle strips o f a n in terior pa ne l
Fig. 9.7
respect to transfer of moment from the slab to the column, local behaviour of edge and corner
columns at their intersections with slab, overall design and detailing, etc.) are introduced. The
flat slabs are reinforced in two or more directions to transfer the loads to the columns. Therefore,
the flat slabs themselves become grid of two-way shallow beams supported directly on the
columns. The behaviour of two-way slabs along the column lines may be considered to act as
beams. As these strips pass through the columns, these are called as column strips. The strip of
flat slab between two adjacent column strips of slab is called as middle strip.
Professors Regan, P.E. and C.W. Yu have discussed the various aspects of behaviour of flat
slabs in ‘Limit State Design of Structural Concrete’ Chato and Windus, England, 1973. The
actual width of column strips (the portions of slab acting as beam between the columns) is
shown in Fig. 9.7 (a). For simplification, the width of column strip has been idealised and
assumed as uniform width and adopted in the various codes as shown in Fig. 9.7 (b).
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The behaviour of column strip is like that of a continuous beam supported on columns. The
deflected shapes of column strips remain identical to that of the continuous beam, (viz.,
deflections at column supports remain zero, and maximum at mid-spans). The middle strips
may be seen as suspended between the column strips. The middle strip deflects like a plate
supported on all its four sides by flexible beams. The resultant deflections of flat slabs are
generally more than more rigid beam-slab construction. At the centre of the panel, the flat slab
assumes saucer shape. Around the column, the flat slab remains convex upwards, which
gradually becomes concave at the centre of panel. There shall be point of inflection on such
deflected shape. The locus of points of inflection is a circle round the column. The column strips
get negative moments near the column supports and the positive moments in the middle portion.
The middle strip gets negative moments near the middle of column strips and positive moment
at its centre.
The behaviour of flat slab in shear shall be discussed later.
9.6 DIRECT DESIGN METHOD

The direct design method was formerly called as empirical method. The direct design method is
generally simpler to use than the other method of analysis and design of the flat slab. However,
the direct design method is restricted to very regular layouts and normal live-load to dead-load
ratios which shall be outlined in this section. The direct design method of analysis and design
of flat slab may be adopted in case the following limitations specified in IS : 456–1978 are
satisfied:
Limitations. The flat slabs shall fulfil the following conditions :
1. There shall be minimum of three continuous span in each direction.
In a two-way structure, the value of negative bending moment at an interior support
may easily exceed the values specified in the method.
2. The panels shall be rectangular and the ratio of longer span to the short span within a
panel shall not be greater than 2.0.
In case, the ratio of panel length to panel width exceeds two, the panel slab becomes a
one way slab and the direct design method cannot be extended to such cases.
3. It shall be permissible to offset columns to a maximum of 10 percent of the span in the
direction of the offset notwithstanding the provision in (2).
1
4. The successive span lengths in each direction shall not differ by more than rd of the
3
longer span. The end spans may be shorter but not longer than the interior spans.
The maximum ratio between the successive span than specified may develop negative
bending moment in the portions for which the design is made only for positive moment.
When the successive spans differ in the transverse direction, the average value should
be considered for the determination of total design moment, Mo.
5. The design live load shall not exceed three times the design dead load.
This limitation on the ratio of live load to dead load is imposed in consideration of the
effects of the pattern loading. If this ratio exceeds three, moments produced by the
pattern loading would be more severe than those calculated according to the direct
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design method.
The flat slabs carrying uniformly distributed gravity loads may be analyse by the direct
design method in case above five conditions described under limitations are fulfilled. The flat
slab are then analysed and total design moment in each direction shall be determined as under:
(as step 1).
9.6.1 Total Design Moment

In the direct design method, the total design moment in each direction shall be obtained for a
strip bounded laterally by centre line of the panel on each side of the centre line of the supports
as below :
Total design moment Mo for span AB, Fig. 9.5 as per Eq. 9.2 (b)
⎛ WFd ⋅ l1 − n ⎞
Mo = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
where, W Fd = factored (design) load on the area l2 . l1 – n
or W Fd = 1.5 × (wd + w1) . l2 . l1 – n ...(ii)
wd = uniformly distributed dead load per unit area
w1 = uniformly distributed live load per unit area
l1 – n = clear span extending from face to face of columns, capitals, brackets walls, but
not less than 0.65 l1
l 1 = length of span measured between the centre line to centre the two adjacent
columns in the direction of Mo, and
l 2 = length of span measured between the centre line to centre line of the two adjacent
columns in the direction transverse to span l1.
Total design moment Mo is the absolute sum of positive and negative bending moments as
shown in Fig. 9.5 (b). The design requirements are of rectangular columns, since rectangular
shapes are more widely used and more experimental data are available for the flat slabs
supported by the rectangular columns. If the columns are circular or of any other shapes,
equivalent rectangular (square) shape having equal areas should be considered.
Two separate values of negative design moment, Mn and positive design moment, Mp (for an
interior span and for an end span) are then found (as step 2) as fractions of Mo as follows :
9.6.2 Negative and Positive Design Moments

The negative design moment shall be located at the face of rectangular supports (circular
supports are considered as square supports having the equal area).
9.6.2.1 An Interior Span

The total design moment, Mo shall be distributed as follows, as shown in Fig. 9.8.
(i) Negative design moment
Mn = (0.65 Mo) ...(9.3)
(ii) Positive design moment
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Mp = (0.35 Mo) ...(9.4)

It is to note that these coefficients 0.65 and 0.35 for negative moment, positive moment
respectively, may have to be modified for the effects of pattern loading described in Art. 9.7.
W = (w d + w 1 ) l2 . l1 – n
S lab
l1 – n
w . l1 – n
C o lu m n Mo = C o lu m n
8
Mp
Mo
Mn
( M n = 0 .65 M o a nd M p = 0.35 M o )
Fig. 9.8 Distribution of moment in an interior span
9.6.2.2 An End Span

The total design moment, Mo shall be distributed as follows as shown in Fig. 9.9.
W = ( w d + w.l2 ). l2 . l1 – n
S lab
l1 – n
w. l1 – n
Mo =
C o lu m n 8 C o lu m n
M e–p
M e–n M i–n
⎡ 0.10 ⎤ ⎡ 0.65 ⎤ ⎡ 0.28 ⎤

Mi − n = ⎢0.75 − M ; Me − n = ⎢ M ; Me − p = ⎢0.65 − M
⎛ 1 ⎞⎥ o ⎛ 1 ⎞⎥ o ⎛ 1 ⎞⎥ o
⎢ 1 + ⎥ ⎢ ⎜1 + ⎥ ⎢ 1 + ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝⎜ α c ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎝ α c ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎝⎜ α c ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥
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Fig. 9.9 Distribution of moment in an end span
(i) Interior negative design moment
⎡ 0.10 ⎤
Mi–n = ⎢0.75 − Mo ...(9.5)
⎢
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥⎥
⎜⎝ 1 +
⎢⎣ α c ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
(ii) Exterior negative design moments
⎡ 0.65 M o ⎤
Me–n = ⎢ ⎥ ...(9.6)
⎢ ⎛1 + 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎟
α c ⎠ ⎥⎦
(iii) Positive design moment
⎡ 0.28 ⎤
Mc – p = ⎢0.63 − Mo ...(9.7)
⎢
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥⎥
⎜⎝1 + α ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ c ⎦
where αc is the ratio of flexural stiffness of the exterior columns to the flexural stiffness of slab
at a joint taken in the direction moments are being determined
⎛ ΣK c ⎞
αc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(9.8)
⎝ Ks ⎠
where ΣKc = sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the columns meeting at the joint, and
Ks = flexural stiffness of the slab expressed as moment per unit rotation
It is to note that these coefficients of Eqs. 9.5 and 9.6 may have to be modified for the effects
of pattern loading described in Art. 9.7.
The negative moment section shall be designed to resist the larger of two interior negative
design moments determined for the spans framing into a common unless an analysis is made to
distribute the unbalanced moment in accordance with the stiffness of the adjoining parts.
There negative and positive design moments found above (as in step 2) are adjusted in due
proportions to column strips and middle strips (as step 3) as under.
9.6.3 Distribution of Bending Moments Across the Panel Width

The bending moments at critical cross-section shall be distributed to the column strips and
middle strips as specified in IS : 456–1978 as applicable.
9.6.3.1 Negative Moments in the Column Strips, Mns at an Interior Support

At an interior support the column strip shall be designed to resist 75 per cent of the total
negative moment in the panel at that support, viz.,
Mnc = 0.75 Mn ...(9.9)
or Mnc = 0.75. (0.65 Mo)
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∴ Mnc = 0.4875 Mo ...(9.10)

There are two column strips of a span. Therefore, the moments, Mnc is distributed in two
portions.
(The critical section for negative bending moment shall be at support faces of each span and
that for positive bending moment is the mid-span).
9.6.3.2 Negative Moments in the Column Strips, Mnc at an Exterior Support

(i) At an exterior support, the column strip shall be designed to resist the total negative moment
in the panel at that support, viz.,
Mnc = Mn ...(9.11)
There are two column strips in a span. Therefore, the moment, Mnc is distributed in two
portions.
(ii) Where the exterior support consists of a column or a wall extending for a distance
equal to or greater than three-quarters of the value of l2, the length of span transverse to the
direction moments are being determined, the exterior negative moment shall be considered to
be uniformly distributed across the length, l2.
9.6.3.3 Positive Moment in the Column Strip Mpc for each Span
For each span, the column shall be designed to resist 60 percent of the total positive moment in
the panel, viz.,
Mpc = 0.60 . Mp ...(9.12)
For the interior span
Mpc = 0.60 × 0.35 Mo
∴ Mpc = 0.210 Mo ...(9.13)
There are two column strips in a span. Therefore, the moment, Mpc is distributed in two
portions.
9.6.3.4 Moments in the Middle Strip, Mpm and Mnm

The middle strip shall be designed on the following bases :
(i) That portion of the design moment not resisted by the column strip shall be assigned to
the adjacent middle strip.
Since, Mpc = 0.60 Mp
Mpm = 0.40 Mp ...(9.14)
For the interior span
Mpm = 0.40 × 0.35 Mo
Mpm = 0.14 Mo ...(9.15)
Since Mnc = 0.25 Mc
Mnm = 0.25 Mn ...(9.16)
∴ Mnm = 0.25 (0.65 Mo) = 0.1625 Mo ...(9.17)
(ii) Each middle strip shall be proportioned to resist the sum of the moments assigned to its
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two half middle strips.

(iii) The middle strip adjacent and parallel to an edge supported by a wall shall be
proportioned to resist twice the moment assigned to half the middle strip corresponding to the
first row of interior column.
The coefficients specified in this step 3 from (a) to (b) are based on a linear elastic analysis of
moments in slabs. Actual distribution of the moments across the panel at EF and at AB, Fig. 9.5
are as shown in Fig. 9.10 (a) and (b), respectively. The exact variation of moments is governed
by the presence or absence of drops and column heads, as well as the intensity of loads. For the
design purpose, it is assumed as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 9.10 for simplification and
convenience for design purpose. A panel is treated as composed of imaginary column strips and
middle strips across which the moments are assumed to have constant values.
0 .25 l2 0 .5 l2 0 .25 l2
CS CS
M id dle strip a ctual
A ssum ed
Mp
l2
(a ) Variatio n o f m om en t a cross w id th of critical se ctio n
l2
0 .25 / l2 0 .5 l 2 0 .25 l2
CS CS
M id dle strip a ctu a l
A ssum ed (d e sign )
Mn
l2
(b ) Variatio n o f m om en t a cross w id th of critical se ctio n

M o = (M p + M n)
Fig. 9.10
9.7 EFFECTS OF PATTERN LOADING

9.7.1 Direct Design Methods
In the direct design method, the limitation on the ratio of live load to dead load is imposed in
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consideration of pattern loading. However, the direct design method does not specify any
provision for the unbalanced live loads. The unbalanced live loads gives the moments in columns
arising from the effects of pattern loading. It is possible that the bending moments on the slab
may exceed the prescribed values for loading over all spans by as much as 100%. The possible
increases in the moments due to effects of pattern loading at service load level are limited by
this procedure recommended in IS : 456–1978.
When the ratio of live load to dead load (wl/wd) exceeds 0.5 it is seen that the sum of the
flexural stiffnesses of columns above and below the slab, Σkc shall be such that the value of αc
is not less than appropriate minimum value, αc.min specified in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Permissible values of αc.min
Ratio Permissible values of αc.min
⎛ Liveload ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
⎜ ⎟ Ratio ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ Dead load ⎠ ⎝ l1 ⎠
0.5 0.8 1.0 1.25 2.00
0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.0 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.2
2.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.9 4.9
3.0 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.8 13.0
In case, the sum of flexural stiffness of the columns above and below the slab are such that
the value of αc falls below the value of permissible minimum αc.min, the moments due to
1
patterning loading are likely to exceed the calculated values by more than rd. Therefore, the
3
positive design moments for the panel are increased by multiplying by the coefficient β, specified
in IS : 456–1978 as under :
⎡⎛ wd ⎞⎤
⎢⎜2 − ⎟⎥
wl ⎠ ⎥ ⋅ ⎛1 − α c ⎞
βs = 1 + ⎢ ⎝ ⎜ ⎟ ...(9.18)
⎢⎛ w ⎞⎥ ⎝ α c. min ⎠
⎢⎜4 + d ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ wl ⎠ ⎥⎦
where αc is the ratio of sum of flexural stiffnesses of the columns above and below the slab to
the flexural stiffness of the slabs at a joint taken in the direction moments are being determined.
⎛ Σkc ⎞
αt = ⎜ ⎟ ...(9.19)
⎝ Σkc ⎠
9.8 EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD

The equivalent frame method was formerly called as continuous frame method. In 1948,
Professor D. Peabody, Jr. published a paper titled as ‘Continuous Frame Analysis of Flat Slabs’
published in Journal of Boston Society of Civil Engineers, January, 1948. Professor Peabody
proposed continuous frame method of analysis of that slabs. It appeared in refined form in ACI
Code as the equivalent frame method. The complete documentation of this method may be seen
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in papers published by W.G. Corley, M.A. Sozen and C.P. Siess (‘The Equivalent Frame Method
for Reinforced Concrete Slabs’, University of Illinois, USA, Department of Civil Engineering,
Structures, Res. Series 218, June 1961) and W.G. Corley and J.O. Jirsa (‘Equivalent Frame
Analysis for Slab Design’, Journal of ACI Vol. 67. No. 11, November, 1970).
The equivalent frame method is a general method. However this method is intended for
analysis when the direct design method of analysis of flat slab cannot be used as each of six
limitations on geometry and load are not satisfied for the proposed structure. The equivalent
frame method is compulsorily adopted when the proposed structure is required to resist the
lateral loads. The shear forces and bending moments may be calculated by analysing the
structure as a continuous frame by moment distribution method, Kani’s method of stiffness
method. But, the equivalent frame method becomes quick and superior to other methods when
the calculations may be carried out by electronic digital computer. The bending moments and
shear forces may be determined by an analysis of the structure as a continuous frame by
having the following assumptions.
Assumptions. (a) The reinforced concrete flat slabs supported by the columns (a three-
dimensional slab-and-column structure) shall be considered to be made up of equivalent frames
on column lines taken longitudinally and transversely through the building (a series of two
dimensional frames) as shown in Fig. 9.11, and which are analysed for loads acting in the plane
of the frames. Each frame consists of row of equivalent columns or supports and a broad continuous
beam. The beam (viz., slab beam) includes the portion of the slab bounded by panel centrelines
on either side of the columns, together with column-line beams or drop panels if used.
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A B
(a ) S lab sup po rte d on colum n s
(b ) E q uiva le n t fra m e alon g A,B
Fig. 9.11
(b) Each such frame may be analysed in its entirely (when the lateral loads are to be resisted
by the frame), or for vertical loading, each floor thereof and the roof may be analysed separately
with its columns being assumed fixed at their remote ends. Where slabs are thus analysed
separately, it may be assumed in determining the bending moment at a given support that the
slab is fixed at any two support panels distant therefrom provided the slab continues beyond
that point.
Simplified method such as portal methods, are permitted for lateral loads on the normal
types of structural frames. These simplified methods should not be applied to the equivalent
frames constituting the flat slabs. The equivalent frames should be analysed in its entirely by
Hardy Cross-method or other suitable method.
When the flat slabs carry the vertical (gravity) loads only, IS : 456–1978 permits the use of
substitute frames with the further simplification that the slab is fixed at a support two panels
away. The spans used for analysis should be the distance between the centre-lines of the
supports and not the clear span.
(c) For the purpose of determining relative stiffness of members, the moment of inertia of
any slab or column may be assumed to be that of the gross cross-section of the concrete alone.
(d) Variation of moment of inertia along axis of the slab an account of provision of drops
shall be taken into account. In case of recessed or coffered slab which is made solid in the
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region of the columns, the stiffening effect may be ignored provided the solid part of the slab
does not extend more than 0.15 Ieff, into the span measured from the centre line of the columns.
The stiffening effect off flared column head may be ignored.
The relative stiffness of slabs and columns referred above in assumption (c) and the equivalent
column referred above in assumption (a) have been discussed in detail in subsequent articles.
9.9 RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF SLABS

For the purpose of determine the relative stiffness, the moment of inertia of any slab may be
based on the gross-sections of the concrete alone (neglecting the reinforcement) and the variation
in the moment of inertia along the axis of the slab-beam between supports is taken into account.
The absolute flexured stiffness, K s for the slab of uniform section is calculated from the
following expression
⎛ 4 Ec ⋅ I ⎞
Ks = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ l1 ⎠
where I = moment of inertia of concrete slab based on the gross-section of concrete alone
(neglecting the reinforcement)
l 1 = Appropriate length of the slab (length of the slab along the direction moment is
considered)
⎛1 ⎞
I = ⎜ l2 ⋅ Df3 ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 12 ⎠
l 2 = Width of the slab (span in the direction perpendicular to l1
Df = Overall thickness of concrete slab
In case the slab is having variable thickness along the length (viz., the slab is having drop
panel) then, the absolute flexural stiffness, K s is calculated from the following expression
⎛ K ⋅ Ec ⋅ I ⎞
Ks = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ l1 ⎠
where k is the stiffness factor for the slab (member). Its value shall be more than 4. The value
of k for the slab without drop and the slab with drop may be noted from Tables 9.2 and 9.3,
respectively.
Table 9.2 Stiffness factors for slabs without drop panels

Fig. 9.12 (a) as per SP : 24–1983
Column dimension Stiffness factor
(C1/l1) K
0.00 4.00
0.05 4.05
0.10 4.18
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0.15 4.40
0.20 4.72
0.25 5.14
0.30 5.69
0.35 6.42
(It is to note that these values are applicable when C1/l1 = C2/l2. For other relationships
between these ratios. These constants shall be slightly approximate).
Table 9.3 Stiffness factors for slabs with drop panels
Fig. 9.13 (a) as per SP : 24–1983
Column dimension Stiffness factor
(C1/l1) K
0.00 4.78
0.05 4.84
0.10 4.98
0.15 5.22
0.20 5.55
0.25 5.98
0.30 6.54
(It is to note that these values are applicable when C1/l1 = C2/l2. For other relationships
between these ratios. These constants shall be slightly approximate).
For the slab, the first change in the moment of inertia from the mid-span normally occurs at
the edge of drop panels (if they exist). The second change occurs at the edge of the column or
column capital. The idealization for column type of slab elements are shown in Fig. 9.12, Fig.
9.13 and Fig. 9.14.
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l1
A B
l1 – n
A B
Fa ce o f su pport
C1 C1
C 2 = La te ral d im en sion o f co lu m n m ea sure d pe rpen dicu la r to C 1
(a ) S im p le sla bs w ith ou t d rop
l2 l2
M I = l1 D M I = I 2 (1 – C 2 /l 2 ) 2
(b ) S e ctio n - A A E q uiva le nt section - B B
X = Ec . I 1 / (1 – C 2 / l 2 ) 2
E c I1 X
C1 C1
I1 – n
2 2
(c) E q uivalent sla b stiffne ss diag ram ide alisatio n for co lu m n typ es
o f sla b elem e nts for co ntin uo us slab-b e am stiffn e ss
Fig. 9.12
The moment of inertia of the slab-beam from the face of support to the centre-line of support
is assumed equal to the moment of inertia of the slab-beam at the face of support divided by
(1– C2/l2)2, where C2 is the width of rectangular support and l2 is the span, both referring to
the director perpendicular to that in which the analysis is made.
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l1
C
A
B
D D1
B
A
C
C1 C1
C 2 = L ate ra l d im e nsio n of co lu m n m e asured
p erp en dicu la r to C 1
(a ) S lab w ith pa ne l d rop a n d co lu m n w ith co lu m n he ad
l2 l2 l2
M I = I1 D1 M I = I2 D2 M I = I 2 (1 – C 2 / l 2 )2
K l2
(b ) S e ctio n A A S e ctio n B B E q uiva le nt section C C
K l1 / 2 K l1 / 2
E c I2
E c I1
(1 – C 2 )
X = E c I2
l2
C1 l1 – n C1
2 2
(c) E q uivalen t sla b-b e am stiffn e ss d ia gra m id ea lisa tion fo r

co lu m n typ es o f sla b elem en ts fo r co ntinu ou s sla b
b ea m stiffn ess
Fig. 9.13
The coefficients for fixed end moment, stiffness, K and the carryover factors for a slab without
drop panels, for a slab with drop panels (depth equal to 1.25 times the slab depth and of length
equal to one-third the span length) and for slab with column capital are given in SP 24–1983
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(Explanatory handbook on IS : 4561–978). It is to note that the conventional coefficients for

fixed-end moment, stiffness and carryover factors derived for the prismatic members will not
be appropriate when the moment of inertia varies along the axis of the member.
l1
A B C
D1
D2
B
l 2 A l C
l
6 3 6
l1 – n
Fa ce o f su pp ort
C1 C1
C 2 = L ate ra l d im en sio n o f co lu m n m e asure d
p erp en dicu la r to C 1
(a ) S lab w ith dro p pa ne ls a nd colum n w ith ou t co lu m n h ea d
l2 l2 l2
M I = I1 D1 M I = I2 D 1 M I = I 2 (1 – C 2 / l2 )2
K . l2
(b ) S e ctio n - A A S e ctio n - B B E q uiva le nt S e ctio n- C C

K l1 K l1
2 2
E c I2 E c I1
X = E c I2 1 – C 2
2
l2
C1 C1
2 l1 – n 2
(c) E q uivale n t sla b-b ea m stiffn ess diag ra m id ea lisa tio n
for co lu m n typ es o f sla b elem en ts fo r co ntinu ou s
sla b be am stiffne ss
Fig. 9.14
9.10 RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF COLUMNS

For the purpose of determining relative stiffness of columns, the moment of inertia of any
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Table 9.4 Column stiffness coefficients, Kc for columns without tapered capitals (As shown in Fig. 9.15)
546
b
lc
a
lc 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
0.00 4.000 4.082 4.167 4.255 4.348 4.444 4.545 4.651 4.762 4.878 5.000 5.128 5.263
0.02 4.337 4.433 4.533 4.648 4.747 4.862 4.983 5.110 5.242 5.384 5.533 5.690 5.856
0.04 4.709 4.882 4.940 5.063 5.193 5.330 5.475 6.627 5.787 5.958 6.138 6.329 6.533
0.06 5.122 5.252 5.393 5.539 5.693 5.855 6.027 6.209 6.403 6.608 6.827 7.060 7.310
0.08 5.581 5.735 5.898 6.070 6.252 6.445 6.650 6.868 7.100 7.348 7.613 7.897 8.203
0.10 6.091 6.271 6.462 6.665 6.880 7.109 7.353 7.614 7.893 8.192 8.513 8.859 9.233
0.12 6.659 6.870 7.094 7.333 7.587 7.859 8.150 8.461 8.796 9.157 9.546 9.967 10.430
0.14 7.292 7.540 7.803 8.084 8.385 8.708 9.054 9.426 9.829 10.260 10.740 11.250 11.810
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0.16 8.001 8.291 8.600 8.931 9.287 9.670 10.080 10.530 11.010 11.540 12.110 12.740 13.420
0.18 8.796 9.134 9.498 9.888 10.310 10.760 11.260 11.790 12.730 13.010 13.700 14.470 15.310
0.20 9.687 10.080 10.510 10.970 11.470 12.010 12.600 13.240 13.940 14.710 15.560 16.490 17.530
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0.22 10.960 11.160 11.660 12.700 12.800 13.440 14.140 14.910 15.760 16.690 17.210 18.870 20.150
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0.24 11.820 12.730 12.960 13.610 14.310 15.080 15.920 16.840 17.870 19.000- 20.260 21.650 23.260
( Note. α = length of rigid column section at near end, b = length at rigid column section at far end.
column may be assumed to be that of the gross cross-section of the concrete alone. However the
changes in the moment of inertias occurring due to drop panels, (if they exist), or due to column
capital has to be taken into account. The idealisation for different types of column elements are
shown in Fig. 9.15, Fig. 9.16 and Fig. 9.17.
For columns of uniform circular size, the flexural stiffness of the column shall be calculated
from the following expression
⎛ 4 ⋅ Ec ⋅ I c ⎞
Kc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ lc ⎠
where lc is the length of column measured from the line of slab upto the centre line of adjacent
slab as shown in Fig. 9.15.
b I = 00
lc E c = Ic
a I = 00
(a ) S lab w itho ut drop colum n (b ) C o lu m n stiffn e ss d ia gra m

w itho ut c olum n he ad
Fig. 9.15 Section for calculating column stiffness (Kc)
In general, the flexural stiffness of the column may be expressed as under:

⎛ 4 ⋅ Ec ⋅ I e ⎞
Kc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 4le ⎠
⎛1 ⎞
where Ie = ⎜ ⋅ D ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
The values of column stiffness coefficients, kc for the columns without tapered capitals
(Reference : Simmonds, S.H. and Misic, J, ‘Design factors for Equivalent Frame Method’
proceedings ACI, Vol. 68 (II), November, 1971) may be noted from Table 9.4.
The values of column stiffness coefficients, kc for columns with 45° tapered capitals may be
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noted from Table 9.5.

Table 9.5 Column stiffness coefficients, kc for columns with 45° tapered capitals
(As shown in Fig. 9.17)
a
lc
b´
lc 0.00 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050
0.0 4.000 4.102 4.208 4.318 4.433 4.552 4.676 4.805 4.940 5.080 5.226
4.000 4.102 4.208 4.318 4.433 4.552 4.676 4.805 4.940 5.080 5.226
0.02 4.013 4.115 4.222 4.332 4.448 4.567 4.692 4.822 4.957 5.098 5.245
4.003 4.105 4.212 4.322 4.436 4.558 4.680 4.810 4.944 5.085 5.232
0.04 4.050 4.154 4.261 4.373 4.490 4.611 4.738 4.869 5.006 5.149 5.298
4.012 4.115 4.221 4.332 4.447 4.567 4.692 4.822 4.958 5.099 5.246
0.06 4.108 4.214 4.323 4.438 4.557 4.680 4.809 4.943 5.083 5.229 5.382
4.025 4.129 4.236 4.347 4.463 4.584 4.170 4.841 4.978 5.120 5.269
0.08 4.185 4.293 4.406 4.523 4.645 4.772 4.905 5.042 4.186 5.336 5.492
4.042 4.147 4.222 4.367 4.484 4.606 4.733 4.866 5.003 5.147 5.297
0.10 4.280 4.392 4.508 4.629 4.755 4.886 5.022 5.164 5.313 5.467 5.629
4.063 4.168 4.277 4.391 4.590 4.633 4.741 4.895 5.034 5.180 5.331
0.12 4.393 4.509 4.628 4.754 4.884 5.020 5.161 5.308 5.462 5.623 5.790
4.086 4.192 4.303 4.418 4.538 4.662 4.792 4.928 5.069 5.216 5.370
0.14 4.522 4.642 4.767 4.897 4.032 5.174 5.321 5.474 5.634 5.801 5.975
4.112 4.219 4.331 4.448 4.569 4.695 4.827 4.964 5.107 5.257 5.413
0.16 4.667 4.793 4.923 5.059 5.200 5.347 5.301 5.661 5.828 6.002 6.184
4.139 4.248 4.362 4.480 4.603 4.731 4.864 5.004 5.149 5.301 5.459
0.18 4.830 4.961 5.097 5.239 5.387 5.541 5.701 5.869 6.044 6.266 6.417
4.169 4.279 4.394 4.514 4.639 4.769 4.904 5.046 5.193 5.347 5.508
0.20 5.009 5.146 5.289 5.438 4.493 5.754 5.923 6.098 6.282 6.473 6.674
4.200 4.312 4.429 4.550 4.677 4.809 4.947 5.090 5.240 5.397 5.560
0.22 5.205 5.349 5.499 5.656 5.818 5.988 6.615 6.360 6.543 6.744 6.955
4.233 4.346 4.465 4.588 4.717 4.851 4.991 5.137 5.289 5.449 5.615
0.24 5.419 5.571 5.729 5.893 6.604 6.243 6.430 6.624 6.287 7.040 7.262
4.266 4.382 4.504 4.628 4.758 4.805 5.037 5.185 5.340 5.502 5.672
* Upper-value is for capital end lower value is for base end of column.
a = length of column section considered rigid.
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b´ = depth of 45 degree capital below soffit of slab.

In case, the stiffening effect due to flares is neglected, (as permitted in IS : 456–1978),
Fig. 9.15 and Fig. 9.16 will be relevant and the factors for fixed end moments, stiffness k and
the carryoever factor will correspond to that of a prismatic member. It is to note that in Fig.
9.17, the moment of inertia is flared column head is assumed to vary linearly along the axis
which one is an approximation.
9.11 EQUIVALENT COLUMN

The slab spans are not really fixed at the column even if a flat plate is supported on very stiff
column. The slab strip framing directly into the column if fixed over the column width, but the
parallel slab strips farthest from the column are restrained only by the adjacent slab span and
practically these strips do not get restraint from the column itself. The torsional restraint that
the slab could transfer laterally to this strip is nearly negligible. The slabs with heavy transverse
beams, there may be more restraint. The slabs with heavy transverse beams, there may be
more restraint. But on the average across the slab, the restraint is still less than directly at the
column. As far as the slab is concerned, the slab restraint averages less than the column stiffness
suggests. Only a transverse beam infinitely stiff in torsion between two columns make this
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difference negligible.
a
b'
lc
(a ) S la b w ith d ro p co lu m n (b ) C o lum n stiffne ss

w ith colu m n h ea d d ia g ra m
The columns are treated to be attached to the continuous slab-beam by torsional members
transverse to the direction of the span for which moment are being found, the torsional members
extends to the panel centrelines bounding each side of the slab beam under study. Torsional
deformation of these transverse supporting members reduce the effective flexural stiffness
provided by the actual column at the support. This reduced column effectiveness is a major
concept in the equivalent frame method of analysis. This effect is considered for in the analysis
by using the term an equivalent column having the stiffness less than that of the actual
column. An equivalent column may be assumed to comprise of the actual columns above
and below the slab beam plus an attached torsional members transverse to the direction of the
span for which the moments are being calculated and extending to bound lateral panel
centrelines on each side of the column.
A column and a transverse beam at the exterior support of a continuous slab-beam strip are
shown in Fig. 9.18 to illustrate the action of a column and the transverse torsional member.
The slab spans in the direction lt. The flexural stiffness of the column and the torsional stiffness
of the edge beam AC. Let Mt be the distributed torque applied by the slab and Mt be the
resisting torque provided by the columns. The rotations at A and C of the edge-beam will be
more than at the section at B due to torsional deformation of the edge beam. The actual columns
and edge beam are replaced by an equivalent column to allow for this unequal effect of rotations.
The equivalent column is so defined that the torsional flexibility (inverse or stiffness) is the
sum of the flexibilities of the actual columns and edge beam. Therefore
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ + ...(9.20)
K ec ⎝ ΣK c K t ⎟⎠
( l 1 /2)
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Mt A B C
Mt P a ne l C /L
l2
ABC
under :
1
Kec = ...(9.21)
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
+⎜
(ΣK c ) ⎝ K t ⎟⎠
According to the equivalent frame method, the concept of the equivalent column illustrated
with an exterior column is used at all supporting columns for each continuous slab-beam.
The stiffness K t of an attached torsional member is calculated as described in the subsequent
section.
9.12 TORSIONAL MEMBER

A torsional member attached with the slab is assumed to have a constant cross-section
throughout their length consisting of the larger of the following (as prescribed by ACI318-77
Code).
(a) a portion of the slab having width equal to that of the column, bracket or capital in the
direction of span for which the moments are being determined:
(b) for monolithic or fully composite construction, the portion of slab in (a) plus that part
of the transverse beam above and below the slab; and
(c) the transverse beam including the portion of slab on either side of beam.
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C1 C1 C1
(a ) To rsion al m em b ers a s in (a )
(b w + 2 D w )
Df
Dw
Dw
C1
(b ) To rsion al m em b er as in (b)
Df
Dw
X
bw
C1 C1
X = ( b w + 2 d w ) > ( b w + 8 D f ). Y = d w > 4 D f
(c) To rsio na l m e m b er as in (c)
Fig. 9.19
The beam frames into the column. The action of beam is assumed as that of flanged beam
(T-beam or L-beam). The flanges extend on each side of beam a distance equal to the projection
of the beam above or below the slab but not greater than four-times the thickness of slab. It is
also assumed that the torsional rotation does not occur in the beam over the width of the
support. The governing criteria to identify the torsional members as per paragraphs (a), (b)
and (c) above are shown in Fig. 9.19.
The torsional stiffness, of edge beam, Kt is evaluated by having simple (rather crude)
assumptions and basic theory with final adjustment by an empirical factor to fit test results.
A transverse beam (or slab) loaded in torque by unbalanced slab moments that vary from zero
at mid-span to a maximum at the centreline of the column is shown in Figs. 9.20 (a) and (b)
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respectively.
The torque (area of the load curve) is 0.5 for each span and the shape of the torque curve is
a second power parabola with an ordinate at the face of the column
2
1⎛ c ⎞
Tu = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ...(i)
2⎝ l2 ⎠
The unit rotation angle at any point is the torque divided by both G, the shear modulus, and
C, the torque stiffness of the cross-section. The difference between column rotation and mid-
span beam rotation may be obtained by summation of area under this curve
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡⎛ l2 ⎞ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎛ c2 ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ 0.5 ⎜1 − ⎟⎥
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎝ l2 ⎠⎦
θt =
C ⋅G
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ 3 ⎤
⎛ c2 ⎞
or θt = ⎜ ⎟ (l2 ) ⎜1 − ⎟ ⋅ C ⋅ G ⎥
⎢ (3 E = 2G)
⎢⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ 3 ⎤
⎛ C2 ⎞
or θt = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (l2 ) ⋅ ⎜1 −
⎢ ⎟ ⋅C ⋅ E⎥ ...(ii)
⎢⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
θt ⎛1 ⎞
The average value of 8 for the slab as or a factor of ⎜ ⎟ may be used to fit the equation
3 ⎝3⎠
to test results. It is necessary to represent a non-linear torque load. The angle of twist, θt is
therefore
⎡ 1 3 ⎤
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ C ⎞
θt = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (l2 ) ⋅ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⋅ E ⋅ C ⎥ ...(iii)
⎢⎝ 18 ⎠ ⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The stiffness (for arm) is the ratio of torque (used as 0.5 per arm) to this, θt
⎛ 0.5 ⎞ 9EC
∴ Kt = ⎜ ⎟= 3
...(iv)
θ
⎝ t ⎠ ⎡ ⎛ C ⎞ ⎤
⎢l2 ⎜1 − 22 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎥⎦
The stiffness of torsional member (which one is twice for two arms in the symmetrical) may
be written as
∑9 E.C
⎡ 3
Kt = ⎛ C ⎞ ⎤ ...(9.22)
⎢l2 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎥
⎦
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l2
l2 C l2 C
(1 – 2 ) (1 – 2 )
2 l2 2 l2
(a ) B e am - co lum n co m b in a tio n
(2 / l2 )
(b ) D istribu tion o f to rq ue or tw ist lo ad

2
1 ⎛ C2 ⎞
Tu = ⎜1 − ⎟
2⎝ l2 ⎠
Tu = 1
Tu 2
(c) Tw isting m om e nt or to rqu e diag ram

⎡⎛ C ⎞2 ⎤
θ = ⎢⎜1 − 2 ⎟ 2 C .G ⎥
⎢⎝ l2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(d ) D istribu tion o f tw ist a ng le pe r u nit len gth
Fig. 9.20
The value of C, polar moment of inertia is the above equation may be obtained for the cross-
section by dividing it into various rectangles
⎛ 0.63x ⎞ ⎛ 3 y ⎞
C = ∑ ⎜1 − ⎟⋅ x ⋅ ⎟ ...(9.23)
⎝ y ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3⎠
where x and y are the small and large dimensions of the various rectangles making up the
cross-section as shown in Fig. 9.21 (a). Where no beam stem is present, the beam as a width
of slab equal to the column width. Where a beam stem is present, the beam includes the stem
plus the adjoining the slab on each side of width equal to 4 times Df if smaller as shown in
Fig. 9.21 (b).
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x1 x3 Df
y2
y1 y3
y M ax
≤
4D f
≤
y
x2
(a ) R e ctan gles u se d in ca lcu la tio n (b ) Flan ge in sla b assum e d a s
o f c fo r to rsio n p art of be am
Fig. 9.21
Where the beam frames into the columns in the direction of span for which moments are
being determined, the value of K t as calculated above should be multiplied by the ratio of
moment of inertia of slab with such a beam to the moment of inertia of the slab without such a
beam.
9.13 LOADING PATTERNS (Equivalent Frame Method)

When the loading pattern is known, the structure shall be analysed for the load concerned. For
example, in the case of water reservoirs supported on flat slabs, the load shall be applied on all
the panels. In such cases, the loading pattern is known.
When the live load is variable but does not exceed three-quarters of the dead load, (viz., wt
> 0.75 wd), or the nature of the live load is such that all the panels will be loaded simultaneously,
the analysis of frame is made when full design live load is on the entire slab system. The dead
load (of course) remains on all the spans.
When the live load exceeds three-quarters of the dead load, (viz., wt > 0.75 wd), it is acceptable
to design only for three-quarters of full live load for the following positions of live load occupying
the spans.
9.13.1 For Maximum Positive Moment

The alternate spans as shown in Fig. 9.22 (a) are considered load for the maximum positive
moment in the panel, BC near mid-span.
9.13.2 For Maximum Negative Moment

Two adjacent spans as shown in Fig. 9.22 (b) are considered loaded for the maximum negative
moment at a support, B.
The design positive and negative moments in no case shall be taken less than those occurring
will full live loads as shown in Fig. 9.22 (c) are considered loaded.
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0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l
+ + 0 .75 w l
+ + +
wd wd wd wd wd
A B C D
(a ) A lte rna te sp a ns lo a de d
0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l
+ +
wd wd wd wd wd
A B C D
(b ) Tw o ad ja ce n t spa ns loa de d
0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l 0 .75 w l

+ + + + +
wd wd wd wd wd
A B C D
(c) A ll sp an s lo ad ed
Fig. 9.22
9.14 CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR NEGATIVE DESIGN MOMENTS

The critical sections for negative design moments for the interior supports and for the exterior
supports are as under.
9.14.1 Interior Supports

The critical section for negative moment at interior supports, in both, the column strip and
middle strip shall be taken at the face of the rectilinear supports, but in no case, at a distance
greater than 0.175 l1 from the centre line of the column where l1 is the length of the span in
the direction moments are being calculated. It is measured from centreline to centreline of
supports.
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9.14.2 Exterior Supports

The critical section for negative moment (at exterior supports provided with brackets or capitals)
in the direction perpendicular to the edge shall be taken at a distance from the face of the
supporting element not greater than one-half the projection of the bracket or capital beyond
the face of the supporting element.
The circular or regular polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports having
the same area.
9.15 MODIFICATION OF MAXIMUM MOMENT

IS : 456–1978 has specified two separate methods (viz., direct design method and equivalent
frame method) of analysis and design of flat slabs. The flat slabs, which satisfy the limitations
necessary for the direct design method, may also be analysed by the equivalent frame method,
and the values of maximum positive and negative moments are found at the appropriate critical
sections. As a result of which, it is possible that the overall thickness of the section and the area
of steel reinforcement in few cases may be larger than those found by direct design method. In
such cases, the moments obtained by the equivalent frame method, for the slabs may be reduced
in such proportions that the numerical sum of the positive and average negative moments,
⎡
viz., ⎢ M 3 +
( M1 + M 2 ) ⎤ is not less than the value of total design, M as shown in Fig. 9.23.
⎥ o
⎣ 2 ⎦
The permissible reduction for moments M1, M2 and M3 shall be
⎡ wFdl2 : l02 ⎤ ⎡ ( M1 + M 2 ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥ . ⎢ M3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
C 1 = W idth o f co lu m n /co lum n h ea d
l1
l1 – n
C1 / 2 C1 / 2
> >
0 .17 5 l 1 0 .17 5 l1
M3 Mo
1 (M + M ) M2
M1 2
1 2
w. l1 – n W = (W d + W l) l2 . l1 – n
Mo =
8
Fig. 9.23
9.16 BENDING MOMENTS IN PANELS WITH MARGINAL BEAMS OR WALLS

When the slabs are supported by a marginal beam (edge beam) with a depth greater than 1.5
times the thickness of the slab or by a wall then the total load to be carried by the beam or wall
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shall comprise those loads directly on the wall or beam plus a uniformly distributed load equal
to one-quarter of the total load on the slab.
The bending moments on the half-column strip adjacent to the beam or wall shall be one-
quarter of the bending moments for the first interior column strip.
9.17 TRANSFER OF BENDING MOMENTS TO COLUMNS

The flat slabs (which contains no beams) transfer the bending moments (in addition to shear)
to the columns directly in the following cases :
(a) interior columns in the flat slabs when the adjacent spans are different in length or the
adjacent spans carry unbalanced gravity load.
(b) exterior columns of flat slabs.
(c) flat slab systems which resist lateral loads (e.g., wind, earthquake or other lateral loads).
The bending stresses in the slabs are found by using a fraction, α of the moment given by
Eq. 9.24, as under :
1
α = ...(9.24)
⎡ 1⎤
⎢ 2 ⎛ a1 ⎞ 2 ⎥
⎢1 + 3 ⎜ a ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
⎦
where a 1 = overall dimension of the critical section for shear in the direction in which the
moment acts
a 2 = overall dimension of the critical section for shear transverse to the direction in
which the moment acts.
A slab width between lines that are one and one-half slab thickness (or drop panel thickness),
1.5 times D on each side of the column (or column capital) may be considered effective where,
D being the size of the column. The concentration of reinforcement over column head by closer
spacing or additional reinforcement may be used to resist the moment on this section.
P
( ∑M = M Fle xu re + M S h e a r)
Df
C1 C2
(C 2 + d )
(a ) (b )
(τ = S h ea r stre sse s on critical se ctio n) tra nsfe r o f m om e nts to co lu m n
Fig. 9.24
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From the research on flat slab system without beams supported by square columns (Hanson,
N.W. and Hanson, J.M. ‘Shear and Moment Transfer between Concrete Slabs and Columns’
Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories Vol. No. 1, January, 1968) it is seen
that 60 percent of the unbalanced moment can be assumed to be transferred to the column by
bending of the slab and 40 percent by eccentricity of the shear forces about the centroid of the
critical section as shown in Fig. 9.24.
The dimensions for critical sections for shear will be
a 1 = (c1 + d) and a2 = (c2 + d),
respectively, where d is the effective, depth of the slab (or effective where depth of drop). The
additional steel required for the transfer of moment through flexure may be distributed over a
width of (C + 3Df) and not (C + Df) alone.
The total unbalanced moment is to be distributed to the columns above and below the joint
in proportion to their stiffnesses. The appropriate moment capacity must be provided in the
columns.
It is to note that for the equivalent frame method, the unbalanced moments are calculated
with respect to the critical sections for negative moments.
9.18 MOMENTS IN COLUMNS

In flat slabs, the columns are built integrally with the slab system. The columns are designed
to resist moment arising from loads on the slab.
At an interior support, slab negative moments are obtained, assuming that dead load and
full live load act. For the column design, a more severe loading results from the partial removal
of the live load. In case of two adjacent unequal spans, the longer span carries full dead load
plus half live load (viz., (wd + 0.5 wl) and the shorter span carries the dead load only (viz., wl),
thereby the effects of pattern loading may be accounted for as under.
The columns above and below the slab shall be designed to resist the moment, M calculated
from Eq. 9.25, distributed to upper and lower columns in direct proportion to their stiffnesses
unless a general analysis is made
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 0.08 ⎡(w +0.5w ) l2 ⋅ l2 – w´ ⋅ l´ (l´ )2 ⎤ ⎥
M = ⎢ ⎣ d l 1− n d 2 1− n ⎦
⎥ ×1.5 ...(9.25)
⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ αc ⎠ ⎦⎥
where
wd, wl = design dead load and live load, respectively, per unit area
l 2 = length of span transverse to the direct of M
l 1–n = length of the clear span in the direction of M measured from face to face of
supports
wd', t2' and l´1–n refer to shorter span
⎛ ΣK c ⎞
αc = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣK s ⎠
ΣKc = sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the columns above and below slab (meeting at
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the joint)
ΣKs = sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the slab panels meeting at the joint.
At an exterior support, the design moment, M is calculated from Eq. 9.26
0.65 ⎡ (wd + wl ) l2 ⋅ l21−n ⎤

M = ⎢ ⎥ × 1.5 ...(9.26)
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ αc ⎠
9.19 SLAB REINFORCEMENT

In flat slab systems, the flexural reinforcement is placed in an orthogonal grid, with bars
parallel to the sides of the panels. The straight bars are commonly provided throughout. Although
in some cases, the positive steel is bent up where no longer required, in order to provide for part
or all of the negative moment.
When the bars are placed in perpendicular layers, these steel bars result in stacking. The
inner steel bars will have an effective depth 1 bar diameter less than the outer steel bars. The
stacking problem is connected with the middle strip positive steel bars and the column strip
positive and negative bars. In the flat slabs with beams on the columns lines, the stocking
occurs for the middle strip positive steel, and in the column strips is important mainly for the
column line beams because slab moments are usually very small in the region where the column
strips intersect.
For the complete panel, including both middle strips and column strips in each direction, the
moments in the long direction shall be more than those for the short direction, as it is seen by
determining the static moment, Mo in each direction for a rectangular panel. It may be noted
while adjusting in due proportion of Mo first to negative and positive moment sections, and
then laterally to column and, middle strips, it is done by applying exactly the same ratios in
each direction to the corresponding section. Therefore, it is clear that the middle strip positive
moments (for example) are more in the long direction than the short direction, exactly the
opposite of the situation for the slab with stiff edge beams. In the column strips, positive and
negative moments are more in the long direction than in the short direction. Therefore, the
steel bars for negative and positive moments in both middle and column strips are placed closer
to the top or bottom surface of the slab, respectively, with the larger effective depth.
Bar cut off points or bend points could be determined from moment envelopes if available.
However, when the direct design method is used, the moment envelopes and lines of inflection
are not found explicitly. In such a case and often when the equivalent frame method is used as
well, standard bar cutoff or bend points from Fig. 9.25 and Fig. 9.26 are used as recommended
by IS : 456–1978.
The specifications specified in IS : 456–1978 as given below are followed for the slab
reinforcement for flat slabs.
9.19.1 Spacing
The spacing of bars in flat slab shall not exceed 2 times the slab thickness, except where a slab
is of cellular or ribbed construction. This takes care for the local concentrated load as well as it
ensures that tensile cracks are narrow and well distributed.
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9.19.2 Area of Reinforcement

When the drop panels are used, the thickness of drop panel for determination of area of
reinforcement shall be the lesser of the following :
(a) thickness of drop and
(b) thickness of slab plus one-quarter the distance between edge of drop and edge of capital.
Type of ba rs
M in im um
Lo ca tion
Flat slab s
S trips
p ercen ta ge
o f ste el w itho ut drop pa ne l
a t section
d d
50
Top
R e m a in de r b b
S traig ht ba rs
7 5 m m m ax.
50
B o ttom
R e m a in de r
S trip
0 .12 5 l m a x.
1 50 m m
d d
Co lu m n
50 b b
B ars*
R e m a in de r
Top
g
B e nt
50 0 .12 5 l m a x.
B ottom
R e m a in de r
7 5 m m m ax.
1 50 m m
c c
1 00
To p
S traigh t bars
7 5 m m m ax.
50
B ottom
0 .15 l m ax.
R e m a in de r
M id dle strip
1 50 m m
C
50
B a rs*
c
Top
r
R e m a in de r (A ll b ars)
B en t
B ottom
50 1 50 f
mm
R e m a in de r
7 5 m m m ax
C le a r spa n - ln
E xto rtio n
sup po rt Fa ce o f su pp ort
In te rio r sup po rt
c c
(N o sla b co ntinu ity) (C o ntinu ity pro vide d)
Fig. 9.25
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9.19.3 Anchoring Reinforcement

(a) All slab reinforcement perpendicular to a discontinuous edge shall have an anchorage
(straight, bent, or otherwise anchored) past the internal face of the spandrel beam wall or
column, of an amount.
b E d ge o f
d rop
e e
b
g 1 50 m m
2 4 b ar dia or
3 00 m m m in.
E d ge o f
d rop
c c
1 50 m m
a
c c
(A ll b a rs)
f 1 50 m m
Fig. 9.26
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(1) For positive reinforcement not less than 150 mm except that with fabric reinforcement
having a fully welded transverse wire directly over the support, it shall be permissible to reduce
this length to one-half of the width of the support or 50 mm, whichever is greater ; and
(2) For negative reinforcement: Such that the design stress is developed at the internal
face.
(b) Where the slab is not supported by a spandrel beam or wall or where the slab cantilevers
beyond the support, the anchorage shall be obtained within the slab.
9.19.4 Minimum Length of Reinforcement

(a) The minimum lengths of the steel bars provided as reinforcement in flat slabs without drop
panel shall be as specified in Fig. 9.25 and that for flat slabs with drop panels as specified in
Fig. 9.26 the larger lengths of reinforcement bars shall be provided when required to analysis.
(b) Where the adjacent spans are unequal, the extension of negative reinforcement beyond
each face of the common column shall be based on the longer span.
The bent bars at exterior supports may be used if a general analysis is made.
The bar lengths from face of support (the minimum lengths marked as a, b, c, d, and e and
maximum length marked as f and g in (Fig. 9.25 and Fig. 9.26) are given in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 (As per IS : 456–1978)
Bar length from face of support
Minimum length Maximum length
Mark a b c d e f g
Length 0.14 ln 0.20 ln 0.22 ln 0.30 ln 0.33 ln 0.20 ln 0.24 ln
(ln = ln – n)
9.20 BEHAVIOUR OF FLAT SLAB IN SHEAR

The flat slabs are the slabs which are supported directly by the columns. In footing, the slabs
carry concentrated loads. In flat slabs and footings, the shear near the columns is of critical
importance. From the tests of flat plates and flat slabs, it is seen that in most practical cases, the
capacity is controlled by shear. (Reference) : ‘The Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete
Members-slabs’, ASCE-ACI Task Committee 426, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.
100, No. ST 8, August 1974 and W.G. Corley and N.M. Howkins, ‘Shearhead Reinforcement
for Slabs’, Journal of ACI, Vol. 65, No. 10, October, 1978). In the design of flat plates and flat
slabs, following two types of shear may be critical.
9.20.1 Beam-Type Shear (Diagonal Tension Failure)

The beam-type shear is also called as one-way shear. In long narrow slabs and footings, it is
considered in the analysis that the slab acts like a wide beam spanning between the supports
provided by the perpendicular column strips. A measure diagonal crack extends in a plane
across the complete width l2 of the slab. As the name implies, beam shear in slabs is considered
in the same manner as shear in beams. The critical section is taken a distance d from the face
of the column or capital. The nominal shear stress is calculated as τv = (V/bw.d) where (bw = l2).
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9.20.2 Two-Way Shear

In the flat slabs, the middle strips are supported by the column strips. These middle strips
transfer the loads to the column strips. The column strips further transfer the loads to the
columns. The portion of slab adjacent to the column carries excessive shear stress. It results in
initiation of shear cracks at a distance, d from the face of column, where d is the effective depth
of slab. These cracks do not remain visible. These cracks propagate towards the top from the
bottom of slab. These crack exhibit adequate reserve strength before failure. Just prior to
failure, the projected horizontal lengths of these cracks seem to be approximately 1.5 times the
effective depth of the slab or even more. The failure occurs at the bottom compressed edge of
the slab surrounding the column through two way shear as shown in Fig. 9.27.
d d
2 2
θ θ
(a ) In itial cracks
(b ) C ra cks e arlie r to fa ilure
(c) Fina l failu re by tw o-w a y sh ea r failu re o f slab in she ar
Fig. 9.27
The angle of inclination with the horizontal, θ depends upon type and area of reinforcement
in the slab. It may range between 20° and 45°. The critical section for two-way is taken
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and to have a perimeter, b0 that is a minimum, but
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approaches no closer than d/2 to the periphery of the support or concentrated load as shown in
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Fig. 9.27 (a). These cracks follow the surface of a truncated pyramid or truncated cone, as
shown in Fig. 9.28.
d d d d
2 2 2 2
Df Df
C1 C2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 9.28 Failure surface of flat slab in shear (truncated pyramid/cone)
The resistance of slab in shear comprises of the shear resistance of concrete in compression
and the dowel action of negative reinforcement. The dowel action of shear resistance occurs
over a large perimeter of the slab surrounding the column. As a result of this dowel action, the
sudden failure of slab after formation of first crack, does not occur.
9.21 SHEAR IN FLAT SLABS

The critical section for two-way shear, nominal shear stress and the permissible shear stress in
flat slabs are as following.
9.21.1 Critical Sections

The critical section for two-way shear shall be taken at a distance d/2 from the periphery of the
column/capital/drop panel, perpendicular to the plane of slab where d is the effective depth of
the section as shown in Fig. 9.1 and Fig. 9.2.
When the flat slabs are provided,with drops, two critical sections for two way shear (one
within the drop and the other at a distance d/2) will have to be considered as shown in Fig. 9.3.
The shape in plan is geometrically similar to the support immediately below the slab as
shown in Fig. 9.29 (a) and (b). For column sections with re-entrant angles, the critical sections
shall be taken as indicated in Fig. 9.29 (c) and (d).
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P a ne l P a ne l
(c1 + d ) C ritica l section
d
2 c1
l2 l2
d C ritica l
2 section d
d d 2
2 2
l1 l1
(a ) S u pp ortin g se ctio n co lu m n/co lu m n h ea d (b ) S u pp ortin g se ctio n co lu m n/co lu m n h ea d
C ritica l section C ritica l section
d /2
d
2
(c) S u pp o rtin g se ctio n (d ) S u pp ortin g se ctio n
Fig. 9.29 Critical sections in plan for wo-way shear in flat slabs
In the case of columns near the free edge of a slab, the critical section shall be taken as
shown in Fig. 9.30.
9.21.2 Calculation of Shear Stress

The shear stress x v shall be the sum of the values calculated as follows.
The nominal shear stress in flat slabs shall be taken as in Eq. 9.27, below.
⎛ VFd ⎞
τv = ⎜ ⎟ ...(9.27)
⎝ bo ⋅ d ⎠
where V Fd = factored (design) shear force due to design load

V = 1.5 (wd + wl) [(l1. l2 – (c1 + d) (c2 + d)]
bo = Perimeter of the critical section
bo = 2[(c1 + d )(c 2 + d)]
d = effective depth of the section.
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Fre e ed ge Fre e ed ge
Free ed ge
d
2
d d
2 C ritical 2 C ritical
section section
(a ) C o lu m n /colum n cap ita l (b ) C o rne r colum n
Fig. 9.30 Effect of free edges on critical sections for shear in flat slabs
When the unbalanced gravity load, wind, earthquake or other forces cause transfer of bending
moment between slab and column, a fraction (1–α) of the moment shall be considered transferred
by eccentricity of the shear about the centroid of the critical section and the other fraction is
transferred by flexural action. The shear stresses shall be taken as varying linearly about the
centroid of the critical section for shear as shown in Fig. 9.24. The value of α shall be obtained
from Eq. 9.24. Therefore, combining those two, the maximum shear stress is given by
τ = ⎢
⎡ L (c + d ) ⎤
+ M (shear ) ⋅ 1 ⎥
⎣ bo ⋅ d 2J xx ⎦
where
M(shear) = portion of moment transferred between slab and column by eccentricity of shear
Jxx = similar to polar moment of inertia of the critical section about xx-axis (viz., the
axis about which the moment acts).
9.21.3 Permissible Shear Stress

The shear stress, horizontal flexural compressive stresses in two directions at the bottom side of
the slab and the compressive stresses from the column in vertical direction exist at the sections
adjacent to the column. The simultaneous presence of compressive stresses in two horizontal
directions and one vertical direction create confining effect of the concrete and increase the
resistance to shear. The limiting value of shear stress in the case of flat slabs is calculated from
the consideration of two way shear and it will be considerably larger than the value of shear
stress in concrete recommended in the case of bending action in beams.
When the shear reinforcement is not provided, the calculated shear stress at the critical
section shall not exceed k s.τc,
where ks = (0.5 + βc) but not greater than 1
βc = the ratio of short side to long side of the column/capital
For limit state method of design :
τc = 0.25 (fck)1/2 ...(9.29)
When the shear stress at the critical section exceeds the value ks.τc, but it is less than 15 τc,
shear reinforcement shall be provided. If the shear stress exceeds 1.5 τc, the flat slab shall be
redesigned. The shear stresses shall be determined at successive sections more distant from the
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support and shear reinforcement shall be provided upto a section where the shear stress does
not exceed 0.5 τc. While designing the shear reinforcement, the shear stress carried by the
concrete shall be assumed to be 0.5 τc and the reinforcement shall carry the remaining shear.
Example 9.1. Design an interior panel of a flat slab 4.8 m × 5.8 m in size. The slab is
support on columns 500 mm in diameter. The height of columns above and below the slab is
3.8 m. A finishing surface of 20 mm thickness is provided over the slab. The floor of the slab is
likely to be used as a class-room. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe
415.
Use direct design method as recommend in IS : 456–1978.
Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 will be used for the flat
slabs.
Design constants. The ratio of limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective
depth of slab
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ i ⎟ = 0.48 ...(i)
⎝ ⎠
Limiting moment of resistance factor for singly reinforced rectangular section (from SP: 16–
1980)
⎛ mu⋅lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 2.76 ...(ii)
⎝ bd2 ⎠
Maximum percentage of tensile reinforcement
pt.lim = 0.96 ...(iii)
Step 1. Clear spans
The flat slab shall be designed without drop panel and the supporting columns shall have
column heads of 400 mm height with 45°. Inclination and additional vertical height of 40 mm
as shown in Fig. 9.31.
(In te rio r p an el o f
flat slab)
(S lab w itho u t d rop )

DE DE
l1 – n
(C o lu m n s w ith colu m n h ea d )
l1
D = 5 00 m m D E = (4 00 + 50 0 + 40 0)
= 13 00 m m
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Fig. 9.31
As per IS: 456–1978, the columns of circular sections shall be treated as square sections
having the same cross-sectional area. Therefore, let a be the size of square column
π
a2 = × 15002
4
a = 115 mm = l.15 m
Clear span along AB (long span), Fig. 9.4 (a)
⎛ 1.15 1.15 ⎞
l 1–n = ⎜ 5.8 − − 4.65 m
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎟
Clear span along BC (short span), Fig. 9.4 (b)
⎛ 1.15 1.15 ⎞
l 1–n = ⎜ 4.8 − − = 3.65 m
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎟
Step 2. Estimated thickness of the flat slab
The flat slab remains continuous over minimum of three span (Direct design method). For
slabs without drops :
Longer span
= 9 × 26 × m´
Effective depth
where m´ is the modification factor. For Hysd steel of Fe 415 grade
pB = 0.96 per cent, m´ = 1.4
Estimated effective depth
5.8 × 1000
= 177.05 mm
0.9 ×26 × 1.4
Let the overall estimated thickness be 200 mm (More than 125 mm minimum thickness
specified).
Step 3. Estimated loads
(A) Characteristic dead load
It consists of the weight of finishing surface plus the self-weight of the slab.
20
× 1 × 1 × 24 = 0.480 kN/m2
1000
200
× 1 × 1 × 25 = 5.000 kN/m2
1000
Total wd = 5.48 kN/m2.
(B) Characteristic live load
The floorof slab is likely to be used for call-room
wl = 4 kN/m2
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Total load (wd + wt) = (5.48 + 4) = 9.48 kN/m2

(C) Factored (design) load in the panel
wfd = 15 × (wd+ wt)
= (1.5 × 9.48) = 14.22 kN/m2
Step 4. Width of the strips for interior panel
(A) Width of strip along AB (long span), Fig. 9.4 (a)
Span AB, lx = 5.8 m, span BC, l2, = 4.8 m
Width of column strip
0.25 l2 = 0.25 × 4.8 = 1.2 m (Adopted)
>/ (0.25 l1 = 0.25 × 5.8 = 1.45 m)
Width of middle strip
(4.8 –12 – 1.2) = 2.4 m.
(B) Width of strip along BC (short span), Fig. 9.4 (b)
Span BC, l1 = 4.1 m, span AB,
l 2 = 5.8 m
Width of column strip
0.25 l2 = 0.25 × 5.8 = 1.45 m
>/ (0.25 l1 = 0.25 × 48 = 12 m) Adopted
Width of middle strip
(5.8 –1.2 –1.2) = 3.4 m.
Step 5. Factored (design) moment for a span
(A) Total design moment, Mo along AB, (long span), Fig. 9.4 (a)
l 1 = 5.8 m, l1–n = 4.65 m,
l 2 = 4.8 m
Total design load over an area l2 . l1–n
W Fd = 1.5 (wd + w1) . l2 . l1–n
(14.22 × 4.8 × 4.65) = 317.39 kN
Total factored design moment along the direction AB
WFd ⋅ l1−n 317.39 ×4.65
Mo.AB = =
8 8
= 184.483 kN-m
(B) Total design moment, Mo along BC (short span), Fig. 9.4 (b)
l 1 = 4.8 m, l1–n = 3.65 m,
l 2 = 5.8 m
Total design load over an area l1 . l1–n
W Fd = 1.5 (wd + w1)× l2 × l1–n
= 14.22 × 5.8 × 3.65) = 301.04 kN
Total factored design moment along the direction BC
WFd ⋅ l1−9 301.04 ×3.65
Mo.BC = =
8 8
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= 137.348 kN-m
Step 6. Negative and positive design moments
In an interior span, the total design moment Mo is distributed in the following proportions in
each direction.
(A) Distribution of total design moment Mo.ab, Fig. 9.4 (a)
Negative design moment (at the faces of left and right rectangular supports)
Mo.AE = 0.65 Mo.AE
= 0.65 × 184.483
= 119.914 kN-m
Positive design moment (at the centre)
Mo.AB = 0..5 Mo.AB
= 0.35 × 184.483
= 64.569 kN-m
(B) Distribution of total design moment Mo.BC, Fig. 9.4 (b)
Negative design inoment (at the faces of left and right rectangutar supports
Mo.BC = 0.65 Mo.BC
0.65 × 137.348 = 89.276 kN-m
Positive design moment (at the centre)
Mp.BC = 0.35 Mo.BC
= 0.35 × 137.348 = 48.072 kN-m
Step 7. Effects of pattern of loading
The effects of pattern of loading for negative and positive bending moments may be seen
before distribution of these moments across the panel width.
Radio of live load to dead load
wL ⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.73
wd ⎝ 5.48 ⎠
The ratio of live load to dead load exceeds 0.5.
(A) For the direction along AB, Fig. 9.4 (a)
The ratio of flexural stiffness of the columns above and below the slab to the flexural stiffness
of the slabs at a joint in the direction along AB, Fig. 9.4 (a)
⎛ ΣK c ⎞
ac = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣK s ⎠
(i) Stiffness co-efficient for slab
Size of equivalent square column (diameter of column is 500 mm)
1 −2
⎛π 2⎞
C1( = a) = ⎜ 4 × 500 ⎟ = 443 mm
⎝ ⎠
Centre to centre distance between columns
Along AB l 1 = 5.8 m
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Along BC l 2 = 4.8 m
C1 ⎛ 0.443 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.076 @ 0.1
l1 ⎝ 5.8 ⎠
C2 ⎛ 0.443 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.092 @ 0.1
l2 ⎝ 4.8 ⎠
From Table 9.2, stiffness factor for the slab without drop panel (as per SP: 24–1983)
k = 4.18
For the slab of uniform thickness
⎛ 4.18Ec´ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4.18× Ec 1×4.8×2.22003 ⎞

Ks ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ × ⎟⎟
⎝ l1 ⎠ ⎝ 5.8 12 ⎠
Ks = 2.306 Ec × l0–3 kN-m.
(ii) Stiffness co-efficient for column
Consider Fig. 9.17 and Fig. 9.31. Length of column section (considered rigid)
a = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Depth of 45 degree capital (below the soffit of the slab)
b´ = 440 mm = 0.44 m
lc = (3.8 + 0.1 + 0.1) = 4.0 m
a ⎛ 0.1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.025
lc ⎝ 4 ⎠
b´ ⎛ 0.44 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.110
lc ⎝ 4 ⎠
From Table 9.5, column stiffness coefficients for columns with 45° tapered capital for above
ratios
For upper (capital) end,
⎛ 4.886 + 5.02 ⎞
kc = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.953
⎝ 2 ⎠
For lower (base) end,
⎛ 4.590 + 4.538 ⎞
kc = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.564
⎝ 2 ⎠
Stiffness of column for upper (capital) end
⎛ 4.953 × Ec lc ⎞ ⎛ 1 4⎞
kc = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜∴ lc = D ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 4.953 × Ec 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × × 0.54 ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 4 12 ⎠
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= 645Ec × 10–3 kN-m

Stiffness of column for lower (base) end
⎛ 4.564 × Ec 1 ⎞
Kc = ⎜ × × 0.54 ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 4 12 ⎠
= 5.943 Ec × 10–3 kN-m
⎡ (6.45 + 5943) Ec × 10 –3 ⎤
ac = ⎢ –3 ⎥ = 2.687
⎣⎢ 2 × 2.306 Ec × 10 ⎦⎥
l2 ⎛ 4.8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.827
l1 ⎝ 5.8 ⎠
wl ⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.73
wd ⎝ 5.48 ⎠
From Table 9.1 (as per IS : 456–1978) by interpolation
αc.min = 0.322
(αc.min = 0.322) is less than (αc = 2.687)
Therefore, the corrections for pattern of loading in the direction AB, Fig. 6.4 (a) is not necessary.
(B) For the direction along BC, Fig. 9.4 (b)
The ratio of flexural stiffness of the columns above and below the slab to the flexural stiffness
of the slab at a joint in the direction along BC, Fig. 9.4 (b)
⎛ ΣK c ⎞
ac = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣK s ⎠
(i) Stiffness coefficient for slab
Size of equivalent square column (diameter of column is 500 mm).
1
⎛π 2 ⎞2
C1( = a) = ⎜ 4 × 500 ⎟ = 443 mm
⎝ ⎠
Centre to centre distance between columns
Along BC, l 1 = 4.8 m
Along AB, l 2 = 5.8 m
c1 ⎛ 0.443 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.092 @ 0.1
l1 ⎝ 4.8 ⎠
c2 ⎛ 0.443 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.076 @ 0.1
l2 ⎝ 5.8 ⎠
From Table 9.2, stiffness factor for the slab without drop panel (as per SP: 24–1983)
k = 4.18
⎛ 4.18 × Ec 1 ⎞
Ks = ⎜ × × 5.8 × 0.2003 ⎟
⎝ 4.8 12 ⎠
= 3.367 Ec × l0–3 kN-m
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(ii) Stiffness coefficients for column

Consider Fig. 9.17 and Fig. 9.31 length of column section (considered rigid)
a = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Depth of 45 degree capital (below the soffit of slab)
b´ = 440 mm = 0.44 m
lc = (3.8 + 0.1 + 0.1) = 4.0 m
a ⎛ 0.1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.025
lc ⎝ 4 ⎠
b´ ⎛ 0.44 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.11
lc ⎝ 4 ⎠
From Table 9.5, column stiffness coefficients for columns with 45° tapered capital.
For upper (capital) end for above ratios
⎛ 4.886 + 5.02 ⎞
kc = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.953
⎝ 2 ⎠
For lower (base) end for ratios
⎛ 4.590 + 4.538 ⎞
kc = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.564
⎝ 2 ⎠
Stiffness of column for upper (capital) end
⎛ 4.953 × Ec 1 ⎞
Kc = ⎜ × × 0.54 ⎟
⎝ 4 12 ⎠
= 6.45Ec × 10–3 kN-m
Stiffness of column for lower (base) end
⎛ 4.564 × Ec 1 ⎞
Kc = ⎜ × × 0.54 ⎟
⎝ 4 12 ⎠
= 5.943 Ec × 10–3 kN-m
⎡ (6.45 + 5.943) Ec 10–3 ⎤
αc = ⎢ –3 ⎥ = 1.840
⎣⎢ 2 × 3.367 Ec × 10 ⎦⎥
l2 ⎛ 5.8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.208
l1 ⎝ 4.8 ⎠
wl ⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.73
wd ⎝ 5.48 ⎠
From Table 9.1 (as per IS : 456-–1978) by interpolation
αc.min = 0.361
(αc.min = 0.361) is less than (αc = 1.840).
Therefore, the correction for pattern of loading in the direction BC, Fig. 9.4 (b) is not needed.
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Step 8. Distribution of bending moments across the panel width

(A) Across the strips of span AB, Fig. 4.9 (a)
(i) Negative moment at an interior support
(a) Column strips : 75 percent of the total negative moment in the panel at this support
is resisted by the column strips. There are two column strips. Therefore, the moment resisted by
each column strip (3 Mn.AB = 119.914 kN-m)
1 1
M nc = × 1.75 Mn.AB
2 2
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 0.75 × 119.14 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
= 44.678 kN-m
(b) Middle strip : The negative moment resisted by the middle strip
mnm = 0.25Mn.AB
= 0.25 × 119.914
= 29.785 kN-m
Check : (44.678 + 29.785 + 44.678) = 119.14 kN-m
(ii) Positive moment at an interior support
(a) Column strips : 60 percent of the total positive moment in the panel is resisted by the
column strips. There are two column strips. Therefore, the moment resisted by each column strip
(3 MP.AB = 64.569 kN-m)
1 1
mpc = × 0.60 × Mp.AB
2 2
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 0.60 × 64.569 ⎟ = 19.371 kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
(b) Middle strips : The positive moment resisted by the middle strip
mnm = 0.40 Mp.AB
= (0.40 × 64.569) = 25828 kN-m
Check : (19.371 + 25.828 + 19.371) = 64.570 kN-m
(B) Across the strips of span BC, Fig. 4.9 (b)
(i) Negative moment at an interior support
(a) Column strips : 75 percent of the total negative moment in the panel at this support
is resisted by the column strips. There are two column strips. Therefore, the moment resisted by
each column strip
(3 Mp.BC = 89.276 kN-m)
1 1
mnc = × 0.75 Mn.BC
2 2
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⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ ×0.75 × 89.276 ⎟ = 33.479 kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
(b) Middle strip : The negative moment resisted by the middle strip
mpm = 0.25 Mn.BC
= (0.25 × 89.276) = 33.479 kN-m
Check : (33.479 + 22.319 + 33.479) = 89.277 kN-m
(ii) Positive moment at an interior support
(a) Column strips : 60 percent of the total positive moment in the panel is resisted by the
column strips. These are two column strips. Therefore, the moment resisted by each column
strip
(3 Mp.BC = 48.072 kN-m)
1 1
mp.C = × 0.60 × MP.BC
2 2
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ ×0.60 × 48.072 ⎟ = 14.422 kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
(b) Middle strip : The positive moment resisted by the middle strip
mp.m = 0.40 Mp.AB
= (0.40 × 48.072) = 19.229 kN-m
Check : (14.422 + 19.229 +14.422) = 48.073 kN-m
Step 9. Strip moments per metre width
(A) Strips of span AB, Fig. 4.9 (a)
(i) Negative moment
(a) Column strips : The width of column strip of the interior panel is 1.2 m. Therefore,
the moment per metre width
1 44.679
m / metre = = 37.232 kN-m/m
2 nc 1.2
(b) Middle strips : The width of middle strip of the interior panel is 2.4 m. Therefore, the
moment per metre width
1 29.785
m / metre = = 12.410 kN-m/m
2 nm 2.4
(i) Positive moment
(a) Column strips : The width of column strip of the interior panel is 1.2 m. Therefore,
1 19.371
mpc / metre = = 16.143 kN-m/m
2 1.2
(b) Middle strip : The width of middle strip of the interior panel is 2.4 m. Therefore, the
moment par metre width
1 25.828
mpm / metre = = 10.762 kN’m/m
2 2.4
(B) Strips of span BC, Fig. 4.9 (b)
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(i) Negative moment

(a) Column strips : The width of column strips of the interior panel is also 1.2 m. Therefore,
1 33.479
m /metre = = 27.899 kN-m/m
2 nc 1.2
1 22.319
mnm/metre = = 65.64 kN-m/m
2 3.4
(ii) Positive moment
(a) Column strips : The width of column strip of the interior panel is also 1.2 m. Therefore,
1 14.422
mpc/metre = = 12.018 kN-m/m
2 1.2
1 19.229
m /metre = = 5.656 kN-m/m
2 pn 3.4
Step 10. Effective depth of the flat slab
The absolute maximum factored bending moment out of eight values of step 9 is 37.232 kN-
m/m. The effective depth of the flat slab
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 − 0.42 bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎟⎠
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) × 1000 d2 = 37.232 × 106
2.7593 × 1000 d2 = 37232 × 106
d = 116.16 mm
Let the effective cover be 25 mm. Then, the overall thickness of the flat slab shall be (116.16
+ 25) = 141.16 mm. For (span/effective depth) ratio requirement the effective depth is assumed
as 175 mm. Therefore, the overall thickness of slab is 200 mm. The effective depth of slab, d
shall be (200 – 25) = 175 mm.
Step 11. Slab reinforcement
The spacing of bars in flat slab shall not exceed 2 times the slab thickness (viz. 2 × 200 = 400
mm). 12 mm diameter Hysd steel bars shall be provided.
⎛π ⎞
Aφ = ⎜ × 122 ⎟ = 113.097 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
(A) Reinforcement along the span AB, Fig. 4.9 (a)
(i) Negative moment reinforcement
(a) Column strips
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⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 Ast . fy = ⎜1 − ⎟ ⋅ d = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 175 ⎜1 − = 37.232 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
7.4918 Ast2 – 6.3184 × 104Ast + 37.232 × 106 = 0.0

Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 496971 × 103
∴ Ast = 637.44 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 177.42 mm
⎝ 637.44 ⎠
Provide bars at 160 mm spacing at top.
(b) Middle strips
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast. d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 175 ⎜1 − = 12.41× 106
1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
7.4918 Ast2 – 6.3184 × 104 Ast + 12.41 × 106 = 0.0

Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 165.64 × 104 = 0.0
∴ Ast = 201.21 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 562.08 mm
⎝ 201.21 ⎠
Provide bars at 400 mm spacing at top.
(ii) Positive moment reinforcement
(a) Column strips
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 175 ⎜1 − = 16.143 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 215.476 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 263.74 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing
⎜ = ⎟ = 428.82 mm
⎝ 263.74 ⎠
Provide bars at 380 mm spacing at bottom.
(b) Middle strips
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⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 175 ⎜1 − = 10.762 × l06
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 143.65 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 173.913 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 650.31 mm
⎝ 173.913 ⎠
(B) Reinforcement along the span BC, Fig. 4.9 (b)
(i) Negative moment reinforcement
(a) Column strips :
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 175 ⎜1 − = 27.899 × l06
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 372.394 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 467.46 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 241.939 mm
⎝ 467.46 ⎠
(b) Middle strips :
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × 175 Ast ⎜1 − = 6.564 × l06
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 87.616 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 105.199 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 1075.076 mm
⎝ 105.199 ⎠
(ii) Positive moment reinforcement
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(a) Column strips :

⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × 175 Ast ⎜1 − = 12.018 × l06
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 160.415 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 194.7 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 580.876 mm
⎝ 194.7 ⎠
(b) Middle strips :
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 Ast . fy . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × 175 Ast ⎜1 − = 5.656 × l06
⎝ 1000 × 175 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 8433.768 Ast + 75.496 × 104 = 0.0
∴ Ast = 90.487 mm2
⎛ 1000 × 113.097 ⎞
Spacing = ⎜ ⎟ = 1249.868 mm
⎝ 90.487 ⎠
The details of reinforcement for column strips and middle strips for negative and positive
bending moments along long and short spans are shown in Fig. 9.32 and Fig. 9.33, respectively.
From Fig. 9.25 (for flat slabs without drops), the reinforcement bars in the column strips and
middle strip shall be kept straight. The projection of negative reinforcement into the span
(Fig. 9.25) from the column (face of the interior support) shall be as follows :
(A) Along AB (Fig. 4.9 (a))
(a) Column strips :
(a) 50 percent at top
Projection = half the size of square column support + 0.3 l1–n
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 1.15 + 0.2 × 4.65 ⎟ m
⎝2 ⎠
= 1.97 m @ 2 m
(b) 50 percent at top
⎛1 ⎞
Projection = ⎜ × 1.5 + 0.2 × 4.65 ⎟ m
⎝ 2 ⎠
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= 1.505 m @ 1.52 m
(ii) Middle strips : (100 percent at top)
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 1.15 + 0.22 × 4.65 ⎟ m
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 1.598 @ 1.6 m
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D
X2 12 m m φ X2
H ysd b ars
CSAB
1 60 m m c/c
C S R einf.
12 m m φ
H ysd b ars
X1 4 00 m m c/c X1
M SAB
M .S .
R re in f.
12 m m φ
H ysd b ars
CSAB 1 60 m m c/c
C .S . R e in f.
A B
5 .8 m
(a ) D e tails o f R e info rce m en t in plan at to p
1 .6 m 2 .6 m 1 .6 m
1 2 m m φ H ysd b ars
a 0 .22 l1 – n a
4 00 m m c/c 0 .22 l 1 – n
2
2
4 00 m m c/c
l 1 – n = 4 .6 5 m
75 m m 75 m m
l 1 = 5 .8 m m
(b ) S e ctio n X 1 X 1 (T hro u gh m id dle strip)

(2 m ) (2 m )
0 .3 l1 – n 1 2 m m φ H ysd 0 .3 l 1 – n
a b ars 1 60 m m c/c a
2 0 .2 l1 – n 0 .2 l1 – n 2
1 .5 2 m 1 .5 2 m
3 80 m m c/c
l1 = 4 .65 m
75 m m 75 m m
l 1 = 5 .8 m m
(c) S e ctio n X 2 X 2 (Throu gh colum n strip ) stra ig ht ba rs alon g A B (lo ng spa n)
Fig. 9.32
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(B) Along BC (Fig. 4.9 (b))

(i) Column strips :
(a) 50 percent at top
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 1.15 + 0.3 × 3.65 ⎟ m
⎝2 ⎠
= 1.67 m @ 17.0 m
(b) 50 percent at top
⎛1 ⎞
Projection = ⎜ × 1.15 + 0.2 × 3.65 ⎟ m
⎝2 ⎠
= 1.305 m @ 1.32 m
(ii) Middle strip : 100 per cent at top
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 1.15 + 0.22 × 3.65 ⎟ m
⎝2 ⎠
= 1.378 m @ 1.4 m
The projections of reinforcement from supports are also shown in Fig. 9.32 and Fig. 9.33.
A D
X2 12 m m φ X2
H ysd b ars
CSBC 2 00 m m c/c
C S R einf.
12 m m φ
H ysd b ars
4 00 m m c/c
M .S .
R e in force m e n t
M SBC X X1
1
12 m m φ
H ysd b ars
CSBC 2 00 m m c/c
C .S . R e in f.
B C
(a ) D e tails o f R e in fo rce m en t in plan at top
Fig. 9.33 (1)
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Design of Circular Slabs
10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The roof covering, the base slabs and circular raft foundations in the circular water tanks are
the examples of circular slabs. The roof coverings of circular auditoriums are also the circular
slabs. The pump houses built-over the tube wells have circular slabs for roof covering. The
circular slabs are also provided over traffic control posts at road crossings. The elastic analysis
for isotropic circular panels carrying symmetrical loads is dealt in standard text books of theory
of plates and sells. For circular panels (in plan) simply supported or fully fixed along the
circumference and carrying symmetrically distributed loads. The expressions for total bending
moments which should be provided for across each of two diameters mutually at right-angles
have been derived by S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky–Krieger (Theory of Plates and Shells,
New York, McGraw-Hill, second edition, 1959).
The circular plate carrying loads symmetrically distributed about the axis perpendicular to
the plate through its centre, the middle plane of the plate deflects symmetrically. The deflections
at all the points equally distant from the centre of plate will be equal. It is sufficient to consider
the deflections in one diametrical section through the axis of symmetry. The circular slabs
carrying uniformly distributed load deflects in the shape of a saucer. The radial and
circumferential stresses develop in the slabs. The radial and circumferential cracks are always
seen near the centre of slabs. The convex and concave surfaces of the saucer surface carries
tensile and compressive stresses, respectively. The reinforcement is provided in the radial and
circumferential directions as shown in Fig. 10.1 (a). Instead of this, the reinforcement is also
provided in two directions mutually at right-angles as shown in Fig. 10.1 (b). Normally, the
reinforcement for the positive bending moments is provided in two directions mutually
perpendicular near the centre and the reinforcement for the negative bending moments near
the edge should be provided by radial and circumferential bars.
In general, the radial and tangential moments vary according to the position being considered.
A circular slab may therefore be designed by one of the following elastic methods.
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Design of Circular Slabs 585
(i) The circular slab may be designed for the maximum positive bending moment at the
centre of slabs. The quantity of reinforcement or the thickness of slab may be reduced towards
the circumference. In case the circular slab is not truly simply supported, the reinforcement is
provided for the negative bending moment around the circumference.
(ii) The circular slab may be designed for average positive bending moment across a diameter
and the same thickness and the quantity of reinforcement are provided throughout the entire
slab. However, in case the slab is not truly simply supported around the circumference, the
reinforcement is provided for the appropriate negative bending moment.
When the ratio of diameter of the slab and the thickness of slab is more than 10, the circular
slab are considered as thin plates. Such reinforced circular concrete slabs be analysed for the
(a ) R e in force m e n t in rad ia l (b ) R e in force m e n t in tw o p e rpe nd icular

a nd circum fe re ntial dire ction s d ire ction s
Fig. 10.1 Circular slabs
purpose of determining the bending moments as thin plated. The Poisson’s ratio of the concrete
in the slabs is considered as zero.
The circular slabs may be simply supported at their edges. These slabs may have fixed
support at the edges. The isolated circular slabs (e.g., circular foundation slabs) are considered
as free. The various cases of circular slabs with different support conditions and carrying different
symmetrical loads have been discussed in the subsequent articles.
10.2 CIRCULAR SLAB (SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES) CARRYING

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A circular slab of radius R, simply supported at the edges, carrying uniformly distributed factored
(design) load wFd kN/m2 over it complete surface is shown in Fig. 10.2 (a). The moments and
shears in the radial and circumferential directions are as following.
10.2.1 Radial Direction

Moments. The distribution of bending moment along the radial directions as shown in Fig.
10.2 (b) and it is parabolic. This bending moment, Mr at any point at a radial distance, r is
obtained from the following expression
1
Mr = (3 + v)( R2 − r2 ) ⋅ wFd ...(10.1)
16
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where v is the Poisson’s ratio of material of the slab. For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio is taken as
zero. Then,
3
Mr = ( R 2 − r 2 ) ⋅ wFd per unit width ...(10.2)
16
The maximum bending moment in the radial direction occurs at the centre of the slab, at which
r is zero. Therefore,
3
Mr = wFd R2 per unit width ...(10.3)
16
It is to note from Eq. 10.2 that Mr is zero at r = R
ω kN -m 2
X
γ X
R R
(a ) C ircu la r sla b (S im p ly sup po rte d)
Mr
+ 3 ω R2
16
3
Mr = ⋅ ( R 2 − r 2 ) ⋅ ω kN -m / m
16
(b ) M om e nt in ra dial direction ( M r + V E )
Me
3 ω R2
+
3 ω R2 16
16
1
Me = ⋅ (3 R 2 − r 2 ) ⋅ ω kN -m /m
16
(c) M om e nt in circu mfere ntia l d ire ctio n ( M e + V E )
Fig. 10.2
Shears
The value of shear force, F at a distance r from the centre of slab
1
Fr = wFd ⋅ r per unit width ...(10.4)
2
1
Atr = R, Fr = wFd ⋅ R per unit width ...(10.5)
2
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10.2.2 Circumferential Direction

Moments. The distribution of bending moment along the circumference is shown in Fig. 10.2 (c).
This bending moment, Mθ is determined from the equation given below
1 ⎡ 2
Mθ = R (3 + v) − r 2 (1 + 3v )⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd ...(10.6)
16 ⎣
where v is the Poisson’s ratio of material of the slab. For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio is taken as
zero. Then,
1
Mθ = ⎡3R2 − r2 ⎤ ⋅ wFd unit width ...(10.7)
16 ⎣ ⎦
It is seen from Eq. 10.7 that this moment varies parabolically.
The maximum bending moment in the circumferential direction Mθ occurs at the centre,
where r is zero. Therefore,
1
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 per unit width ...(10.8)
16
The magnitude of this moment at the edge (at r – R), from Eq. 10.7
2 ⎡
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 ⎤⎦ per unit width ...(10.9)
16 ⎣
Shears
The shear force at any point in the circumferential direction is zero.
Maximum deflection
The maximum deflection occurs at centre.
(5 + v)w ⋅ R4
y max = ...(10.10 a)
64(1 + v) ⋅ EI c
For v = 0
5 w ⋅ R4
y max = ...(10.10 b)
64EI c
At support, the deflection is zero,
where w is the service load.
10.3 CIRCULAR SLAB (FIXED AT EDGES) CARRYING UNIFORMLY

DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A circular slab of radius, R fixed at the edges carrying uniformly distributed factored (design)
load, wFd kN/m2 over the entire surface is shown in Fig. 10.3 (a). The moments and shears in
the radial and circumferential directions are as below.

Moments. The distribution of bending moment along the radial direction is as shown in
Fig. 10.3 (b). This bending moment, Mr at any point at a radial at a radial distance, r is found
from the expression as under :
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ω kN /m 2 X
γ X
R R
(a ) C ircu la r sla b (Fixe d a t e d ge s)
Mr 1
16 ω R
+ 2
1 /2 1 /2 – 2
R / (3) R / (3) ω 2
16 R
1
Mr = ( R 2 – 3 r 2 ) ω kN -m /m
16
(b ) M om e nt in ra dial dire ction ( M r )
Me
+ 1 ω R2
16
1
Me = ( R 2 – r 2 ) ω kN -m /m
16
(c) M om e nt in circu m fere ntia l d ire ctio n ( M e + V E )
Fig. 10.3
1 ⎡ 2
Mr = R (1 + v ) − r 2 (3 + v )⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd per unit width ...(10.11)
16 ⎣
where v is the Poisson’s ratio for the material. For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio is taken as zero.
Then,
1 ⎡ 2
Mr = R − 3r 2 ⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd per unit width .. .(10.12)
16 ⎣
It is seen from Eq. 10.12 that this moment various parabolically. The maximum positive
moment occurs at the centre, at which r is zero. Therefore,
1
Mr = wFd R2 per unit width ...(10.13)
16
The maximum negative bending moment occurs at the edge, at which r is equal to R. Therefore,
−2
Mr = wR 2 per unit width ...(10.14)
16
The points of contraflexure (viz., Mr = 0) occurs at a distance r = R/(3)1/2
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Shear
The shear force, Fr at any distance r from the centre of slab
Fr = 1 w ⋅ r ...(10.15)
2

Moments. The distribution of bending moment the circumferential direction is shown in
Fig. 10.3(c). This bending moment, Mθ is calculated from the following equation
1 ⎡ 2
Mθ = R (1 + v ) − r 2 (1 + 3v )⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd ...(10.16)
16 ⎣
where v is the Poisson’s ratio for the material. For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio is zero. Then,
1 ⎡ 2
Mθ = R − r 2 ⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd per unit width ...(10.17)
16 ⎣
From Eq. 10.17, it is seen that this moment Mθ varies parabolically. The maximum bending
moment in the circumferential direction occurs at the centre, at which r is zero. Therefore,
1
16
From Eq. 10.17, it may be observed that Mθ is zero at R = r.
The shear force in the circumferential direction at any point is zero.
The deflection at any point at a radial distance r
1⋅w
y = ( R2 − r2 ) ...(10.19)
64 RI c
This deflection is maximum at the centre at which r is zero
1 w( R 4 )
y max = ...(10.20)
64 64 EI c
where w is the service load
When the circular slab is partially fixed at the edges
A circular slab partially fixed at the edges and carrying uniformly distributed load may be
treated in between the circular slabs simply supported and fixed at the edges depending upon
the degree of fixidity. In case, 50% fixidity is taken, then, the values of moments may be
determined as average of the values for these two cases at the respective points.
10.3.2.1 Radial Direction

Moments. The moments in the radial direction at any point at a distance r from the centre for
simply supported edge and fixed edge are as under: (From Eq. 10.2 and Eq. 10.12 respectively).
For simply supported edge (+ve B.M.)
3 ⎡ 2
Mr = R − r 2 ⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd . ...(i)
16 ⎣
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For fixed edge (+ve B.M.)

3 ⎡ 2
Mr = R − r 2 ⎤⎦ ⋅ wFd . ...(ii)
16 ⎣
For the edges partially fixed (with 50%)
2
Mr = ⎡ R 2 − r 2 ⎤ ⋅ wFd . per unit width ...(10.21)
16 ⎣ ⎦
At centre, Mr is maximum
2
Mr = wFd ⋅ R 2 ...(10.22)
16
Negative bending moment
1
Mr = wFd ⋅ R 2 ...(10.23)
16
For simply supported (–ve B.M.)
Mr = 0 ...(iii)
For fixed edge (–ve B.M.)
−2
Mr = wFd ⋅ R 2 per metre width ... (iv)
16
For the edges partially fixed (negative B.M.)
1
Mr = wFd ⋅ R 2 per metre width ...(10.24)
16
The moment in the radial direction is zero at a distance r = R (2/3)1/2. From the centre.
10.3.2.1 Circumferential Direction

Moments. As discussed above, the moment in circumferential direction in the circular slab at
the centre.
For simply supported edge, from Eq. 10.8
+3
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 ...(v)
16
For fixed edge, from Eq. 10.18
+1
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 ...(vi)
16
For the edge partially fixed at centre (+ve B.M.)
+2
16
For the simply supported edge at support, from Eq. 10.9
+2
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 ...(vii)
16
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For the fixed edge at support

Mθ = 0 ...(viii)
For the edge partially fixed at support
1
Mθ = wFd ⋅ R 2 ,..(10.26)
16
1
For negative bending moment, at least rd of the total reinforcement for negative moment
3
at the support shall extend beyond the point of inflection a distance not less than the effective
1
depth of the member or 12 φ or of the clear span whichever is more.
16
10.4 CIRCULAR SLAB (SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES) CARRYING

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED TOTAL LOAD W ALONG CIRCUMFERENCE OF
A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE
A circular slab of radius R, simply supported at the edges carrying total uniformly distributed
factored (design) wFd along the circumference of a concentric circle of radius, b is shown in
Tota l U D L W a lo ng circum fe ren ce
X
γ X
R R
C ircu la r sla b (S im p ly sup po rte d)
Fig. 10.4
Fig. 10.4. The bending moments and shears in the radial and circumferential directions are as
following.

Moments
(a) For r less than b
⎡ 2
WFd ⎛R⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mr = ⎢2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.27)
8⋅π ⎢⎣ ⎝b⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
Shear
Fr = 0. ...(10.28)
(b) For r more than b
⎡ 2 2
WFd ⎛ R⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mr = ⎢2 log e ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.29)
8⋅π ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
Shear
WFd
Fr = ...(10.30)
2πr
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Moments
⎡ 2
WFd ⎛R⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mθ = ⎢2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.31)
8⋅π ⎢⎣ ⎝b⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 2
WFd ⎛ R⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mθ = ⎢2 log e ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 2 − b ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.32)
8⋅π ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝r⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
(Note loge x = 2.3026 log10 x).
10.5 CIRCULAR SLAB (SIMPY SUPPORTED AT EDGES) CARRYING

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD INSIDE A CIRCLE
A circular slab of radius, R simply supported at the edges carrying uniformly distributed load
factored (design) wFd kN/m2 inside a circle of radius, b is shown in Fig. 10.5. The bending
moments and shears along radial and circumferential directions are as follows.
ω kN / m 2
X
γ X
R R
Fig. 10.5 Circular slab (simply supported)

Moments
3 1 ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
2
Mr = WFd ⋅ r 2 + WFd ⋅ b2 × ⎢1 − log e ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.33)
16 4 ⎣⎢ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 R2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
1 ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
2
At r = 0, Mr = WFd ⋅ b2 × ⎢1 − log e ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(10.33a)
4 ⎣⎢ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 R2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
At r = 0 and b = R
3
Mr = + WFd ⋅ R 2 ....(10.33b)
16
Shear
1
Fr = wFd ⋅ r ...(10.34)
2
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Moments
2
2 ⎡1 ⎛r⎞ b ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
Mr = – wFdb × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.35)
⎢⎣ 4 ⎝ R ⎠ 16 ⎝ R r ⎠ ⎥⎦
Shears
1 wFd ⋅ b2
Fr = ...(10.36)
2 r

Moments
1 1 ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
2
Mθ = wFd ⋅ r 2 + wFd ⋅ b2 × ⎢1 − log e ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.37)
16 4 ⎣⎢ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 R2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡1 2
1 ⎛r⎞ 1 b ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
Mθ = wFd ⋅ b2 × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ − + ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.38)
16 ⎢⎣ 4 ⎝ R ⎠ 4 16 ⎝ R r ⎠ ⎥⎦
For r = R
⎡ b2 1⎤
Mθ = wFd . b2 ⎢ 2 − ⎥ ...(10.38a)
⎢⎣ 8R 4 ⎥⎦
10.6 CIRCULAR SLAB (SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES WITH A CENTRAL HOLE)

CARRYING TOTAL UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD W ALONG
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE
A circular slab of radius, R simply supported at the edges carrying total uniformly distributed
factored (design) load wFd kN along the circumference of a concentric circle of radius, C is
Tota l U D L W a lo ng circum fe re nce
X
b b
c c
γ X
R R
Fig. 10.6 Circular slab (Simply supported)
shown in Fig. 10.6. There is a circular hole at the centre of the slab of radius, b. The bending
moment and shear in the radial and circumferential directions are obtained from the following
expressions.
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Moments
(a) For r less than c
wFd R2 ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ c ⎞⎤
2
Mr = ⋅ ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ − − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.39)
(
4 ⋅ π R2 − b2 ⎝ )r ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ c ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2R2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
Shear
Fr = 0 ...(10.40)
(b) For r more than c
Moments
⎡ ⎛ r 2 − b2 ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎞ ⎫⎪⎤
wFd ⎢ ⎛c⎞ 1 R2 ⎛R⎞ 1 ⎛ c
2
× log − +
Mr = 4 π ⎢ e ⎝⎜ r ⎠⎟ 2 R2 − b2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ × log + − ⎜
⎟ ⎨ e ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜ 2 R2 ⎟⎟ ⎬⎥ ...(10.41)
⎣ ( ) ⎝ r
2
⎠ ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎭⎪⎥⎦
Shears
wFd
Fr = ...(10.42)
2π ⋅ r

Moments
(a) For r less than c
⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎡ ⎞⎤
wFd ⎜ R2 ⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 + b
2
⎛R⎞ 1 ⎛ c
2
Mθ = ⎟⎟ × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ + − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.43)
(
4 ⋅ π ⎜⎜ R 2 − b2
⎝ ) ⎟⎟ ⎜ r 2
⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ c ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2R2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
(b) For r more than c
wFd ⎡ ⎛ c ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ r + b ⎞ ⎪⎧
2 2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ c ⎞ c ⎪⎫⎤
2 2
Mθ= × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ + + ⎜ 2 × ⎨ log ⎜ ⎟ + − − ⎬⎥
4 ⋅ π ⎣⎢ ⎝ r ⎠ 2 ⎝ r − b2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ r 2 ⎟⎠ ⎪ e
⎝ c ⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 2R2 ⎟⎠ 2r 2 ⎪⎥
⎩ ⎭⎦
per unit width ...(10.44)
10.7 CIRCULAR SLAB (SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES WITH A CENTRAL HOLE)

CARRYING UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A circular slab of radius, R simply supported at edges carrying uniformly distributed factored
(design) load wFd kN/m2 over the complete surface is shown in Fig. 10.7. There is a hole at the
centre of the slab of radius, b. The bending moments and shears in the radial and circumferential
directions are calculated as under.

Moments. The bending moment in the radial direction, Mr may be obtained from the following
equation
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3 w ⋅ b2 ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ 3 ⎪⎧1 + R
2 ⎛ R 2 ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎛ R 2 − r 2 ⎞ ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎛ R⎞ ⎤
Mr = wFd ⋅ r 2 + Fd ⎢log e ⎜ ⎟ + ⎨ 2 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎬ ⎜ ⋅
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ log e ⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠ ⎥
16 4 ⎝ R⎠ 4 ⎪ b ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ r 2 ⎠ ⎝ R 2 − b2 ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎩ ⎦⎥
per unit width ...(10.45)
Shear force
⎛1 1 w ⋅ b2 ⎞
Fr = ⎜⎜ w ⋅ r − ⎟ ...(10.46)
⎝2 2 r ⎟⎠
ω kN / m 2 X
b b
γ X
R R
Fig. 10.7 Circular slab (simply supported)

Moments. The bending moment in the circumferential direction Mθ may be determined from
the following equation:
1 W ⋅ b2 ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ 3 ⎧⎪ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎫⎪
2 2
Mθ = wFd ⋅ r 2 + Fd × ⎢ log e ⎜ ⎟ + ⎨− + ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎬
16 4 ⎝ R⎠ 4 ⎪ 3 ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎪
⎣⎢ ⎩ ⎭
⎛ R 2 + r 2 ⎞ ⎛ b2 ⎞ ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎤
−⎜ ⋅
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ log e ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ per unit width ...(10.47)
⎝ r 2 ⎠ ⎝ R 2 − b2 ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
10.8 CIRCULAR SLAB CARRYING A CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE

A circular slab of radius R carrying a concentrated load at the centre is shown in Fig. 10.8. The
bending moments in the radial and circumferential direction in the circular slab when the slab
is simply supported and when the slab is having fixed edges are as under.
10.8.1 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges)

Moments. The bending moment in the radial direction for the points not very close to the load
WFd ⋅ b2 R
Mr = (1 + v ) log e ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ...(10.48)
4⋅π ⎝r⎠
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For v = 0
WFd ⎛R⎞
Mr = ⋅ log e ⎜ ⎟ ...(10.49)
4⋅π ⎝r⎠
P
X
γ X
R R
Fig. 10.8 Circular slab (fixed at edges)

Moments. The bending moments in the circumferential direction for the points not very close
to the load
WFd ⎡ ⎛R⎞ ⎤
Mθ =
4⋅π ⎢(1 + v ) log e ⎜ r ⎟ + (1 − v )⎥ ...(10.50)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
For v = 0
WFd ⎡ ⎛R⎞ ⎤
Mθ = ⎢ log e ⎜ r ⎟ + 1⎥ ...(10.51)
4⋅π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Deflection
The deflection at any point of the slab at a distance r from the centre
wFd ⎡⎛ 3 + v ⎞ 2 ⎛ r ⎞⎤
y =
16π ⋅ EI c
( 2
)2
⎢⎜ 1 + v ⎟ R − r + 2r log e ⎜ R ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
...(10.52)
For v = 0
wFd ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞⎤
y = ⎢3( R 2 − r 2 ) + 2r log e ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.53)
16π ⋅ EI c ⎣ ⎝ R ⎠⎦
The maximum deflection at the center of a simply supported slab
(3 + v) W ⋅ R 2
y max = ...(10.54)
16π (1 + u )EI c
For v = 0
3W ⋅ R2
y max = ...(10.55)
16π EI c
where W is the service load.
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10.8.2 Circular Slab (Fixed at the Edge)

A circular slab with fixed edges is shown in Fig. 10.8.

Moments. The bending moment at any point not very close to the load in the radial direction
WFd ⎡ ⎛R⎞ ⎤
Mr = ⎢(1 + v ) log e ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ...(10.56)
4⋅π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
For v = 0
WFd ⎡ ⎛R⎞ ⎤
Mr = ⎢ log e ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ...(10.57)
4⋅π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Moments. The bending moment at any point not very close to the load W Fd
WFd ⎡ ⎛R ⎞⎤
Mθ = ⎢(1 + v) log e ⎜ r − v ⎟ ⎥ ...(10.58)
4⋅π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
For v = 0
WFd ⎛R⎞
Mθ = ⋅ 1log e ⎜ ⎟ ...(10.59)
4⋅π ⎝r⎠
Deflection
The deflection of a circular slab with fixed edges carrying a concentrated load at the centre as
shown in Fig. 10.8
W ⋅ r2 ⎛r⎞ W
y =
8π ⋅ EI c
log e ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ 16π ⋅ EI
(
R2 − r 2 ) ...(10.60)
where W is the service load.

Example 10.1 Design a circular slab for a room 6 m in effective diameter. The circular slab
is simply supported at edges and carries a livd load of 4 kN/m2. The slab shall have a finishing
coat of 20 mm cement concrete. Provide M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of quality
Fe 415.
Solution
Design. The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of quality Fe
415 are as follows.
Ratio of limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth of the slab (IS: 456–
1978)
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
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Limiting moment of resistance factor for singly reinforced rectangular section (SP: 16 – 198)
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 2.76
⎝ b ⋅ d2 ⎠
Maximum percentage of the tensile reinforcement for the singly reinforced rectangular section
(SP: 16–1980)
Pt.lim = 0.96
Step 2. Design loads
The characteristic dead load and live load are as under:
Superimposed load on the slab shall be weight of finishing coat
0.020 × 1 × 1 × 24 = 0.48 kN/m2
Let the overall thickness of slab be 150 mm .The self-weight of slab
0.150 × 1 × 1 × 25 = 3.75 kN/m2
Characteristic total dead load
w d = (0.48 + 3.75) = 4.23 kN/m2
Characteristic live load
wl = 4.00 kN/m2
w Fd = 1.5 × (4.23 + 4) = 12.345 kN/m2.
Step 3. Bending moments per unit width
The effective (span) diameter of the slab is 6 m (R = 3 m).
‘The circular slab simply supported at edges carrying uniformly distributed load is shown in
Fig. 10.2 (a).
The maximum bending moment in the radial direction occurs at the centre of slab. Therefore,
from Eq. 10.3
3
Mr = wFd R2 (Positive)
16
3
= ×12.345 × 32
16
= 20.832 kN-m/m
The moment in the radial direction at the support (at r = R) is zero.
The maximum bending moment in the circumferential direction also occurs at the centre.
From Eq. 10.8
3
Mθ = wFd R2 (Positive)
16
3
= × 12.345 × 32 kN-m/m
15
= 20.832 kN-m/m
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The bending moment in the circumferential direction at support, from Eq. 10.9
2
Mθ = × wFd R 2
16
2
× 12.345 × 32 = 13.889 kN-m/m.
16
Step 4. Effective depth of slab
The effective depth of slab is as under :
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 ⋅ u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (1– 0.42 × 0.48) × 1000 × d2 = 20.832 × 106
2.7593 × 1000 × d2 = 20.832 × 106
d = 86.889 mm.
Let the effective core be 25 mm. Then, the overall thickness of slab
86.889 + 25 = 111.889 mm for the requirement of (span/effective depth) ratio, the overall
thickness of the slab is kept as 150 mm.
Therefore, the effective depth of slab is 125 mm.
Step 5. Steel reinforcement
Hysd steel bars are provided for reinforcement. The reinforcement necessary per unit width
in the radial and circumferential direction near centre
(3 Mr = Mθ)
⎛ Ast ⋅ Fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d . ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛
st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 + 415 × Ast × 125 = ⎜1 − = 20.832 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 125 × 20 ⎟⎠
4.513 × 104 Ast – 7.4918 Ast2 = 20.832 × 106
Ast2 – 6023.93 Ast + 278.064 × 104 = 0.0
∴ Ast = 503.721 mm2
Minimum area of steel needed
0.12
Ast.min = × 1000 × 150 = 180 mm2/m
1000
10 mm diameter Hysd-steel bars shall be provided
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
Spacing of bars centre to centre
1000 × 78.54
s = = 155.92 mm
503.721
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10 mm diameter Hysd steel bars shall be provided in two perpendicular directions as shown
in Fig. 10.1 (b) at 130 mm spacing centre to centre at the bottom of the slab.
The slab is simply supported at the edges. Above reinforcement remains free at the support
and do not have sufficient development length. As such, these bars may slip.
Total reinforcement need at the support in the circumferential direction
2
Ast (support) = . Ast (centre)
3
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ Since M θ ⋅ support = 3 ⋅ M θ ⋅ centre ⎟
⎝ ⎠
At support
2
Ast = × 503.721 = 335.814 mm2
3
Development length for 10 mm φ bar
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 × τbd × 1.60 ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ = 47 φ
⎝ 4 × 1.2 × 1.60 ⎠
The circumferential reinforcement is provided for length
2
× 47 × 10 = 313.33 mm
3
Number of rings
⎛ 313.33 ⎞
⎜ 130 + 1 ⎟ = 3.4 (34 rings)
⎝ ⎠
π
= 4× × 102 = 314.15 mm2
4
Remaining area of steel is provided by reinforcement in two perpendicular directions. The
details of complete reinforcement is shown in Fig. 10.9.
Step 6. Reinforcement for negative bending moment
The simply supported slab may get partial fixity at the support in the radial direction.
Negative bending moment from Eq. 10.24
1
Mr = × wFd . R2 per metre width
16
1
= × 12.345 × 32 = 6.945 kN-m/m
16
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Area of steel
⎛ Ast ⋅ Fy ⎞
0.87 fy.Ast.d. ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛
st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 125 ⎜1 − = 6.945 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 125 × 20 ⎟⎠
H ysd ste el bars

4 R in gs 10 m m φ
10 m m φ at
H ysd ste el bars a t
1 30 m m c/c
7 00 m m 1 30 m m c/c 7 00 m m
10 m m φ 10 m m φ
1 50
E ffe ctive sp an
6m
(a ) C ircu la r sla b (S im p ly sup po rte d)
4 R in gs 1 0 mm φ
H ysd ste el bars
a t 1 30 m m c/c
H ysd
S tee l b ars
10 m m φ at
1 30 m m c/c
H ysd S tee l ba rs
10 m m φ
4 00 m m c/c
B o tto m Top
(b ) D e tails o f re in fo rcem en t in slab p lan (H alf a t b ottom , ha lf at to p)
Fig. 10.9
Ast2 – 6023.93 Ast + 93.624 × 104 = 0.0

∴ Ast = 159.65 mm
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Spacing for 10 mm φ bars

⎛ 1000 × 78.54 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 491.95 mm (400 mm c/c)
⎝ 159.65 ⎠
The moment in the radial direction is zero at a distance
1
⎛ 2 ⎞2
r = R⋅⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
from the centre of support
1
⎛ 2 ⎞2
r = 3 ⎜ ⎟ = 2.450 m
⎝3⎠
= (3000 – 2450) = 550 mm
The reinforcement in the radial direction is provided for a distance whichever is more from
the following :
(a) (500 + d) = (550 + 125) = 675 mm
(b) (550 +12) = (550 + 120) = 670 mm
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ φ ⎞
(c) Ld = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 4 × τbd × 1.60 ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.2 × 1.60 ⎠
= 470.12 mm
The reinforcement in the radial direction is provided upto 700 mm distance from the support.
Step 7. Check for shear force
The shear force at support in the radial direction from Eq. 10.5 per metre width
1 1
Fr = wFd R = × 12.345 × 3 = 18.518 kN/m
2 2
18.518 × 1000
τv = = 0.1485 N/mm2
1000 × 125
Steel in tension at support
100 As 100 × 78.54 ⎛ 100 ⎞
= × = 0.48
bd 1000 × 125 ⎝⎜ 130 ⎠⎟
⎡ ⎛ 0.48 – 0.36 ⎞ ⎤ 2
τv = ⎢0.36 + ⎜ ⎟ × (0.48 – 0.25)⎥ = 0.4704 N/mm
⎣ ⎝ 0.50 – 0.25 ⎠ ⎦
The nominal shear stress is much less than shear strength of concrete. As such, the slab is
safe in shear.
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Example 10.2 A circular base slab of a circular tank used for water supply is 10 m in
diameter. The slab is supported by 8 m circular ring beam as shown in Fig. 10.10. The height
of tank is 4.20 m above the top of base slab. The thickness of side walls of the tank is 150 mm.
Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of quality Fe 415 for the reinforcement. Design
the circular slab.
10 m
R o of co ver slab 1 50 m m
1 50 m
4 .2 m C ircu la r w a te r ta nk
C ircu la r b ase slab
S lab
thickne ss
C ircu la r ring
8m
Fig. 10.10 Circular water tank
Design. The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of quality
Fe 415 are as under.
1. Design constants. Ratio of limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective
depth of the slab (IS : 456 – 1978)
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Limiting moment of resistance factor for singly reinforced rectangular section (SP : 16–
1980)
⎛ M u⋅lim ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 2.76
⎝ bd 2 ⎠
Maximum percentage of the tensile reinforcement for the singly reinforced rectangular section
(SP : 16 – 1980)
Pt.lim = 0.96
Step 2. Loads
The unit weight of water is 10 kN/m2. The wight of water column above slab acts as uniformly
distributed load. The weight of water per 1 sq metre
(4.2 – 0.150) × 1 × 1 × 10 = 40.5 kN/m2
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Let the overall thickness of slab be 480 mm. The self-weight of slab per 1 m2
0.480 × 1 × 1 × 25 = 12 kN/m2
Total uniformly distributed load acting over the slab
(40.5 + 12) = 52.5 kN/m2
The weight of roof covering slab
π
× 102 × 0.15 × 25 = 294.52 kN
4
This total load shall be acting distributed load over the circumference
294.52
= 9.52 kN/m
π (10 – 0.150)
The weight of wall of the water tank (also acts as distributed over the circumference
(4.20 – 0.150) × 1 × 0.150 × 25 = 15.19 kN/m
Total distributed load over the circumference per unit load
(9.52 + 15.19) = 24.71 kN/m
Total vertical load acting downward
⎛π⎞
52.5 × ⎜ ⎟ × (10 – 03)2 + (24.71) × π × (10 – 0.150)
⎝4⎠
= (3879.65 + 764.64) = 4644.29 kN
Let w be the distributed load acting over the circumference per 1 m length of the circular
sing acting upward. Then,
π × 8 × w = 4644.29
= 184.79 kN/m
A lon g circu m feren ce
2 4.7 1 kN / m 5 2.5 kN / m 2
4m 4m
8m
5m 5m
10 m
Fig. 10.11 Various loads acting over slab circular slab (Fictiously simply supported at edges)
Let the circular slab be fictitiously simply supported at its edge round the circumference. The
various loads acting over the fictitiously simply supported at its edge acting downward and
upward are as shown in Fig. 10.11.
It is to note that the moment at the edge due to integral connection with the wall of the tank
is small and therefore it is not considered.
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Step 3. Bending moments. The radius of slab is 5 m

(a) Bending moments due to uniformly distributed load 52.5 kN/m2
The bending moment in the radial direction per unit width form Eq. 10.2
3
Mr = × (R2 – r2) .wFd ...(i)
16
w Fd = (15 × 52.5) = 78.75 kN/m2
The bending moment in the circumferential direction per unit width from Eq. 10.7
1
Mθ = (3R2 – r2) . wFd
16
The shear force in the slab, from Eq. 10.4
1
Fr = wFd . r per unit width
2
The values of Mr Mθ and Fr have been calculated and listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1
Distance, r (m) B.M., Mr (kNm/m) B.M., Mθ (kNm/m) Fr (kN/m)
0 369.135 369.135 0.00
1 354.375 364.215 39.75
2 310.08 349.455 78.75
3 236.25 324.84 118.125
4 132.885 290.385 157.50
5 0.00 246.09 196.80
(b) Bending moment due to total load
W Fd = [(1.5 × 4644.29) = 6966.435 kN]
distributed along the concentric circle of radius 4 m
Radius of the slab, R = 5 m
Radius of the concentric circle, b = 4 m
The bending moments in the radial and circumferential directions and the shear force in the
slab are as below :
(i) For the distance r less than be
From Eqs. 10.27 and 10.31
⎡ 2
WFd ⎛R⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mr = Mθ = ⎢2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = kN-m/m
8π ⎢⎣ ⎝b⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
From Eq. 10.28
Fr = 0
(ii) For the distance r more than b
From Eqs. 10.29 and 10.32
⎡ 2 2
WFd ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎤
Mr = ⎢(2log e ) ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
8π ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
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⎡ 2 2⎤
⎛ R ⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎛b⎞
Mθ = ⎢(2log e ) ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ − 2⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝r⎠ ⎝R⎠ ⎥⎦
From Eq. 10.30
WFd
Fr =
2π⋅ r
The values of Mr, Mθ and Fr have been calculated and listed in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2
0 – 223.485 – 223.485 0
1 – 223.485 – 223.485 0
2 – 223.485 – 223.485 0
3 – 223.485 – 223.485 0
4 – 223.485 – 223.485 – 277.185
5 – 123.71 – 199.575 – 221.745
The net values of bending moments in radial direction, Mr and in circumferential direction,
Mθ and the shear force, Fr at various values of distances measured from the centre are algebraic
sum of respective values listed in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, respectively. The net values have been
calculated and listed in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3
0.0 145.65 145.65 0.00
1 130.89 140.73 39.75
2 86.595 125.97 78.75
3 12.765 101.355 118.125
4 –90.60 66.90 –119.685
5 –123.705 46.515 –24.945
The maximum bending moments in 145.65 kN-m/m.
4. Effective depth of the base slab
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2= M
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜ (1 − 0.42) ⋅ u⋅max ⎟ bd Fd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) × 1000 d2 = 145.65 × 106
2.7593 × 1000 d2 = 145.65 × 106
d = 229.75 mm
Let the effective cover be 25 mm.
Then, the overall thickness of slab
229.75 + 25 = 254.75 mm
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For the requirements of (span/effective depth) ratio provide overall thickness as 360 mm.
The effective depth of slab is 335 mm.
1 0 m m φ H ysd 1 0 m m φ H ysd steel ba rs

ste el ba rs a t 5 0 m m c/c
2m 2m
C ircu la r
ring
8m
10 m
(a ) C ircu la r b ase slab (circu la r ta n k)
1 0 m m φ hysd
ste el ba rs
a t 5 0 m m c/c
2m 25 m m
B o tto m Top
(b ) D e ta ils o f re in forcem en t plan (H a lf at bo tto m h alf at to p)
Fig. 10.12
5. Steel reinforcement bars

(a) The reinforcement bars for positive radial moment
⎛ Ast ⋅ Fy ⎞
0.87 fy. Ast.d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
A × 415
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 335 = ⎛⎜1 − st ⎞
⎟
⎝ 1000 × 335 × 20 ⎠
= 145.65 × 106
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12.0952 × 104 Ast – 7.4918 Ast2 = 145.65 × 106
Ast2 –16144.612 Ast + 1944.13 × 104 = 0.0

Ast = 1310.588 mm2
Hysd-steel bars of 10 mm φ shall be provided. The cross sectional area of one bar
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
Spacing of the bars
1000 × 78.54
s = = 59.93 mm
1310.588
The steel bars shall be provided in two perpendicular directions at 50 mm spacing centre to
centre near the center of the slab.
(b) The reinforcement bars for negative radial moment
⎛ Ast ⋅ Fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d . ⎜1 − ⎟ = 123.705 × 106
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 335 ⎜1 − = 123.705 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 335 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 16144.612 Ast + 1667.633 × 104 = 0

∴ Ast = 1109.13 mm2
Spacing for 10 mm Hysd steel bars
1000 × 78.54
s = = 70.81 mm
1109.13
These bars may also be provided at 50 mm centre to centre.
(c) The reinforcement bars for positive circumferential moment
Since the maximum bending moments in radial and circumferential directions are equal,
the reinforcement for positive circumferential bending moment is same. The details of
reinforcements in the circular base slab of a circular tank are shown in Fig. 10.12.
PROBLEMS
10.1. Design a circular slab for a room 4.8 m in effective diameter. The circular slab is simply
supported at edges and carries a live load of 4 kN/m2 .The slab shall have a finishing coat of
20 mm cement concrete. Provide M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of quality Fe 415.
10.2. Design the circular slab in Problem 10.1 if it is partially fixed at the edges.
10.3. A circular base slab of a circular tank used for the water supply is 8 m in diameter. The slab
is supported by 6 m circular ring beam. The weight of tank is 4 m above the top of base slab.
The thickness of side walls of the tank is 150 mm. Provided M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd
steel bars of quality Fe 145 for the reinforcement. Design the circular base slab.
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PART V : DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Design of Short Columns

11
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A column is defined as a structural member subjected to compressive force in a direction parallel
to its longitudinal axis. The columns are used primarily to support compressive loads. As per
IS : 456–1978, the columns or struts are defined as the compression members, the effective
length of which exceeds three-times the least lateral dimension. When the effective length of a
compression members does not exceed three times the least lateral dimensions, then such
compression member is called as pedestal. In axially loaded columns and compression members,
the loads are applied at the centroid of the section in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the members. The terms centrally loaded and concentrically loaded are also used for the
axially loaded columns and the compression members.
When the compression members are overloaded, then their failure may take place in direct
compression (viz., in crushing), excessive bending combined with twisting. The failure of columns
depends upon their slenderness ratios. The load required to cause these types of failures,
decreases as the length of compression members increases, the cross-section areas of the members
remaining constant. Therefore, the columns and the compression members are classified as
short and slender (viz., long) members. The compression members are considered as short
⎛l ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
when both the slenderness ratios ⎜ ex ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ are less than 12, where lex and ley are the
⎝D⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
effective length with respect to major and minor axes, respectively and, b is the width of member
and D is the depth with respect to the major axes. In the short reinforced concrete columns, the
lateral deflections are not significant. The columns and the compression members are treated
⎛l ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
as slender (viz., long) when either ⎜ se ⎟ or ⎜ ⎟ or both the slenderness ratios are more than
⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
12. In the slender reinforced concrete columns, the lateral deflections have an important effect
on the strength of columns.
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In case, plain concrete columns are used, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) (Chapter 1), it is seen that
their load carrying capacity is small, though the concrete carries compression only. In case, the
steel bars are embedded in the columns of same size as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b) (Chapter 1), since
the steel bars have high compressive strength the original (existing) load carrying capacity of
plain cement concrete column is very much increased by providing additional strength by
using steel bars. The columns become reinforced concrete columns. In the reinforced concrete
column (axially loaded) the most of the load is carried by the concrete and the part of the load
is carried by steel (as the steel bars have much greater strength in compression also. The steel
bars are placed nearer to the outer periphery of the section leaving the clear concrete cover as
needed. The cross-sectional dimensions of reinforced columns and compression members may
be reduced, if desired. Very few members are truly axially loaded, the steel bars are also provided
for the reason that the steel bars are essential to resist the bending that may exist. The steel
bars provided as reinforcement in the plain cement concrete columns are laterally tied at
appropriate spacing in order to avoid the buckling of steel bars.
The concrete columns are reinforced by longitudinal and transverse reinforcements. The
transverse reinforcement is generally in the form of lateral ties or closed spaced spirals as
shown in Fig. 11.13 (b) and (c), respectively.
The columns may be square, rectangular, circular or polygonal in cross-section. The minimum
number of steel bars provided as reinforcement in columns depends upon its cross-sectional
shape.
In limit state design, a structural members is usually designed for the ultimate limit state
and checked for the serviceability limit states of cracking and excessive deflection. For the
particular case of short braced columns (that is, columns which are restrained in position at
both the ends), it is generally not necessary to check deflections and crack widths in design.
11.2 AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

An axially loaded column as defined by the structural engineers transmits a compressive force
without an explicit design requirements to carry lateral loads or end moments. There exist
accidental end eccentricity initial, crookedness and initial curvature in the columns. By having
appropriate modifications in the analytical expressions and using suitable factor of safety, the
design formula makes the account for these factors. Due to these factors, the strength of an
actual column used to be less than that of a perfectly axially loaded column.
An ideal column is assumed to be perfectly straight and centrally loaded. A slender ideal
column vertically fixed at the base and free at the upper end and carrying an axial load P is
shown in Fig. 11.1. The column is assumed to be perfectly elastic.
When the axial load P is less than critical load and the stress is within the limit of
proportionality, the column remains straight. The columns remains in stable equilibrium (viz.,
if a small lateral load is applied at the free end, the column deflects. On withdrawal of the
lateral load, the column resumes its vertical position and deflection vanishes). When the
magnitude of axial load P is gradually increased, a stage will be reached when the vertical
position of the column becomes in unstable equilibrium (i.e., if a small lateral load is applied a
deflection will be produced, which will not disappear on the withdrawal of the lateral load).
The axial load which is sufficient to keep the column in such a slight deflected shape is called as
critical load. The critical load is also called as buckling load or crippling load. The buckling
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Design of Short Columns 611
load is defined as the load at which a member or a structure as a whole collapses in service (or
buckles in a test load). The buckling is defined as the sudden bending, warping, curling or
crumpling of the elements or members under compressive stresses. The direction of buckling of
a column depends upon the flexural rigidity, EI of the column. The columns buckle in a direction
perpendicular to the axis about which the moment of inertia of the column section is minimum.
δ
PCR
PCR
y
(δ – y)
Y
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.1
In about 1759 Professor Leonhard Euler (a Swiss mathematician) gave the basic information
on the behaviour of straight, concentrically loaded slender column. The formula for critical
load for the column as shown in Fig. 11.1 was derived as under :
The differential equation of the deflected shape of the column is as below :
⎛ d2 y ⎞
⎜⎜ EI 2 ⎟⎟ = + M (hogging) ...(i)
⎝ dx ⎠
The bending moment at any point on the deflected shape of the column
M = + P (δ – y) ...(ii)
d2 y
Therefore, EI = + P (δ – y) ...(iii)
dx 2
⎡ d2 y P ⎤
⎢ 2− ( δ − y )⎥ = 0 ....(iv)
⎢⎣ dx EI ⎥⎦
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1
⎛ P ⎞2
Let n be equal to ⎜ ⎟
⎝ EI ⎠
Then, the differential equation becomes
⎛ d2 y 2 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 + n ⋅ y − n ⋅ δ ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(v)
⎝ dx ⎠
The general solution of this equation is
y = A . sin (nx) + B . cos (nx) + δ ...(vi)
⎛ dx ⎞
At ⎜ x = 0, y = 0, = 0⎟
⎝ dy ⎠
B = δ, A = 0
Therefore,
y = δ (1 – cos n . x)
At (x = l, y = δ)
δ cos (nl) = 0
From this, either δ = 0, or cos (nl) = 0. If δ is zero, the buckling of column does not occur. If cos
nl = 0, then
π
nl = (2n – 1) where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
2
π
For n = 1, the value of nl is smallest. It is equal to . Therefore,
2
⎛ π2 ⋅ EI ⎞
Pcr = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(11.1)
⎝ 4l ⎠
The values of critical loads for other end conditions of the columns may be derived from this
case. For a column, hinged at both the ends
⎛ π2 ⋅ EI ⎞
Pcr = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(11.2)
⎝ l ⎠
where Pcr is the critical load for the column. Since, each half of the column is in the same
position (a half sine wave) as the whole of the column, the column hinged at both ends is called
as fundamental case or standard case of buckling of the columns. In generalized form, the
expression of Eq. 11.1 or Eq. 11.2 may be written as
⎛ π2 ⋅ EI ⎞
Pcr = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(11.3)
⎝ kl ⎠
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At the critical load given by Eq. 11.1, the, originally straight member buckles into a half sine
wave as in Fig. 11.1 (b). In this bent configuration the bending moments P. (δ – y) act at that
section and the deflections at that section y continues to increase. The deflections at the top
increases more rapidly as compared to y. The bending stress caused by the increasing moment,
together with the original compressive stress over stresses and fails the member.
11.3 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

The effective length of a compression depends upon end restraint conditions. The end restraint
conditions are of two types, viz., (i) position restraint and (ii) direction restraint.
(i) Position restraint. In position restraint, the end of a column is not free to change its
position but rotation about the end of a column, may take place, e.g., hinged end of a
column as shown in Fig. 11.2 (a).
(ii) Direction restraint. In direction restraint, end of the column is free to change its
position but rotation at the end of the column cannot take place.
When any end of a column is having restraint in position and direction both, then the end is
not free to change its position, and the rotation about the end of column also cannot take place
as shown in Fig. 11.2 (b).
P CR PCR
R o tatio n
fre e
P CR PCR
(a ) P o sition re straint (b ) P o sition an d direc tion re straint
Fig. 11.2 Restraint conditions at ends of columns
There are various combinations of restraints about either or both the axes. The restraint
conditions at the two ends of a column may be different or may be same. Following are the
ideal cases of the end conditions :
1. Both the ends of column hinged, Fig. 11.3 (a)
2. Both the ends of column fixed, Fig. 11.3 (b)
3. One end of the column is fixed and the other end is hinged, Fig. 11.3 (c)
4. One end of the column is fixed and the other end is free, Fig. 11.4 (c)
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PCR PCR PCR PCR
L L L L
PCR PCR PCR PCR

(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
Fig. 11.3 Ideal cases of columns with different end conditions
PCR PCR PCR
PCR PCR PCR
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 11.4
The deflected shapes of these idealised columns under critical loads have been shown in
Figs. 11.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively. The actual lengths of the columns have been indicated
be L. The effective length (leff) of a column is expressed in terms of equivalent length of
compression. It is the length of columns between two adjacent points of zero moments.
Figs. 11.4 (a), (b) and (c) also show three other ideal cases of the columns. The effective length
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of the idealised columns have been recommended in IS : 456–1978 and are given in
Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Effective length of compression members (As per IS : 456–1978)
S.No. Degree of end restraint of compression members Effective length
Theoretical Recommended
1. Effectively held in position at both ends, but not restrained
against rotation. [Fig. 11.3 (a)] 1.00 l 1.00 l
2. Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at
both ends. [Fig.11.3 (b)] 0.50 l 0.65 l
3. Effectively held in position at both ends, restrained against
rotation at one end. [Fig. 11.3 (c)] 0.70 l 0.80 l
4. Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation
at one end but not held in position nor restrained against
rotation at the other end. [Fig. 11.3 (d)] 2.00 l 2.00 l
5. Effectively held imposition and res-trained against rotation
at one end and at the other end restrained against rotation
but not held in position. [Fig. 11.4 (a)] 1.00 l 1.20 l
6. Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation
at one end, and at the other end partially restrained against
rotation but not held in position. [Fig. 11.4 (b)] — 1.50 l
7. Effectively held in position at one end but not restrained
against rotation, and at the other end restrained against
rotation but not held in position. [Fig. 11.4 (c)] 2.00 l 2.00 l
( Note. l is unsupported length of the compression member.

In reinforced concrete structures, one is generally concerned with rigid frames rather than
with the single members. The buckling behaviour of frames is shown in Fig. 11.5. The loads
are applied to the columns concentrically. In case the sideway is prevented as shown
diagrammatical by the brace in Fig. 11.5 (a), the buckling behaviour shall be as indicated.
PCR1 P CR1 PCR 2 PCR2
kl<l
k l > 2l
P C R 2 << P C R 1
(a ) L ate ra lly b race d (b ) L ate ra lly u nb ra ce d
Fig. 11.5 Rigid frame building
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The effective length, kl shall be between 1.00 l and 0.50 l. The exact value depends on the
degree or restraint i.e., on the ratio of EI/l of the column to the sum of rigidities EI/l of the
restraining members at both the ends. It is seen that one end was prevented from moving
laterally relative to the other end by horizontal bracing or otherwise. In such case, the effective
length kl is always smaller than (or at the most it is equal to) the actual length l.
In case no sideway bracing is provided to an otherwise identical frame, the buckling of
frame occurs as shown in Fig. 11.5 (b). The unbraced frame will buckle at a radically smaller
load than the braced frame. In general, the compression members free to buckle in a sidesway
mode are always considerably weaker than when braced against sidesway. If the column is
rotationally fixed at both the ends but one end can move laterally with respect to the other, the
effective length kl is equal to l. In case, one compares this column fixed at both the ends and
free to sidesway with a fixed column, the effective length of former is twice that of the latter.
When the columns are hinged at the support and free for sidesway, the effective length of such
columns exceeds twice the unsupported length.
When the exact frame analysis is not done, the effective length of columns in framed
structures may be found from the ratio of effective length to unsupported length (leff/l). When
the relative displacement of the ends of the column is prevented (viz., the frames with no
sway), the effective length may be noted from Fig. 11.6.
H in g ed 1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
β1
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
Fixe d 0
0 0.1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 .0
Fixe d H in g ed
β2
Fig. 11.6 Effctive length ratios for a column in a frame with no sway
When the relative displacement of the ends of column are not prevented (i.e., the frames
without restraint against sway), the effective length may be noted from Fig. 11.7. IS :
456–1978 recommends that in these cases, the effective length ratio (leff/l) may not be taken to
be less than 1.2.
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It is to note that in Figs. 11.6 and 11.7

⎛ Σkc ⎞
β1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.4)
⎝ Σkc + Σkb ⎠
This summation is to be done for the members framing into a joint at the top.
⎛ Σkc ⎞
β2 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.5)
⎝ Σkc + Σkb ⎠
This summation is to be done for the members framing into a joint at the bottom. Where kc
and kb are the flexural stiffnesses of column and beam, respectively.
H ing ed 1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
β1
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
F ix ed 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0.7 0 .8 0 .9 1 .0
F ix ed H ing ed
β2
Fig. 11.7 Effective length ratio for a column in a frame without restraint against sway
11.4 EQUIVALENT (TRANSFORMED) CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF COLUMNS

A reinforced concrete column (e.g., a rectangular column as shown in (Fig. 11.8 (a)) consists of
two materials concrete and steel bars, (viz., it consists of composite section). The actual steel-
and-concrete cross-section is replaced with a fictitious section though of consisting of concrete
only. This fictitious section is called as equivalent or transformed sectional area as shown in
Fig. 11.8 (b) or in Fig. 11.8 (c). This equivalent concrete area is seen to consist of actual concrete
area, Ac plus mc (the modular ratio of concrete in compression, mc = 15 m) times the area of
reinforcement. That is, the actual area of reinforcement, Asc is replaced with an equivalent
concrete area equal to mc . Asc located at the level of steel. The equivalent/transformed section
pertaining to the rectangular section is shown in Fig. 11.8 (c).
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In Fig. 11.8 (a), four bars along each of the two faces are thought of as being removed and
replaced at the same distance from the axis of section, with added areas of fictitious concrete of
total cross-sectional area, mc . Asc.
Let Ag be the gross cross-sectional (b × D), Ac be the area of concrete and Asc be the total
cross-sectional area of the steel reinforcement in compression. The equivalent/transformed area
of cross-section of the column
Ac = Ac + mc . Asc ...(11.6)
or Ac = (Ag – Asc) + mc . As ...(i)
or Ac = [Ag + (mc –1) Asc] ...(11.7)
The term (Ac + mc . Asc) or [Ag + (mc – 1) . Asc] may be interpreted as the area of equivalent/
transformed area, which when subjected to the particular concrete stress, ac results in the
same strength of column as the actual section composed of both concrete and steel. It is the
geometrical property of the reinforced concrete column.
m c A sc / 4 m c A sc / 4 ( m c – 1 ) A s c / 4 ( m c – 1 ) A s c / 4
b b b
(a ) A ctu al section (b ) Tran sform ed se ctio n (c) Tran sform ed se ctio n
Fig. 11.8 Equivalent/transformed column axial compression
11.5 RADIUS OF GYRATION OF A COLUMN SECTION

The radius of gyration of a reinforced concrete column section is a geometrical property of the
section and it is determined as
1
⎛ I ⎞2
r = ⎜ e ⎟ ...(11.8)
⎝ Ae ⎠
where Ae = Equivalent sectional area of the reinforced concrete column section
Ie = Equivalent moment of inertia of the reinforced concrete column section.
The moment of inertia of the reinforced concrete column section as per IS : 456–1978 may be
calculated on the basis of any one of the following :
(a) Gross-section. The gross cross-section of the member reignoring enforcement.
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(b) Transformed section. The area of cross-section plus the area of reinforcement
transformed on the basis of modular ratio, mc (Eq. 11.6 or Eq. 11.7) in case of axially loaded
columns.
(c) Cracked section. The area of concrete in compression plus the area of reinforcement
transformed on the basis of modular ratio. The area of concrete in tension is neglected. It is to
note that when the column section is subjected to axial load and bending moment, the column
section may crack, then cracked section is to be considered.
11.6 SLENDERNESS RATIO OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

The slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio of unsupported length of
the compression member, to the appropriate radius of gyration of the compression member, r
⎛l⎞
λ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.9)
⎝r⎠
The square and circular shapes are two chief shapes of the reinforced column. When the column
is free to bend about any axis, then, the value radius of gyration of square or circular shape of
the column about any cross-sectional axis remains the same. The value of radius of gyration of
the column for other shape is smallest about the minor axis and maximum about the major
principal axis. The smallest or minimum value of radius of gyration rmin is used for calculating
the slenderness ratio of a column free to bend about any axis. Such a column bends about
minor axis and this axis is considered as the weak axis.
Many times, external restraints (e.g., construction of walls) are attached so that the bending
of column about weak axis is not allowed. Then, the column remains free to bend about the
strong axis (the value of radius of gyration about strong axis used to be largest and therefore
the value of slenderness ratio is kept smallest). The appropriate radius of gyration, r is calculated
looking to the external restraint or the axis about which the bending of column is possible.
Depending upon the lengths, lateral dimensions and the support conditions, the columns
are called as short columns and long (slender) columns. When the effective length of a column
does not exceed three times the least lateral dimension, the column or a compression member is
called as pedestal.
⎡l ⎤ ⎡ ley ⎤
1. Short columns. When the slenderness ratios ⎢ ex ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ both are less than 12,
⎣D⎦ ⎣b⎦
then the columns and compression members are called as short columns, where D is the depth
of the column with respect to the major axis and b is the width (least lateral dimensions) of the
column. And lex and ley are the effective lengths of column with respect to major and the minor
axes respectively.
The upper limit of 12 on the ratio of effective length to the least lateral dimension, assures
that the secondary effects of loads will be negligible in short columns.
⎛l ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
When a short reinforced column [viz., the ratio ⎜ ex ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ both are less than 12] is
⎝D⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
loaded with gradually increasing axial load in compression, the column fails by crushing of
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concrete and yielding of the reinforcement because the concrete and steel are stressed to their
maximum carrying capacity simultaneously. The ultimate load for a short column is controlled
only by the strength of materials and the dimensions of the cross-section.
The load carrying capacity (viz., strength) of an axially loaded short column is controlled by
the strength of materials.
⎡l ⎤ ⎡ ley ⎤
2. Long (slender) columns. When either of the slenderness ratio ⎢ ex ⎥ or ⎢ ⎥ exceeds
⎣D⎦ ⎣b⎦
12, then the columns and the compression members are called as long (slender) columns.
The load carrying capacity of long column is influenced by the slenderness effect. The
slenderness effect produces additional bending moments because of transverse deformations.
The long columns may fail either due to failure of materials or by buckling. The design of long
columns has been described in Chapter 12.
11.7 UNSUPPORTED LENGTH OF A COMPRESSION MEMBER

IS : 456–1978 defines the unsupported length, l of a compression member. It shall be taken as
the clear distance between end restraint except the following :
IS : 456–1978 defines the unsupported length for flat slab construction, beam and slab
construction, columns restrained laterally by struts and for columns restrained laterally by
struts or beams separately.
(a) Flat slab construction. The unsupported length, l shall be clear distance between
the floor and the lower extremity of the capital, the drop panel or slab (whichever is less) as
shown in Fig. 11.9 (a), (b) and (c), respectively.
C o lu m n C o lu m n C o lu m n
Flat sla b Flat sla b Flat sla b
C o lu m n D ro p S lab
cap ita l p an el
C o lu m n C o lu m n l C o lu m n l
l
Floo r Floo r Floo r
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 11.9 Flat slab constructions
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(b) Beam and slab construction. The unsupported length, l shall be the clear distance
between the floor and the underside of the shallower beam framing into the columns in each
direction at the next higher floor level as shown in Fig. 11.10.
N e xt high er S lab sup po rte d

floo r level o n b ea m s
S h allo w b ea m
D e ep D e ep b ea m
b ea m
C o lu m n
l
Floo r
Fig. 11.10 Beam and slab construction
(c) Columns restrained laterally by struts. The unsupported length shall be the clear
distance between consecutive struts in each vertical plane, provided that be an adequate support,
S trut C o lu m n
S trut
C o lu m n
S trut
S trut ( φ > 3 0 °) φ
(a ) A view in eleva tio n (b ) A view in plan
Fig. 11.11 Columns restrained laterally by struts
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two such struts shall meet the columns at approximately the same level and the angle between
vertical planes through the struts shall not vary more than 30° from a right angle as shown in
Fig. 11.11. Such struts shall be of adequate dimensions and shall have sufficient anchorage to
restrain the member against lateral deflection.
(d) Columns restrained laterally by struts or beams with brackets used at the
junction. The unsupported length, l shall be the clear distance between the floor and the
lower edge of the bracket, provided that the bracket width equals that of the beam or strut and
is at least half that of the column as shown in Fig. 11.12.
C o lu m n
B e am B e am
B ra cke t B ra cke t
Floo r
Fig. 11.12 Columns restrained laterally by struts/beams with brackets at junction
11.8 LATERAL TIES AND SPIRALS

The concrete columns with steel bars provided as longitudinal or main reinforcement parallel
to the axis are shown in Fig. 11.13. When the axial compressive load is applied to the columns,
the lateral bulging of the concrete occurs in the columns in which lateral ties or spirals are not
provided as shown in Fig. 11.13 (a). The stresses developed in steel bars and concrete in a
column carrying compressive load are in proportions to their modulus of elasticity, Es and Ec in
the beginning. The creep and shrinkage of concrete occur. The transfer of load from concrete to
steel takes place. The embedded steel bars are compressed. As a result of which the tensile
stresses develop in the surrounding concrete. The stress in steel increases and the stress in
concrete decreases.
The lateral reinforcement, in the form of individually widely spaced ties or a continuous
closely spaced spiral, serves several functions. Such reinforcement holds the longitudinal bars
in position in the forms while the concrete is being placed. The longitudinal and transverse
steel bars are wired to form cages, which are then moved into the forms and properly positioned
before placing the concrete. The transverse reinforcement prevents the highly stressed, slender
longitudinal bars from buckling outward by bursting the their concrete cover. The steel bars
also act individually as slender columns. The buckling of the steel bars away from the axis of
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column also takes place. The outside surface of the concrete gets tension. The cracks develop
and open in the thin outer cover of the concrete. As a result of this, the sudden failure of such
columns occurs.
P P P
(S p a cing )
(S p a cing )
P itch
P itch
R einforce m e nt
R einforce m e nt
L on gitu dinal re in fo rcem en t
Lo ng itud in al .
Lo ng itud in al .
w itho u t latera l ties
S p ira ls
(h elix)
La teral
tie s
L ate ra l S p ira ls
ties (H e lix)
D c ore
(a ) (b ) (c)
L on gitud in al (m ain) re in force m e n t R e in force d
Fig. 11.13 Longitudinal (main) reinforcement concrete columns
In order to prevent the displacement of the longitudinal bars during the construction operation
and to counteract any lateral buckling tendency of the compression loaded steel bars, the
transverse small diameter steel bars called as lateral ties and spirals are provided as shown in
Fig. 11.13 (b) and (c), respectively. These lateral ties and spirals (small diameter bars) are tied
with the longitudinal bars with wires. While counteracting the buckling tendency of steel bars
and bulging tendency of concrete, the tensile force develops normal to the straight bars (main
reinforcing bars) and the lateral ties or spirals remain effective in restraining these actions.
These lateral ties are used in square and rectangular reinforced columns. The spirals are
commonly used in reinforced concrete circular columns. The spirally reinforced columns shows
considerable deformation before complete failure.
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11.9 BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS UNDER AXIAL LOAD

The arrangement of transverse reinforcement divides the columns into two general classes
viz., the columns with lateral ties and spirally reinforced columns. In tied columns, the hoops
or ties or rings are provided with longitudinal bars at appropriate spacing, In spirally reinforced
columns, the steel spirals are provided enclosing the longitudinal bars at suitable pitch.
When the column tests were carried out and the axial load was increased from the service
load to ultimate load for the columns, it was seen that the steel bars reached its elastic limit first
and the increased deformation then occurring built up the stress in the concrete until its ultimate
strength was reached. In case, the concrete approached its ultimate strength before the steel
reached its elastic limit, the increased deformation of the concrete near its maximum stress
forced the steel stress to build up more rapidly. As such, a simple and effective addition law
was introduced in the axially loaded columns. The axially loaded columns reach their yield
point only when the load became equal to 85 per cent of the ultimate strength measured by
standard cylinder tests plus the yield point strength of the longitudinal steel bars provided as
main reinforcement. The tied columns and spiral columns act almost identically upto the column
yield point as shown by the load-deformation curve, Fig. 11.14.
C o lu m n yie ld p oin t
(spiral colum n lo se s) H e avy sp iral
she ll
A ci sp ira l
L igh t sp ira l
C o lla p se o f C o lla p se o f
tied colum n s spiral colum n
A xial lo a d P
(sud de n an d brittle) (g rad ua l an d d u ctile )
Tied or sp iral
colum n
D e form a tion (L on gitud in al sho rte ning )

(stra in )
Fig. 11.14 Comparison of strains in tied and spiral columns
Figure 11.13 shows schematically a reinforced concrete short column. In Fig. 11.13 (b), the
concrete column is having lateral ties along with longitudinal reinforcement. In Fig. 11.13 (c),
the concrete column is having spiral (helical) reinforcement along with longitudinal
reinforcement. The column carries an axial load P. The axial column load P is gradually and
progressively increased to ultimate load. The elastic and ultimate strength behaviours of the
column are as under.
1. Elastic behaviour. In case, the stresses in concrete and the longitudinal reinforcement
are sufficiently small, the stress-strain relations may be considered linear. The behaviour of
column shall be elastic. Therefore, the usual elastic theory is applicable. From the equilibrium
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P = (fcc . Ac + fs . Asc) ...(i)

where
P = applied axial load
fcc = compressive stress in concrete
fs = compressive stress in longitudinal reinforcement
Ac = cross-sectional area of concrete in column
Asc = cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement
The concrete is having a perfect grip over longitudinal reinforcement. Therefore, the strains
in concrete and reinforcement are equal. From the compatibility
⎛ fc ⎞ ⎛ fs ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
E
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ Es ⎠
where
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
= 5700 (fck)1/2 N/mm2
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
= 2 × 105 N/mm2
From the expression (ii)
fs = fcc ⎛⎜ Es ⎞⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ Ec ⎠
fs = m . fcc ...(iv)
where m = modular ratio of concrete
From the expression (i)
⎡ P ⎤
fcc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(v)
⎣ ( Ac + m ⋅ Asc ) ⎦
⎡ m⋅P ⎤
fs = ⎢ ⎥ ...(vi)
⎣ ( Ac + m ⋅ As ) ⎦
In practice, the stress in concrete, fc is much less than that obtained from the expression (v)
and the stress in steel fs is much more than found from the expression (vi). It is because of the
effects of creep and shrinkage.
When the column is carrying sustained load (which is the usual for columns in actual
structures), the total strain concrete is sum of the elastic strain and strain due to creep. The
effective modulus of elasticity EEc is used instead of Ec and similarly, the effective modular
⎛ Es ⎞
ratio ⎜ m = ⎟ shall be used. The effective modulus of elasticity, EEC is less than modulus of
⎝ EEc ⎠
elasticity of concrete, Ec. Therefore, the effective modular ratio, m is increased due creep. It will
be seen that there shall be gradual and significant redistribution of stress with time. The
concrete gradually sheds off the load it carries and this is picked up by the reinforcement. This
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redistribution may continue for years until the effective modular ratio settles down to an
approximately steady value. For practical concrete mixes, the effective modular ratio for long-
term loading may be two to three times that for short-term loading.
In case, the sustained load on a column is removed, there is an immediate elastic recovery
and due residual stresses are set up. The reinforcement ends up in compression and the
concrete in tension. The residual stresses may sometimes be high enough to cause cracking.
Further redistribution of stresses occurs due to the effect of shrinkage of concrete. A
plain concrete column undergoing an imaginary uniform shrinkage will experience no stresses;
but in a reinforced concrete column, the reinforcement bars resist the shrinkage and set up
tensile stresses in the concrete and compressive stresses in the bars themselves.
2. Ultimate strength behaviour. In case the load P is increased until the failure of the
column, it will be seen that the maximum value of the column load (ultimate strength of column
in compression, Pcu) is practically independent of the load history or of any creep and shrinkage
effects. The ultimate load on the column (at ultimate limit state of collapse, is given by
⎡⎛ 0.67 ⎞ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ fck ⋅ Ac + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ Asc ⎥ ...(vii)
⎣⎢⎝ 1.5 ⎠ ⎝ 1.15 ⎠ ⎦⎥
The columns have two different arrangement of transverse reinforcement. The behaviour of
column with two different arrangements of transverse reinforcements is as follows :
In the axially loaded tied columns, the concrete immediately fails by crushing and
shearing outward along inclined planes as soon as the yield point load is reached and the steel
bars fail in buckling outward between ties. Thus the yield point and the ultimate strength of a
tied column are same. The failure of the tied column is abrupt and complete (viz., sudden and
brittle).
It has been observed experimentally that upto a certain stage, the columns with or without
sufficient lateral reinforcement behave almost identically. After reaching this stage, the column
without adequate helical reinforcement or without closely rectangular ties fails immediately,
accompanied by the breakdown of concrete and buckling of bars between ties as shown in
Fig. 11.15 (a).
In an axially loaded spiral column, the cracking or complete destruction of thin outer
cover (outside the spiral) occurs at the yield point load. With the large increased deformation,
the spirals come into effective action. The spiral provides radial compressive forces on the concrete
within the core of the concrete and it prevents the outward falling. The core concrete carries
significant more load due to these confining stresses.
In case too light spirals are used the column will continue to carry some load beyond the
column yield point, but not as much as that which caused the spalling of the thin concrete
cover. ACI building code specifies that the minimum quantity of spirals steel that will just
replace (an estimated 10 per cent in excess of the shell strength is used just to be sure the
strength after spalling is not less than before) the strength lost when the shell concrete spalls.
The instantaneous crushing of concrete and buckling for steel are prevented. The failure
becomes more gradual and ductile (i.e., a tougher column). In case of heavy spirals, the column
carries more strength than that lost in the spalling or failure of the shell.
The initial cracking of the shell gives some warning of overload prior to failure. The spirals
also add a considerable element of toughness to the column. The toughness is valuable in
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resisting explosions or earthquakes. Toughness measures the energy that can be absorbed. It
was seen that two columns (with heavy spirals) from the same storey of a building severely
damaged by a strong earthquake prevented the total collapse of that storey.
B u cklin g of lo ng itu dina l reinforcem e nt

Lo ng itud in al reinforce m e nt
b u ckle d be tw e en ties
p reve nte d by spira ls
(a ) C o lu m n w ith la tera l tie s (b ) C o lu m n w ith la tera l sp ira ls
Fig. 11.15 Lateral spirals loaded columns
The code of practice IS : 456–1978 recommends that the load carrying capacity of columns
with helical (spiral) reinforcement satisfying the requirement of the ratio of the volume of
helical reinforcement to the volume of the core (described in subsequent section) shall be 1.05
times the load for similar member with the lateral ties rings (i.e., five percent additional load is
carried). A larger load in such compression member is recommended because the columns with
helical reinforcement have more ductility and toughness [Reference : ACI 318–77 ‘Commentary
on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete’, 1977, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit] when these columns are loaded axially or with small eccentricities. The increased
ductility and load carrying capacity in such columns are due to the following two reasons:
1. The spacing of helical spiral is usually small enough to prevent buckling of longitudinal
steel.
IS : 456–1978 recommends pitch (spacing) and diameter of the bars of helical reinforcement
keeping this into consideration.
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2. Owing to large deformation, the concrete cone inside the helical spiral bears against
the helical reinforcement causing it to exert confining reaction on the core. This confining
reaction increases the load carrying capacity and strain bearing capacity of the core concrete.
IS : 456–1978 does not intend to make use of increase in capacity beyond the spalling load in
case of helically reinforced columns and recommended increase in design capacity of such
columns is because of the gradual and ductile failure of the column.
11.10 MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY

All the axially loaded reinforced concrete columns are considered as axially loaded. In fact,
these columns are not perfectly axially loaded. There remains alway small eccentricity in the
loading due to inaccuracies in construction, lateral deflection of column and/or inaccuracies of
loading. The eccentricity, e remains small and the moment of load, P.e also remains small.
Therefore, code IS : 456–1978 recommends that all the axially columns shall be designed for
minimum eccentricity, e min equal to unsupported length of column/500 plus lateral dimension/
30, subject to a minimum of 20 min., viz.,
⎛ 1 b ⎞
e min = ⎜ + ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
e min = 20 mm ...(ii)
where l is the unsupported length and b is the lateral dimensions of the column.
Mostly the code specifies minimum eccentricity as above for rectangular columns. However,
the minimum eccentricity is not mentioned for other shapes of cross-sections of the column. In
⎛l ⎞
the absence of any guideline, a value of ⎜ eff ⎟ has been suggested.
⎝ 300 ⎠
All the reinforced concrete columns are subjected to some load P and moment M due to the
eccentricity of load (which may be due to inaccuracies of construction lateral deflection of
column, and inaccuracies in loading.
⎛M ⎞
Actual eccentricity is calculated by analysis as ⎜ ⎟ and where the actual eccentricity is
⎝ P ⎠
large, the actual eccentricity obtained is taken into consideration and the minimum eccentricity
is ignored.
11.11 CLEAR COVER TO REINFORCEMENT

The steel bare provided as reinforcement in the reinforced concrete columns should be projected
by a concrete cover. The clear cover or nominal cover (simply referred as cover) is measured
from the concrete surface to the outermost surface of the steel bars. The distance measured
from the concrete surface upto the centre of the steel bars (longitudinal reinforcement) is referred
as effective cover. The effective cover shall be the clear cover of concrete plus half the diameter
of steel bars.
IS : 456–1978 specifies that for the longitudinal steel bars (provided as reinforcement) in a
column should not be less than 40 mm, nor less than the diameter of such bars. In the case of
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columns of minimum dimension of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do not exceed 12
mm, a cover of 25 mm may be used.
The thickness of cover may be increased when the surface of concrete members are exposed
to the action of harmful chemicals (as in the case of concrete in contact with earth, faces
contaminated with such chemicals), acid vapour, saline atmosphere, sulphurous smoke (as in
case of steam operated railways), etc. and such increase of cover may be between 15 mm and
50 mm beyond that specified above.
For reinforced concrete members totally immersed in sea water, the cover shall be 40 mm
more than that specified above. For the reinforced concrete members, periodically immersed in
sea water or subject to sea spray, the cover of concrete shall be 50 mm more than specified. For
concrete of grades M 25, M 30, M 35 and M 40, the additional thickness of cover may be
reduced to half. In all such cases the cover should not exceed 75 mm.
The concrete cover is also provided for resistance against fire. For protection against fire, there
aspects (namely, retention of structural strength, resistance to penetration of flames and resistance
to heat transmission) are usually considered. The minimum requirements of adequate protection
against fire, and for dimensions of concrete to give resistance in hour, IS : 1642–1960 (code of
practice for fire safety of buildings, general), materials and details of construction and the
explanatory handbook to IS : 456–1978 may be referred.
11.12 REQUIREMENTS OF LONGITUDINAL (MAIN) REINFORCEMENT FOR

COLUMNS
IS : 456–1978 specified the requirements of longitudinal (main) steel bars to be used for columns
and compression members regarding the percentage of reinforcement, number of steel bars,
diameter of the bars, the spacing of the bars and the concrete cover for the steel bars as following.
11.12.1 Percentage of the Longitudinal Reinforcement

(i) The minimum percentage of cross-section area of the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
not less than 0.8 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of the column.
(ii) In any column that has a large cross-sectional area than that required to support the
load, the minimum percentage of steel shall be based upon the area of concrete required to
resist the direct stress and not upon the actual area.
(iii) The maximum percentage of cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement shall
be not more than 6 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of the column.
It is to note that the use of 6 percent reinforcement may involve practical difficulties in
placing and compacting the concrete ; hence lower percentage is recommended. Where the
steel bars from column below have to be lapped with those in column under consideration, the
percentage of steel shall usually not exceed 4 percent.
The minimum percentage of reinforcement is specified, as the reinforcement is needed to
resist the bending moment, which may exist irrespectives of whether the design calculations
show that the bending moment exists. This also decreases the effect of creep and shrinkage
under sustained loading. The shrinkage and creep redistribute load from the concrete to
reinforcement, and the stress in steel may reach the yield level even under service loads. The
minimum percentage of steel protects columns in structural frames against failure in tension
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when, for example, the surrounding floors, near the column are unloaded above but heavily
loaded below or when the structural frame is subjected to unequal foundation settlement.
11.12.2 Number of Steel Bars

(i) In the rectangular columns, the minimum number of bars provided in a column shall be
four.
(ii) In the circular columns, the minimum number of bars in a column shall be six.
For shapes other than the rectangular or circular, at least one bar should be provided at
each apex or corner.
11.12.3 Diameter of Steel Bars

The bars shall be not less than 12 mm diameter.
It is based on the requirements of stiffness and it is independent of the strength or type of
steel.
11.12.4 Spacing of Longitudinal Bars

The spacing of longitudinal steel bars measured along the periphery of the column shall not
exceed 300 mm.
11.12.5 Columns with Helical Reinforcement

(i) A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement shall have at least six bars of
longitudinal reinforcement within the helical reinforcement.
(ii) In a helically reinforcement column, the longitudinal bars shall be in contact with the
helical reinforcement and equidistant around its inner circumference.
In case of pedestals in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not taken into consideration
in strength calculations. The nominal longitudinal reinforcement not less 0.15 percent of the
cross-sectional area shall be provided.
The thickness of cover to the outermost surface of the longitudinal steel bars has been
recommended by IS : 456–1978 and it is kept as described in Art. 11.11.
11.13 REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSVERSE (LATERAL) REINFORCEMENTS

The purpose of lateral reinforcement is primarily to prevent the outward backling of the
longitudinal bars. The diameter and spacing of links are therefore related to the diameter of
the longitudinal bars. The lateral reinforcement also provides lateral restraint to the concrete,
resulting in an enhanced axial load capacity.
The general description of transverse reinforcement (lateral) ties and spirals (helixs), the
requirements for arrangement of transverse reinforcement, for pitch and diameter of lateral
ties and spiral reinforcements have been stated in IS : 456–1978 as follows.
11.13.1 General Description

A reinforced concrete compression member shall have the transverse (viz., lateral ties or spiral/
helical) reinforcement. Every longitudinal steel bars placed nearest to the face of compression
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member will get effective lateral support against buckling. The effective lateral support is
given by the transverse reinforcement either in the form of circular rings capable of taking up
circumferential tension or by polygonal links (lateral ties) with the internal angles not more
than 135°. The ends of transverse reinforcement shall be properly anchored.
11.13.2 Arrangement of Transverse Reinforcement

IS : 456–1978 recommends following four arrangements for the transverse reinforcements
(viz., lateral ties or stirrups).
(i) If the longitudinal bars are not spaced more than 75 mm on either side, the transverse
reinforcement need only to go round the corner and alternate bars for the purpose of providing
effective lateral support as shown in Fig. 11.16 (a).
(ii) If the longitudinal bars spaced at a distance of not exceeding 48 times the diameter of
the ties (viz., s 48 . φtr) are effectively tied in two directions, additional longitudinal bars in
between these bars need to be tied in one direction by open ties as shown in Fig. 11.16 (b).
≤ 75 mm ≤ 75 m m ≤ 4 8 φtr
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.16 Arrangement of transverse reinforcement
(iii) Where the longitudinal reinforcing bars in compression members are placed in more
than one row, effective lateral support to the longitudinal bars in the inner rows may be a
assumed to have been provided if:
1. Transverse reinforcement is provided for the outermost row, and
2. No bar of the inner row is closer to the nearest compression face than three times the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar (viz., 3 . φmax) in the inner row as shown in Fig. 11.17 (a).
≥ 3φ
In dividu al
G ro up s
Tra nsverse
re in force m e n t
≥ 3φ
(a ) (b )
φ D iam e ter o f ste el ba rs
Fig. 11.17 Arrangement of transverse reinforcement
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(iv) Where the longitudinal bars in a compression member are grouped (not in contact) and
each group adequately tied with transverse reinforcement, the transverse reinforcement for
compression member as a whole may be provided on the assumption that each group is a single
longitudinal bar for the purpose of determining the pitch and diameter of the transverse
reinforcement. The diameter of such transverse reinforcement need not, however, exceed 20
mm as shown in Fig. 11.17(b).
IS : 456–1978 recommends above four arrangements to ensure that the concrete in core is
adequately confined. In case the columns are overloaded, it results in ductile behaviour.
3. Later ties. IS : 456–1978 specifies pitch and diameter of the steel bars provided as
transverse reinforcement as under :
(i) Pitch. The pitch (spacing) of transverse reinforcement shall be not more than the least
of the following distances :
(a) The least lateral dimension of the compression member, viz.,
p >/ b ...(i)
(b) Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied,
viz.,
p >/ 16. φmin ...(ii)
(c) Forty-eight times the diameter transverse reinforcement
p >/ 48 . φtr ...(iii)
(ii) Diameter. The diameter of the polygonal links or laternal ties shall be not less than one-
fourth of the diameter of largest longitudinal bar (viz., φtr </ 0.25 φmin) and in no case less than
5 mm.
11.13.3 Spirals (Helix)

IS : 456–1978 specifies pitch and diameter of steel bars provided as spirals (Helixs) as below:
The helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the turns of helix spaced evenly
and its ends shall be anchored properly by providing one and a half extra turns of the spiral
bars when the spiral reinforcement satisfy the condition specified by IS : 456–1978 and described
in Art. 11.12 and inequality expression by Eq. 11.11.
(i) Pitch. When an increased load the reinforced column on the strength of the helical
reinforcement is allowed for, the pitch (spacing), p of helical turns shall satisfy also the following
requirement.
1. The pitch, p shall be not more than 75 mm viz.,
p >/ 75 mm ...(i)
1
2. The pitch, p shall not be more than th of the core diameter of the column, viz.,
6
1
p >/ ⋅ Dcore ...(ii)
6
3. The pitch, p shall not be less than 25 mm, viz.,
p </ 25 mm ...(iii)
4. The pitch shall not be less than three times the diameter of the steel bar forming the
helix, viz.,
P </ 3 . φhelical ...(iv)
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1
(ii) Diameter. The diameter of helical reinforcement shall not be less than th of the
4
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar viz.,
φhelical </ 0.25, φmin
and in no way less than 5 mm.
The purpose of links is mainly to avoid the outward buckling of the longitudinal steel bars.
The diameter and pitch (spacing) of the transverse reinforcement are therefore related to the
diameter of the longitudinal bars. The minimum diameter is specified as one-quarter of that of
the largest longitudinal bar, but the minimum size of steel bar in IS : 456–1978 is 5 mm. The
smaller size of links fail to hold the main longitudinal bars securely, and may themselves be
pushed out of shape in the process of concreting.
11.14 ASSUMPTIONS
The design for the limit state of collapse in compression shall be based on the following
assumptions :
The assumptions for design for the limit state of collapse in flexure have been described in
Art. 3.2. The assumptions 1, 3, 4 and 5 for the flexural members are also applicable for the
members subjected to combined axial load and bending.
The assumption 2 that the maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre
for the member in flexure is 0.0035 is also applicable when the neutral axis lies within the
section and in the limiting case when the neutral axis lies along the edge of section ; in the later
case, the strain varies from 0.0035 at the highly compressed edge to zero at opposite edge as
shown in Fig. 11.18 (b).
In addition to above assumptions, the following assumptions are assumed for the design for
the limit state of collapse in compression : as per IS : 456–1978 :
H igh ly com pressed 0 .00 35

e dg e 0 .00 35 ε
b
i th ro w 3
7D
Xu
D
Xu
N e utral
4
7D
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te colu m n (b ) N e utral axis w ith in section N e utral

AB = εC B a xis
ε = (0.00 35 – 0 .75 εC B )
(c) N e utral axis ou tsid e se ctio n
Fig. 11.18 Strain distribution diagram for combined axial load and uniaxial bending
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1. The maximum compressive strain in concrete in purely axial compression is assumed to

be uniformly equal to 0.0020 across the section.
2. The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the section shall
be 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎤
The strain distribution lines for these two cases intersect each other at a depth of ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ D ⎥
⎣⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎦
from the highly compressed edge. This point is assumed to act as a fulcrum for the strain
distribution line when the neutral axis lies outside the section as shown in Fig. 11.18 (c). This
leads to above stated second assumption.
11.15 STRENGTH OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMNS AND

COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH LATERAL TIES
The strength of axially loaded columns and compression members is the load carrying capacity
(viz., ultimate loads) for such members. The strength of short columns and compression members
are as below.
The strength of short columns with lateral ties is the sum of the concrete contribution and
the steel contribution. The concrete and the steel work together and the overall capacity of the
column is the sum of strength of the individual material capacities. The axial load, Pcu on
pedestal or short column reinforced with longitudinal bars and lateral ties shall be that given
by the following expression
Pcu = fcc . Ac + fsc . Asc ...(11.10)
where fcc = permissible stress in concrete in direct compression
Ac = cross-sectional area of concrete excluding any finishing and reinforcing steel
Ac = (Ag – Asc)
Ag = Gross-cross-sectional area of the column excluding any finishing material
fx = permissible compressive stress for column bars, and
Asc = cross-sectional area of the longitudinal steel bars for columns
Provided as reinforcement
Pcu = axial ultimate load in compression
The strain distribution across the column cross-section will be as shown in Fig. 11.18. At
failure, the strain across the column section is 0.0020 uniform. Stress in concrete
⎛ 0.67 ⎞
fcc = ⎜ ⎟ . fck ...(i)
⎝ γ ms ⎠
The partial safety factor for material (concrete) strength is 1.5.
⎛ 0.76 ⎞
fcc = ⎜ ⎟ . fck ...(ii)
⎝ 1.5 ⎠
fcc = 0.45 . fck ...(iii)
In the case of mild steel bars provided as reinforcement, the full design stress may develop
when the strain in concrete attains its limiting value of 0.0200.
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Stresses in mild steel bars

⎡ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = (0.87 fy )⎥
⎢⎣⎝ γms ⎠ ⎝ 1.15 ⎠ ⎥⎦
fcc = 0.87fy . Asc
fcc = (0.45 fck . Ac + 0.87 fy . Asc) ...(11.11a)
Stresses in high strength deformed bars. However, when high strength deformed bars
(viz., cold twisted steel bars) with characteristic yield strength, fy = 415 N/mm2 are provided as
reinforcement, the full design stress will not develop at a strain of 0.002. The stress in Hysd
steel bars may be read from its stress-strain diagram.
Stress in steel bars
⎛ 0.85 ⎞
fsc = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ fy ...(iv)
⎝ γms ⎠
The partial safety factor for material (steel) strength is 1.15
⎛ 0.85 ⎞
fsc = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ fy ...(v)
⎝ γms ⎠
fsc = 0.74 . fy ...(vi)
Substituting the values of fcc and fsc in Eq 11.10, the ultimate load carrying capacity of
member subjected to only axial compressive load
Pcu = (0.45 fck . Ac+ 0.14 fy . Asc) ...(11.11b)
IS : 456–1978 recommends the ultimate load carrying capacity of member by reducing this
capacity by approximately ten percent, that is, the capacity is considered, that is, the capacity is
considered by taking the assumptions and the minimum eccentricity. The value of the minimum
⎡⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
eccentricity calculated from e min= ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ is less than or equal to 0.50 D. When the
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
minimum eccentricity does not exceed 0.05 times D, IS : 456–1978 recommends that as a
simplification following equation may be used for the ultimate load carrying capacity in compress
as below
For mild steel bars
Pcu = (0.4 fck . Ac + 0.77 fy . Asc) ...(11.12a)
For Hysd steel bars
Pcu = (0.4 fck . Ac + 0.67 fy . Asc) ...(11.12b)
In case the minimum eccentricity is more than 0.05 times D, the columns and compression
members may be designed for combined axial load and bending.
In case, percentage of steel reinforcement p = (100 Asc/Ag) is used, then Eq. 11.12 may be
written as under :
For mild steel bars
⎡ ⎛ p ⋅ Ag ⎞ ⎛ p ⋅ Ag ⎞⎤
pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⎜ Ag − ⎟ + 0.77 fy ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(viia)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
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For Hysd steel bars

⎡ ⎛ p ⋅ Ag ⎞ ⎛ p ⋅ Ag ⎞⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⎜ Ag − ⎟ + 0.67 fy ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ... (viib)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
where
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of the column.
And dividing both the sides of expression (vii).
For mild steel bars
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢0.4 fck ⎜1 − ⎟ + 0.77 fy ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ Ag ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ p ⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢0.4 fck + + (0.77 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥ ...(11.13a)
⎝ Ag ⎠ ⎣ 100 ⎦
For Hysd steel bars
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢0.4 fck ⎜1 − ⎟ + 0.67 fy ⋅ ⎜ 100 ⎟ ⎥
A
⎝ g⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜⎜
A
⎟⎟ = ⎢0.4 fck + ⎜
100 ⎟ (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥ ...(11.13b)
⎝ g⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
For rectangular column section
Gross cross-sectional area
Ag = b . D
Therefore,
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ + (0.77 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥ ...(11.14a)
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
For rectangular column section
Gross cross-sectional area of column
Ag = b . D
Therefore,
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ + (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥ ...(11.14b)
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
For circular column section
Gross cross-sectional area of column
π 2
Ag = ⋅D
4
Therefore,
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ = ⎢ 0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ (0.77 fy − 0.4 fck ) ⎥ ...(11.15a)
πD 2 ⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎜ fck ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
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For circular column section

Grass cross-sectional area of column
π 2
Ag = ⋅D
4
Therefore,
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ 2⎟
= ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck ) ⎥ ...(11.15b)
πD ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜ fck ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
British code of practice CP: 110 also still allows the use of mild steel reinforcement in the
columns.
Professors Kong F.K. and Evans, R.H [‘Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete’, published by
English Language Book Society and Van Nostrand Reinhold (U.K) Co. Ltd. 1983 reprinted
edition (pp 73)] suggested that, if at all possible, high yield strength deformed bars should be
used ; the columns reinforced with mild steel bars tend to collapse without warning when the
steel bars yield.
It is to note that the classification of short columns avoids superfluous calculations of moment
due to additional at eccentricity. It will be seen that in case, the additional eccentricities in
short columns are calculated, these shall be nearly always less than the minimum of 0.05 D.
11.16 STRENGTH OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMNS AND COMPRESSION

MEMBERS WITH HELICAL (SPIRAL) REINFORCEMENT
The ultimate load for columns with helical (viz., spiral) reinforcement shall be 1.05 times the
ultimate load for similar short column with lateral ties or rings (viz., five percent additional
load) provided the following condition as expressed below is satisfied.
Vh ⎡⎛ Ag ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ fck ⎞
<| 0.36 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(11.16)
Vcore ⎢⎣⎝ Ac ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ fy ⎠
where Vh = volume of helical reinforcement per 1 mm length
Vcore = volume of the core of concrete per 1 mm length
Circumferential length × Cross-sectional area of spiral
Vh =
Pitch of spiral wire (spacing)
⎛ π ⋅ dc ⋅ Asp ⎞
∴ Vh = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ p ⎠
⎡ π ⋅ (D
core )2 ⋅1⎤⎥
Vcore = ⎢ ...(ii)
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
where Dcore = diameter of core measured outside to outside of the spiral (helix)
dc = centre-line diameter of spiral
p = pitch of the spiral
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The volumetric ratio (viz., the ratio of volume of helix/spiral steel to the volume of core
concrete
⎛ Vh ⎞ ⎛ π ⋅ dc ⋅ Asp 4 ⎞
ρs = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜ × 2⎟ ....(iii)
core ⎝ p π ⋅ ( Dcore ) ⎠
Professors F.E. Richhart, A. Brandzaeg and R.L. Brown in their papers titled as ‘A Study of
the Failure of Concrete under Combined Stresses’ University of Ill. Eng. Exp. Stn. Bull. 185,
November 1928 and ‘the failure of plain and spirally reinforced concrete in compression’
University of Ill. Eng. Exp. Stn. Bull. 190, April 1929 and Professors S. Martinez, A.H. Nilson
and F.E. Slate. In their paper titled as spirally reinforced high strength concrete columns’,
Journal of ACI, Vol. 81, No. 5 September/October 1984 found that the increase in compressive
strength of the core of concrete in column providing by confining effect of spiral steel is closely
represented by the expression,
σ*c – 0.85 fck = 4.0 σ2´ ...(iv)
where σc* = compressive strength of spirally confined core concrete
0.85 fck = compressive strength of concrete if unconfined
σ 2´ = lateral confinement stress in core concrete produced by spiral
It is assumed that the spiral steel reaches its yield stress fy when the column eventually fails.
By having analysis of hoop tension of an idealised model of a short segment of column continued
by one turn of lateral steel, the confinement stress σ2´ is calculated. Therefore,
⎛ 2 Asp ⋅ fy ⎞
σ 2´ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ dc ⋅ p ⎠
⎛ ρs ⋅ dc ⋅ p ⎞
Asp = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ ρs ⋅ fy ⎞
σ 2´ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ 2 ⎠
In order to determine the right quantity of spiral steel, the strength contribution of the shell
is calculated. It will be equal to
= 0.85 fck . Ag – Ac
where Ag = gross area of the section of column
⎡⎛ π ⎞ D 2 ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎦⎥
Ac = area of concrete of helically reinforced column
2
⎡⎛ π ⎞ Dcore ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎥⎦
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The gain in strength provided by the spiral should be atleast be equal to that lost when the
shell (thin outside cover of concrete), spalls. The strength provided by the spiral is equal to
= (2ρs . fy . Ac) ...(viii)
By combining (vii) and (viii)
0.85 fck . (Ag – Ac) = 2ρs . fy . Ac ...(ix)
From which
⎛ As ⎞ f
ρs <| 0.425 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ ⋅ ck ...(x)
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
As per ACI Code, this result is rounded upward slightly and ACI Code recommends that ρs
shall be not less than
⎛A ⎞ f
ρs <| 0.45 ⎜ s − 1⎟ ck ...(xi)
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
IS : 456–1978 specifies inequality as in Eq. 11.16.
Above criterion (Eq 11.16) of minimum volume of helical reinforcement is to ensure that the
additional load is carried by the column when the helical reinforcement yields after the spalling
of the shell concrete, just exceeds the yield load of the column before spalling.
In obtaining the cross-sectional area of minimum helical reinforcement, the partial safety
factors γms for the strength of the materials have not been introduced because a more severe
condition would arise when the actual strengths of concrete and steel are equal to the respective
characteristic strength.
Professors Park. R and Paulary, T [‘Reinforced Concrete Structures’, 1975, John Wiley and
Sons, New York] have established from experimental results that the volume of steel in helical
reinforcement is approximately twice as effective as the same volume of longitudinal steel in
contributing to the strength of column.
The limit on the ratio of the volume of helical reinforcement to the volume of the core
recommended in IS : 456–1978 is based on this concept.
The characteristic strength of helical reinforcement is limited to 415 N/mm2. This is to limit
the crack width and also it becomes difficult to bend higher grades helically or they may get
damaged during fabrication.
The strength of short columns with helical (spiral) reinforcement is the sum of the concrete
contribution, contribution of steel bars provided as longitudinal reinforcement contribution of
helical (spiral) reinforcement. The concrete and the steel act together and the overall capacity
of the column is the sum of the individual material capacities. The axial load pcu for short
column reinforced with longitudinal bars and helical (spiral) reinforcement shall be that given
by the following expression.
Pcu = (fcc . Ac + fsc . Asc + ksp . fsp . Asp) ...(i)
⎛ 0.67 ⎞ ⎛ 0.85 ⎞
Pcu = ⎜ ⎟ fck . Ac + ⎜ 1.15 ⎟ . fy . Asc + ksp .fsp . Asp ...(ii)
⎝ 1.5 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Pcu = [(0.45 fck . Ac + 0.74 fy . Asc)] + ksp .fsp . Asp ...(iii)
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From Eq. 11.12, the load carrying capacity of short column with lateral ties
Pcu = (with lateral ties) = (0.4fck + 0.67fy . Asc) ...(iv)
Therefore, the load carrying capacity of short column with helical reinforcement
Pcu = (with helical reinf)
= Pcu (with lateral ties) + k sp . fsp . Asp (Additional capacity) ... (v)
where ksp = a constant
= value (1.5 to 2.5)
fsp = characteristic strength of helical reinforcement
Asp = cross-sectional area of helical reinforcement
Example 11.1 A square reinforced concrete axially loaded column is 450 mm × 450 mm in
size. The effective length of column is 4.5 m. 8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter are provided for the
longitudinal reinforcement. The lateral ties 6 mm have been provided at appropriate spacing.
Determine the strength of column. The grade of concrete is M 20 and the quality of steel is
Hysd Fe 415.
Solution. Step 1. Geometrical properties of column. The effective length of column is
4.5 m. The size of square column is 450 × 450 mm.
Gross-area of concrete in column
Ag = 450 × 450 = 202500 mm2 ...(i)
Cross-sectional area of steel bars provided as longitudinal reinforcement
π
Asc = 8 × × 182 = 2035.75 mm2 ...(ii)
4
Area of concrete in column
Ac = (Ag – Asc)
= (202500 – 2035.75) mm2
= 200464.25 mm2 ...(iii)
Step 2. Slenderness ratio
Ratio of the effective length of column to least lateral dimension (viz., slenderness ratio)
4.5 × 1000
λ = = 10 < 12 ...(iv)
450
The column is a short column.
Step 3. Ultimate load carrying capacity of column
Minimum eccentricity of the column
⎛ l D⎞
e min = ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 4500 450 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 24 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
0.05 × D = 0.05 × 450 = 22.5 mm
It is assumed that the column is a laterally tied column and the minimum eccentricity is not
more than 0.05 times the lateral dimension.
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Strength of column (ultimate load carrying capacity in compression) from Eq. 11.14 (b)
⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⋅ bD + ⎜ ⋅ bD ⎟ (0.67fy – 0.4 fck )⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦
Pcu = [0.4 fck .bD – Asc . (0.4 fck ) + 0.67 fy . Asc]
⎛ p ⎞
since ⎜ ⋅ bD = Asc ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
Pcu = [0.4 fck (bD – Asc) + 0.67 fy Asc]
Pcu = [(0.4 fck . Ac + 0.67 fy . Asc)]
⎡⎛ 0.4 × 20 × 200464.25 ⎞ ⎛ 0.67 ×415 × 2035.75 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
Pcu = [(1603.714 + 566.040)] = 2169.754 kN.
Example 11.2 In case the column is a circular column having 450 mm diameter in Example
11.1, determine the strength of the column.
Solution
Step 1. Geometrical properties of column
Gross area of circular column
π π
Ag = × D 2 = × 4502 mm2
4 4
= 159043.13 mm2 ...(i)
From Example 11.1, cross-sectional area of steel bars provided as longitudinal reinforcement
Asc = 2035.75 mm2 ...(ii)
Area of concrete in column
Ac = (159043.13 – 2035.75) mm2
= 157007.38 mm2 ...(iii)
From Example 11.1, it is seen that the column is a short column. The transverse reinforcement
is provided as lateral ties with appropriate spacing.
Minimum eccentricity
⎛ l D⎞
e min = ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 4500 450 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 24 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
0.05 × D = 0.05 × 450 = 22.5 mm
e min is practically equal to 0.05 times D.
It is assumed that the minimum eccentricity is not more than 0.05 times the lateral dimension.
Strength of column (ultimate load carrying capacity in compression) from Eq. 11.15 (b)
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⎡ πD 2 p πD 2 ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck + ⋅ + (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥
⎣⎢ 4 100 4 ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ πD 2 p πD 2 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⎜⎜ − ⋅ ⎟⎟ + 0.67 fy ⋅ Asc ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 100 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Pcu = [(0.4 fck . Ac + 0.67 fy . Asc)]
⎡⎛ 0.4 × 20 × 157007.38 ⎞ ⎛ 0.67 ×415 × 2035.75 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
Pcu = [(1256.059 + 566.040)] = 1822.10 kN.
Example 11.3. A circular reinforced concrete column is 450 mm in diameter. The effective
length of column is 4.50 m. 8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter are provided for the longitudinal
reinforcement. The spiral bars of 8 mm diameter are provided at 60 mm pitch (spacing). Determine
the ultimate load carrying capacity of the column. The grade of concrete is M 20 and the
quality of steel is Hysd Fe 415. The clear cover of concrete over main reinforcement is 50 mm.
Solution
The effective length of column is 4.50 m. The diameter of circular column is 450 mm.
Gross-area of concrete in column
π
As = × 4502 = 159043.13 mm2 ...(i)
4
Cross-sectional area of steel bars provided as longitudinal reinforcement
π
Asc = 8 × × 182 = 2035.75 mm2 ...(ii)
4
Area of concrete in the column
Ac = (Ag – Ac)
= (159043.13 – 2035.75) mm2
= 157007.38 mm2 ...(iii)
Ratio of the effective length of column to its least lateral dimension
leff 4.5 × 1000
= = 10 < 12
b 450
⎛ l D⎞
e min = ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
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⎛ 4500 450 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 24 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
0.05 × D = (0.05 × 450) = 22.5 mm
Strength of column (ultimate load carrying capacity in compression) in case the column is
having lateral ties at appropriate spacing from Eq. 11.15 (b).
⎡ πD 2 p πD 2 ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⋅ + ⋅ + (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥
⎣⎢ 4 100 4 ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ πD 2 p πD 2 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.4 fck ⋅ ⎜⎜ − ⋅ ⎟⎟ + (0.67 fy ⋅ Asc )⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 100 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Pcu = [(0.4 fck . Ac) + 0.67 fy . Asc]
⎡⎛ 0.4 × 20 × 157007.38 ⎞ ⎛ 0.67 ×415 × 2035.75 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
Pcu = [1256.059 + 566.40] = 1822.10 kN
⎛ Vh ⎞
Step 4. Check for ratio of ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Vc ⎠
The spirals of 8 mm diameter are used as the transverse reinforcement at 60 mm pitch
(spacing). The clear cover of concrete over main reinforcement is 50 mm core diameter of column,
Fig. 11.13 (c) (distance measured outside to outside of spiral).
D.core = (Diameter of column – 2 × clear cover of concrete
+ 2 × diameter of spiral bars)
D.core = (450 – 2 × 50 + 2 × 8) = 366 mm2
Gross-area of concrete of the column
Ag = 159043.13 mm2
Area of core of helically reinforced column
π
Ac = × 3662 = 105208.8 mm2
4
dc = (366 – 2 × 4) = 358 mm
Volume of helically reinforcement per 1 mm length of column
π 2
πdc ⋅ × fhelix
Vh = 4
p
⎛ π× 358 π 2 ⎞
Vh = ⎜ × × 8 ⎟ mm3/mm
⎝ 60 4 ⎠
= 942.22 mm3/mm
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Volume of core of the concrete of column per 1 mm length

π
V.core = × 3662 × 1 mm3/mm
4
= 105208.8 mm3/mm
From Eq. 11.16, the volumetric ratio
Vh ⎡A ⎤ f
</ 0.36 ⎢ g − 1⎥ ⋅ ck
V .core ⎣ Ac ⎦ fy
942.22 ⎡159043.13 ⎤ 20
or </ 0.36 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⋅
105208.8 ⎣ 105208.8 ⎦ 415
or 0.008954 </ 0.008883
The left side, is not less than right side. Therefore, the requirement of inequality stated
above is satisfied. The load carrying capacity of column (viz., strength is increased by 5 percent).
As such as per IS : 456–1978 strength of column (ultimate load carrying capacity in compression)
having helical (spiral) reinforcement.
Pcu = 1.05 times strength of column having lateral ties
Pcu = (0.05 × 1822.10) = 1913.21 kN
Example 11.4. A 400 × 200 mm rectangular concrete column is reinforced with 20 mm
diameter 8 steel bars. The effective length of column is 2.20 m. The lateral ties of 8 mm diameter
have been provided as transverse reinforcement appropriate spacing. Determine the ultimate
load carrying capacity of the column. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe
415 shall be used.
Solution
Gross area of concrete of the column
Ac = 400 × 200 = 80000 mm2 ...(i)
Cross-sectional area of steel bars provided for the longitudinal reinforcement
π
4 = 8× × 202 = 2513.27 mm2 ...(ii)
4
Area of the concrete of the column
Ac = (Ac – Asc)
or Ac = (80000 – 2513.27) mm2
= 77486.73 mm2 ...(iii)
The effective length of column in 2.20 m ratio
leff 2.2 × 1000
= = 11 < 12
b 200
leff 2.2 × 1000
= = 5.5 < 12
D 400
The column is a short-column.
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Minimum accentricity
⎛ l D⎞
e min = ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 2200 400 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 17.73 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
0.05 × D = (0.05 × 400) = 20 mm
Strength of column (Ultimate load carrying capacity in compression) having lateral ties
Pcu = [0.4 fck . Ac + 0.67 fy . Asc]
⎡⎛ 0.4 × 20 ×80000 ⎞ ⎛ 0.67 × 415 × 2513.27 ⎞ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
Pcu = [(640 + 698.815)]
= 1338.815 kN
11.17 DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

AND COMPRESSION MEMBER
An axially loaded reinforced concrete column or a compression member is designed for the
given load, actual length of the member and its restraint conditions at its two ends. The shape
of column or compression member (square, rectangular, circular, polygonal or any other) is
decided from the architectural requirements. Usually M 15 and M 20 grades of the concrete are
used. The steel bars used as longitudinal reinforcement and transverse reinforcement (mild
steel bars) conform to grade I of IS : 432 (Part I) 1966 or deformed mild steel bars conform to
IS : 1139–1966, or medium tensile steel conform to IS : 432 (Part I) 1966 or deformed medium
tensile steel bars conforming to IS : 1139–1966 or high yield strength deformed bars conforming
to IS : 1139–1966 or IS : 1786–1679 are used.
Whether the column shall be short or long (viz., slender) is decided after knowing the gross
cross-sectional area of the column and its respective dimensions. The gross cross-sectional are
Ag, the area of concrete, Ac and the cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement are
determined by assuming that the column shall be short as follows.
Step 1. Size of column
The design of reinforced concrete short columns is based on the empirical equation (as below).
This equation, and indeed the complete range of knowledge of column behaviour are based on
many tests [Reference: ACI—ASCE committee 441, ‘Reinforced Concrete Columns’, ACI
Bibliography No. 5, American Concrete Institute, 1965, (pp : 122) and ACI - ASCE committee
441, ‘Reinforced Concrete Columns’, SP : 50, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1975, (pp:
313)] carried out during the past half a century or so. The factored axial ultimate load of
column may be equated to the ultimated load carrying capacity of column
Pcu.Fd = (fcc . Ac + fsc . Asc) ...(i)
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Expression (i) is modified by the introduction of partial safety factor for the strength of
materials, rms for the ultimate limit state of collapse in compression are 1.5 and 1.15 for concrete
and reinforcement, respectively. Therefore
⎡⎛ 0.67 ⎞ ⎛ fy ⎞ ⎤
Pcu . Fd = ⎢⎜ ⎟ fck ⋅ Ac + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ Asc ⎥ ...(ii)
⎣⎢⎝ 1.5 ⎠ ⎝ 1.15 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Pcu . Fd = [0.45 fck . Ac + (0.78 . Fy . Asc)] ...(iii)
The design strength in compression for the reinforcement permits for the tendency to buckle
at high stresses. The expression (iii) for the ultimate limit state therefore becomes as under for
Hysd steel
Pcu . Fd = [0.45 fck . Ac + 0.74 .fy . Asc ] ...(iv)
To permit for eccentricity of loading due to construction tolerance IS : 456–1978 recommends
that the ultimate load carrying capacity of the member may be reduced approximately ten
percent. Also British Code of Practice recommends that the ultimate axial load be reduced to
about 90 percent. There, the expression (iv) may be written as follows.
Pcu . Fd = [(0.4 fck . Ac) + (0.67 .fy . Asc)] ...(v)
where
fck = characteristic strength of concrete
Ac = area of concrete
= (Ag – Asc)
Ag = gross area of column cross-section
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement
Asc = cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement
The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement may be expressed as percentage, p of
the gross area of the column
⎛A ⎞
p = 100 ⎜ sc ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ Ag ⎠
p
Asc = ⋅ Ag ...(vii)
100
Therefore,
Pcu. Fd = [(0.4 fck . Ag . Asc) + 0.67 fy . Asc]
⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
Pcu. Fd = ⎢0.4 fck ⋅ ⎜ Ag − ⋅ A g ⎟ + (0.67 fy ) ⎜ A
⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ g ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
Pcu. Fd = Ag ⎢0.4 fck ⎜1 − + (0.67 fy )⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎦
⎡ Pcu⋅ Fd ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ ...(viii)
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎢ 0.4 fck ⎜1 − ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ (0.67 fy ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥
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The percentage area of longitudinal reinforcement, p may be assumed and the gross area of
the column cross-section may be determined from the expression (viii).
For rectangular column of size b × D
Gross area of column
b . D = Ag ...(ix)
The breadth of column may be assumed either as per architectural need or in suitable
proportion to the overall depth of column, D and therefore, the size of column becomes known.
For square column of size a × a
a × a = Ag
a = (A g) 1/2 ...(x)
The calculated size axa may be round off to suitable size.
Circular column of diameter, D
π
× D2 = Ag ...(xi)
4
The diameter of column, D may be calculated and suitably round off.
After finalising the shape and dimensions of the reinforced concrete column, both the
⎛l ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
slenderness ratios ⎜ ex ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ are calculated. In case, both these slenderness ratios are
⎝D⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
less than 12, the designed cross-sectional dimensions of the column will be those for the short
column and satisfactory.
Step 3. Minimum eccentricity
Knowing the dimensions of column, and the effective length, the minimum eccentricity, e min
⎡⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
is calculated as ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ . The expression (viii) for determining the gross cross-sectional
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
area of the reinforced concrete column shall be applicable in case, the minimum eccentricity,
e min does not exceed 0.05 times the lateral dimensions.
Where the calculated eccentricity is larger than the minimum eccentricity, the actual
eccentricity shall be considered and the column shall be design for that subjected to axial load
and uniaxial/biaxial bending as the case may be.
Step 4. Longitudinal reinforcement
The percentage of steel used should be within the minimum and maximum percentages
specified by IS : 456–1978 and described in longitudinal reinforcement is then calculated as
under :
Asc = p . Ag ...(xii)
The diameter of longitudinal steel bars shall not be less than 12 mm and number of these
bars shall be such that it satisfies the requirements specified. These bars are arranged as
advised in IS : 456–1978.
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Step 5. Transverse reinforcement

The transverse reinforcement either lateral ties or spirals shall be provided and arranged as
described in Art. 11.13. The diameter of transverse reinforcement steel bars, their pitch (spacing)
and the arrangement shall be such as to satisfy the requirements specified in IS : 456–1978
and described in Art. 11.13.
The complete drawing for the size of reinforced concrete column shall be prepared and the
details of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements shall be shown.
Example 11.5 Design a square reinforced concrete axially loaded column to carry an axial
load of 1200 kN including dead load, live load and self-weight. The column shall remain
continuous through reinforced concrete beam and slab floors at both the ends. Provide M 20
grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415. The clear height between the floor and
soffit of shallow beam is 6.0 m.
Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be provided.
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(i)
Characteristic strength of steel bars
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Characteristic load for the column
P = 1200 kN
Factored load for the column
Pcu.Fd = (15 × 1200) = 1800 kN ...(iii)
Step 1. Size of the column
Let the percentage of steel in expression for longitudinal reinforcement be one per cent.
Then p = 0.01. The gross cross-sectional area of concrete, Ag needed (from the expression (viii),
Art. 11.17)
⎡ Pcu⋅ Fd ⎤ 2
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎢ 0.4 fck ⎜1 − + (0.67 fy ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ 1800 × 1000 ⎤ 2
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ 0.4 × 20 × ⎜1 − + (0.67 × 415) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 1800 × 1000 ⎤
2
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ (0.4 × 20 × 0.99) + (0.67 × 4.15) ⎦
⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ag = ⎜1800 ×
⎝ 10.7 ⎟⎠
= 168216.44 mm2
Let a be the size of square column
a = 410.142 mm
Size of square column shall be 450 mm × 450 mm.
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Step 2. Slenderness ratio of column

Since, the column remains continuous through beam and slab floors at both the ends, the
column may be considered as restrained in position and direction both. The unsupported length
of column, l is the clear height between the floor and soffit of the shallow beam, (viz., l = 60 m).
Therefore, the effective length of column
leff = 0.65 × l
or leff = 0.65 × 6000 = 3900 mm
Ratio of the effective length to least lateral dimension
3900
= 8.667 < 12.
455
⎡⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
e min = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3900 ⎞ ⎛ 450 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 22.8 mm
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
0.05 × D = (0.05 × 450) = 22.5 mm
The minimum eccentricity and 005 times lateral dimension are practically equal.
The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement has been assumed as one per cent.
Therefore
⎛ 1 ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × 168216.44 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= 1682.164 mm 2
Let the diameter of steel bars beyond Hysd Fe 415 be 418 mm. The cross-sectional area of
one bar
π
Aφ = × 182 = 254.469 mm2
4
Number of bars needed
⎛ 1682.164 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 6.61
⎝ 254.469 ⎠
8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter of quality Hysd grade Fe 415 shall be provided for the
longitudinal reinforcement with clear concrete cover as 40 mm as shown in Fig. 11.19, centre
to centre distance between the main bars at corners (let φtr be 8 mm)
= 450 – 2 × 40 – 2 × 9) = 352 mm
< [48 × φtr = (48 × 8) = 384 mm]
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L on gitud in al re in force m en t
8 ba rs -1 8 m m φ H ysd
P itch
(spa chin g )
2 80 m m
L on gitud in al
re in force m en t 2 80 m m
L ate ra l
ties
(a ) E levatio n
8 m m La teral tie s
4 8 φtr
4 50 m m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 11.19

Let the lateral ties of 8 mm diameter shall be provided as transverse reinforcement shall be
arranged as shown in Fig. 11.19 (b).
Pitch of lateral ties
Least lateral dimension of the column
b = 450 mm
16 times diameter of longitudinal steel bar
= (16 × 18) = 288 mm
48 times diameter of lateral ties
= 48 × 8 = 384 mm.
The pitch of transverse reinforcement shall not be more than the least of three above.
Therefore, pitch of lateral ties shall be 280 mm centre to centre along the height of column.
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Example 11.6 Design a circular concrete axially load column in Example 11.5. Provide
spiral reinforcement.
Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be provided.
fck = 20 N/mm2 ... (i)
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Characteristic load for the column
P = 1200 kN
Factored load for the column
Pcu.Fd = (1.5 × 1200) = 1800 kN ...(iii)
Let the percentage of steel in compression for longitudinal reinforcement be one-percent.
Then, p = 0.01. The gross-sectional area of concrete, Ag needed (from the expression (viii),
Art. 11.17).
⎡ Pcu⋅ Fd ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ ...(iv)
p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎢ 0.4 fck ⎛⎜1 − ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (0.67 fy ) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
The factored load over the column with spiral reinforcement is 1800 kN. It is assumed that
the ratio of volume of helical reinforcement for 1 mm length of the column to the volume of core
of the concrete of column per 1 mm length is not less than
⎡⎛ Ag ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ fck ⎞
0.36 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎢⎣⎝ Ac ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ fy ⎠
Then, the axial load for short column
1800
p = = 1714.286 kN
1.05
From the expression (iv)
⎡ 1714.286 × 1000 ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ 0.4 × 20 × ⎜1 − ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (0.67 × 415) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 1714.286 × 1000 2 ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣ (0.4 ×20 ×0.99) + (0.67 ×415) ⎦
⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ag = ⎜1714.286 × = 160213.62 mm2
⎝ 10.7 ⎟⎠
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Let D be the diameter of circular column.

π
× D2 = 160213.62 mm2
4
D = 451.653 mm (say 500 mm)
⎡⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
e min = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3900 ⎞ ⎛ 500 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 24.46 mm
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
0.05 × D = (0.05 × 500) = 25 mm
Minimum eccentricity e min is not more than 0.05 times lateral dimension.
The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement has been assumed as one percent.
Therefore
⎛ 1 ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × 160213.62 ⎟ = 1602.136 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
Let the diameter of steel bars Hysd Fe 415 be 18 mm. The cross-sectional area of one bar
π
Aφ = × 182 = 254.469 mm2
4
⎛ 1602.136 ⎞
Number of bars = ⎜ ⎟ = 62.96
⎝ 254.469 ⎠
8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter of Hysd steel of grade Fe 415 shall be provided for the
longitudinal reinforcement with clear concrete cover 60 mm as shown in Fig. 11.20 equally
and uniformly distributed over the periphery of circular column.
The spiral of 8 mm diameter are used as the transverse reinforcement at 40 mm pitch (spacing).
The clear cover of concrete over main reinforcement is 60 mm. Core diameter of column, Fig. 11.20
(b).
Dcore = (500 – 2 × 60 + 2 × 8) = 396 mm2
Pitch of spirals. The pitch of spiral should be less than equal to the following :
p ≤ 75 mm
1
p ≤ × core diameter
6
⎛1 ⎞
≤ ⎜ × 396 = 66 mm ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
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L on gitud in al re in force me nt
8 bra s - 1 8 m m φ H ysd
P itch
(spa cing )
L on gitud in al 40 m m
re in force cm e nt
40 m m
S p ira ls
(H e lix)
(a ) E levatio n
8 m m φ spirals
(h elix)
D = 50 0 m m
D co re
C le a r cover
60 m m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 11.20
So also, the pitch of spirals should be more than or equal to the following:
p ≥ 25 mm
≥ (3 × φhelix)
≥ (3 × 8 = 24 mm)
Hence, the pitch of spiral is adopted as 40 mm, which satisfies all the four above specified
requirements for the pitch.
Check for volumetric ratio
Gross area of concrete of the column
π
Ag = × 5002 = 196349.54 mm2
4
π
Asc = 8 × × 182 = 2035.75 mm2
4
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Area of core of helically reinforced column

π
Ac = × 3962 = 123163.0 mm2
4
dc = (396 – 2 × 4) = 388 mm
Volume of helical reinforcement per 1 mm length of column
π 2
π dc ⋅ ⋅f
Vh = 4 helix
p
⎛ π × 388 π 2 ⎞
Vh = ⎜ × × 8 ⎟ mm2/mm
⎝ 40 4 ⎠
2
= 1531.76 mm /mm
Volume of core of the concrete of column per 1 mm length
π
Vcore = × 3962 = 123163.0 mm2/mm
4
Volumetric ratio
Vh ⎡ Ag ⎤ f
<| ⎢ − 1⎥ ⋅ ck
V .core ⎣ Ac ⎦ fy
1531.76 ⎡196349.54 ⎤ 20
<| 0.36 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⋅
123163.0 ⎣ 123163.0 ⎦ 415
0.124 <| 0.36 [0.594] × 0.0482
0.0124 <| 0.0103. (As assumed)
The details of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement are shown in Fig. 11.20.
Example 11.7. Design of a rectangular reinforced concrete column to carry on axial load of
1000 kN. The actual length of column is 5.80 m. The column is restrained in position and
direction at its both the ends. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are to
be used. Adopt the permissible stresses in direct compression for concrete and steel as specified
in IS : 456–1978.
Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are to be used.
fck = 20 N/mm2 ...(i)
fy = 415 N/mm2 ...(ii)
Characteristic axial load
= 1000 kN ...(iii)
Factored axial load in compression
Pcu.Fd = (1.5 × 1000) = 1500 kN ...(iv)
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Let the percentage of steel in compression for longitudinal reinforcement be one-percent.
Then, p = 0.01. The gross-sectional area of concrete, Au needed (from the expression (viii), Art.
11.17).
⎡ Pcu⋅ Fd ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥
p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
⎢ 0.4 fck ⎛⎜1 − ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (0.67 fy ) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 1500 × 1000 ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ 0.4 × 20 × ⎜1 − + ⋅ (0.67 × 415) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ 1500 × 1000 ⎤
Ag = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (0.4 ×20 ×0.99) + (0.67 ×4.15) ⎦
⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ag = ⎜1500 × = 140186.92 mm2
⎝ 10.7 ⎠⎟
Let b × D be the size of rectangular column and the width of column b be assumed half of the
overall depth of column. Therefore
1
D = 140186.92 mm2
2
D = 529.50 mm
Let the overall depth of column be 650 mm. The width of column would be 325 mm.
Step 2. Slenderness ratio for the column
The actual length of column is 5.80 m. The column is restrained in position and direction at
both the ends. The effective length of column
leff = 0.65 × 5.80 = 3.77 m
leff 3.77 × 1000
Ratio = = 11.6 < 12
b 3.25
leff 3.77 × 1000

= = 5.8 < 12
D 650
⎡⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞⎤
e min = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3.77 × 1000 ⎞ ⎛ 650 ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 30 ⎟ ⎥ = 29.21 mm
⎣⎝ 500 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
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0.05 × D = (0.05 × 650)

= 32.5 mm
The minimum eccentricity e min is not more than 0.05 times lateral dimension.
L on gitud in al re in force m e n t
2 0 m m φ-8 ste el b ars h ysd
(sp a cing )
320 m m
P itch in g
L atera l
ties
320 m m
R einforcem ent
Lo ng itud in al
C olum n
RCC
(a ) E levatio n
2 0 m m φ hysd F e 41 5
325 m m
L ate ral ties

8 m m φ H ysd F e 4 15
≤ 75 m m ≤ 75 m m
6 50 m m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 11.21

Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are to be used for the main reinforcement for the column.
The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement has been assumed as one-percent of the
gross area.
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1
Asc = × 140186.92
100
= 1401.8692 mm2
Let the diameter of steel bars Hysd Fe 415 be 20 mm. The cross-sectional area of one bar
π
Aφ = × 202 = 314 mm2
4
Number of bars needed
⎛ 1401.8692 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 314 ⎠
= 4.46 (say 8 bars)
8 steel bars of 20 mm diameter of quality Hysd grade Fe 415 shall be provided for the
longitudinal reinforcement with clear concrete cover as 40 mm as shown in Fig. 11.21.
Let the lateral ties of 8 mm diameter Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be provided as
transverse reinforcement as shown in Fig. 11.21.
Pitch of lateral ties
Least lateral dimension of the column
b = 325 mm
16 times diameter of the longitudinal steel bar
= 16 × 20 = 320 mm
48 times diameter of lateral ties
= 48 × 8 = 384 mm
The pitch of transverse reinforcement shall not be more than least of three calculated above.
Therefore, pitch of lateral ties shall be 320 mm centre to centre along the height of column. The
centre to centre distance between corner bars
= (650 – 2 × 40 – 2 × 10)
= 550 mm
The lateral ties have been arranged as shown in Fig. 11.21 (b).
11.18 SHORT RECTANGULAR COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD AND

UNIAXIAL BENDING
A load applied in the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the column at the centroid of
section and the bending moment is applied such that the column bends about one axis are
referred as axial load and uniaxial bending.
In practice, axially loaded columns occur rarely because some bending is almost always
present from direct loading or end rotation. It is also evidenced by the slight initial crookedness
of the columns, the manner in which the loading is applied by beams and slabs, and the
moments introduced by continuous construction. The bending moments are caused by continuity
(i.e., by the fact that building columns are parts of monolithic frames in which the support
moment from the girders are partly resisted by the abutting columns, by transverse loads
(such as wind forces) by loads carried eccentrically on column brackets, or in arches, when the
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arch axis does not coincide with the pressure line. Even when the design calculations show a
column to be loaded purely axially, inevitable imperfections of construction will introduce
eccentricities and consequently bending in the member built. For this reason, the columns
which must be designed for simultaneous compression and bending are very frequent in almost
all types of concrete structures.
P cu Pcu e Pcu e Pcu
M cu
Pcu
(a ) A xia l lo ad a nd be nd in g (b ) e = ( M c u / P cu ) (c) E q uivale n t e ccen tric lo ad

c/c
d
Est Xu
Esc
Ecu
P ts
P c u.s c
Xu ( f s . A st ) P c u.c c
D
S train d istribu tio n diag ram S tress distrib ution d ia gra m
Fig. 11.22 Strain, Stress and Forces at Nominal Ultimate Strength (Eccentrically Loaded Column)
Neutral Axis Lies within Section
A column subjected to combined axial compressive load Pcu and bending moment Mcu is
shown in Fig. 11.22 (a). It is usually convenient to replace the axial load and moment with an
⎛ M cu ⎞
equal load Pcu applied at eccentricity, e = ⎜ ⎟ as shown in Fig. 11.22 (b). Two loadings are
⎝ Pcu ⎠
statically equivalent. All columns may then be classified in terms of equivalent eccentricity.
Those having relatively small eccentricity, e are generally characterised by compression over
the entire section. In case, the column is overloaded — will fail by crushing of the concrete
accompanied by yielding of the steel in compression on the more heavily loaded side. The
columns with large eccentricity are subjected to tension over atleast a part of the section, and if
overloaded may fail due to tensile yielding of the steel on the farthest side from the load.
Generally, the load stages below ultimate for the columns are not important. The cracking of
concrete, even for columns with large eccentricity, is usually not a serious problem, and lateral
deflection at the service loads are seldom, if ever a factor. The design of columns is based on the
factored overload stage, for which, the required strength must not exceed the design strength
as usual i.e.,
Mcu.Fd ≤ Pcu ...(11.17)
Mcu.Fd ≤ Mcu ...(11.18)
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The distribution of strains at the middle height along its length at incipient failure is shown
in Fig. 11.22 (b) with the plane sections assumed to remain plane, the strains in concrete vary
linearly with the distance from the neutral axis, which is located at a distance x from the more
heavily loaded side of the column. Full compatibility of deformation is assumed. The strains in
steel bars at any location are the same as the strains in the adjacent concrete. Therefore, in
case, the ultimate strains in concrete is εcu, the strain in steel bars in compression nearest the
load is εsc while that in the tension bars at the far side is εst. The area of steel reinforcement in
compression, Asc and that in tension, Ast are located at distance dc and d, respectively from the
compression face. The corresponding stresses and forces are shown in Fig. 11.22 (c). As for
simple bending, the actual concrete compressive stress distribution is replaced by an equivalent
rectangular distribution. A large number of tests on columns of variety of shapes have shown
that are ultimate strengths calculated on this basis are in satisfactory agreement with the test
results [Reference : Mattock, A.N., Kriz, L.B. and Hognestad, E. ‘Rectangular Concrete Stress
Distribution in Ultimate Strength Design’, Journal, ACI, Vol. 32, No. 8, February, 1961 (pp :
875–928).
The controlling equilibrium equation between external and internal forces shown in
Fig. 11.22 (c) is an under.
11.18.1 For Axial Ultimate Load without Eccentricity

A rectangular column, of size b.d with reinforcing steel bars arranged along the periphery is
shown in Fig. 11.23 (a). The strain and stress distribution diagrams are shown in Fig. 11.23 (b)
and (c), respectively.
0 .00 20 0 .4 f c k 0 .67 f y
b
( D /2 )
P c ufd
D
( D /2 )
(a ) R e in forced co ncre te (b ) S train d istribu tion (c) C o ncre te (d ) S tee l D istrib utio n
co lu m n section diag ram stre ss d ia gra m (id ea lise d)
Fig. 11.23 Strain and Stress Distribution Diagrams (Idealised) (Eccentricity of Load Minimum)
The external axial forces in compression on the section is in equilibrium with the internal
forces developed. Therefore,
Pcu = fcc . (Ag + Asc) + fsc . Asc ...(ii)
Pcu = fcc . Ag + (fsc + fcc) Asc ...(iii)
Pcu = 0.45 fck . Ag + (fsc – 0.45 fck) Asc ...(11.19)
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The second term within the parenthesis represents the deduction for the concrete replaced
by the reinforcement steel bars. This term is usually neglected for accurate analysis. However,
as a better approximation, a constant value corresponding to concrete grade M 20 may be
used, so that the error is negligibly small over the range of concrete mixes normally used.
For rectangular column, the gross cross-sectional area Ag is b.D. Therefore,
Pcu = 0.45 fcc . Ag + (fsc – 0.45fcc) Asc
⎛ Pcu ⎞ = ⎡⎢0.45 + ( f − 0.45 × f ) ⎛ Asc ⎞ ⎤⎥ ...(11.20)

⎜ ⎟ sc ck ⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎦⎥
Percentage of the steel reinforcement
⎛A ⎞
p = 100 × ⎜ sc ⎟
⎝ bD ⎠
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ Asc ⎞
∴ ⎜ 100 ⎟ = ⎜ b ⋅ D ⎟ ...(11.21)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Therefore,
⎛ Pcu ⎞ = ⎡⎢0.45 + ( f − 0.45 × f ) ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤⎥ ...(11.22)

⎜ ⎟ sc ck ⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, fsc is the stress in compression in steel reinforcement corresponding to a strain 0.0020.
For mild steel
Pcu = [0.45 fck.bD + (0.87 fy – 0.45 fck) Asc] ...(11.23a)
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.45 + ⎜ 100 f ⎟ (0.87 fy − 0.45 fck )⎥ ...(11.23b)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎥⎦
For Hysd steel

Pcu = [0.45 fck.bD + (0.74 fy – 0.45 fck) Asc] ...(11.24a)
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.45 + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ( 0.74 fy − 0.45 fck )⎥ ...(11.24b)
f
⎝ ck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎣ ⎦
11.18.2 For Axial Load with Minimum Eccentricity

A rectangular column of size b × D with reinforcing steel bars arranged along the periphery is
shown in Fig. 11.24 (a). The strain distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 11.24 (b). The actual
stress distribution diagrams for concrete and steel bars are shown in Fig. 11.24 (c) and (d),
respectively. The reinforced concrete column with idealised stress distribution diagrams for
concrete and steel are shown in Figs. 11.25 (a), (b) and (c) respectively.
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(0 .00 3 5 – 0 .75 e C B ) 0 .44 f c k 0 .87 f y

b
(0 .5 D – e )
P c u.F d ( D /2 )
D 0 .4 f c k bD
+
(0 .67 f y – 0.4 f ck ) A s c
( D /2)
(a ) R e in force d (b ) S tra in d istribu tio n (c) C o ncre te (d ) S te el force

co ncrete diag ram stre ss d ia g ram distrib ution
co lum n section
Fig. 11.24 Strain and stress distribution diagrams
The ultimate load carrying capacity of the reinforced short column is as below :
For mild steel
Pcu = [0.4 fck .bD + (0.77 fy – 0.4 fck) Asc] ...(11.25a)
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.4 + ⎜ 100 f ⎟ (0.77 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥ ...(11.25b)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎦⎥
0 .00 20 0 .45 f c k 0 .87 f y

b
( D /2 ) D /2
D
Pcu
( D /2 )
(b ) S train d istribu tion (c) C o ncre te (d ) S tee l d istribu tion

(a ) R e in force d co ncre te
colum n se ctio n d ia gram stre ss diag ram d ia gram
Fig. 11.25 Axial ultimate load on short column
For Hysd steel

Pcu = [0.4fck.bD + (0.67 fy – 0.4 fck) Asc] ...(11.26a)
⎛ pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.4 + ⎜ 100 f ⎟ (0.67 fy − 0.45 fck )⎥ ...(11.26b)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎥⎦
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The magnitude of moment about the centre-line of the section depends whether the neutral
axis lies outside the column section, at the edge of section or within the column sec. The
expression for moment are as under :
(i) Neutral axis lying out side the section (Fig. 11.30, Eq. 11.34)
⎡ n ⎤
Mcu = ⎢k1 fck .bD (0.5D – k2 D ) + ∑ ( fsci – fcci ) × Asci . ysci ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
...(11.27 a)
(ii) Neutral axis lying at the edge of section (Fig. 11.31, Eq. 11.37)
⎡ n ⎤
Mcu = ⎢0.36 fck ⋅bD ⋅ 0.416 D + ∑ ( fsci – fcci ) × Asci . ysci ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
...(11.27 b)
(iii) Neutral axis lying within the section (Fig. 11.32, Eq. 11.41)
⎡ n
Asci . ysci ⎤
Mcu = ⎢0.36 fck .b ⋅ kD (0.5D – 0.416 D ) + ∑ ( fsci – fcci ) ×
D
⎥ ...(11.27 c)
⎣ i =1 ⎦
Equations. 11.26 (a), (b) and Eqs. 11.27 (a), (b) and (c) are the basic equilibrium equations
and these have been derived subsequently.
For large eccentricity, the yielding of tension steel Ast initiates the failure, (hence, fst = fy).
When the concrete attains its ultimate strain εcu, the compression steel may or may not have
yielded. It is calculated based on compatibility of strain.
For small eccentricities, the concrete will attain its limit εcu before the tension steel begins
yielding. In fact, the bars on the side of column farther from the load may be in compression,
not tension. For small eccentricities, too, the analysis must be based on compatibility of strains
between the steel and the adjacent concrete.
For a given eccentricity calculated from the frame analysis (i.e., e = Mcu/Pcu), it is possible to
solve equilibrium equations for the load Pcu and moment, Mcu that would result in failure as
follows :
In both the above equations fsc and fst the depth of rectangular stress block may be expressed
in terms of a single unknown x, the distance to the neutral axis. It is easily done based on the
geometry of the strain diagram, with εcu = 0.0035 as usual and using the stress strain curve for
the reinforcement. The result is the two equations contain only two unknowns Pcu and x, and
may be solved for those values simultaneously. However to do so, in practice would be complicated
algebraically, particularly because of the need to incorporate the limit fy on both fst and fsc.
In a pioneering series of tests of eccentrically loaded columns, Professor Hognestad, E. [‘A
Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load in Reinforced Concrete Members’, University of
Illinois, Engineering Experimental station, Bulletin No. 399, June 1951, (pp : 128)] established
conclusively that the strain gradient across the cross-section remains linear and the extreme
fibre concrete strain at failure is relatively constant. Therefore, the unit strain over a large
length may be assumed to vary linearly as the distance from the neutral axis. Because of
addition of axial load, the position of neutral axis is variable.
The column section is designed by assuming the size and the adequacy is checked. The
position of neutral axis is assumed. The calculation for correction for position of neutral axis
involved lengthy calculations by trial and error.
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A better approach, providing the basis for practical design, is to construct a strength interaction
diagram defining failure load and failure moment for a given column.
11.19 ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCEMENT FOR SHORT RECTANGULAR

COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD AND UNIAXIAL BENDING
The steel reinforcing bars are placed in short rectangular columns in symmetrical and
unsymmetrical arrangements depending upon the magnitude of moment and eccentricity of
loading as under.
11.19.1 Symmetrical Arrangement of Reinforcement

Mostly, the reinforcing steel bars are arranged symmetrically in reinforced concrete columns
about the axis of bending.
11.19.1.1 For Small Eccentricities

When the eccentricities are small, the axial compression remains prevalent, and when a small
cross-section is desired, it is often advantageous to arrange the reinforcing steel bars more
uniformly around the perimeter as shown in Fig. 11.26. In such a case, a special care must be
taken for the intermediate bars (i.e., those bars which are not placed along the two faces which
are most highly stressed). When the ultimate load is attained, the stresses in these intermediate
bars are usually below the yield stress even though the steel bars along one or both the extreme
faces may be yielding.
b
b
b
D D D
(a )
(b )
(c)
Fig. 11.26 Rectangular column with small eccentricity
reinforcement symmetrically arranged along periphery
11.19.1.2 For Large Eccentricities

When the eccentricities are large and large bending moments are present it is economical to
place all or most of the steel bars along the outer faces parallel to the axis of bending as shown
in Fig. 11.27.
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11.19.2 Unsymmetrical Arrangement of Reinforcement

When the moments are uniaxial and the eccentricities are large (e.g., columns of rigid portal
frames), it is economical to use an unsymmetrical arrangement of the reinforcing steel bars on
the tension side such as shown in Fig. 11.28. The analysis of such columns is done by strain
compatibility approach. However, for an unsymmetrical loaded column to be loaded axially,
the load must pass through a point called as plastic centroid. It is defined as the point of
application of the resultant force for the column cross-section (including concrete and steel
forces) in case the column is compressed uniformly to the failure strain εcu = 0.0035 over its
entire cross-section. The eccentricity of applied load is measured with respect to the plastic
centroid, as the value of eccentricity e shall be zero corresponding to the axial thrust with no
moment.
D D
(a )
(b )
Fig. 11.27 Reinforcement symmetrically arranged along faces
b 0 .44 6 f s k
dc
fy . A s c
X Asc
d PC
D
Ast
fy . A s t
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te co lum n (b ) S tress diag ra m
Fig. 11.28 Plastic centroid of unsymmetrically reinforced column
The plastic centroid for the column, PC, Fig. 11.28 is located by locating the resultant of the
three internal forces. Distance of plastic centroid from the compression face of the concrete
column
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⎛ ⎛ bD 2 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ 0.446 f ⋅
ck ⎜ ⎟ + fy ⋅ Ast d + Asc ⋅ fy ⋅ dc ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
x = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.28)
⎜⎝ 0.446 fck ⋅ (b ⋅ D ) + fy ⋅ Ast + Asc ⋅ fy ⎟⎠
It is to note that in a symmetrically reinforced column cross-section, the plastic-centroid and

the geometric centroid of column cross-section coincide.
11.20 ANALYSIS OF SHORT RECTANGULAR COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL

LOADING AND UNIAXIAL BENDING
A short rectangular column subjected to an eccentric load, Pcu (which one is equivalent to an
axial load, Pcu and a moment Mcu = Pcu.e) is shown in Fig. 11.29 (a). The distribution of strain
is shown in Fig. 11.29 (b). The distributions of stresses in concrete and in reinforcing steel bars
are shown in Figs. 11.29 (c) and (d), respectively.
Y
P c u.F d
0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k
b
E sc
f s ci f tsi
e P c u.s c
Xu P c u.c c
A s ci ( D /2 )
D
y s ci N A
N e utral a xis
X
A s ti
ys ci ( D /2 )
f tsi
P TS
R e su ltan t fo rces
(a ) R e in force d (b ) S train (c) C o ncre te (d ) S tee l stre ss

co ncre te distrib ution stress distrib ution
co lu m n se ctio n diag ram diag ram diag ram
Fig. 11.29 Strain and stress distribution diagram short columns subjected to
axial loading and uniaxial bending
The analysis of short rectangular columns subjected to axial ultimate load (that is, with zero
eccentricity has been described in Art. 11.18 (Fig. 11.23) and that for eccentricity, e less than or
equal to e min >/ 0.05D has been described in Art. 11.18 (Fig. 11.24).
The short rectangular columns subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending with small or
large eccentricities and with different positions of neutral axis is analysed as under.
Axial load and uniaxial bending with neutral axis lying outside section
(eccentricity small). A reinforced rectangular column (of size b × D) section with steel bars
distributed symmetrically along the periphery is shown in Fig. 11.30 (a). The strain distribution
diagram is shown in Fig. 11.30 (b) and the stress distribution diagram for concrete is shown in
Fig. 11.30 (c). The stress distribution diagram for reinforcing steel bars is as shown in Fig.
11.30 (d). The combination of axial load and uniaxial bending is such that the neutral axis of
section lies outside the section as shown in Fig. 11.30.
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0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y

b
3 yc
y s ci D
P c u.F D 7
( D /2 ) P c u.c c
y c ci
e
P c u.c c
D
f c ci
A s ci ( D /2 )
4
D
7
g R e su ltan t fo rces
N e utral A xis
co ncrete d istribu tion stre ss d istribu tion
co lu m n section d ia gram d ia gram d ia gram s
Fig. 11.30 Strain and stress distribution diagrams neutral axis lies outsides section
Stress block parameters. The stress at highly compressed edge of the column section is
0.446 fck. The distribution of stress with this intensity remains uniform, that is, rectangular
upto the depth (3/7). D as the strain is more than 0.0020. Thereafter, the stress distribution is
parabolic. Let the depth of neutral axis be x u = k.D and g be the difference between the stress
at the highly compressed edge and that at the least compressed edge.
From the geometric properties of parabola
2
⎡ ⎛4⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⋅D ⎥
⎝7⎠
g = 0.446 fck . ⎢ ⎥ ...(i)
⎢ ⎛3⎞ ⎥
⎢ k ⋅ D − ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ ⋅ D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ 2
4 ⎞ ⎤
∴ g = 0.446 fck . ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.29)
⎢⎣⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Area of stress block
AREA = Area of rectangle ABCD – area of parabola CEF
⎛ g ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
AREA = 0.446 fck . D – ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ D ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝7 ⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞
AREA = 0.446 fck . D – ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ g ⋅ D ...(ii)
⎝ 21 ⎠
⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞
AREA = 0.446 fck . D ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.30a)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 21 ⎠⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
AREA = k 1.fck.D ...(iii)
⎡ 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞⎤
where k 1 = 0.446 ⎢1 − ⎜
21 7k − 3 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
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The centroid of stress block shall be located by taking the moment of area about the highly
compressed edge. Therefore,
Moment of the area about highly compressed edge
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎤
AREA. (k2D) = 0.446 fck.D . ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ .g.D × ⎢⎜ ⎟ D + 0.75 ⎜ ⎟ D ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 21 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎦
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛6⎞
AREA. (k2D) = 0.446 fck. (0.5D2) – ⎜ ⎟ g.D × ⎜ ⎟ D ...(iv)
21
⎝ ⎠ ⎝7⎠
⎡ ⎛ 8⎞ ⎤
AREA. (k2D) = ⎢0.223 fck . D 2 – ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ g ⋅ D 2 ⎥ ...(11.30 b)
⎣ ⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎦
Dividing Eq. 11.30 (b) by Eq. 11.30 (a)
AREA. ( k2 .D )
yc =
AREA
⎡ 2 ⎛ 8 ⎞ 2⎤
⎢0.223 fck .D – ⎜⎝ 49 ⎟⎠ .g.D ⎥
AREA ⋅ ( k2 .D ) ⎣ ⎦
= 2
AREA ⎡ 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
0.446 fck D ⋅ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 21 ⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛1⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ g ⎞⎤
∴ k 2 = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢0.223 − ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.31)
⎝ k1 ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
The values of k1 and k2 as per SP 16–1980 for different values of k have been listed in
Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Stress block parameters (Neutral axis lies outside column section)
⎛ xu ⎞
k= ⎜ ⎟ Area of stress block Distance of centroid from
⎝D⎠
= k1 fck.D (k1) highly stressed edge = k2 .D (k2)
1.00 0.361 0.416

1.05 0.374 0.432
1.10 0.384 0.443
1.20 0.399 0.458
1.30 0.409 0.468
1.40 0.417 0.475
1.50 0.422 0.480
2.00 0.435 0.491
2.50 0.440 0.495
3.00 0.442 0.497
4.00 0.444 0.499
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Equilibrium equations
The external axial force Pcu acting over the column shall be equal to the sum of the internal
forces developed. Therefore,
Pcu.Fd = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.sc)
⎡ n ⎤
Pcu.Fd = ⎢k1 ⋅ fck ⋅ bD + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) Asc⋅i ⎥ ...(11.32)
⎣ i =1 ⎦
where
fsci = stress in the ith row of steel bar (compression shall be positive and tension shall
be negative)
fcc.i = stress in concrete at the level of ith row of steel bar
n = number of rows of reinforcement.
Equation 11.32 may be rewritten as under :
Pcu.Fd = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.sc)
⎡ n
⎛ p1 ⋅ bD ⎞ ⎤
Pcu.Fd = ⎢k1 ⋅ fck ⋅ bD + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ n ⎛ p1´ ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢k1 + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ...(11.33)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
Moment due to external force must be equal to the moment of internal forces about the
centroid of the section.
Mcu = Pcu . (0.5D – e)
∴ Mcu = [Pcu.cc × yc + Pcu.sc × ysc ]
⎡ n ⎤
Mcu = ⎢k1 ⋅ fck ⋅ bD (0.5D – k2 D ) + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) Asc⋅i ⋅ ysci ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
...(11.34 a)
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎡ n ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ ysci ⎞⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ = ⎢ 1k (0.5 – k2 ) + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) ⎜ i ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100. fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦
...(11.34 b)
where y sci is the distance of ithrow of reinforcing steel bar measured from the centroid of
column section. It shall be positive towards highly compressed edge and negative towards the
least compressed edge.
Axial load and uniaxial bending with neutral axis at the edge of section
(eccentricity). A reinforced rectangular column (of size b × D) section with steel bars distributed
symmetrically along the periphery is shown in Fig. 11.31 (a). The strain distribution diagram
is shown in Fig. 11.31 (b) and the stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 11.31 (c) for
concrete. The stress distribution diagram for reinforcing steel bars is shown in Fig. 11.31 (d).
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0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y

b y c = 0 .41 6 D
yc
y s ci
P c u.F D f s ci f s ci P cu .cc
( D /2 )
A s ci P cu .sc
( D /2 )
R e su lta n t fo rces
N e utral A xis
(a ) R e in force d (b ) S train (c) C o ncre te (d ) S te e l stre ss
co ncrete d istribu tio n stress d istribu tio n
co lum n section d ia gra m diag ram d ia gra m s
Fig. 11.31 Strain and stress distribution diagrams (neutral axis lies at edge)
Stress block parameters are as under (from Table 11.2) :

k = 1.00, k1 = 0.36, k2 = 0.416
Pcu = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.sc)
From Eq. 11.32 with k1 = 0.36,
⎡ ⎤
Pcu = ⎢0.36. fck .bD + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) Asci ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
⎡ n
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ pi ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.36 + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) ⎜ ⎥ ...(11.36)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 fck ⎟⎠ ⎦
and Mcu = [Pcu.cc (0.5D – e)
Mcu = [Pcu.cc × y c + Pcu.sc × y sc]
⎡ n ⎤
Mcu = ⎢0.36 × fck × bD × 0.416 D + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) Asci × ysci ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
...(11.37)
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎡ n ⎛ pi ⎞ ⎛ yi ⎞ ⎤
⎜ 2⎟ = ⎢
0.36 (0.416) + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.38)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
Axial load and uniaxial bending with neutral axis lying within section (eccentricity
large). A reinforced rectangular column (of size b × D) section with steel bars distributed
symmetrically along the outer faces is shown in Fig. 11.32 (a). The strain distribution diagram
is shown in Fig. 11.32 (b) and the stress distribution diagram for concrete is shown in
Fig. 11.32 (c). The stress distribution diagram for the reinforcing steel bars is shown in
Fig. 11.32 (d). The combination of axial load and uniaxial bending is such that the neutral
axis of the section lies within the section as shown in Fig. 11.32.
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P c u.F d
0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y
0 .41 6 x u
εs c Fcc Fsc
e P c u.s c
Xu P c u.c c
( D /2 )
N e utral a xis N A
D
ysr
( D /2 )
fs t
P ts
0 .87 f y

co ncrete d istribu tio n stre ss d istribu tio n
co lum n section d ia gra m d ia gra m d ia gra m s
Fig. 11.32 Strain and stress distribution diagrams (Neutral axis lies within section)
The stress block parameters are simpler. These parameters may be directly incorporated into
the expressions. The equilibrium equations are as below :
Pcu.Fd = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.sc – PT.su)
Pcu.Fd = [0.36 fck.b.x u + Σ(fsc – fcc) Asc – Σ(fst .Ast)] ...(11.39)
⎛ Pcu⋅ Fd ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ pc ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.36 k + Σ ( fsc − fcc ) ⎜ 100 f ⎟⎥ ...(11.40)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎦⎥
And taking moment of forces about
Mcu = Pcu.Fd (0.5 D – e)
Mcu = (Pcu.cc.yc + Pcu.su.ysc – PT.su.yst)
Mcu = [0.36 fck.b.kD (0.5D – 0.416 kD) + Σ(fsc–fcc).Asc.y sci]
...(11.41)
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ ysci ⎞ ⎤
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎢
⎟ 0.36 k (0.5 – .416k ) + Σ( fsci − fcci ) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦
...(11.42)
where
kD = xu
⎛ depth of neutral axis, x
u ⎞
k= ⎜
⎝ overall depth of column section ⎟⎠
It is to note that as a better approximation, a constant value corresponding to concrete of
grade M 20.
11.20.1 Column Section Under Pure Bending

A reinforced rectangular column (of size b × D) section with steel bars distributed symmetrically
along the outer faces is shown in Fig. 11.33 (a). The strain distribution diagram is shown in
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Fig. 11.33 (b), and the stress distribution diagram for concrete is shown in Fig. 11.33 (c). The
stress distribution diagram for the reinforcing steel bars is shown in Fig. 11.33 (d). The column
is subjected to pure bending about strong axis.
0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y

b ys c 0 .41 6 x u
esc fc c fs c
P c u.s c
xu P c u.c c
( D /2 )
D
yS R
( D /2 )
fs t
P TS
0 .87 f y

co ncrete d istribu tio n stress distrib ution
co lum n section d ia gra m diag ram diag ram
Fig. 11.33 Strain and stress distribution diagrams (Column section subjected to pure bending)
For the equilibrium, the algebraic sum of internal forces developed within the column section
is zero. Therefore
0 = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.cs – PT.su)
0 = [0.36 fck.b.x u + Σ(fsc – fcc) Asc – Σ(fst .Ast)] ...(11.43)
and
Mcu = (Pcu.cc.yc + Pcu.su.ysc – PT.su.yst)
Mcu = [0.36 fck0.416.b.x u2 + Σ(fsc–fcc) × Asc.y sci –Σ(fst.Ast) y st]
...(11.44)
11.21 INTERACTION (CURVE) DIAGRAMS FOR DESIGN OF SHORT

COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD AND UNIAX1AL BENDING
A plot of column axial load capacity against the moment it may simultaneously carry is called
a column interaction diagram. The axial load capacity decreases as the moment is increased.
For any eccentricity, there is a unique pair of values Pcu and Mcu that will produce the state of
incipient failure. That pair of values may be plotted on a graph relating to Pcu and Mcu, such as
shown in Fig. 11.34. A series of such calculations, each corresponding to a different eccentricity,
will result in a curve having a shape typically as shown in Fig. 11.34.
Any radical line on such a diagram represents a particular eccentricity e = (Mcu/Pcu) load will
define a load path as shown in Fig. 11.34. When the load path reaches the limit curve, it
results in failure. It is to note that the vertical axis corresponds to e = 0 and Po is the capacity of
the column in case it is concentrically loaded with no moment. The horizontal axis corresponds
to an infinite value of e, that is, pure bending at moment capacity, Mo at P = 0. The type of
failure for a column depends on the value of e. Small eccentricities will produce failure controlled
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by concrete compression. While large eccentricities give a failure triggered by yielding of the
tension steel, (i.e., failure controlled by yielding of steel in tension).
PCU
PO M in im um R a dial lines sh ow
e ccen tricity con stan t e = (M C U / P C U )
re gion -1
C o m p re ssio n
con tro l
re gion -2
E ccen tricity
e m in
E cce ntricity e = o
E ccen tricity
e
sm a ll
L oa d p a th for B a la nced
g iven e ccen tricity fa ilure
e
PB
eB
E ccen tricity
fo r b alan ce d
fa ilure
Ten sion
E ccen tricity e con tro l
la rg e re gion -3
E ccen tricity e = 0 0 MO M CU
Fig. 11.34 Interaction diagram nominal column strength combined axial load and bending
Any load and moment combination that plots within the area is a possible and safe loading.
Any combination that plots outside the area represents a failure combination.
The typical interaction curve as shown in Fig. 11.34 may be divided into three regions as
under.
11.21. 1 Compression Control Region

In the compression control region, the complete column section remains under compression
and the neutral axis lies outside the section. It is important to observe in Fig. 11.23 that in the
region of compression failure, the larger axial load, Pcu smaller the moment, Mcu, that the
column section is able to sustain before failing. In the compression failure region, the failure
occurs through over-strain of the concrete. The larger the concrete compressive strain caused
by the axial load alone, the smaller the margin of additional strain available for the added
compression caused by bending. The combination of axial load and moment that produce failure
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for Pcu ≥ Pcu.B will cause the extreme fibre compression strain to reach εcu = 0.003 mm before
the outer layer of tension reinforcement strain reaches its tensile yield point value (such failures
are termed as initial compression failure). The large column load means that x > xB. It becomes
clear that εs < (fy/Es). In this case, the tension steel does not reach the yield strain.
In case the axial load for the column is equal to buckling load for the column, the moment
carrying capacity is zero. So long as the compressive axial load, Pcu remains more than the
balanced load (defined in later paragraph, Pcu.B), the moment carrying capacity remains small.
It is because the failure in this region is due to crushing of the concrete.
The compression control region is further sub-divided in two regions namely (i) when the
eccentricity is smaller than the code recommended minimum eccentricity, and (ii) when the
eccentricity is more than the code recommended eccentricity.
11.21.2 Tension Control Region

Depending upon the relative values of axial load Pcu and the moment Mcu a part of the column
cross-section may be in tension such that the strain in tension reinforcement is more than the
yield point strain when the compressive strain the concrete attains 0.0035, is called as tension
control region. In the tension control region, the neutral axis remains within the section. In
case, the failure axial compressive load (Pcu < Pcu.B) and moment combination is such that the
outer layer of tension reinforcement reach yielding in tension reinforcement reach yielding in
tension before the crushing of concrete in compression, the failures are called initial tension
failure, although the final failure still occurs when the extreme occurs when the extreme
compression fibres are crushed. In case, the compressive axial load is zero, the behaviour of
column section is like a doubly reinforced beam and its moment capacity is given as Mo.
A tension failure occurs, if Pcu< Pcu.B. The smaller column load means x < xb. It becomes clear
that εs > (fy/Es). In this case, the tension steel yields with (fs = fy).
11.21.3 Balanced Failure

A failure line is divided into a compression failure range and a tension failure range as shown
in Fig. 11.34. In between these two ranges, there is a distinct point called, as a balanced
failure point. The balanced failure point represents the axial load, Pcu.B and moment capacity,
Mcu.B, when the section has a strain profile exactly that assumed for the balanced strain
conditions. The balanced strain is defined as the extreme compression fibre strain at the maximum
value (εcu = 0.0035) just as the outermost layer of tensile reinforcement reaches its yield strain
εy = (fy/Es). The balanced failure mode corresponds to eccentricity, e b with the axial load Pcu.B
and moment Mcu.B acting in combination such that it produces a failure with the concrete
reaching its limit strain εcu at precisely the same instant that the tensile steel on the far side of
the column reaches yield strain. This point on the interaction diagram in the dividing point
between compression failure (small eccentricities) and tension failure (large eccentricities). This
condition represents a simultaneous compression failure (or crushing of concrete) and tension
failure (yielding of steel reinforcement). It is totally impractical to impose restrictions that
yielding failure rather than crushing failure would always be the result of overloading. The
type of failure for a column depends on the value of eccentricity, e, which in turn is defined by
the load analysis of the structure. A balanced failure point on the interaction diagram is a
useful point of reference in connection with the safety provisions.
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A special case is represented by the point falling on the axial load axis but substantially
below the zero value. This represents the axial tension capacity of the member. Because the
concrete is assumed to have no tensile strength, the value of this point is the product of the
steel area times the tensile yield stress.
The interaction diagram may be plotted by dimensionless parameters for a given steel ratio
and arrangement of steel. For a rectangular column, these dimensionless parameters are (Pcu/
fck.bD) and (Mcu/fck.b.D2). For a circular column, these dimensionless parameters are (Pcu/fck.D2)
and (Mcu/fck.D3). These dimensionless parameters facilitate the plotting of design charts.
The interaction diagrams is the key concept for understanding reinforced concrete column
cross-sectional behaviour. It provides the basis for much of the design procedure for concrete
columns. The procedures for calculating the numerical values for key points on the interaction
diagram are relatively simple. These procedures may be easily programmed for electronic
computation by using algorithms that sequentially vary the strain profile on the section by
assuming various positions of neutral axis. For any assumed strain profile, the stress distribution
in the concrete and the steel reinforcement may be calculated from the rectangular stress block
and the steel stress-strain relationships. Integrating these stresses over the cross-sectional
area results in forces and lever arms. The summation of forces and moments about the plastic
centroid gives the values of Pcu and Mcu, which corresponds to the assumed strain profile.
Construction of interaction diagram. For a given column, selected for trial, the interaction
diagram may not easily be constructed by selecting successive choices of neutral axis distance,
from infinity (axial load with zero eccentricity) to a very small value found by trial to give Pcu
equal to zero (pure bending). For each selected value of x, the strains in steel bars and the
stresses and the forces in concrete are easily calculated as under :
Strain in steel bars in tension
⎛d−x ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ εcu ...(i)
⎝ x ⎠
Stress in steel bars in tension
fst = εst . Es
⎛d−x ⎞
∴ fst = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ εcu ⋅ Es ...(ii)
⎝ x ⎠
where (fst ≤ fy)
Strain in steel bars in compression
⎛ x − dc ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ εcu ...(iii)
⎝ x ⎠
fsc = εsc.Es
⎛ x − dc ⎞
∴ fsc = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ εcu ...(iv)
⎝ x ⎠
Depth of concrete stress
= xu ...(v)
Resultant compressive force in concrete
Ccu = 0.36 fck.xu.b ...(vi)
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The trial force Pcu and moment Mcu corresponding to selected neutral axis position may then
be obtained. Thus a single point on the strength interaction diagram is established. The
calculations are thus repeated for successive choices of neutral axis to establish the interaction
curve defining the strength limits the calculations of a repetitive nature may easily be
programmed for the electronic computer.
11.22 SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD AND BIAXIAL BENDING

A load applied in the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the column at the centroid of
section and the two bending moments Mcux and Mcuy are applied such that the column bends
about x and y axes, respectively, are referred as axial load and biaxial bending. The two axes
are called as major principal axis and minor principal axis.
In practice, many columns (especially the corner columns of buildings) are subjected to
bending about both major and minor axes, simultaneously. In such columns, the axial
compression is accompanied by simultaneous bending about both the principal axes of the
section. For instance, in corner columns of buildings, the beams and girders frame into the
columns in the directions of both walls. These beams and girders transfer their end moments
into the columns in two perpendicular planes. Similar loading may occur, at interior columns,
particularly in case the column layout is irregular.
Instead of axial load and moments about two axes, the column may be eccentrically loaded.
The compressive load acting parallel to the longitudinal axis may have eccentricity e x about
y–axis and eccentricity e y about x-axis as shown in Fig. 11.35. These two cases of loadings are
equivalent column loading.
Y
ex P cu .F c
b b
( ) ( )
2 2
ey
( D /2 )
( D /2 )
Fig. 11.35 Eccentrically loaoed short column equivalent to axial load and biaxial bending
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A symmetrically reinforced concrete column section with biaxial bending is shown in Fig.
11.36 (a). The strain and stresses (in concrete and steel bars) are shown in Fig. 11.36 (b), (c)
and (d), respectively. The forces at the ultimate load are shown in Fig. 11.36 (e). The column
section may be analysed by using the equations given by compatibility of the strains and
equilibrium of the forces.
The position of neutral axis for the column cross-section loaded with load Pcu, Mcux and Mcuy
is arbitrarily chosen as shown in Fig. 11.36. The strain diagram is drawn perpendicular to the
neutral axis as shown in Fig. 11.36 (b). The maximum value of strain in concrete at the most
compressed corner is 0.0035. The stress distribution diagrams for concrete and reinforcing steel
bars are drawn as shown in Fig. 11.36 (c) and (d), respectively. The resultant forces in the
concrete, steel bars in compression and steel bars in tension are shown in Fig. 11.36 (e). The
equilibrium equations for externally applied loads and moments and internally developed forces
and moments are as under : (The origin is taken at the centroid of the column section).
1. For equilibrium of forces (ΣP = 0))
Pcu.Fd = (Pcu.cc + Pcu.sc .PTsu) ...(11.45)
Pcu.Fd = [(Σfcci .Aci) + (Σfsei.Asci) – (Σfsti . Asti)] ...(11.46)
2. For equilibrium of moments about x-axis (ΣM = 0)
Pcu.Fd.e y = [(Pcu.cc.yc + Pcu.sc.ysc – Ptsuyst) ...(11.47)
Pcu.Fd.e y = [(Σfcci .Aci.yci ) + (Σfsei.Asci.yci) – (Σfsti . Asti.ysti)]
...(11.48)
3. For equilibrium of moments about y-axis (ΣMy = 0)
Pcu.Fd.e x = ((Pcu.cc.xc + Pcu.sc.xsc –PTsu.xst) ...(11.49)
Pcu.Fd.e x = [(Σfcci.Aci.xc) + (Σfsci.Asci.xsci) – (Σfsti.Asu.xsti)] ...(11.50)
y
ex
0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y
b
P c u.F d εs ci f s ci P c u.s c
A sc i
εc i f c ci P c u.c c
D
N e utral A xis
X
A
ST f s ti P tsu
i
εs ti
0 .54 f y
(a ) R e in force d co ncre te (b ) S train d istribu tion (c) C o ncre te (d ) S tee l (e ) R e su ltan t
colum n se ctio n d ia gra m stre ss d istrib u tio n d ia gra m s force s
Fig. 11.36 Strain and stress distribution diagrams reinforced concrete

column carrying axial load and biaxial bending
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These establishments completely establish the load and moments which would create this
arbitrarily chosen neutral axis. The neutral axis is not usually perpendicular to the resultant
eccentricity. The arbitrarily chosen inclination and depth of neutral axis should satisfy the
requirements of the resultant internal force (viz., conditions of statical equilibrium), acting at
the given eccentricities of the external load. In case, it is not satisfied, then the assumed position
of neutral axis is changed and the procedure is repeated and the reinforcement is successively
corrected until the resultant internal force coincides with the point of application of the external
load within the acceptable accuracy the strength of section approaches the value needed. The
neutral axis may have any position out of various possible positions depending on the eccentricity
of load. The location of correct position of neutral axis involves lengthy calculations. The procedure
is by trial and error. The direct use of above equations for analysis and design is impracticable.
The procedure needs the aid of an electronic computer.
The strength of columns with biaxial bending may be illustrated by interaction surfaces.
11.23 INTERACTION (FAILURE) SURFACE FOR A REINFORCED CONCRETE

COLUMN WITH BIAXIAL BENDING
The interaction line (viz., failure line) of a column with uniaxial bending is shown in Fig. 11.34.
By varying the inclination of the neutral axis, it is possible to obtain a series of interaction
diagrams at various angles to the major axis of the column cross-section. The strength interaction
curve as shown in Fig. 11.37 may be drawn in three dimensional form. It is drawn in the plane
defined by the axes Pcu and Mcuy as established by the usual methods for uniaxial bending
Pcu
PO
C a se : (C )
C a se : (A )
P lan e of
C o nsta nt P c u
L oa d
C o nto u r
C a se : (B )
P lan e of λ
M c uy con stan t λ
P cu
M c ux
y
In te raction curve / su rfa ce

C a se (A ) Lo a d P c u a nd m o m e nt M c uy
C a se (B ) Lo a d P c u a nd m o m e nt M c u x
C a se (C ) Lo ad P c u a nd m om e nt M c u x
a nd M c uy (C o m b in e d)
Fig. 11.37 Interaction surface for compression and biaxial bending (about diagonal axis)
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subjected to bending about y-axis only, with load eccentricity e x measured in x-direction.
Similarly, another curve is drawn in the plane defined by the axes Pcu and Mcux, bending about
x-axis only with load eccentricity e y measured in x-direction. These two curves combine to give
a curve in the orientation of the resultant eccentricity, as defined by the angle λ : (as shown in
Fig. 11.38)
⎛e ⎞
λ = Arc tan ⎜ x ⎟ ...(11.51)
⎜ ey ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ M cu⋅ y ⎞
λ = Arc tan ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.52)
⎝ M cu⋅x ⎠
The combined bending of column is about an axis defined by the angle θ to the x-axis as
shown in Fig. 11.38 (c). The angle λ establishes a plane (Fig. 11.37) passing through vertical
axis (axis of load Pcu.Fd) and making an angle λ with Mcux axis as shown in Fig. 11.37. The
strength of column in this plane is defined by the interaction curve shown as case-C. It is
possible to draw a series of interaction surface for other values of angle λ. Similar curves are
obtained to define a failure surface for axial load, and biaxial bending as shown in Fig. 11.37.
Y Pcu
Y P cu
b b ex
ey
ey
A
ex λ
θ
D X
x
Pcu N e utral
a xis
N
(a ) U n ia xial be n ding (b ) U n ia xial be n ding (c) B iaxia l be nd in g

a bo ut y-a xis a bo ut x-a xis a bo ut diag on al a xis
Fig. 11.38 Reinforced concrete column carrying axial load and biaxial bending
The interaction surface is analogus to the interaction line (failure line) for axial load and
uniaxial bending. A combination of Pcu.fd, Mcux and Mcuy lying inside the surface may be used
safely. But any point which lies outside the surface would represent failure.
Professor Furlong, R.W. [‘Ultimate Strength of Square Columns under Biaxially Eccentric
Loads, Journal of ACI, Vol. 57, No. 9, March 1961, (pp : 1129–1140) draw these curves for
square columns. With a square column having equal steel on each face, the interaction diagrams
on the x-axis and y-axis shall be same. But when these interaction diagrams are rotated, these
curves give values on the unsafe side for the intermediate angles. Similarly, in case, a rectangular
column is considered, it is easy to understand a varying radius of rotation as shown in Fig. 11.37.
It creates an ellipse on any horizontal plane that connects x-axis and y-axis diagrams. This
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procedure also shows values on the unsafe side. As such both the circle for the square column
and the ellipse for the rectangular column must be considered as upper bounds on the proper
values.
The real three dimensional surfaces flatten lightly on the diagonals. This difference is very
small for the upper part of the diagrams and it is maximum near the level of balanced load PB.
Professor Panhell, F.N. [‘Failure Surfaces for Member in Compression and Biaxial Bending’,
Journal of ACI No. 1, January, 1963 (pp : 129) proposed some refinements Professor Gouwens,
A.J. [‘Biaxial bending Simplified’, Reinforced Concrete Columns SP-50, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit] gave more specific methods which may be used as very reasonable
approximations.
A method (reported from Russian Code) published by Professor Bresler, B. [Design criteria
for reinforced concrete columns under axial load and biaxial bending, Journal of ACI, No. 57,
I960, (pp. 481)] relates the desired Pcu under biaxial loading (e x and e y) to three other Pcu
values (which one has been described subsequently).
It is to note that the failure surface may be described either by a set of curves defined by
radial planes passing through Pcu axis such as shown in Fig. 11.37, or by set of curves defined
by horizontal plane intersections, each for a constant Pcu, defining the load contours (described
in subsequent sections).
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete columns subjected to an axial load, Pcu and
bi-axial moments Mcux and Mcuy involve complicate theory. In practice, the analysis and design
approaches are used in which the efforts is reduced by the use of simplifying approximations.
The load contour method, the reciprocal load method, the methods of superpositions and the
method of equivalent uniaxial eccentricity are the various approximate methods which are
used for analysis and design for biaxial bending. These methods have been described in the
subsequent sections.
11.24 LOAD-CONTOUR METHOD

Professor Bresler, B [‘Design Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Columns under Axial Load and
Biaxial Bending’ Journal of ACI, Volume 32, No. 5, November 160, (pp : 481–490)] suggested
the use of the load contour method. This method is based on an assumed interaction (failure)
surface by a family of curves corresponding to constant value of Pcu. The axial load moment
interaction diagrams for single axis are extended into three dimensions as shown in Fig. 11.37.
A horizontal section taken through the interaction surface, Fig. 11.37 gives the intersection
line, which gives the possible combinations of Mcux and Mcuy that would cause failure at a given
axial load, Pcu. This line is called as a constant load contour of the interaction surface.
The general shape of these curves may be approximated by a non-dimensional interaction
equation
α1 α2
⎛ M cux ⎞ ⎛ M cuy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 1.0 ...(11.53)
⎜ M cux ⎟ ⎜ M cuy ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
where
Mcux = moment about x-axis, (Pcu.ey)
Mcuy = moment about x-axis, (Pcu.ex)
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Mcux1 = maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load of Pcu, bending about
x-axis (= Mcux when Mcuy= 0)
Mcuy2 = maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load of Pcu, bending about
y-axis (= Mcuy when Mcux = 0)
α1 and α2 are exponents which depend on the dimensions of column, cross-sectional area of
steel reinforcement and its distribution, stress-strain characteristics of steel and concrete, depth
of clear cover of concrete over the reinforcement and the size of lateral ties or spirals. These
exponents α1 and α2 may be assumed equal (viz., α1 = α2 = αn) IS : 456–1978 recommends the
use of this Bresler’s equation for the analysis and design of reinforced concrete columns carrying
an axial load Pcu and biaxial bending moments Mcux and Mcuy as under :
αn αn
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ≤ 1.0 ...(11.54)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
The shapes of such interaction contours are as shown in Fig. 11.39 for the specific values of
αn. The analysis shows that its shape is different from that of an ellipse (or different from a
circle in the special case of Mcux = Mcuy).
1 .0
0 .8
0 .6
( M c u y / M cu x o )
0 .4
0 .2
X
0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
( M c ux / M c u xo )
Fig. 11.39 Bresler’s interaction contours at a constant load for varying α
In case Mcux is equal to Mcuy, the deviation of interaction line from a circular line is maximum
for bending at 45° to the major principal axis. In general, it is difficult to derive an expression
for the shape of the interaction line.
The values of α lie in the range from 1.15 to 1.55 for square and rectangular columns as
indicated in reported calculations by Professor Bresler. The values near the lower end of the
range are the more conservative. Design Handbook, Vol. 2 Columns, published by American
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Concrete Institute, SP 17 A (78), Detroit, 1978 gives a more refined estimation of a permitted
by methods and design aids.
⎛ Pcu ⎞
IS : 456–1978 relates the exponent αn to ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Pcuz ⎠
where
Pcuz = (0.45fck . Ac + 0.75fy . Asc) ...(11.55)
⎛ Pcu ⎞
For values of ⎜ ⎟ equal to 0.2 to 0.8, the values of exponent αn vary linearly from 1.0 to
⎝ Pcuz ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞
2.0. For other values of ⎜ ⎟ , the values of αn are as under :
⎝ Pcuz ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ (α n )
⎝ Pcuz ⎠
≤ 0.20 1.00
> 0.80 2.00
These values of αn recommend in IS : 456–1978 are to those which would be obtained from
a rigorous analysis. [Reference : ‘Handbook on the unified code for structural concrete’ 1972,
Cement and Concrete Association, London]. It may be noted that Pcuz is the design load capacity
for a column when the load is applied concentrically and not the load capacity which takes into
account an eccentricity of 0.05D.
It may be confirmed that a particular combination of factored moments lies within the load
contour (safe design) or outside the contour (failure), and the design is modified, if necessary.
Professor Parme, A.L., Nieves, J.M. and Gouwens, A [‘Capacity of Reinforced Concrete
Rectangular Members Subjected to Biaxial Bending’ Journal of ACI, Vol. 63. No. 9 September
1966, (pp : 911–923)] suggested an alternate approximate approach to the load contour method,
in which the curve load contour is represented by a bilinear approximation. The biaxial bending
moments are represented by an equivalent uniaxial bending moment. It leads to a method of
trial design.
11.25 RECIPROCAL LOAD METHOD

A simple, approximate method reported from the Russian Code and derived by Bresler, B
[‘Design criteria for reinforced concrete columns under axial load and biaxial bending’ Journal
of ACI, Vol. 32, No. 5 November 1960, (pp : 481–490)]. Professor Ramamurthy, L.N.
[‘Investigation of the ultimate strength of square and rectangular columns under biaxially
eccentric loads’ in symposium on Reinforced concrete columns, ACI publication, SP : 13, 1966,
(pp : 263–298)] verified satisfactorily by comparison with results of extensive tests and accurate
calculation the work of Professor Bresler.
It is to note that the column interaction surface, Fig. 11.37 may alternatively be drawn as a
function of axial load Pcu and eccentricities e x = (Mcuy/Pcu) and e y = (Mcux/Pcu) as shown in
Fig. 11.40 (a). The failure surface S1 of Fig. 11.40 (a) may be transformed into an equivalent
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failure surface, S2 as shown in Fig. 11.40 (b), where the eccentricities e x and e y are drawn
against (1/Pcu) rather than Pcu. Thus, the eccentricity e x = ey = zero corresponds to the inverse
capacity of the column, in case it were axially loaded, Po and it is drawn as point C. For e y = 0,
and any given value of e x, a load Pcuyo corresponds to moment Mcuyo, would result in failure.
The reciprocal of this load (1/Pcuyo) is drawn as point A. Similarly, for e x = 0 and for any given
value of e y, there is a load Pcuxo that would cause failure. The reciprocal of this load (1/Pcuxo) is
drawn as point B. Using the methods already established for uniaxial bending, the values of
Pcuxo and Pcuyo are easily established for given eccentricities of loading applied to the column.
(1 / P c u )
Pcu
A ctu al
A p pro x. fa ilure
Fa ilure p la ne surface
surface S –1 surface S–2
S–2 B
A
I
1 P c uy o
I y2
I
P c uy o P c uo
ey ey
ex ex Y 1 = P c u . E xa ct
Y 2 = P c u A p prox.
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.40 Interaction surfaces (reciprocal load method)
Three points A, B and C define an oblique plane surface S–2'. For the actual failure surface
S–2, plane S–2' is used as an approximation. (It is to note that for any point on the surface
S–2 (i.e., for any known combination of e x and e y) there is a corresponding plane S–2'. In this
way, the approximation of the true failure surface S-2 involves an infinite number of plane
S–2' obtained by particular pairs of values of e x and e y, i.e., by particular points A, B and C.
⎛ 1 ⎞
The distance ⎜ ⎟ to the oblique plane ABC (extended) gives always the conservatively
⎝ Pcu.approx ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
estimated value of the vertical ordinate ⎜ to the true failure surface, because of the
⎝ Pcu.exact ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
concave upward eggshell shape of the true failure surface, the ordinate ⎜ ⎟ is always
⎝ Pcu.approx ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
larger than ⎜ ⎟⎠ , that is, Pcu.approx is alway smaller than Pcu.exact.
⎝P cu.exact
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Bresler’s reciprocal load equation derived from the geometry of the approximately plane
expresses the strength of a biaxially loaded column as below :
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(11.56)
⎝ Pcu ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ Pcux ⎠ ⎜⎝ Pcu⋅ y ⎠ ⎝ Po.cu ⎠ ⎥⎦
where
Pcu = ultimate load under biaxial bending
Pcux = design strength for the same column under the same e x as shown in Fig. 11.41
(i.e., ultimate load when only eccentricity e x is present)
Pcuy = design strength for same column is under the same e y as shown in Fig. 11.40
(i.e., ultimate load when only eccentricity e y is present)
Pcuo = theoretical axial load design strength for same column when e x = ey = zero (i.e.,
ultimate load when there is no eccentricity).
Y ex P cu Y Y Pcu Y
ey ey
ex
X X
Pcu P cu
(a ) B iaxia l (b ) E ccen tricity (c) E ccen tricity (d ) C o ncen tric

m om e nts a bo ut Y -a xis a bo ut X -a xis lo a d
Fig. 11.41 Notations for Bresler’s biaxial loading (reciprocal equation)

Bresler’s Eq. 11.56 gives acceptable accurate and it is in reasonable agreement with the
ultimate loads given by theory and by text results provided Pcu is more than or equal to 0.10
Pcu.0. It is not reliable where biaxial bending is prevalent and accompanied by an axial load
less than 0.10 Pcu.0. In the case of such strongly prevalent bending, failure is initiated by
yielding of the reinforcement in tension, and the situation corresponds to the minimum length
of the interaction diagram of Fig. 11.37. In this range, it is conservative and accurate enough
to neglect the axial load completely and to determine the section for biaxial bending only. The
expression of Eq. 11.56 has the disadvantages of being more suitable for analysis than for the
design. The maximum deviation from exact theoretical results obtained being 9 percent and
from test results being 16 percent.
Professor Bresler has also derived that the family of interaction lines corresponding to the
various levels of constant load Pcu may be approximated by the expression
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m n
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 1.00 ...(11.57)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ M cux0 ⎠ ⎝ M cuy0 ⎠
and Mcux = Pcu.ey
Mcuy = Pcu.ex
where e x and e y are the eccentricities of Pcu and Mcuxo and Mcuyo are the uniaxial flexural
strengths about x and y axes for the constant load under consideration. The exponents m and
n depend on the properties of column and were found experimentally.
Professor Parme, A.L., Njeves, J.M. and Gouwens, A [‘Capacity of Reinforcement Rectangular
Columns Subjected to Biaxial Bending’ Journal of ACI, Vol. 63 No. 9, September 1966, (pp :
911–923) restated Eq. 11.57 as under :
with m = n = (log 0.5/log β)
where β is the ordinate of intersection lines at the point at which relative moments are equal as
shown in Fig. 11.42.
Y
1 .0
β
( M cu y / M cu y o )
4 5°
x
( M c ux / M cu xo ) 1 .0
Fig. 11.42 Interaction line for column with constant load non-dimensional biaxial moments
log 0.5 log 0.5

⎛ M cux ⎞ log β ⎛ M cuy ⎞ log β
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 1.00 ...(11.58)
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
where β is the perimeter controlling the shape of the interaction line. Fig. 11.43 represents the
effect of different values of β on the shape of interaction line. Professors Parme et al calculated
the values of β analytically these β values, together with the uniaxial values of moment capacity.
Fig. 11.43 may be used to find the biaxial bending capacity of a given column section.
Professor Pannell, F.N. [‘Failure Surfaces of Members in Compression and Biaxial Bending,
Journal of ACI, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 1963, (pp : 129–190)], Professor Furlong, R.W. [‘Ultimate
Strength of Square Columns under Biaxially Eccentric Loads, Journal of ACI, Vol. 57, No. 9,
March 1961, (pp : 1129–1140)] and Professor Meek, J.L. [‘Ultimate Strength of Columns with
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Biaxially Eccentric Loads’, Journal of ACI, Vol. 60, No. 8, August 1963, (pp : 1053–1064)] has
given suggestions for the shape of interaction surface. It has been suggested that the curved
interaction line at constant ultimate load be replaced by two straight lines as shown in Fig.11.44.
For example, in case points A, B and C are known, the actual curve may be safely replaced by
a straight line AS and a straight line BC.
Y
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
( M cu y / M c uyo )
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
X
0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 .0
( M c ux / M c u xo )
Fig. 11.43 Interaction lines for columns (biaxial bending under constant load)
The British Code CP 110, [BSI; ‘Code of Practice for the Structural use of Concrete CP 110 :
Part I : 1972’, British Standards Institution, London 1972, (pp 154)] specifies that the use of
the interaction equation with m = n equal to 10 at low axial load levels, increasing linearly to
2.0 at high axial load levels. This provides a simple conservative approach.
Y
A ctu al
line
M ee k's
sug ge stio n
M c uy
X
M cu x
Fig. 11.44 Interaction line for column with constant load Pcu
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11.26 EQUIVALENT UNIAXIAL ECCENTRICITY METHOD

An interaction line for a given rectangular column section with biaxial bending under constant
ultimate load, Pcu is shown in Fig. 11.45. The possible combinations of eccentricity for constant
ultimate load Pcu are given by the line (curve). Therefore, the ultimate load for a point of
application with uniaxial eccentricity, e o shall represent the ultimate load for any point of
application (e x, ey) on the line. A possible design approach is illustrated by this concept. In case
the shape of the interaction line were known, it would be possible to design for the load Pcu
acting at an equivalent eccentricity, e o by permitting consideration of bending in one direction
only.
In order to calculate the equivalent uniaxial eccentricity, e o, a number of approximate
analytical expressions have been proposed. Professor Moran, F. [‘Design of Reinforced Concrete
Sections under Normal Loads and Stresses in the Ultimate Limit State’ Bulletin d’ Information
No. 83, Comite Europeen du Beton, Paris, April 1972, (pp : 134)] recommended the following
expression adopted by the Spanish code, 1968
⎡ ⎛1 − β⎞ ⎤
eo = ⎢ ex + ⎜ ⋅ ey ⎥ ...(11.59)
⎣ ⎝ β ⎟⎠ ⎦
where e x ≥ ey and β is a factor depending on the level of axial load and the steel reinforcement.
Its values are tabulated in ACI Code.
(e x , e y )
( e y) P CU
eo
eo X
(e x)
Fig. 11.45 Interaction line (curve) for column with biaxial bending under constant load
11.27 SUPERPOSITION METHODS

The biaxial bending (viz., resultant bending along an incline plane) may be reduced to bending
about the major axes of the section by some methods of superpositions. It permits the use of
procedures for uniaxial bending. Professor Moran [Reference in Art. 11.26] has described this
method for the case of symmetrical reinforcement.
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The required reinforcement may be calculated by one such method. It is calculated for loading
cases (Pcu, Mcux) and (Pcu, Mcus) separately, and adding the resultant reinforcements together.
It is equivalent to applying the load Pcu first at point 1 and then at point 2 as shown in Fig.
11.46 (a). There is no theoretical basis for this method and it should not be used. It may lead to
large errors on the unsafe side because the full strength of the concrete is taken into consideration
twice in the design.
Alternatively any straight line 1–2 passing through the point where Pcu is acting as shown
in Fig. 11.46 (b). The reinforcement needed for each of the loading cases Pcu at point 1 and Pcu
at point 2 is calculated separately and the resulting reinforcements are added together. This
method has been used in the code of Venezuela. Professor Moran has expressed his opinion
that the results will always lie on the safe side and may be excessively conservative in some
cases.
In an another method, two statically equivalent loads Pcux and Pcuy replace the load Pcu.
These loads are applied at the points 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 11.45 (b). The reinforcement
⎛ fc´ ⋅ Pcux ⎞
needed for each of the loading cases Pcux at 1, taking the concrete strength as ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and
⎝ Pcu ⎠
⎛ fc´ ⋅ Pcuy ⎞
Pcuy at 2 taking the concrete strength as ⎜ ⎟ are obtained separately and added together.
⎜ Pcu ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(There is also no theoretical support for this method. In the opinion of Professor Moran that
solutions provided in the considered cases seem to be satisfactory.
y
ex
P cu
2 2
ey
P cu
x
O 1
1
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.46 Approximate design methods for biaxial bending
11.28 CIRCULAR COLUMNS SPIRALLY REINFORCED

When the eccentricities of load are small, the circular columns spirally reinforced have more
toughness (i.e., more ductility) than ties columns. The circular columns spirally reinforced
allow more economical utilization of the materials, particularly for small calculated eccentricities.
Further advantage lies in the fact that the circular shape is frequently desired aesthetically.
The circular columns spirally reinforced lose strength as the eccentricities increase.
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The cross-section of a spirally reinforced circular column is shown in Fig. 11.47 (a). Depending
upon the diameter of column, six (minimum number) to ten longitudinal reinforcing steel bars
of equal oize are provided. The distribution of strain at the instant at which the ultimate load
is attained is shown in Fig. 11.47 (b). The distribution of stresses in concrete and steel are
shown in Fig. 11.47 (b) and (c), respectively. The resultant forces are shown in Fig. 11.47 (e).
The bar groups 2 and 3 are seen to be strained to much smaller values than bar groups 1
and 4. The stresses in the four bar groups are easily obtained. For any of the bars with strains
in excess of yield strain (εy = fy/Es), the stress at failure is evidently the yield stress of the bar.
For bars with smaller strains the stress fs shall be less than the yield stress, fy.
The column section is in equilibrium. Therefore, the equilibrium for force and the equilibrium
for moment shall exist. It is to note that the situation is exactly identical as for the rectangular
columns. Therefore, the calculations may be done identically, except that for circular columns,
the concrete compression zone subjected to parabolic stress distribution has the shape of a
segment of a circle as shown shaded in Fig. 11.47.
Although the shape of the compression zone and the strain variation on the different group
of bars make the calculations lengthy, no new principles are involved and computer solutions
are easily developed.
P c u.F d 0 .00 35 0 .44 6 f c k 0 .87 f y
f s A s c1
P c u.c c
fs 1 A s c
2
f s 3 A s t3
fs 4 A s t
4
0 .87 f y
(a ) C ircu la r re info rce d (b ) S train (c) con crete (d ) S tee l

con crete colum n d istrib u tio n stre ss stre ss
d ia gra m d ia gra m d ia gra m
Fig. 11.47 Spirally reinforced circular column compression plus bending
Example 11.8 A rectangular reinforced concrete column of size b × D is subjected to axial

load, Pcu and the bending moment, Mcu about the strong axis. The percentage of steel placed
equally on two faces of the column is 4 percent. Find out the values of (Pcu/fck b D) and (Mcu/
fck .b D2) for different possible positions of neutral axix. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd
steel of grade He 415.
Solution. Let the ratio of effective cover for the reinforcement to the overall depth of the
column section be
⎛ d´ ⎞
⎜ D ⎟ = 0.10, and ...(i)
⎝ ⎠
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Percentage of steel placed equally on two faces of column

= 4 percent
Percentage of steel placed on compression face
Asc = 2 percent
Percentage of steel placed on tension face
Ast = 2 percent ...(ii)
Maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure
⎡⎛ f y ⎞ ⎤
εsy1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1.15Es ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 415 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜⎜ 5 ⎟
⎟ + 0.002⎥ = 0.0038 ...(iii)
⎢⎣⎝ 1.15 × 2 × 10 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ M cu ⎞
The values of ⎜ f .b ⋅ D ⎟ and ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ have been found for different possible positions of
⎟
⎝ ck ⎠ ⎝ fck .b ⋅ D ⎠
neutral axis as under :
Case 1: Eccentricity is less than emin
Stress in Hysd steel for εsy1 = 0.0038
fy = 0.87 fy = (0.87 × 415)
= 361.05 N/mm2
Ratio
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.45 + ⎜ 100 f ⎟ ( fs − 0.45 fck )⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.45 + ⎜ ⎟ (0.87 × 415 − 0.45 × 20)⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.45 + ⎜ ⎟ (361.05 − 9.0) ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.45 + ⎜ ⎟ 375.05⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
= (0.45 + 0.7041) = 1.1541 ...(iv)
However, the strength of axially loaded rectangular column form Eq. 11.14 (b)
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.4 + ⎜ 100 × f ⎟ (0.67 fy − 0.4 fck )⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ (0.67 × 415 − 0.4 × 20) ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
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⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ (278.05 − 8)⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.4 + ⎜ ⎟ × 270.05⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
= [0.4 + 0.5401] = 0.9401
This corresponds to eccentricity 0.05 D.
Maximum moment
Mcu = 0.05 Pcu.D
⎛ M ⎞
2 ⎟ = (0.05 × 0.9401) = 0.047 ...(v)
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠
Case 2 : Neutral axis lies outside the section
From Eq. 11.33
⎡ 2 ⎛ pi ⎞ ⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢k1 + ∑ ( fsci − fcc.i ) ⎜ 100 f ⎟ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎣⎢ i =1 ⎝ ⎥
ck ⎠ ⎦
⎡ 2
4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
where k1 = 0.446 ⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 21 ⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
(i) It is assumed that the depth of neutral axis (x = kD = 1.5D) as shown in Fig. 11.48
⎡ 2
4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
k1 ⎢
= 0.446 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 21 ⎝ 7 × 1.5 − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4 416 ⎞ ⎤
k 1 = 0.446 ⎢1 − ⎜ ×
21 56.25 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
k 1 = 0.446 (1 – 0.054) = 0.4218 ...(vi)
And from Eq 11.31
1 ⎡ ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ g ⎞⎤
k2 = ⎢0.223 − ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎥
k1 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
where
⎡⎛ 2⎤
4 ⎞
g = 0.446 fck ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 2
4 ⎞ ⎤
⎢
= 0.446 fck ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 7 × 1.5 − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
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= 0.446 × 0.2844 fck = 0.127 fck ... (vii)

Therefore
1 ⎡ 8 ⎛ 0.127 fck ⎞ ⎤
k2 = ⎢0.223 − ×⎜ ⎟⎥
0.4218 ⎣⎢ 49 ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
1
= [0.223 – 0.0207] = 0.4796 ...(viii)
0.4218
Strain at highly compressed extreme fibre, Fig. 11.18
εmax = (0.0035 – 0.75 × strain at the least compressed fibre)
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢ ⎜ 0.50 × 0.002 ⎟ ⎥
= ⎢0.0035 − 0.75 × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ 0.50 + 4 ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= [(0.0035) – 0.75 × 0.001] = 0.0028 ...(ix)
b
εs c
2 b ,d
Asc =
1 00
D
x = kD
2 b ,d
AST = εS T
1 00
d ' = 0 .1 D
N e utral A xis
(a ) C o lu mn section (b ) S train d ia gram
Fig. 11.48
Strain in compression reinforcement

⎛ 0.0.28 × 1.4 D ⎞
εsc = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0026
⎝ 1.5 D ⎠
From stress-strain diagram for Hysd-steel
σsc = 346.53 N/mm2
Strain in tension reinforcement
⎛ 0.0.28 × 1.6 D ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.00112
⎝ 1.5 D ⎠
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fst = (εst × Est) = 0.00112 × 2 × 105

= 224 N/mm2
Stresses in concrete
fc1 = 0.446 fck = (0.446 × 20)
= 8.92 N/mm2
fc2 = (0.445 fck – g)
= (0.446 fck – 0.27fck)
= (0.319 × 20)
= 638 N/mm2
Therefore following ratios [from Eqs 11.33 and 11.34 (b)] are found :
⎡ 2
⎛ p ⎞ pi ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢k1 + ∑ ( fsci − fcc.i ) × ⎥
f
⎝ ck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎣ i =1 100 fck ⎦
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢0.4218 + 100 × 20 (346.53 − 8.92 )⎥
= ⎢ ⎥ = 0.7594 ...(x)
⎢ 2
+ ( 224 − 6.38 )⎥⎥
⎣⎢ 100 × 20 ⎦
⎛ M ⎞ ⎡ n
pi ⎛ y ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ k1 (0.5 − k2 ) + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) × × ⎜ sci ⎟ ⎥
⎜ f ⋅ bD 2 ⎟ 100 fck ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦
⎝ ck ⎠ ⎣ i =1
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
⎢0.4218 (0.5 – 0.4796) + (346.53 – 8.92) × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ 100×20 ⎠ ⎥
= ⎢
⎢ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ –0.4 D ⎞ ⎥⎥
×⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ × (224 – 6.38) × ⎜ D ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ 100×20 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
= [0.0086 + 0.1356 – 0.0870] = 0.0566 ...(xi)

(ii) It is assumed that the depth of neutral axis (x = kD = 3D), as shown in Fig. 11.48
⎡ 2
4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
k1 = 0.446 ⎢ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 21 ⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 2
4 ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
k 1 = 0.446 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 21 ⎝ 7 × 3 − 3 ⎠ ⎥
⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4 16 ⎞ ⎤
k 1 = 0.446 ⎢1 − ⎜ × ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 21 18 × 18 ⎠ ⎦
k 1 = (0.446 × 0.9906) = 0.4418 ...(xii)
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And from Eq 11.31
1 ⎡ ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ g ⎞⎤
k2 = ⋅ ⎢0.223 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
k1 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
where
⎡⎛ 2
4 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ 4
2
⎞ ⎤
g = 0.446 fck ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.446 fck ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 7k − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣⎝ 7 × 3 − 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ 0.446 fck × 16 ⎞
g = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.022 fck
⎝ 18 × 18 ⎠
Therefore,
1 ⎡ 8 ⎛ 0.122 × fck ⎞⎤
k2 = ⎢0.223 − ×⎜ ⎟⎥
0.4418 ⎢⎣ 49 ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
= [0.223 – 0.0036] = 0.4966
0.4418
Strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre, Fig. 11.18
εmax = (0.0035 – 0.75 × strain at the least compressed fibre)
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢ ⎜ 2×0.002 ⎟ ⎥
= ⎢(0.0035) – 0.75 × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ 2 + 4 ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= [(0.0035) – 0.00117] = 0.0023
Strain in compression reinforcement
⎛ 0.0023× 2.9 D ⎞
εsc = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.00222
⎝ 3D ⎠
From stress-strain diagram for Hysd-steel
fsc = 336.566 N/mm2
Strain in tension reinforcement
⎛ 0.0023× 2.1D ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.00161
⎝ 3D ⎠
fst = 302.95 N/mm2
Stresses in concrete
fc1 = 0.446 × fck
= (0.446 × 20) = 8.92 N/mm2
fc2 = (0.446 fck – g)
= (0.446 fck – 0.022 fck)
= (0.424 × 20) = 8.48 N/mm2
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Therefore, following ratios [from Eqs 11.33 and 11.34 (b)] are found :
⎡ 2 ⎞⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ pi
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢k1 + ∑ ( fsci − fcc.i ) × ⎜ 100 × f ⎟ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎣⎢ i =1 ⎝ ⎥
ck ⎠ ⎦
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢(0.4418) + (336.566 – 8.92) × 100 ×20 + 100×20 ⎥
⎛ P ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢⎢ 2
⎥
⎥
f
⎝ ck ⋅ bD ⎠
⎢ × (302.95 – 8.48) × ⎥
⎣ 100 ×20 ⎦
= [(0.4418 + 0.3281 + 0.0003)] = 0.7702
⎛ M ⎞ ⎡ n ⎛
pi ⎞ ⎛ yi ⎞ ⎛ pi ⎞⎤
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎢ 1
⎟ k (0.5 − k2 ) + ∑ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟× ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 × fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ 100 × fck ⎠ ⎦
⎥
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢(0.4418) (0.5 – 0.4966)+ ⎜ ⎟ × (336.566 – 8.92 )⎥
⎢ ⎝ 100×20 ⎠ ⎥
2 ⎟ = ⎢
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎛ 04 D ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ×⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ × (302.95 – 8.49 )× ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ 100×20 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
= [(0.0015 + 0.1310 – 0.1178)] = 0.001476

Case 3 : Neutral axis lies within the section
Following different positions of neutral axis shall be considered :
(i) Neutral axis passes through tension reinforcement (fst = 0, Fig. 11.49)
d´ = 0.1D, x = kD = 0.9 D (∴ k = 0.9)
⎛ 0.9 D – 0.1D ⎞
εsc = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.0035 = 0.0031
⎝ 0.9 D ⎠
εs c
2 .b d
Asc =
1 00
X = kD
D
εs t = O
fs t = O
2
AST = .b d
1 00 N e utral
d ' = 0 .1 D a xis
(a ) C o lu m n section (b ) S train d ia gram
Fig. 11.49
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From stress-strain diagram for Hysd steel

∴ fsc = 356.90 N/mm2
fcci = (0.446 × 20)
= 8.92 N/mm2
Therefore, following ratios [from Eqs 11.33 and 11.34 (b)] are found :
⎡ 2 ⎞⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ pi
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.36 k + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) × ⎜ 100 × f ⎟⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ ck ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
⎢ (0.36 × 0.9) + (356.90 – 8.92) × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎢ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎥
⎢ + (0.0 – 0.0 ) × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 347.98 × 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.324 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.672
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢0.36 k (0.5 − 0.416 k ) + ∑ ( fsci − fcci )⎥
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢ i =1 ⎥
2 ⎟ = ⎢
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎛ pi ⎞ ⎛ yi ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ×⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 × fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡0.36 × 0.9 (0.5 − 0.416 × 0.9 ) + (356.90 – 8.92 )⎤

⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎟ = ⎢
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎢ ×⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ + 0⎥
⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦
= (0.1213 + 0.1392) = 0.2605
(ii) Position of neutral axis is such that fst = 0.4 fy, Fig. 11.50
fst = (0.4 × 415) = 220.0 N/mm2
⎛ fst ⎞ ⎛ 220 ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ 5 ⎟
= 0.0011
⎝ Es ⎠ ⎝ 2 × 10 ⎠
Position of neutral axis (form geometry of triangles)
⎛ kD ⎞ ⎛ 0.9D – kD ⎞
⎜ 0.0035 ⎟ = ⎜ 0.0011 ⎟ , k = 0.685
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 0.685 – 1.0 ⎞
εsc = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.0035 = 0.002989
⎝ 0.685 ⎠
fsc = 352.75 N/mm2
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Therefore, following ratios [from Eqs. 11.33 and 11.34 (b)] are found :
⎡ 2 ⎛ pi ⎞ ⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢0.36 k + ∑ ( fsci − fcci ) × ⎜ 100 f ⎟ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎣⎢ i =1 ⎝ ⎥
ck ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
⎢ (0.36 × 0.685) + (352.75 – 8.92) × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ×⎜ ⎟ × ( −220.0 + 0.0) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = [(0.2466 + 0.34383 – 0.220)] = 0.37043
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎡ 2 ⎛
pi ⎞ ⎛ yi ⎞ ⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ = ⎢ 0.36 k ( 0.5 − 0.416 k ) + ∑ ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ( fsci − fcci )⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ 100 fck ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎢ (0.36 × 0.685) × (0.5 − 0.416 × 0.685 )⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎢ ⎜
⎟ +
100 × 20 ⎟ × ⎜ D ⎟ (352.75 – 8.92) ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎢ +⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ × ( −220 + 0) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ M cu ⎞
2 ⎟ = [(0.0530 + 0.1375 + 0.088)]
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
= 0.27856
0 .00 35
b
εs c
2 b ,d
Asc =
1 00
0 .90
D
N e utral
a xis
2
AST = b ,d
1 00
εS T
(a ) C o lu m n section (b ) S train d ia gram
Fig. 11.50
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(iii) Tensile stress, fst = 0.87 fy, εst = 0.87fy/Es (viz., first yield point)
Tensile stress
fst = (0.87 × 415) = 361.05 N/mm2
⎛ 0.87 × 415 ⎞
εst = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0018
⎝ 2 × 105 ⎠
Position of neutral axis x = kD
kD 0.9 D – kD
= , = k = 0.5943
0.0035 0.0018
fcci = (0.446 × 20) = 8.92 N/mm2
fsc = (0.87 × 415) = 361.05 N/mm2
Therefore, (from Eqs. 11.33 and 11.34 b), the following ratios are found :
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎢(0.36 × 0.5943) + ⎜⎝ 100 × 20 ⎟⎠ × (361.05 – 8.92) ⎥
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ +⎜ ⎟ × ( −361.05 + 0) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = [(0.213948 + 0.35213 – 0.36105)] = 0.2050
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
⎡[(0.36 × 0.5943 (0.5 – 0.416 × 0.5943)⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢ +⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
= × (361.05 – 8.92)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎜⎝ 100 × 20 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ +⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ × ( −361.05) ⎥
100 × 20 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦
⎛ M cu ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ = [(0.0541 + 0.14085 – 0.9032)]
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
= 0.28527
⎡⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎤
(iv) Strain in steel in tension, εst = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎣⎢⎝ Es ⎠ ⎦⎥
Strain in steel in tension
⎡⎛ 0.87 fy ⎞ ⎤
εst = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 0.002⎥
⎢⎣⎝ Es ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 0.87 × 415 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ 5 ⎟ + 0.002⎥ = 0.0038
⎣⎝ 2 × 10 ⎠ ⎦
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fst = 0.87 fy = (0.87 × 415) = 361.05 N/mtn2

fcc = (0.446 × 20) = 8.92 N/mm2
Position of neutral axis x = kD
⎛ kD ⎞ ⎛ 0.9D – kD ⎞
⎜ 0.0035 ⎟ = ⎜ 0.0038 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
k = 0.4315
Therefore, the values of following ratios [form Eqs 11.33 and 11.34 (b)]
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎢(0.36 × 0.4315) + ⎜ 100 × 20 ⎟ × ( −361.05 − 8.92) ⎥
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ +⎜ ⎟ × ( −361.05) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 100 × 20 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = [(0.15534 + 0.35213 – 0.36105)]
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
= 0.14642
⎡[(0.36 × 0.4315 (0.5 – 0.416 × 0.4315)⎤

⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ +⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ = ×
⎜⎝ 100 × 20 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ (361.05 – 8.92)
f
⎝ ck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ +⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ×
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ( 361.05) ⎥
× −
100 × 20 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦
⎛ M cu ⎞
2 ⎟ = [(0.497858 + 0.140852 + 0.14442)]
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
= 0.3351
(v) In case axial force P = 0.0 (the column section shall be acting as steel beam)
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 D ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
⎛ M cu ⎞ ⎢⎜ 100 × 20 ⎟ × ⎜ D ⎟ (361.05 – 0) + ⎜ 100 × 20 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎥
2 ⎟ =
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ – 0.4 D ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ×⎜ ⎟ × ( −361.05) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ M cu ⎞
2 ⎟ = 0.28884
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
It is to note that in case the interaction diagram is to be plotted, above calculations for
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ M cu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ and ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ for different percentages of steel reinforcement. The limiting curve
⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
corresponding to e min may be plotted joining two points (0, 0) and (0.05, 1.00).
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Example 11.9. Design an uniaxially eccentrically loaded braced rectangular column for
the following
Ultimate axial load,
Pcu = 1200 kN
Ultimate moment in long direction
Mcu.x = 280 kN-m
Unsupported length of the column
l u = 3.40 m
Effective length for bending in the long direction
lex = 3.20 m
Effective length for bending in the short direction
ley = 2.80 m
Column section (b × D) = 360 mm × 540 mm
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
Solution The given (assumed) size of column is checked for the adequacy of column for
design for given data in the following steps.
Step 1. Check for slenderness of the column
⎛ lex ⎞ ⎛ 3.20 × 1000 ⎞
⎜D⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.926 < 12 ...(i)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 540 ⎠
⎛ ley ⎞ ⎛ 2.80 × 1000 ⎞

and ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.778 < 12 ...(ii)
⎝ ⎠D ⎝ 360 ⎠
Therefore, it is a short column about both the axes of bending.
Step 2. Moment due to minimum eccentricity
Eccentricity about x-axis
⎛ l D⎞
e x.min = ⎜ u + ⎟
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 3400 540 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 24.8 mm > 20 mm ...(iii)
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
∴ Moment due to e x.min
Mcuex = Pcu.ex.min
⎛ 1200 × 24.8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 29.76 kN-m < Mcux ...(iv)
⎝ 1000 ⎠
And acceniricity about y-axis
⎛ 3400 360 ⎞
e y.min = ⎜ + = 18.8 < 20 mm ...(v)
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
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∴ Moment due to e y.min

Mcu.ey = Pcu.ey.min
⎛ 1200 × 20 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ 24 kN-m ...(vi)
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Let the cross-sectional area of main reinforcement for the column be 2 percent and it is
distributed equally on four sides. 20 mm diameter of bars shall be used with 50 mm effective
cover.
Step 3. Calculation of various ratios
Ratio of percentage of steel to characteristic strength of concrete
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.10 ...(vii)
f
⎝ ck ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
Ratio
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1200 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3086 ...(viii)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠ ⎝ 20 × 360 × 540 ⎠
Ratio of effective cover to overall depth
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 540 ⎟ = 0.0926 ...(ix)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
@ 0.10
Ratio of effective cover to width
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
⎜ b ⎟ = ⎜ 360 ⎟ = 0.1389 ...(x)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
@ 0.15
From SP: 16–1980
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ d´ ⎞
From charts 44 and 45, for fy = 415 N/mm2, ⎜ ⎟ = 0.10 and ⎜ ⎟ = 0.15, respectively (Figs.
⎝D⎠ ⎝b⎠
11.51 and 11.52)
⎛ Pcu ⎞
and ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3086,
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠
⎛ P ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.10, and reinforcement is distributed equally on four
⎝ fck ⎠
sides.
⎛ M cu⋅x ⋅lim ⎞
⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = 0.14 ...(xi)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠
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⎛ M cu⋅x ⋅lim ⎞
and ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = 0.125 ...(xii)
⎝ fck ⋅ bD ⎠
Therefore,
Bending strength of column about x-axis
Mcu.x.lim = 0.14 fck.b.D2
⎛ 0.14 ×20 ×360 ×540 ×540 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000×1000 ⎠
= 293.933 kN-m ...(xiii)
1 .4
f y = 4 15 N /m m 2 d '/ D = 0 .1 0
1 .3 D
1 .2 d A s = pb D /1 0 0
1 .1 d' d'
A xis o f b en d ing
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
d
fy
0 .4
p u / f ck b D 2
0 .7
f yd
6
0 .6 0.
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
fy d
0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
M u / f ck b D 2
Fig. 11.51 Rectangular columns subjected to compression and bending
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1 .4
f y = 41 5 N /m m 2 d '/ D = 0 .1 5
1 .3 D
1 .2 b A s = bD /10 0
1 .1
A xis o f b en d ing
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
( P u / f ck bD )
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
M u / f ck b D 2
Fig. 11.52 Rectangular columns subjected to compression and bending
Bending strength of column about y-axis

Mcu.y.lim = 0.125 × fck.D.b2
⎛ 0.125 × 20 × 540 × 360 × 360 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ×1000 ⎠
= 174.960 kN-m ...(xiv)
The column is subjected to bi-axial bending (viz., given uniaxial bending about x-axis and
moment due to eccentricity about y-axis).
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Step 4. Check for interaction equation

From IS : 456–1978, the column section shall be safe in case, the following interaction equation
is satisfied.
αn αn
⎛ M cu⋅x ⎞ ⎛ M cu⋅ y ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ≤ 1.0
⎜ M cu.x ⎟ ⎜ M cu. y ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
where
Mcu.x1 = Mcux.lim
= maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load Pcu, bending about
x-axis.
Mcu.y1 = Mcuy.lim
= maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load Pcu bending about y-axis,
and
⎛ Pcu ⎞
αn = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Pcuz ⎠
Pxu.z = (0.45 fck . Ac + 0.75 fy . Asc)
⎡ p.b.D ⎤
Pcu.z = ⎢45 fckbD + (0.75 fy − 0.45 fck ) ×
⎣ 100 ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 0.45 ×20×360 ×540 ⎞ ⎛ 2×360 × 540 ⎞ ⎤

Pcu.z = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + (0.75 × 415 – 0.45 × 20) × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ×1000 ⎠ ⎦
Pcu.z = (1749.6 + 1175.148) = 2924.748
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1200 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.4103
P
⎝ cuz ⎠ ⎝ 2924.748 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 0.4103 – 0.2 ⎞ ⎤
α n = ⎢1.0 + ⎜ ⎟ (2.0 – 1.0) ⎥ = 13505
⎣ ⎝ 0.8 – 0.2 ⎠ ⎦
Therefore,
1.3505 1.3505
⎛ M cu⋅x ⎞ ⎛ M cu⋅ y ⎞ ⎡⎛ 280.0 ⎞1.3505 ⎛ 24.0 ⎞
1.3505 ⎤
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ M cu.x ⎟ ⎜ M cu. y ⎟ ⎢⎣⎝ 293.933 ⎠ ⎝ 174.960 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
= [(0.9526)1.3505 + (0.1372)1.3505]
= (0.9365 + 0.0684) = 1.005 @ 1.0
Therefore, the column section is safe with given size and assumed percentage of main
reinforcement.
Step 5. Area of cross-sectional steel reinforcement
From above interaction equation calculations, it is seen that the column section is having
the strength nearly equal to its value needed. Therefore, the assumed percentage of
reinforcement is adopted. Hence, the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement
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⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ × 360 × 540 ⎟ = 3888 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
Cross-sectional area of 25 mm φ steel bar
⎛π ⎞
Aφ = ⎜ × 252 ⎟ = 490.874 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Number of steel bars
⎛ 3888 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 7.921 (say 8)
⎝ 490.874 ⎠
Provide 8 bars of 25 mm φ as shown in Fig. 11.53. Area of steel bars provided is 3926.991
mm2.
3 60 m m
50
54 0 m m
50
M ain reinfo rcem en t 8 x 2 5 m m b ars
tra ns re in fo rce m en t 8 m m ba rs
Fig. 11.53 Design of column carrying axial compression and uniaxial bending

The diameter of lateral ties should not be less than 5 mm or diameter of main steel bars
divided by 4. That is
φtr <| 5 mm
⎛ 25 ⎞
⎟ = 6.25 mm
<| ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎠
Use 8 mm diameter Hysd steel bars. The pitch (spacing) of transverse reinforcement shall be
not more than the least of the following
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(i) p = least lateral dimension of column, 360 mm

(ii) p = 16 × φ (16 × 25 = 400 mm)
(iii) p = 48 × φtr (48 × 8 = 384 mm)
Provide 8 mm diameter Hysd steel bars at 360 mm. The details of main (longitudinal) steel
reinforcement and transverse reinforcement are shown in Fig. 11.51 (d´ = 50 mm).
PROBLEMS
11.1. A square reinforced concrete axially loaded column is 400 mm × 400 mm in size. The effective
length of column is 5.20 m. 8 steel bars of 16 mm diameter are provided for the longitudinal
reinforcement. The lateral ties 6 mm have been provided at appropriate spacing. Determine
the strength of column. The grade of concrete is M 15 and the quality of steel is mild steel Fe
250.
11.2. (a) In case the column is circular having 400 mm diameter in Problem 11.1, determine the
strength of the column.
(b) In case, the effective length of column is 6 m, determine strength of the column.
11.3. A circular reinforced concrete column is 360 mm in diameter. The effective length of column
is 5.20 m. 6 steel bars of 16 mm diameter are used for the longitudinal reinforcement. The
spiral bars of 6 mm diameter are provided at 40 mm pitch (spacing). Determine the safe load
carrying capacity of the column. The grade of concrete is M 15 and quality of steel in mild
steel. The clear concrete cover is 40 mm.
11.4. A 300 mm × 600 mm rectangular concrete column reinforced with 18 mm diameter 8 steel
bars. The effective length of column if 4.80 m. The lateral ties of 6 mm diameter have been
provided as transverse reinforcement at appropriate spacing. Find the permissible load which
may be safely carried by the column.
11.5. Design a square reinforced concrete axially loaded column to carry an axial load of 1000 kN
including dead load, live load and self-weight. The columns shall remain continuous through
reinforced concrete beam and slab floors at both the ends. Use M 20 grade of concrete and
Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415. The clear height between the floor and soffit of shallow beam
is 5.60 m.
11.6. Design a circular reinforced concrete axially loaded column in Problem 11.5. Provide spiral
reinforcement.
11.7. Design a rectangular reinforced concrete column to carry an axial load of 800 kN. The actual
length of column is 6.40 m. The column is restrained in position but not in direction at its
both the ends. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 are to be provided.
Adopt the permissible stresses in direct compression for concrete and steel as recommended
in IS : 456–1978.
11.8. Design an uniaxially eccentrically loaded braced rectangular column for the following ultimate
axial load, Pcu = 1500 kN
Ultimate moment in longer direction, Mcux = 300 kN-m
Unsupported length of the column, lu = 3.00 m
Effective length for bending in long direction, lex = 2.80 m
Effective length for bending in the short direction, ley = 2.80 m
Column section (b × D) = 380 mm × 580 mm
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Design of Long (Slender)
12 Column
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The columns and compression members are treated as long (slender) columns in case either of
the slenderness ratio (lex/D) or (ley/b) or both is/are 12 or more than 12. The cross-sectional
dimensions of a slender column are small compared with its length. The slenderness ratio
expresses the degree of slenderness of the columns. The ultimate load carrying capacity (viz.,
the strength of a slender column decreases with increasing slenderness ratio. This strength
reduces by lateral deflections of the column caused by bending. In the slender columns, the
failure of columns occur due to buckling (i.e., by lateral bending of the members. The stresses
due to bending surperimpose on the axial compressive stresses.
The strengths of slender columns are significantly reduced by the transverse (lateral)
deflections of the columns caused by bending [Reference: Mac Gregor, J.G, Bree, J.E. and
Pfrang, E.O.,’Design of Slender Concrete Columns’ Proceedings ACI 67, No. 1, January, 1970,
(pp : 6 – 28), Craston, W.B. ‘Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns’ Cement and
Concrete Association, London Research Report No. 20,1972, (pp : 45)].
With present day high strength materials and with improved methods of dimensioning
members, it is now possible for a given value of axial load, with or without simultaneous bending,
to design a much smaller cross-section than in the past. The rational and reliable design
procedures for slender columns have become increasingly important.
The provisions for consideration for slenderness effects are quite similar in the various
American design codes, such as the ACI code, the AISC and AISI specifications for steel design.
12.2 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED SLENDER COLUMNS

In about 1759 Professor Leonhard Euler (a Swiss methematician) gave the basic information
on the behaviour of straight, concentrically loaded slender columns. In generalized form, the
buckling or the critical load at failures given by the following expression :
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Design of Long (Slender) Column 707
⎡π 2 ⋅ E ⋅ I ⎤
t
Pcr = ⎢ ⎥ ...(12.1)
⎢ (k ⋅ L )2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where,
Et = tangent modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section area of the column
k = a factor for the support conditions of the column
L = length of the column between the two end supports
For the column hinged at both the ends and made of elastic material,
Et = E (Young’s modulus of elasticity)
k = 1
The critical load for column hinged at both the ends
⎡ π 2 ⋅ EI ⎤
Pcr = ⎢ 2 ⎥ ...(12.2)
⎢⎣ L ⎥⎦
An originally straight column buckles into a half sine wave (as shown in Fig. 11.2 (a),
Chapter 11). At any section, there shall be a lateral deflection y and in the bent configuration,
and there shall be a bending moment P.y acting at that section. This lateral deflection continues
to increase until the bending stresses caused by the increasing moment, together with the
original compressive stress, over-stresses and fails the member.
Y
B ucklin g stress σ = ( P c r / A e )
ta n – 1 E t
P CR
P critica l
σρ
C ru shin g
B u ckling
ta n –1 E
O X
( k.l/ r ) 11 m ( k.l/ r )
ψ
(a ) S tress-strain cu rve (b ) C ritical loa d sle n de rne ss

ra tio curve
Fig. 12.1 Effect of slenderness ratio on strength of axially loaded column
In case the stress-strain curve of a short piece of the given column is of the shape, Fig.
12.1 (a), as it would be for reinforced concrete column, Et is equal to Young’s modulus of elasticity,
E, provided the buckling stress σ = (Pcr/A) is below the proportional limit. In case σ is more than
σp, the buckling of column occurs in the elastic range. In this case, in Eq. 12.1, Et is the slope
of the tangent to the stress strain curve and Et is called as tangent modulus of the elasticity as
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shown in Fig. 12.1 (a). The value of Et decreases as the buckling stress increases. A plot of the
buckling load verses the slendemess ratio, a so called column curve, has the shape as shown
in Fig. 12.1 (b). It shows the reduction in the buckling strength with increasing slenderness
ratio calculated from Eq. 12.1. It shows the effect of slenderness ratio on the strength of
concentrically (axially) loaded column. There is a limiting slenderness ratio. When the
slenderness ratio of a column is less than the limiting slenderness ratio, the failure of column
occurs by simple crushing regardless of actual slenderness ratio. When the slenderness ratio of
a column is more than the limiting slenderness ratio, the failure of column occurs by buckling.
12.2.1 Slenderness Limits for Column

IS : 456–1978 specifies that the unsupported length between end restraint shall not exceed 60
times the least lateral dimension of a column.
If in any given plane, one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported length l, shall
not exceed (100 b2/D), where b is width of the column cross-section and D is the depth of cross-
section measured in the plane under consideration.
A column fixed against rotation and position at both the ends buckles in the shape of Fig.
11.2 (b) (Chapter 11). It is called as a column fixed at both the ends. This column changes its
curvature at two points having zero bending moments (which are called as points of
contraflexures or points of inflection). The portion between the two points of contraflexures is
in precisely the same situation as the column hinged at both the ends, Fig. 12.2 (a) the effective
length of a column fixed at both the ends is the distance (height) measured between these two
adjacent points of contraflexure. Theoretically, it is seen that kL = L/2, i.e., k = (1/2). It will be
seen from Eq. 12.1 that an elastic column fixed at both the ends will carry four times as much
load as when hinged at both the ends.
PCR P CR PCR PCR
PC
( L > kL > L / 2 )
( L > kL > ∞)
PC
( kL = L )
PCR P CR PCR P CR
(a ) (1 /2 < k < 1 ) (c) (b ) (d ) (1 < k < ∞ )
P C = P o in t o f co ntra flexure P C R = C ritical loa d
Pc
(K = 1 ) (K = 2 )
Fig. 12.2 Buckling and effective length of columns concentrically loaded columns
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In actual or real structures, the columns are rarely either hinged or fixed. The columns are
partially restrained against rotation by the members meeting at the column ends. The effective
length of column as shown in Fig. 12.2 (a) [i.e., the distance between the points of contraflexures
(points of inflections)] has a value between L and kL the precise value depends on the degree
of end restraint (i.e., on the ratio of rigidity EI/L of the column to the sum of rigidities EI/L of
the restraining members at both the ends.
In case a column is fixed at one end and completely free at the other end, it buckles as shown
in Fig. 12.2 (b). The upper free end moves laterally with respect to lower fixed end. The
deflection is like side away. The buckling is in the form of a quarter of a sine wave. It is similar
to upper half of the column hinged at both the ends. There is a point of inflection at the free
end of actual column. The second adjacent point of inflection may be located by imaginary
extension of the sine wave (a sort of mirror reflection of actual column). The distance between
two points of contraflexures is equal to the effective length equal to kL = 2L (i.e., k = 2).
In case, the column is rotationally fixed at both ends, but one end may move laterally with
respect to the other. It buckles as shown in Fig. 12.2 (c). The effective length of column kL = L
(i.e., k = 1). In case, someone may compare this column, fixed at both the ends but free to side
sway (slide), with a fixed–fixed column (fixed at both the ends), it will be seen that the effective
length of later is half of that of the former column. The buckling strength of an elastic column
fixed–fixed at both the ends and free to side sway is one quarter of that of the same column
when braced against sidesway. It is an illustration of the fact that compression members braced
against sidesway are always considerably stronger than those free to buckle in a sidesway
mode.
Again, in actual or real structures, the ends of columns are rarely either hinged, fixed, or
entirely free but are usually restrained by the members meeting the column ends. In case, the
sidesway is allowed, the buckling occurs as shown in Fig. 12.2 (d). In case, the cross beams are
very rigid compared with the column, the case of Fig. 12.2 (c) is approached and kL is only
slightly more than L. On the other hand, in case the restraining members are extremely flexible,
a hinged condition is approached at both the ends. Evidently, a column hinged at both ends
and free to sidesway is unstable. It shall simply topple being unable to carry any load.
Braced members. When either one or both the ends of a column or a compression member
is/are restrained against position change (i.e., sidesway is restrained), then, the members are
called as braced members.
Unbraced members. When either one or both the ends of a column are free to have sidesway
(i.e., there is no restrain against change in position), the member is referred as unbraced
members.
In reinforced concrete structures, one is concerned with various configuration of rigid frames.
The simple portal frames are shown in Figs. 12.3 (a) and (b) with loads applied symmetrically
to the frame (i.e., axially to the columns. In case, the sidesway is not allowed providing a brace
as shown in Fig. 12.3 (a). The bracing holds the upper ends of all the columns. However, it is
impossible to achieve fully immovable ends relative to the lower ends the function of adequate
lateral bracing is to limit lateral deflections of one end relative to the other to insignificant and
inconsequential magnitude. The ACI Code Commentary suggests that a compression member
braced against sidesway is a member in a story in which the bracing members have a total
stiffness to resist later movement of that storey, which is at least six times the sum of the lateral
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stiffness of all columns in that storey. The bracing prevents the sidesway of the frame in one of
the various ways. This sidesway is prevented by construction of shear walls or partitions
sufficiently strong and rigid in their own planes effectively to restraint horizontal displacement;
by special bracing in vertical planes, such as wind bracing; in the buildings by designing the
utility core to resist horizontal loads and furnish bracing to the frames; or by bracing the frame
against some other essentially immovable support.
PCR 1 PCR1 PCR 2 PCR 2
PC PC
( kL < 2 L )
kL
( kL < L )
B a ce
L
(a ) L ate ra lly b race d po rta l fram e (b ) L ate ra lly u nb ra ce d po rta l fram e
Fig. 12.3 Buckled shapes of portal frames at critical loads
The buckled shape of frame shall be as shown in Fig. 12.3 (a). The buckled shape of column
corresponds to that of Fig. 12.2(a), except that lower end is hinged. It is observed that the
effective length kL is less than L.
On the other hand, in case sidesway is permitted in an identical portal frame as shown in
Fig. 12.3 (b), the buckled shape of frame shall be as shown in Fig. 12.3 (b). The column is in a
position identical to that of Fig. 12.2 (d), upside down, except that the upper end is not fixed
but only partially restrained by the beam. It is observed that the effective length, kL shall be
more than 2L by a length depending on the degree of restraint. The unbraced frame buckles at
a radically smaller load than the braced identical frame.
12.3 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED SLENDER COLUMNS

An eccentrically loaded column is shown in Fig. 12.4 (a). A load P is applied to an initially
straight column at an eccentricity, e at each end. The column bends in single curvature. This
eccentric application of the load P is equivalent to an axial load P and end moments M, as
shown in Fig. 12.4 (b). A column axially load by P and bent by end moments is known as beam
column. The eccentricity, e shall be equal to (Mi/P). The bending deformation of the column
produces an additional eccentricity, e add which one is equal to lateral deflection of the
column, ∆.
The initial end moments (Mi = P.e) are known as primary moments. In case the additional
eccentricity e add (lateral deflection, ∆) is large, a large secondary moment or additional
moment (P. ∆) develops at the mid-height of the column. The total moment Mt at the critical
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section shall be as under. This total moment, Mt is also referred as amplified moment or
magnified moment.
Mt = (At, + P . ∆) ...(i)
[Mt = (P. e + P. ∆)] ...(ii)
Mt = P. (e + ∆) ...(iii)
The ends A and B rotate, not only because of the original moment P.e, but because of the
secondary moment P. ∆. These rotations due to two moments are additive. The extra or additional
moment is called slender column effect.
P
P Mi
U n co nse rva tive C o nserva tive
A
P ara bo lic C urva tu re d ia g ram

L
e ∆ ∆ φ φ
B
P MI
P
(a ) E ccen trica lly loa de d (b ) A xia l lo ad p lus (c) Tria ng ular (d ) R e ctan gu la r
sle nd er co lu m n b en ding m om e nts curva tu re curva ture d efle ction
d eflection
(i) D efle cted sha pe a t u ltim a te lo a d (ii) C u rvatu re diag ra m un de r u ltim a te loa d
Fig. 12.4 Eccentrically loaded slender columns (Columns subjected to symmetrically bending)
in single curvature
In case the applied load P is gradually increased until the failure occurs, it is instructive to
superimpose. Axial load moment curve on the column interaction curve as shown in Fig. 12.5.
The behaviour response of any eccentrically loaded braced column to an increasing load is
non-linear, (i.e., not linear).
The lateral deflection (eadd = ∆) shall be small in case the length of column is small (short).
The additional moment P.eadd = P. ∆) shall be negligible compared with the initial moment
P.e = Mi). As the load is increased, the total moment remains practically constant at the initial
value, Mi; (as represented by line EF, Fig. 12.5). The failure of column occurs when the point F
lies as the column interaction curve. This nature of failure is referred as material failure.
The column remains stable at the every stage of loading form E until F when a column is
carrying an eccentric load P, the shape of axial load-moment relation (which depends upon
length) upto the failure are as shown in Fig. 12.6. Of the material failure for the column of
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small length (short length). OC represents the material failure for the slender column. OD
represents the instability or buckling failure of very slender column. The curve turns
horizontally at D before reaching the interaction diagram.
In slender columns, the additional eccentricity, e add (lateral deflection , ∆) becomes significant
compared with the initial moment, Mt. As per the recommendations of IS : 456–1978, the effect
of this additional eccentricity (lateral deflection) on the forces and moments should be considered.
For slender columns, as per the expression (i).
Mi = (Mi + P.∆), (∆ = e add) ...(iv)
It is represented by line EC in Fig. 12.5. The failure of column occurs when the point C lies
on the column interaction curve. At every stage of the loading from E until C, the column
remains stable. The final failure is again due to material failure as a result of slenderness
effect. This type of failure occurs generally in practical columns of building that are braced
against sway.
In very slender columns, the peak load may be attained earlier than the material failure
occurs. It is represented by line ED. The column will fail quickly. Such a nature of failure is
referred as instability failure. This instability failure may occur in unbraced columns.
In te raction d iag ra m
M aterial fa ilu re (sh ort co lu m n)
M aterial fa ilu re (sle nd er co lu m n)
P.e P. ∆1 In stab ility failure (ve ry slen de r co lum n )

C
P.e P. ∆
∆
A xia l lo ad , P
P.e P. ∆2
Mi Tota l m o m en t
Fig. 12.5 Slenderness effect on column capacity (axial load and end moments)
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In te raction diag ra m
M aterial fa ilu re (sho rt co lu m n)
M aterial fa ilu re (sle nd e r colum n)
In stab ility failure (ve ry slen de r colum n )

C
P.e P. ∆1
P. ( e + ∆1 )
P. ∆
A xial lo a d, P
O
M om e nt
Fig. 12.6 Slenderness effect on column capacity (Eccentric load)
In practical structures, the reinforced concrete columns are rarely slender enough for
instability failure to occur. A sufficient accurate method is required for material failure and
conservative (though not necessary accurate) for instability failure as per Professor Cranston,
W.B. (referred above).
The additional eccentricity, e add (lateral deflection ∆), Fig. 12.4 depends on the curvature
(F = 1/r) of the column and on the distribution of this curvature. Professor Cranston, W.B.
[‘Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns’, Cement and Concrete Association,
London, Research Report No. 20, 1972, (pp. 54)] has shown that the curvature at the critical
section for a reinforced column at the ultimate limit state, may be assumed to depend only on
the depth of column section and the effective height ratio
1 ⎡ ⎛l ⎞⎤
φ = ⋅ ⎢1 − 0.0035 ⎜ eff ⎟ ⎥ ...(v)
175 ⋅ h ⎣ ⎝ h ⎠⎦
where leff = effective length of the column

h = depth in the appropriate plane of bending
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The distribution of curvature is not known. However, it may reasonably be assumed. The
triangular distribution of curvature as shown in Fig. 12.4 (c) implies only one critical section.
The rectangular distribution of curvature as shown in Fig. 12.4 (d) implies that an infinite
number of critical sections. The values of additional eccentricity, e add are as follows for various
nature of distribution of curvature.
1. Triangular distribution of curvature
l2
e add = φ ...(vi)
12
2. Rectangular distribution of curvature
l2
e add = φ ...(vii)
8
3. Parabolic distribution of curvature
l2
e add = φ ...(viii)
9.6
4. Sinusoidal distribution
l2
e add = φ ...(ix)
π2
Professor Cranston (as referred above) has suggested that the additional eccentricity may
reasonably be assumed as under.
1 2
e add = ⋅ leff ⋅ φ ...(x)
10
Therefore, the additional moment
Madd = P . e add
1 2
Madd = P . ⋅ leff ⋅ φ ...(12.1)
10
1 2 1 ⎡ ⎛l ⎞⎤
Madd = P . ⋅ leff ⋅ ⋅ ⎢1 − 0.0035 ⎜ eff ⎟ ⎥
10 175 ⋅ h ⎣ ⎝ h ⎠⎦
2
P ⋅ h ⎛ leff ⎞
Madd = ⋅ ⎡1 − 0.0035 (leff ⋅ h)⎤⎦ ...(12.2)
1750 ⎜⎝ h ⎟⎠ ⎣
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
The curvature ⎜ φ = ⎟ shall be maximum ⎜ φu = ⎟ at the ultimate case, the strains in
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ ru ⎠
concrete, εc and in tension steel, εs are known at then
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⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ åc + ås ⎞
φu = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(12.3)
⎝ ru ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
It is to note that the effective depth is assumed approximately equal to the distance between
compression and tension faces (i.e., d @ D).
For the balanced section, the values of strains are as follows:
εc = 0.0035
εs = 0.0020
Ultimate curvature for balanced section
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 0.0035 + 0.0020 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
φu = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(12.4)
⎝ ru ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ 182 D ⎠
Additional moment from (Eq. 12.1)
⎡ 2
⎛ L⎞ ⎤
⎢ P ⋅ D. ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ ⎥
Madd = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1820 ⎥⎦
2
⎛ P ⋅ D. ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
Madd = ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(12.5)
⎝ 1820 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
Recommendations of IS : 456–1978 for slender compression members
It is recommended in IS : 456–1978 that the cross-sectional area of slender column and
compression members shall be based on the forces and moments calculated from the analysis of
the structure, including the effect of deflections on moments and forces. In case the effect of
deflections are considered in the analysis, the additional moments may be calculated from
the following expressions :
The expressions are modified versions of Eq. 12.5. The length of column, L is replaced by the
effective length, leff to permit for the effects of various end conditions occurring in practical
columns. Therefore, Eq. 12.5 becomes
⎛ P ⋅ D⎞ ⎛ l ⎞
Madd = ⎜ cu ⋅ eff ...(12.6)
⎝ 2000 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠
Equation 12.6 is further modified for bending either about major exis or about minor axis
(viz., for bending about appropriate axis.)
2
⎛P ⋅D ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
Madd . x = ⎜ cu ex
⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(12.7a)
⎝ 2000 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
2
⎛ P ⋅ b ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
and Madd . y = ⎜ cu ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(12.8a)
⎝ 2000 ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
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where
Pcu = axial compressive ultimate load on column
lex = effective length of column in respect of the major axis (x-axis)
ley = effective length of column in respect of minor axis (y-axis)
D = depth of cross-section perpendicular to major axis
b = width of cross-section perpendicular to minor axis.
P 1
M1
e1
P.∆
1
e2
M2
P 2
P
(a ) E ccen trica lly loa de d (b ) A xia l lo ad plu s (c) B e nd in g m om en t
sle nd er co lu m n b en ding m om ents d iag ra m
Fig. 12.7 Eccentrically loaded slender columns column subjected to unsymmetrical bending
(Column in single curvature)
The expressions for addition moments Eqs. 12.7 (a) and 12.8 (a) may be written in the form
of eccentricities of the load. Since
Madd . x = Pcu. eadd . x
and Madd . y = Pcu. eadd . y
Therefore,
2
⎛ eadd ⋅ x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ lex ⎞
⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 2000 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ D ⎟ ... (12.7b)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2
⎛ eadd ⋅ y ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ley ⎞
and ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 2000 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ D ⎟ ... (12.8b)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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The values of (e add . x/D) or (e add . y/D) for different values of slenderness ratio in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Additional eccentricity for slender compression members (Asper SP : 16–1980)
(le . x/D) or (e add . x/D) or (lex/D) or (e ADD . x/D) or
(le . y/D) (e add . y/b) (ley/b) (e ADD . y/b)
12 0.072 25 0.313
13 0.085 30 0.450
14 0.098 35 0.613
15 0.113 40 0.800
16 0.128 45 1.013
17 0.145 50 1.250
18 0.162 55 1.513
19 0.181 60 1.800
20 0.200 — —
12.4 BEHAVIOUR OF SLENDER COLUMNS

The behaviour of slender columns carrying has been described in Art. 12.3 (eccentrically loaded
column). The total moment Mt in such a case in maximum at mid-height of the column. It is
quit possible that the bending of column may be due to unsymmetric bending. In such a case,
the total moment Mt shall not be maximum at or near mid-height. In such cases, it is necessary
to get an appropriate value of additional moment, Madd when added to the original (initial)
moment, Mt = P.e, gives maximum total moment Mt.
The columns hinged at both the ends braced against sidesway with loading may bend in
single curvature or in double curvature.
12.4.1 Columns Bending in Single Curvature

Figure 12.7 (a) shows a column bent in single curvature. The load is acting at eccentricities e 1
and e 2 at upper and lower end, respectively. These eccentricities are on the same side. It is
equivalent to application of axial load P and two unequal moments M1 and M2 at the two ends
of the column as shown in Fig. 12.7 (b). The column bends in a single curvature, as shown in
Fig. 12.7. The bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 12.7 (c).
The bending deformations cause additional moments. The maximum moments at the ends
(primary moments, M1 and M2) do not get amplified. In case the additional moments are large,
the moment (total moment) may become maximum near the mid-height. The initial moment Mi
near the mid-height is taken as below as suggested by the code
Mi = (0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2) ...(12.9)
where M1 is usually taken to be atleast 0.4 M2
In single curvature columns, there is more likelihood of the maximum bending moment
being increased by additional moment than in the columns in double curvature case, because
in the former case, the lateral deflection is more and the primary moments are near maximum
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over a large part of the column. Professors Mac Greggor, J.G., Breen J.E. and Pfrang, E.O.
[‘Design of Slender Columns’, Journal of ACI, Vol. 67, No. 1, January, 1970, (pp. 6–28)]
illustrated this in the interaction diagram as shown in Fig. 12.8. It is observed that the maximum
reduction in ultimate load occurs when the end eccentricities are equal and are of the same
sign.
PCU
In te raction diag ra m
e1
1 .6
( e 1 / e 2 +1 )
1 .4
1 .2
O = ( L u /D ) e2
1 .0 10
20 P CU
0 .8
( P cu /f c k b D )
30
0 .6
0 .4
45
0 .2
0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
( M c u /f ck b D 2 )
Fig. 12.8 (a) Effect of type of curvature on slender columns
In case of columns which are not braced against sidesway (viz., unbraced), the maximum
additional moments will be induced at the ends of the columns and the increase in the maximum
moments may be very significant.
In case the columns are not braced against sidesway, the maximum additional moments will
develop at the ends, and the increase in the maximum moment may be very significant. The
increase in moment for a column fixed at the ends is shown in Fig. 12.9. In case the ends of
column are not completely restrained against rotation (viz., partially fixed at the ends), but are
elastically restrained at the ends, some end rotation will be there. The sidesway displacement
shall be more because of the increased flexibility and therefore, the additional moments will
also be increased.
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PCU
In te raction diag ra m e1 = 0
1 .6
( e 1 /e 2 ) = 0
1 .4
( L u /D ) = 0
20
1 .2
e2
30
1 .0 PCU
0 .8
( P c u / f ck b D )
0 .6 45
0 .4
0 .2
0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
( M c u /f ck b D 2)
Fig. 12.8 (b) Effect of type of curvature on slender columns
In frames, the column end moments depend on the relative stiffnesses of the columns and
the beams meeting at the end. The stiffness of beams and columns decrease by cracking of
concrete and later by inelastic deformations during loading. The stiffness of columns also
decreases by the additional moments developed by lateral deflection of the columns. During
loading, the changes in column moments take place due to the additional moments resulted by
deflection and due to the changes in relative stiffness. The column moments may increase or
decrease.
In braced frames, (the frames in which sidesway is prevented) for a short column, the decrease
in column end moments due to decrease in stiffness may be more than the increase in moment
due to deflections and the maximum moment reduce, resulting in an increase in the load
capacity.
In braced frames, for slender column, however, the moments due deflection tends to increase
more rapidly than the restraint moments, and the maximum moment will increase resulting in
a decrease in the load capacity.
The column in an unbraced frame is subjected to shear (for example, wind load or earthquake
forces). It is a major case. In case when the floor system is very heavy, that is, for the purpose
of discussion, infinitely stiff. The column deflects as shown in Fig. 12.9 (a). It may be analysed
by considering half-length as shown in Fig. 12.9 (b). It shows that the moment is increased at
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the top. Although the magnitude of P∆/2 (where ∆ is deflection at the top end) term compared
to P.e or H.lu/2 moment is different. These two terms are additive. However, the infinitely stiff
floors with zero joint rotations at A and B are not common.
P rim ary
m om e nt
PC PC
A m p lifie d
m om e nt
PC = P o in t o f
con tra fle xure
(a ) D e fle cted sha p e o f co lu m n (b ) L oa ding o n co lu m n (c) B e n din g m om e nt diag ram

Fig. 12.9 Additional moment in columns (with sidesway)
An unbraced column may be subjected to end moments which are nearly equal in magnitude,
but opposite in sign (Fig. 12.9). Here, the total moment Mt will be taken as the sum of the
initial moment Mi and the additional moment, Madd.
P
M1
P
e1 M1
∆ P∆ Mi
e2
M2
M2
P P
(a ) E ccen trica lly load ed (b ) A xial lo ad p lu s (c) B e nd in g
sle nd er co lu m n b en ding m om e nts m om e nt diag ram
Fig. 12.10 Eccentrically loaded slender columns in columns subjected to unsymmetrical bending
(column in double curvature)
In unbraced frames, (the frames in which sidesway occurs in complete frame) in case the
loading is confined to an individual column, it may be treated separately as a column braced
against sidesways, for calculating the effective length, leff and the additional moment, Madd.
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In case the joints A and B rotate, ∆ increases to ∆2. Although moment H.lu/2 remains
unchanged, the curvature from top A down to mid-height is changed due to increasing moments
along the column because of p.y (where y is lateral deflection of column at sections other than
ends) increases due to D. Thus the deflection of cantilever (half-length column) changes from
that of a member fixed at the end to one where the deflection is augmented by joint rotation.
The moment diagram then involves a larger end moment. In case the joint rotation is large, the
end moment is multiplied several times, that is, P.∆2 is several times and more as the static
moment H.lu/2. Therefore, the slender action (effect) shall be very important in this case. The
degree of importance is found by the angle θ as each end. Although this angle θ depends on the
total moment that the column carries, for any given value of this moment, the angle is controlled
almost linearly by the stiffness of the beams. A beam half as stiff will double the angle. It is
seen that any slender column analysis must carefully consider the flexural restraint at the
column ends as well as the restraint against lateral movement of the column ends.
12.4.2 Columns Bending in Double Curvature

Figure 12.10 (a) shows a column bent in double curvature. The load is acting at eccentricities
e 1 and e 2 at upper end lower end, respectively. These eccentricities are on the opposite side. It
is equivalent to application of axial load P and two unequal moments M1 and M2 at the two
ends of the column as shown in Fig. 12.10 (b). The column bends in double curvature. The
bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 12.10 (c).
In te raction d ia gra m
P
1 .6 ( L u /D ) = 2 0 e1
1 .4
( e 1 /e 2 ) = – ve )
30
1 .2
1 .0 e2
( P cu / f ck bD )
P
0 .8
0 .6
45
0 .4
0 .2
0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
( M c u / fc k b D 2 )
Fig. 12.11 Effect of type of curvature slender column in double curvature
Professors MacGregor, J.G. et al (ad referred above) illustrated the interaction diagram as
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In the case of columns (either braced or unbraced) which bend in double curvature
(Fig. 12.10), it is possible that the total moment (Mt = Mi + Madd) calculated for a point near the
mid-height of column, is less than the initial moment M2 applied at the end. In such case, the
column section is designed to resist the moment, M2.
12.5 CORRECTION FACTOR FOR ULTIMATE CURVATURE

The ultimate curvature and additional moment for balanced section are expressed by Eqs.
12.4 and 12.5. IS : 456–1978 recommended the modified version of Eq. 12.5 as Eq. 12.6 and
then Eqs. 12.7 and 12.8 for bending about major and minor axes, respectively. The expressions
are applicable for uniaxial and biaxial bending both.
IS : 456–1978 specifies a reduction in the additional moments as in Eq. 12.7 and Eq. 12.8 by
a correction factor k for the ultimate curvature as below :
⎛ Pcuz − Pcu ⎞
k = ⎜ ⎟ ≤1.00 ...(12.9a)
⎝ Pcuz − PB ⎠
⎡ ⎛ Pcu ⎞⎤
⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
P
k = ⎢ ⎝ cuz ⎠ ⎥ ≤1.00 ...(12.9b)
⎢ ⎛ P ⎞⎥
⎢1 − ⎜ B ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Pcuz ⎠ ⎥⎦
where k= correction (reduction or multiplication) factor. Its use is optional

Pcu = axial load in compression acting over the column
Pcuz = (0.45 fck . Ac + 0.75 fy. Asc)
PB = axial load acting over the column [corresponding to the condition of maximum
compressive strain in concrete (εc = 0.0035) and tensile strain (εst = 0.0020) in
outermost layer of tension steel]
The value of correction factor, k varies from 1.0 at an axial load corresponding to the balanced
condition to zero as the applied axial load increases to the pure axial load, (Pcuz) capacity. As
the axial load increases on a section, beyond the balanced axial load value, the curvature
reduces (the radius of curvature increases, as φ = 1/r), till it is zero at Pcu = Pcuz when the strain
distribution is constant. In case, the design axial load, Pcu is less than PB, the value of k is to be
taken as unity only.
In general, Pcuz and PB needed for calculating it will be functions of cross-sectional area and
arrangement of reinforcement, cover to reinforcement in addition to the grade of concrete and
steel. The values of the PB may be obtained from the following expressions.
For rectangular section
PB = (q1 fck.bD + p.q2.bD) ...(12.10a)
⎡ ⎛ q ⎞⎤
PB = ⎢(q1 ) + p ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ .fck.bD ...(12.10b)
⎣⎢ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
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For circular sections

PB = (q1 . fck.D2 + p.q2 .D2) ...(12.11a)
⎡ ⎛ q ⎞⎤
PB = ⎢(q1 ) + p ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ .fck.D2 ...(12.11b)
⎣⎢ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
The values of coefficients q1 and q2 may be noted from Tables 12.2 and 12.3, respectively.
Table 12.2 Values of q1
Cross section Values of (d´/d)
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
1. Rectangular 0.219 0.207 0.196 0.184
2. Circular 0.172 0.160 0.149 0.138
Table 12.3 Values of q2
Cross section Grade of steel Values of (d´/d)

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
1. Rectangular
(a) Equal reinforcement Fe 250 – 0.045 – 0.045 – 0.045 – 0.045
on opposite faces Fe 415 0.096 0.082 0.046 – 0.022
Fe 500 0.213 0.173 0.104 – 0.001
(b) Equal reinforcement Fe 250 0.215 0.146 0.061 – 0.011
on four sides Fe 415 0.424 0.328 0.203 0.028
Fe 500 0.545 0.425 0.256 0.040
2. Circular Fe 250 0.193 0.148 0.077 – 0.020
Fe 415 0.410 0.323 0.201 0.036
Fe 500 0.543 0.443 0.291 0.056
The value of k is not known in the beginning. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is
needed to find a solution where the design ultimate load Pcu.Fd (factored load) is more than PB.
For first trial k may be assumed as unity which may be modified once the area of steel
reinforcement becomes known. As per code, this modification is optional. However, an advantage
may always be availed, since the value of k could be substantially smaller than unity.
From above procedure for getting design moments in slender columns, the values of bending
moments throughout the length for column cannot be found. It is not necessary also. In general,
it is usual to provide a column of uniform cross-section with symmetrically arranged
reinforcement.
Total moments may be found knowing the end conditions of the column and whether the
column is braced or unbraced and the member bends in single curvature or double curvature
as follows.
12.4.2.1 Members of Braced Frames

(A) Bending in single curvature. In braced columns without any transverse loads, acting
anywhere in its height total moment, Mt is found by adding initial moment, Mi and Madd at
mid-height
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Mt = (Mi + Madd) <

| M2
where Mt = total moment
Mt = (0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2) < | 0.4 M2 ...(12.12)
and M2 and M1 are absolute values of smaller and larger end moments, respectively.
(B) Bending in double curvature. When the column bends in double curvature, these
will point of contraflexures between the ends of a braced member. Total moment, Mt is obtained
as
Mt = (Mi + Madd) < | M2
Mi = (–0. 4 M1 + 0.6 M2) ...(12.13)
12.4.2.2 Members of Unbraced Frames

In unbraced frames, sidesway (i.e., relative lateral displacement of ends of column) occurs. The
unbraced compression members at any given level or storey, subjected to lateral loads are
usually can be strained to deflect equally. In such cases, slenderness ratio for each column may
be taken as the average for all columns acting in the same direction. In such members,
Mt1 = (M1 + Madd)
Mt2 = (M2 + Madd) ...(12.14)
where Mt1 and Mt2 are the total moments at the ends having moments M1 and M2, respectively.
12.6 SLENDER COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL AND TRANSVERSE LOADS

A slender column carrying an axial load P and a transverse load wH is shown in Fig. 12.12 (a).
The slender column bends in single curvature as shown in Fig. 12.12 (a). In case, the axial load
P is not acting, the bending moment at point X is Mo = (wH.h/2). This bending moment shall be
maximum at mid-height Mo.max = (ww/L/4). The corresponding Mo diagram is shown in Fig.
12.12 (b). When the axial load P shall be acting, additional moment P.y shall be created,
P
( W H /2)
MH P. ∆
L =
W H .L
4 P.y
Mo
h
( W H /2)
P
(a ) S len de r colum n with axia l (b ) M o - d iag ra m axial (c) A dd ition al b en ding
a nd tra nsverse lo ad lo a d ( P = ze ro ) m om e nt
Fig. 12.12 Slender column carrying axial and transverse load (column in single curvature)
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where y is lateral deflection. The additional bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.12 (c).
The total bending moment (amplified or magnified moment), Mt at any point in the beam
column consists of two components, viz.,
Mt = (Mo + P.y) ...(i)
The lateral deflection y of elastic beam-column as shown in Fig. 12.12 may be obtained from
the lateral deflection, yo (i.e., from the deflections of the corresponding beam without axial
load, P. (Reference Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M., “Theory of Elastic Stability’, 3rd edition,
McGraw-Hill New-York, 1969).
⎡ 1 ⎤
y = ⎢ ⋅ yo ...(12.15)
⎛ ⎞⎥
⎢1 − P ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
In case, ∆ is the deflection at the point of maximum bending Mmax, as in Fig. 12.12,
Mmax = (M0 + P. ∆)
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= ⎢ M o = P ⋅ ∆0 ⎥ ...(ii)
⎜ ⎛ P ⎞⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎠ ⎦⎥
The expression (ii) may be written as below [from Reference : Johnston, B.G. ‘Guide to
Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures’, 3rd edition, Wiley New York, 1976]
⎡⎛ ⎛ P ⎞⎞⎤
⎢⎜ 1 − ø ⋅ ⎜ ⎥
⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎟⎟ ⎥
Mmax = ⎢⎢⎜ ⋅ M0 ...(iii)
⎜ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎟⎥
⎢⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
where Ψ is a coefficient, which depends on the nature of load, ψ varies between ± 0.20 for most
practical cases. It is treated that (P/Pcr) is always significant less than unity, it is observed that
in the expression (iv) the second term in the numerator becomes very small compared to unity.
Therefore, it is neglected. Therefore, the expression (iii) may be simplified as under:
⎛ 1 ⎞
Mmax = ⎜ ⋅ Mo ... (12.16a)
⎛ P ⎞⎟
⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
δ = ⎢ ⎥ ...(12.16b)
P
⎢1 − ⎥
⎣⎢ Pcr ⎦⎥
where δ = 1(1/(1– P/Pcr)) is called as moment-magnification factor (moment amplification
factor). It shows that the beam moment Mo is amplified by the presence of simultaneous axial
load, P.
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When the slenderness ratio of a column increases, the value of critical load, Pcr decreases. It
may be observed from the expression (v) that the moment at any section of a column increases
with the increasing slenderness ratio, (kL/r). Figure 12.13 (a) shows the effect of slender on the
column moments. It is seen that the larger additional moment develop in a slender column
than in a stocky column for a given transverse load, W h i.e., a given value of Mo and an axial
load, P.
( P ∆)
M o m en ts
MO
(M O)
S len de rne ss ratio ( kL / r )

(a ) E ffe ct of sle nd ern ess o n co lu m n m om e nts
A xia l lo ad s
MO M
M om e nts
(b ) E ffe ct of a xial lo ad s on colum n m om en ts
Fig. 12.13
Figure 12.13 shows that the maximum moment at mid-height increases at a faster rate than
the rate of increase of axial load. The failure of a column occurs when the simultaneous values
of P and M become equal to Peu and Mcu the ultimate strength of the cross-section at the section
of maximum moment.
The most unfavourable situation does not develop for all types of deformations due to the
direct addition of the maximum moment caused by P to the maximum moment caused by the
transverse load. For example, a column with equal and opposite end moments, has Mo diagram,
as shown in Fig. 12.14. The deflections developed due to Mo alone are again magnified when
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an axial load P is applied. The deflections under simultaneous axial load P and bending moments
may be approximated as under: [Reference : Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M. ‘Theory of Elastic
Stability’, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, I New York. 1969].
⎡ 1 ⎤
y = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ yo ...(12.17)
P
⎢1 − ⎥
⎣⎢ 4 Pcr ⎦⎥
By comparing Eqs. 12.15 and 12.17, it is seen that the deflection here is much less.
The addition moments P.y developed by the axial load P are distributed as shown in
Fig. 12.14 (c). The values of moments Mo are maximum at the ends and those of moments P.y
are maximum at some distant away from the ends. The total moments M, shall be (M0 + P.y) as
shown in Figs. 12.14 (d) or (e). In Fig. 12.14 (d), the maximum moment continues to act at the
end and remains equal to M. The value of maximum moment does not increase due to axial
load, P. In Fig. 12.14 (b), the maximum moment develops at some distance from the end. The
value of moment is maximum at some distance from the end. At that section, Mo is significantly
less than its maximum value M. The additional moment P.y is added to Mo. The total moment
is moderately more than M.
P < Pcr (+ M )
M
P.Y.
Or
+ =
–M
P < P cr (– M )
(a ) C o lu m n (b ) M om e nts (c) A dd tio na l m o m en ts (d ) To tal m om e nts (e ) To tal m om e nts
Fig. 12.14 Slender column carrying axial loads and moment (column in double curvature)
The moment magnification depends on the relative magnitude of two moments acting at the
ends [Reference : Johnson, B.G., ‘Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures’ 3rd
edition, Wiley, New York]. The maximum moment may be expressed as
⎛ Cm ⎞
Mmax = ⎜ ⋅ Mo ...(12.18)
⎛ P ⎞⎟
⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ⎝P cr ⎠ ⎠
where Cm = [(0.4 M1/M2) + 0.6] > 0.4 ...(12.19)
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Equation 12.18 may be written as

Mmax = δ.Mo ...(12.20)
⎛ Cm ⎞
where δ= ⎜ ...(12.21)
⎛ P ⎞⎟
⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎟⎟⎠
⎜⎝ ⎝P cr
When the factor, Cm is used in the expression, Eq. 12.18 and rewritten as Eq. 12.20, then δ
is called as modified magnification factor.
In Eq. 12.19, the moment M1 is smaller than M2 (the numerically larger of two moments.
The ratio M1/M2 is defined as positive in case the end moments produce single curvature) and
negative, in case they produce double curvature when M1 = M2, Cm = 1. It is to note that
Eq. 12.19 is applicable only to members braced against sidesway.
12.7 BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS IN BRACED FRAMES

Professors Furlong, R.W. and Ferguson, P.M. [‘Tests on Frames with Columns in Single
Curvature’, Symposium on reinforced concrete columns, SP : 13 American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1966, (pp 517–536) tested a braced frame as shown in Fig. 12.15 (a). The columns
having (Lu/D) ratio of 20 were loaded in single curvature with (e/D) = 0.106. The column failed
P λP λP P
B B
A A
P λP λP P
Fig. 12.15 (a) Test frame
at mid-height at section A–A. The interaction diagram for the column section with axial load
P-moment M as shown in Fig. 12.15 (b) measured during the loading at sections A and B was
plotted. The loads P and λP were proportionately applied to the frame. The variation of moment
at B with increasing load is nonlinear. Eventually, the moment at B decreased as loads were
increased because the column stiffness decreased more rapidly than the beam stiffness. Total
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moment at A is the sum of moment due to loads and additional moment due to column deflection.
It is evident that the increasing the degree of rotational restraint at the ends of columns in
braced frames by increasing the beam stiffness increases the strength of the columns.
In te raction d iag ra m
A p plie d
( e / D ) + 0 .10 6
Fa ilure
Lo a d
L oa d a n d m o m e n t
a t section AA
L oa d a n d m o m e n t
a t section BB
M om e nt
Fig. 12.15 (b) Load-moment relationship
ACI Codes provides for the capacity-reducing effects of slenderness in braced frames by
means of moment-magnification factor.
12.8 BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS IN UNBRACED FRAMES

In general, in a given frame or storey of a building, there are number of columns. In such
frames, the sidesway occurs by simultaneous lateral motion of all the columns of the particular
storey arid not for any individual column. The ACI Code recommends that the value of modified
moment magnification factor δ pertains to loads which develop sway, should be calculated for
the complete storey. It is assumed that all the columns are fully loaded. Therefore, for unbraced
frames, in Eq. 12.21, P and Pcr are to be adopted as ΣP and ∆Pcr for all the columns in to storey
⎛ Cm ⎞
δs = ⎜ ≥1 ...(12.22)
ΣP ⎟
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ΣPcr ⎠
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Furthermore, for lateral loads, the equivalent moment correction/factor, Cm (given by Eq.
12.19) does not apply as the maximum sway moment will be calculated at the ends of the
column, not near the mid-height. Therefore for unbraced frames
M = (δb.M2b + δs . M2s) ...(12.23)
where M2b = value of greater factored end moment on compression member due to loads that
result in no appreciable sidesway (i.e., gravity loads)
M2s = value of greater factored end moment on compression member due to load that
result in appreciable sidesway (i.e., lateral loads)
⎛ Cm ⎞
δb = ⎜ ≥1 ...(12.24a)
P ⎟
⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ Pcr ⎠
⎛ Cm ⎞
δs = ⎜ ≥1 ...(12.24b)
ΣP ⎟
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ Pcr ⎠
It is to note that in Eqs. 12.24 (a) and (b), the value of Cm = 1.0.
In case, the radius of gyration r for the rectangular column is 0.30D in the direction in
which stability is being considered and for the circular columns, it may be adopted as 0.25D,
the ACI Code recommends the limits of slenderness below which the effects of slenderness of
the column are insignificant and may be neglected. These limits are adjusted to result in a
maximum unaccounted reduction capacity of no more than 5 percent.
P P ∆i P P
WH L WH L
L L
WH WH
(P – W H) (P – W H ) ( P – W H – 2 ∆1 / l) ( P + W H + 2 ∆1 / l )
(a ) B a sic lo ad in g on re ctan gu lar fram e (b ) In finitely rig id b ea m s
Fig. 12.16 Unbraced frames with side sway and horizontal shear
In general, any eccentrically loaded unbraced column behaves more complicate and different
than that of a similar but braced column. In the eccentrically loaded unbraced column, the
second moment P. ∆ consists of both the P.y effect and θ.L effect. A laterally loaded rectangular
frame is shown in Fig. 12.16 (a). In case the beam shall be infinitely rigid, the deflected shape
of frame shall be as shown in Fig. 12.16 (b).
Let ∆1 be the lateral deflection due to the integration of both the column curvature effects
and P. ∆ be the secondary moments due to such curvatures.
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In case, the columns of rectangular frame, Fig. 12.16 (a) are infinitely rigid, as shown in
Fig. 12.17 (a), there shall be an appreciable lateral deflection ∆2. It shall be due to the end
rotation of the flexible restraining beams.
A lateral displacement ∆2 is produced at the upper end of the column due to the parallelogram
effect or θ.L effect. The secondary moments develop due to this and the angle of rotation, θ is
further amplified. In actual frames, the beams and columns are not infinitely rigid. The deflected
shape of frame shall be as shown in Fig. 12.17 (b). The column curvatures and θ.L effect
develop lateral displacement, ∆3.
∆2 P P ∆3 P P
WH WH
e WH WH
L L
( P – W H – 2 ∆2 / L ) ( P + W H + 2 ∆2 / L ) ( P – W H – 2 ∆3 / L ) ( P – W H – 2 ∆3 / L )
(a ) In fin itely rig id colu m ns (b ) B e am s a nd colum ns (n o t rigid)
Fig. 12.17 Unbraced frames with side sway and horizontal shears
The behaviour of an unbraced frame loaded laterally may be seen in Fig. 12.18. Professors
Fergusson, P.M. and Breen, J.E. [‘Investigation of the Long Concrete Columns in a Frame
Subjected To Lateral Loads, Reinforced concrete columns, SP-50, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1975, (pp : 75–114)] carried out tests on the frame as shown in Fig. 12.18. This unbraced
frame had proportional lateral and vertical loading (which would be expected in very short
column to develop a nominal moment as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 12.19).
( P + λW H ) ( P – λW H )
L c ⋅ Lu
λ= = 20
Lb ⋅ d
⎛ l / Lc ⎞
⎜⎝ l / L ⎟⎠ = 2
b
LC N o m ina l
( e / D ) = 0 .1
( W H / P ) = 0.0 1
LB
∆
Fig. 12.18 Test frame
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In case, there would have no length effects, the failure would be expected when the axial
load and the moment attained the material failure state at the interaction diagram at
(Fig. 12.6). In reality, substantial secondary moments P. ∆ exists as shown by the curve OC.
The frame becomes unstable at D, swept laterally and the cross-sections at the column ends
were damaged at.
The various components of real lateral deflection is shown in Fig. 12.19. It shows that the
joint rotations contribute significantly in the column failure. For clarity the load-deflection
curve is sub-divided. The nominal θ.L effect is shown by the dotted line as calculated by
ordinary methods of frame analysis neglecting the slender column action. The unshaded area
represents the real θ.L deflections of the columns as though were sides of the parallelogram
produced by end joint rotation. The stiffness of the restraining flexural members largely
influence these deflections. It shows that the restraining flexural members must be considered
while dealing the slender unbraced columns. The significant difference between the nominal
θ.L and the real θ.L values show the moment amplification due to secondary deflections and
the decrease in the stiffness due to cracking and higher stresses. An accelerated failure in
the unbraced column may be initiated by the premature yielding.
The lateral deflection component due to the column curvature is represented by the shaded
area. The secondary moment effects, related increased column curvature and the loss of column
stiffness with higher axial loads and column cracking are reflected due to the increased
magnitude of these effects.
These interdependent factors must be reflected in some appropriate manner while correct
dealing of slender columns. The ordinary first-order frame analysis should be corrected to
consider such effects and to develop second-order frame analysis. The second-order frame
analysis is possible with the aid of fairly complicate computer analysis.
N o m ina l θL R e al θL
Tota l la te ral
d eflection
A xia l loa d
L ate ra l d efle ctio n ∆
Fig. 12.19 Axial load-lateral deflection relationship behaviour of an unbraced frame loaded laterally
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12.9 EXACT METHOD OF DESIGN OF SLENDER COLUMNS

The exact method of design of slender columns is based on the moments and forces obtained
from a second-order analysis of the structure, considering the actual stiffness of the members,
the effects of deflections on moments and forces, and the effects of duration of loading. So that
the proposed dimensions of the column cross-section may resist these actions without modification.
The secondary bending moments, P∆ due to lateral deflections of the columns of a frame
structure is the main factor to be considered in the above second order analysis. Professor
MacGregor, J.G. [‘Stability of Reinforced Concrete Building Frames’, “State of Art paper No. 1,
Technical Committee 23, Proceedings of the International Conference on Planning and Design
of Tall Buildings”, Vol. 3, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1973, (pp 19–35)]
summarized the methods of analysis of slender columns.
The structure is idealized as a plane frame with linear elements. Actual moment-curvature
relationships are used to give accurate values for deflections and additional moments. The
effect of axial load on the rotational stiffness of compression member is considered. The maximum
moments calculated include the effect of deflections and rotations of frame. The use of such an
analysis to find column moments and forces for the design of column section is the most rational
method.
The method of analysis is complicated. Therefore, the following approximate method of design
of slender columns are used.
1. Frame analysis approach.
2. Moment magnifier approach.
In case, the conventional first-order method of structural analysis, based on approximate
relative stiffnesses and on neglecting the effect of lateral deflections of members is used to
calculate the moments and forces in a frame, the moments and forces so obtained must be
modified to permit for second-order effects. The column cross-sections are then proportional to
resist the modified moments and forces.
12.10 FRAME ANALYSIS APPROACH

The columns and the beams meeting at the ends of columns have inter-relationship. Therefore,
the effect of slenderness of column is always basically the problem of improving the results of
an ordinary frame analysis. The design moments and forces are evaluated from an improved
analysis of the structure. ACI Code specifies that such analysis shall take into account influence
of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on the stiffness of member and the fixed-end
moments, effect of deflections on moments and forces, and the effects of duration of loads. A
second-order analysis which includes the effects of sway deflections on the axial loads and
moments may be used. It also recommends realistic moment-curvature or moment-end-rotation
relationships. It is stated that
‘In lieu of more precise values, it is satisfactory to take EI as Ec . Ig .[0.2 + 1.2 pt.(ES/EC)] in
computing the column stiffness and 0.5 EcIg when computing the beam stiffnesses’.
‘It is necessary to consider the effect of axial loads on the stiffness and carry-over factor for
slender columns, (kL/r) > 45).
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The ACI Code now allows a more accurate and more elaborate second-order analysis, a
method of frame analysis (P∆ method). In this method, the effects of axial loads and of the sway
deflections, ∆ on the bending moments are calculated with the aid of electronic digital computers.
Professors Wood, B.R., Beaulieu, D. and Adams. P.F. [‘Column Design by P–∆ Method’, Journal
of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, No. ST2, February, 1976 (pp 411–427)] and Professors
MacGregor, J.G. and Hage, S.E. [‘Stability Analysis and Design of Concrete Frames’, Journal
of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, No ST10, October, 1977, (pp 1953–1977)] have given
the details of method and the conditions for its use are well discussed in the ACI Code Commentary.
Professors, MacGregor, J.M., Breen, J.E., Pfrang, E.O., [‘Design of Slender Concrete Columns’,
Journal of ACI, Vol. 67, No. 1, January, 1970, (pp 6–28)} have given valuable additional
information for the design of slender column.
12.11 MOMENT MAGNIFIER APPROACH

ACI 318–71 [‘Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete’, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1971 (pp 78)] proposes this moment magnifier method as the design procedure for the
design of slender columns. This method is similar to that used in American Institute of Steel
construction specification [‘Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural
Steel for Buildings’, AISC, New York, 1963, (pp 97)].
A column in a bent shape, either from initial crookedness or some external moment will have
its lateral deflection, y o. This lateral deflection is increased due to an axial load P acting along
the reference chord, from its initial value yo to maximum value, ymax. From Eq. 12.17, substituting
y = ymax
⎡ 1 ⎤
y max = ⎢ ⋅ yo ...(i)
⎛ P ⎞⎥
⎢1 − ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where Pcr is the critical load.
⎡ π2 EI ⎤
Pc = ⎢ ⎥ ...(ii)
⎢ (k ⋅ L )2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= theoretical Euler elastic critical buckling load
k = factor for effective length of column, varying between 0.5 and 1.0 for frames
braced against sidesway and more than 1.0 for unbraced frames.
In the column hinged at both the ends, the moments acting at upper and lower ends are
M1 = M2 = P.e ...(iii)
Total (amplified or magnified) moment,
Mt = Mmax
Mt = (M1 + P.e) ...(iv)
Since (e = y max) and (M1/P.e) = 1.00
∴ Mt = M1 + P.yo /(1–P/Pcr)
Mt = [M1 (1 – P/Pcr) + P.y0 .(M1/P.e)]/(1 – P/Pcr)
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⎡ ⎛ P y ⎞⎤
⎢ M 1 ⎜1 − + o ⎟⎥
⎝ Pcr e ⎠⎥
Mt = ⎢ ...(v)
⎢ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ Pcr ⎠ ⎦⎥
M1 ⋅ L2 P . e.L2
Since, y0 = = and
8EI 8EI
⎛ π2 EI ⎞ ⎛ 2 π2 EI ⎞
Pcr = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ , ∴ ⎜⎜ L = P ⎟⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ cr ⎠
⎡⎛ P P ⋅ L2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎜1 − + ⎟⎥
⎢⎝ Pcr 8 EI ⎟⎠ ⎥
Mt = M1 ⎢ ⎥ ...(vi)
⎛ P ⎞
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Pcr ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ P π2 ⋅ P ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎜1 − + ⎟⎥
⎢⎝ Pcr 8 Pcr ⎟⎠ ⎥
= M1 ⎢ ⎥ ...(vii)
⎛ P ⎞
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Pcr ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ π2 ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝⎜ ⎝ Pcr ⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 − 1 ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎥
Mt = M1 ⎢ ⎥ ...(viii)
⎢ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎥
⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎢ ⎝ Pcr ⎠
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎛ P⎞
⎜1 + 0.23 ⎟
⎝ Pc ⎠
= M1 ...(ix)
⎛ P ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ Pcr ⎠
Mmax @ M1/(1– P/Pcr) ...(12.25)
12.11.1 For Single Curvature Case

It is to note that term (0.23 P/Pcr) in the expression (ix) had been omitted to put Eq. 12.25. The
error in omitting (023 P/Pcr) varies from 2.3 percent when (P/Pc) = 0.1 to 1.15 when (P/Pcr)
= 0.5.
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A moment magnification factor, δ in an oversimplified view with equal end moments (M1 =
M2 = M) is given by Eq. 12.16 (b). In the elastic range, an approximation for the maximum
bending moment in the columns with equal end moments for columns bent in single curvature
is given by Eq. 12.16 (a) [where Mo = P.e]. The exact value of maximum bending moment is
given by the secant formula [Reference : Popov, E.P., ‘Introduction to the Mechanics of
Solids’, Prentice-Hall, Engle Wood Cliffs, N.J., 1968, (pp 571).
Mmax = M0 sec [0.5π (P/Pcr)1/2) ...(12.26)
The maximum values of bending moments calculated as per Eq. 12.16 (a) and as per Eq. 12.26
have been compared. Their different values for different ratio of (P/Pcr) are as under :
Ratio (P/Pcr) 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00
Mmax (Eq. 12.16 a) 1.11 1.25 1.43 1.67 2.00 2.50 5.00 ∝
Mmax (Eq. 12.26) 1.14 1.31 1.53 1.83 2.25 2.88 6.05 ∝
It is to note that the maximum bending moment as per Eq. 12.16 (a) are on lower side.
However, the agreement between the values calculated by two different equations is better. In
the usual range of low ratio of (P/Pcr) being within 11 percent for (P/Pcr).
12.11.2 For Double Curvature Case

The maximum values of bending moments calculated by using Eq. 12.16 (a), becomes
overconservative if the end moments are unequal and specially when these end moments are
not of the same sign (in which case the column bent in double curvature). For the case of
unequal end moments, the maximum bending moment for the column may be estimated by
replacing Mo by an equivalent uniform moment Cm. Mo. It leads to the same slender column
strength as that from the actual moment pattern. Eq. 12.16 (a) in its modified form becomes as
in Eq. 12.18.
As the stability failures may be sudden or calamitous, it is desirable to have substantial
margin between Pcu and Pcr. Therefore, the values of ratio (Pcu/Pcr) are usually substantially
below 0.5 and the errors so involved may be neglected safely.
In reinforced concrete column, the effective flexural rigidity EI is to be used ; which one
depends on the magnitude and type of loading as well as on the materials. When the load is
sustained for long time creep occurs in concrete and creep modifies the effective EI required.
The maximum bending moment does not always occur at mid-height. The method of calculating
effective EI for moment magnifier approach has been described in the subsequent article.
The moment magnifier method may be illustrated on the interaction diagram of Fig. 12.6.
Let the ultimate column load and moment to be resisted, obtained using a first order elastic
frame analysis be Pcu and Mcu = Pcu.e. Then, the load and moment used in the design of column
cross-section shall be Pcu and 5 times Mcu, where δ is the moment magnification factor. The
point C represents failure load and the moment assumed in design. The point of intersection of
a horizontal line from C with the line OF represents the failure load and moment is obtained
from the conventional structural analysis.
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12.12 EFFECTIVE EI FOR MOMENT-MAGNIFIER APPROACH

In axially or nearly axially loaded columns, the strength of column reduces as the slenderness
increases.
In the column of homogeneous elastic material, (e.g., steel columns), the stiffness against
curvature is measured by EI. The rigidily, EI is easily found from Young’s modulus and the
usual moment of inertia. The reinforced concrete columns consists of non-homogeneous material.
These columns consist of concrete and steel. The effective rigidity, EI of reinforced concrete
members is influenced by creep and cracting in case the tension occurs on the convex side of
the column. The stiffness decreases as concrete in compression approaches the flatter portion of
the stress-strain curve, as creep develops under sustained load, as compression steel yields or
as the concrete cracks (for large eccentricities). In reality, the moment-curvature relationship
for concrete columns varies greatly with the level of axial load. The fairly realistic effective
rigidities may be calculated with due aid of computer by using interative methods. Professors
MacGregor, J.G., Breen J.E and Pfrang, E.O [‘Design of Slender Concrete Columns’, Journal
of American Concrete Institute, Vol. 67, No. 1, January 1970, (pp 6–28)]. Suggested the following
expression for determining due effective flexural rigidity. (It is to note that ACI Code allows
this expression)
⎡ ⎛ Ec ⋅ I gr ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ + ( Es I s ) ⎥
⎝ 5 ⎠
(EI)1 = ⎢ ⎥ ...(12.27)
⎢
⎣ (1 + β d ) ⎥
⎦
Following simpler expression is also permitted
⎡ ⎛ Ec ⋅ I gr ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎥
⎝ 2.5 ⎟⎠ ⎥
(EI)2 = ⎢ ...(12.28)
⎢ (1 + βd ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
In Eqs 12.27 and 12.28, EI are suffixed one and two simply for distinction between two
expressions.
The elastic relationship for curvature is non-linear
M
φ = ...(i)
EI
EI = (M/φ) ...(ii)
For simplification, the actual (M/φ) relationship is approximated by linear expressions as
In case, specially where the percentage of steel in tension, pt, is small (0.01 or upto 0.02 for
small columns) and specially for columns that nearly qualify as short columns, (where the
moment magnifier shall be small), ACI Code recommends Eq. 12.28
where, Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Igr = moment of inertia of gross-section of the column
Is = moment of inertia of reinforcing steel bars about the centroidal axis of member
cross-section
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β d = ratio of maximum factored dead load moment to maximum factored total load
moment, always positive. It provides an allowance for creep.
The effect of creep is approximately accounted for the factor, βd. The sustained dead loads
create the large moments and effect of creep deformation is also large and the corresponding
curvatures shall also be large. Consequently, the larger the sustained loads relative to the
temporary loads, the smaller the effective rigidity, as it is correctly seen from the above
expressions. However, out of concrete and steel, only concrete is subjected to creep. In the
above expression, the creep parameter (1 + βd) should be applied only to the term (Ec.Igr/5)
which refers to concrete only, but not to EsIs. It would improve economy of design, particularly
for more heavily reinforced columns.
EI, a s pe r full e xp ressio n

A ctu al A ctu al
EI 1 a s pe r
EI 2 a s pe r e xp ressio n
sim lifie d
e xp ressio n
EI 2 a s pe r
M om e nt M
M o m en t M
sim lifie d
e xp ressio n
( P / P o = 0.8) ( P / P o ) = 0.2
C u rva tu re φ C u rva tu re φ
(a ) H e avy axia l lo ad s on colum n s (b ) L ig ht axia l loa d s o n colu m ns
(In de x : Th eo re tical , , )
Fig. 12.20 Approximation of stiffness formula for reinforced concrete columns
Equation 12.28 presents a crude approximation that is independent of the actual

reinforcement. It is simpler and more conservative but it is not unreasonable for lightly
reinforced columns. It greatly underestimates the effect of reinforcement for heavily reinforced
columns. It leads to over-design of the columns. Equation. 12.27 is more reliable for the complete
range of percentage of steel, p and it is definitely preferable for medium and high values of p.
In case these equations are plotted, the scatter shall be broad, specially so far EI1. The scatter
is essentially all on the Safe Side. Professors MacGregor, J.G., Oelhafen, V.H. and Hage, S.E.
[‘A Re-examination of the EI value for the slender columns’, Reinforced Concrete Columns,
SP-50, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1975] suggested a reduction in these EI values to
include the effects of sustained loads.
It is sometimes desirable to know the particular percentage of steel, pt that makes EI2 the
larger. Professors Furlong, R.W. [‘Column Slenderness and Charts for Design’, Journal of
American Concrete Institute, Vol. 68, No. 1 January, 1971, (pp 9)] established the break point
by setting the ratio (EI2/EI1) at unity and considered rectangular column with steel on two
faces.
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Dividing Eq. 12.27 by Eq. 12.28,
⎡ ⎛ Ec ⋅ I gr ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ + Es I s ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ (1 + βd ) ⎥
1 = ⎢ ⎥ ...(x)
⎢ ⎛ Ec ⋅ I gr ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ 2.5 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ (1 + βd ) ⎦⎥
⎡ bd3 2 ⎤
⎢ + (Es / Ec ) ⋅ pt ⋅ b ⋅ D
( γD )
⎥
1 = ⎢ 60 4 ⎥ ...(xi)
⎢ ⎛ bD3 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ 30 ⎠ ⎦
where
γ (gamma) = (D – 2dc)/D
= relative distance between the steel on the two faces. Multiplying the numerator
and denominator by (30/bD3),
7.5(Es/Ec).pt .f + 0.5 = 1 ...(12.29)
Let (Es/Ec) be m (the modular ratio of concrete) as in transformed area calculations, then
7.5m.pt .r2 = 0.5 ...(12.30)
2
Based on EI1 = EI2, it is seen that EI2 is the larger when p, exceeds (1/(15 mr ). For design,
it is commonly convenient to use the ratio (EI2 = EI1) times EI1 values than to start fresh on an
EI2 calculations (i.e., to use EI2 = EI1 × (0.5 + 7.5 m.pt.r2).
Example 12.1. Design a bi-axially eccentrically loaded braced rectangular reinforced concrete
column deformed in single curvature for the following data :
Ultimate axial load, Pcu = 1000 kN
Ultimate moment in longer direction at bottom Mcux1 = 110 kN-m
at top Mcux2 = 80 kN-m
Ultimate moment in shorter direction at bottom Mcuy1 = 40 kN-m
at top Mcuy2 = 30 kN-m
Size of column (b × D) = 300 mm × 480 mm
Unsupported length of the column
lu = 5.80 m
Effective length in the long direction
lex = 5.40 m
Effective length in the short direction
ley = 4.20 m
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Solution
Design :
Step 1. Check for long/short column
Ratio (lex/depth of column section)
⎛ lex ⎞ ⎛ 5.4 × 1000 ⎞
⎜D⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.25 < 12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠
Ratio [lxy/least lateral dimension (breadth)]
⎛ ley ⎞ ⎛ 4.2 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 14 > 12
⎝ ⎠D ⎝ 300 ⎠
Therefore, the column is a long in shorter direction.
Minimum eccentricity about x-axis
⎛ lu D⎞
e x.min = ⎜ 500 + 30 ⎟ mm
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 5800 480 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 27.6 mm > 20 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
Moment due to minimum eccenricity about x-axis
Max = Pcu.ex.min
⎛ 1000 × 27.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 27.6 kN-m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
< Mcu.x
Minimum eccentricity about y-axis
⎛ l b ⎞
e y.min = ⎜ u + ⎟ mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 5800 300 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 21.6 mm > 20 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
Moment due to minimum eccentricity about y-axis
Me.y = Pcu . e y.min
⎛ 1000 × 21.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 21.6 mm
⎝ 1000 ⎠
< Mcu.y
Step 3. Additional moment due to slenderness effect
Additional moment due to slenderness effect in shorter direction, from Eqs. 12.8 (a) and
12.8 (b)
Madd.y = Pcu.eadd.y
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⎡ 2
b ⎛ bey ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢1000 × × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ 2000 ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
⎛ 1000 × 300 ⎞ ⎛ 4200 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ = 0.294 kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠
The additional moment Madd.y is reduced by multiplying with a factor k y As per IS : 456–1978,
and from Eq. 12.9 (a)
⎛ Pcu⋅z − Pcu ⎞
k. y = ⎜ P − P ⎟
⎝ cu⋅z b ⎠
Pcu.z and PB are calculated for the assumed area of main reinforcement and its distribution
and then, the column section is checked for its adequacy. Let the percentage of main
reinforcement in column be 2 percent and it shall be equally distributed on all the four sides of
column with effective cover of 60 mm.
From IS : 456–1978
Pcu.z = (0.45 fck . Ac +0.75 fy . Asc)
⎡ 2 ⎤
= ⎢0.45 fck . b.D + (0.75 × 415 – 0.45 fck ) × × b × D⎥
⎣ 100 ⎦
⎡ 0.45 × 20 × 3000 × 480 ⎛ 0.75 × 415 – 0.45 × 20 ⎞ 2 ⎤

= ⎢ +⎜ ⎟ + × 300 × 480 ⎥
⎣ 1000 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ 100 ⎦
= (1296 + 870.48) = 2166.48 kN
From Eqs. 12.10 (a) and 12.10 (b)
PB = (q1 . fck . b.D + q2 . p.b.D)
⎡ ⎛ q ⎞⎤
= ⎢(q1 ) + p ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ . fck.b.D
⎣⎢ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
From Tables 12.2 and 12.3,
d´ = 60 mm, D = 480 mm (for rectangular column)
⎛d⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Hysd steel Fe 415, distributed equally on four faces.
For d´/D ratio q1 q2
0.10 0.207 0.328
0.15 0.196 0.203
0.125 0.2015 0.2655
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⎡ 2 ⎛ 0.2655 ⎞ ⎛ 20 × 300 × 480 ⎞ ⎤

∴ PB = ⎢0.2655 + ×
⎣ 100 ⎜ ⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝
⎟⎜ 1000 ⎟⎥
⎠⎦
⎡ (0.2017655) × (20 × 300 × 480) ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 ⎦
= 581.08 kN
Factor
⎛ 2166.48 – 1000 ⎞
ky = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.736
⎝ 2166.48 – 581.08 ⎠
Reduced additional moment
Mádd.y = (0.736 × 21.6) = 15.893 kN-m
Step 4. Total ultimate factored (design) moment
′ . y = M add
M cu ′ . y + M cu
′ .y
where
Mću.y = 0.6 Mcu.y.max + 0.4 Mcuy.min
= (0.6 × 40 + 0.4 × 30) = 36 kN-m
> 0.4 Ucu.y max
Therefore, Mcu.y = (36 + 15.893) = 51.893 kN-m
Step 4. Calculate following different ratios
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.10
⎝ fck ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 × 1000 ⎞

Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.347
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎝ 20 × 300 × 480 ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125 @ 0.150
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ b ⎟ = ⎜ 300 ⎟ = 0.20
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Step 5. Non-dimensional ratio for moment capacity
From SP: 16–1980 for (d´b) ratio = 0.20, from Chart 46, and
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.347 and
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.10
⎝ fck ⎠
Moment resisting capacity of column subjected to uniaxial bending
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⎛ M cu⋅ y⋅lim ⎞
⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = 0.115
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ 0.115 × 20 × 3000 × 3000 × 480 ⎞

Mcu.y.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 99.36 kN-m
For (d´/D) = 0.15
Moment resisting capacity of column (Chart 45)
⎛ M cux ⋅lim ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎟⎠ = 0.118
ck 2
⎛ 0.118 × 20 × 300 × 480 × 480 ⎞

Mcux.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 163.12 kN-m
Step 7. Check for adequacy of column section for bi-axial bending
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.4616
⎝ fcu.z ⎠ ⎝ 2166.48 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 0.4616 − 0.2 ⎞ ⎤
α n = ⎢1.0 + ⎜ ⎟ × 1.0 ⎥ = 1.436
⎣ ⎝ 0.8000 – 0.2 ⎠ ⎦
Right side of interaction inequality
αn αn
⎛ M cu⋅x ⎞ ⎛ M cu⋅ y ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ M cux ⋅lim ⎠ ⎜ M cuy⋅lim
⎝ ⎠
1.436 1.436
⎛ 110 ⎞ ⎛ 51.893 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 163.12 ⎠ ⎝ 99.36 ⎠
= (0.5679 + 0.3935)
= 0.9614 < 1.0 (safe)
Step 8. Main reinforcement
The strength of given size of column is nearly equal to its value needed, the assumed
percentage of reinforcement is satisfactory. Therefore
Cross-sectional area of main reinforcement
⎛ 2 ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × 300 × 480 ⎟ = 2880 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
Cross-sectional area of one 20 mm φ bar
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
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⎛ 2880 ⎞
Number of bars = ⎜ ⎟ = 9.17
⎝ 314.159 ⎠
Provide 10 Hysd steel bars of 20 mm φ (Asc = 3141.59 mm2) as shown in Fig. 12.21.
3 00 m m
60 60
60
48 0 m m
60
M ain reinfo rcem en t 1 0 x 20 m m ba rs
Fig. 12.21 Design of column carrying axial compression and bi-axial bending

⎛ 20 ⎞
Diameter of lateral ties should not be less than 5 mm or ⎜ ⎟ = 5 mm. 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars
⎝ 4 ⎠
may be used.
Spacing (pitch) of lateral ties
p not more than 300 mm
p not more than (16 × 20) = 320 mm
p not more than (48 × 8) = 384 mm
Therefore, lateral ties are provided at 300 mm spacing.
The distance between corner bars provided as main (longitudinal) reinforcement is (480 – 2
× 60) = 360 mm. It is less than 48 times the 8 mm diameter of steel bars (48 × 8 = 384 mm). The
additional longitudinal bars in between the corner bars are tied by open ties as suggested in
IS : 456–1978 for arrangement of transverse reinforcement. The details of arrangement are
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Example 12.2. In Example 12.1, in case the unsupported length of column, lu is 6.80 m.
The effective lengths of column in long and short directions are 6.60 m and 4.40 m, respectively.
Design the column.
Solution
Design :
Ratio [lex/depth of column section]
⎛ lex ⎞ ⎛ 6.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜D⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 13.75 > 12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠
Ratio [ley/least lateral dimension (breadth)]
⎛ ley ⎞ ⎛ 4.40 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 16.67 > 12
⎝ ⎠b ⎝ 300 ⎠
Therefore, the column is a long column about both the directions of bending.
Step 2. Moment due to minimum eccentricities
Minimum eccentricity about x-axis
⎛ l D⎞
e x.min = ⎜ u + ⎟ mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
Minimum eccentricity about y-axis
⎛ ly b ⎞
e y.min = ⎜ + ⎟ mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 6800 480 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 23.6 mm > 20 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
Moment due to eccentricity about x-axis
Mex = Pcu . ex.min
⎛ 1000 × 29.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 29.6 kN-m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Moment due to eccentricity about y-axis
Me.y = Pcu . ey.min
⎛ 1000 × 23.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 23.6 kN-m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Additional moment due to slenderness effect about x-axis
Madd.x = Pcu.eadd.x
⎡ 2
D ⎛l ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢1000 × × ⎜ ex ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2000 ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
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⎡⎛ 1000 × 480 ⎞ ⎛ 6600 ⎞2 ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 1000 × 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 45.375 kN-m
Additional moment due to slenderness effect about y-axis
Madd.y = Pcu.eadd.y
⎡ 2
b ⎛ ley ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢1000 × × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ 2000 ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡⎛ 1000 × 300 ⎞ ⎛ 4400 ⎞2 ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1000 × 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 32.26 kN-m
These additional moments Madd.x and Madd.y are reduced by multiplying with k factorsr As
per IS : 456–1978
⎛ P − Pcu ⎞
kx = ⎜ cu⋅z ⎟
⎜ Pcuz − PB x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ P − Pcu ⎞
and ky = ⎜ cuz ⎟
⎜ Pcuz − PB y ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Pcuz and PBx and PBy are calculated for the assumed area of main reinforcement and its
distribution and then, the column section is checked for its adequacy. Let the percentage of
reinforcement be 3 percent and it shall be equally distributed as all the four sides of column
with effective cover of 60 mm.
Pcuz = (0.45 fck . Ac + 0.75 fy . Asc)
3
= [0.45 fck.bD + (0.75 fy . 0.45 fck) × × b × D]
100
⎡⎛ 0.45 × 20 × 300 × 480 ⎞ ⎛ 0.75 × 415 – 0.45 × 20 ⎞ 3 ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ × × 300 × 480 ⎥
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ 100 ⎦
= (1296 + 1305.72) = 2601.72 kN
From Eqs. 12.10 (a) and 12.10 (b)
Pb.x = q1 fck.b.D + q2. P.b.D
⎡ ⎛ q ⎞⎤
= ⎢(q1 ) + p ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D
⎣⎢ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎦⎥
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From Tables 12.2 and 12.3

d´ = 60 mm, D = 480 mm
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Hysd steel bars Fe 415, distributed equally in four faces
0.10 0.207 0.328
0.15 0.196 0.203
0.125 0.2015 0.2655
⎡ 3 ⎛ 0.2655 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 20 × 300 × 480 ⎞
Pb.x = ⎢(0.2015 ) + × ⎟⎥ × ⎜ ⎟
⎣ 100 ⎜ ⎝ 20 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎡ 2.018982 × 20 × 300 × 480 ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥ = 581.467 kN
⎣ 1000 ⎦
d´ = 60 mm, b = 300 mm
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
⎜ b ⎟ = ⎜ 300 ⎟ = 0.20
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Hysd steel bars Fe 415, distributed equally on four faces, from Tables 12.2 and 12.3 (for
rectangular column)
0.20 0.184 0.028
From Eqs. 12.10 (b)
⎡ ⎛ q ⎞⎤
PB.y = ⎢(q1 ) + p ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D
⎢⎣ ⎝ fck ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 ⎛ 0.028 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 20 × 3000 × 480 ⎞

= ⎢0.184 + ×
⎣ 100 ⎜⎝ 20 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟
⎠
⎡ 0.184042 × 20 × 300 × 480 ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1000 ⎦
= 530.041 kN
Therefore, factors
⎛ P − Pcu ⎞
kx = ⎜ cuz ⎟
⎜ Pcuz − PB x ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 2601.72 − 1000 ⎞ ⎛ 1601.72 ⎞

= ⎜ = = 0.793
⎝ 2601.72 − 581.461 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2020.259 ⎟⎠
⎛ 2601.72 − 1000 ⎞ ⎛ 1601.72 ⎞

ky = ⎜ = = 0.773
⎝ 2601.72 − 530.041 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2071.679 ⎟⎠
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Reduced additional moment about x-axis

M add.x
′ = kx . M add.x
′
= (0.793 × 45.375) = 35.982 kN-m
Reduced additional moment about y-axis
M add.y
′ = kx . M add.y
′
= (0.113 × 32.26) = 24.937 kN-m
Step 4. Total ultimate factored (design) moments
Total ultimate moment about x-axis
Mcu.x = ( M cux
′ + M add.x
′ )
where
′ = (0.6 Mcux.max + 0.4 Mcux.min)
M cux
= (0.6 × 110 + 0.4 × 80) = 98 kN-m
> 0.4 Mcux.min
∴ Mcux = (98 + 35.982) = 133.982 kN-m
Total ultimate moment about y-axis
where
Mćuy = (0.6 Mcuy.max + 0.4 Mcuy.min)
= (0.6 × 40 + 0.4 × 30) = 36 kN-m
Mcuy = (36 + 24.937) = 60.937 kN-m
Step 5. Calculate the following ratios
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.15
f
⎝ ck ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 × 1000 ⎞

Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.347
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠ ⎝ 20 × 300 × 480 ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125 @ 0.150
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.20
⎝b⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
Step 6. Non-dimensional ratio for moment capacities
From SP : 16–1980
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.150, and ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.15
⎝D⎠ ⎝ fck ⎠
Moment resisting capacity of column (Chart 45)
2 ⎟ = 0.164
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
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⎛ 0.164 × 20 × 30 × 480 × 480 ⎞

Mcux.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 226.71 kN-m
⎛ d´ ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.20, from Chart 46
⎝b⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.347
⎝ fck ⋅ b ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ p ⎞
and ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.15
⎝ fck ⎠
⎛ M cuy⋅lim ⎞
⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ = 0.135
⎝ fck ⋅ b D ⎠
⎛ 0.135 × 20 × 300 × 300 × 480 ⎞

Mcu.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 116.64 kN-m
Step 7. Check for adequacy of column section for biaxial bending
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.384
⎝ Pcuz ⎠ ⎝ 2601.72 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 0.384 − 0.2 ⎞ ⎤
α n = ⎢0.1 + ⎜ × 1.0 ⎥ = 1.306
⎣ 0.800 − 0.2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎦
αn αn
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ M cuy⋅lim
⎝ M cux ⋅lim ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1.306 1.306
⎛ 133.982 ⎞ ⎛ 60.937 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 226.71 ⎠ ⎝ 116.64 ⎠
= (0.502 + 0.428) = 0.903 < 1.00 safe.
Step 8. Main reinforcement
The strength of given size of column is nearly equal to its value needed, the assumed
percentage of reinforcement is satisfactory. Therefore
Cross-sectional area of main reinforcement
⎛ 3 ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × 300 × 480 ⎟ = 4320 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
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Cross-sectional area of one bar 25 mm

Aφ = 490.874 mm2
⎛ 4320 ⎞
Number of bars = ⎜ ⎟ = 8.8 @ 10 bars
⎝ 490.874 ⎠
Diameter of lateral ties
φtr </ 5 mm
1
</ φ of main reinforcement bar
4
(viz., 0.25 × 25 = 6.25 mm)
Therefore, 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be used for lateral ties.
Spacing (i.e., pitch) of lateral ties
p </ b (breadth of column section, i.e., 300 mm)
p </ 16 times φ (i.e., 16 × 25 = 400 mm)
p </ 48 times φtr (i.e.148 × 8 = 384 mm)
The lateral ties are provided at 300 mm spacing centre to centre. The spacing between the
corners bars is less than 48 times the diameter of transverse reinforcement bar, the lateral ties
shall be arranged as shown in Fig. 12.22.
3 00 m m
60 60
60
48 0 mm
60
M ain reinfo rcem en t 1 0 x 20 m m ba rs
Fig. 12.22 Design of column carrying axial compression and bi-axial bending
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Example 12.3 In Example 12.2, in case the circular column of diameter 480 mm is to be
used, design the column.
Solution
Design :
Ratio [lex/diameter of circular column]
⎛ lex ⎞ ⎛ 6.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜D⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 13.75 > 12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠
Ratio [ley/diameter of circular column]
⎛ ley ⎞ ⎛ 4.40 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 14.67 > 12
⎝ ⎠D ⎝ 300 ⎠
Therefore, the column is a long column about both the directions of bending.
Minimum eccentricities about x-axis and y-axis are equal. (e x.min = e y.min)
⎛ ly D⎞
e x.min = ⎜ + ⎟ mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠
⎛ 6800 480 ⎞
= ⎜ + = 29.6 mm > 20 mm
⎝ 500 30 ⎠⎟
Moments due to minimum eccentricities about x-axis and y-axis are equal (Mex = Mey)
Mex = Pcu . ex.min
⎛ 1000 × 29.6 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 29.6 kN-m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Additional moment due to slenderness effect about x-axis
Madd.x = Pcu . eadd.x
⎡ 2
D ⎛l ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ Pcu × × ⎜ ex ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2000 ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 1000 × 480 ⎞ ⎛ 6600 ⎞2 ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1000 × 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 45.375 kN-m
Additional moment due to slenderness effect about y-axis
Madd.y = Pcu .eadd.y
⎡ 2
D ⎛ ley ⎞ ⎤
⎢
= Pcu × ×⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ 2000 ⎝ D ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
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⎡⎛ 1000 × 480 ⎞ ⎛ 4400 ⎞2 ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 1000 × 2000 ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 20.167 kN-m
These additional moments Madd.x and Madd.y are reduced by multiplying with k factors. As
per IS : 456–1978 (factors kx and ky shall be equal)
⎛ P − Pcu ⎞
kx = ⎜ cuz ⎟⎟
⎜ Pcuz − PB .x
⎝ ⎠
Pcuz and PB are calculated for the assumed area of main reinforcement. The reinforcement
shall be equally distributed along its periphery. The main reinforcement shall be tied with
lateral ties or spirals. The column is designed accordingly as described as under:
(A) Column with lateral ties. Let the percentage of reinforcement be 3 percent. 25 mm
diameter bars shall be provided as main reinforcement. Let the effective cover be 60 mm. From
IS : 456–1978
Pcuz = (0.45 fck . Ac + 0.15 fy . Asc)
⎡ 0.45 × 20 π ⎛ 0.75 × 415 – 0.45 × 20 ⎞ 3 π ⎤
= ⎢ × × 4802 + ⎜ ⎟ × × × 4802 ⎥
⎣ 1000 4 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ 100 4 ⎦
= [(1628.60 + 1640.82)] = 3269.42 kN
PB = (q1 fck . Agr + q2 . p . Agr)
From Tables 12.2 and 12.3
d´ = 60 mm, D = 480 mm
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Hysd steel bars Fe 415, distributed uniformly along the periphery
⎛ d´ ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ ratio q1 q2
⎝D⎠
0.10 0.160 0.323
0.15 0.149 0.201
0.125 0.1545 0.2620
⎡ 0.1545 × 20 π 0.2620 π ⎤
PB = ⎢ × × 4802 + × 3 × × 4802 ⎥
⎣ 10000 4 1000 4 ⎦
= (559.153 + 142.23) = 701.384 kN
⎛ 3269.42 – 1000 ⎞
kx = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.8837
⎝ 3269.42 – 701.384 ⎠
and ky = kx
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′ ⋅x = kx . Madd.x
M add
= (0.8837 × 45.375) = 40.10 kN-m
′ ⋅ y = (0.8837 × 20.167) = 17.822 kN-m
M add
Step 4(A) Total ultimate factored (design) moment
Mcux = Mćux + Mádd.x
where
Mćux = (0.6 × Mcux.max+ 0.4 Mcux.min)
= (0.6 × 110 + 0.4 × 80) = 98 kN-m
> 0.4 Mcux.max
Mcux = (98 + 40.101) = 138.10 kN-m
Mcuy = Mćuy + M add
′ ⋅y
where
′ = (0.6 Mcuy.max + 0.4 Mcuy.min)
M cux
= (0.6 × 40 + 0.4 × 30) = 36 kN-m
= 0.4 Mcuy.max
Mcuy = (36 + 17.822) = 53.822 kN-m
Step 5(A) Calculate the following ratios
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.15
⎝ fck ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 × 1000 ⎞

Ratio ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜
⎟ ⎟ = 0.216
f
⎝ ck ⋅ D ⎠ ⎝ 20 × 480 × 480 ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ 60 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ D ⎟ = ⎜ 480 ⎟ = 0.125 @ 0.150
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Step 6(A) Non-dimensional ratio for moment capacities
From SP: 16–1980
⎛ d´ ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.150, and ⎜ ⎟ ratio = 0.15
D
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ fck ⎠
Moment resisting capacity for circular column (Chart 57)
⎜⎜ 3
⎟⎟ = 0.105
⎝ fck ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ 105 × 20 × 480 × 480 × 480 ⎞

Mcux.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
= 232.24 kN-m
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Step 7(A) Check for adequacy of column section for biaxial bending
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3059
⎝ Pxuz ⎠ ⎝ 3269.42 ⎠
⎛ 0.3059 – 0.2 ⎞
α n = ⎜1.0 + × 1.0 ⎟ = 1.1764
⎝ 0.8000 – 0.2 ⎠
αn αn
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ M cuy⋅lim
⎝ M cux ⋅lim ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1.1764 1.1764
⎛ 138.10 ⎞ ⎛ 53.822 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 232.24 ⎠ ⎝ 232.24 ⎠
= (0.5425 + 0.1791) = 0.7216 < 1.00.
Step 8(A) Main reinforcement
The strength of column is nearly equal to its value needed, the assumed percentage of
reinforcement is used.
⎛ 3 π ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × × 480 × 480 ⎟ = 5428.67 mm2
⎝ 100 4 ⎠
Aφ = 490874 mm2
⎛ 5428.67 ⎞
Number of bars = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.059 (say 12)
⎝ 490.874 ⎠
The details of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 12.23 (a).
Step 9(A) Transverse reinforcement
Diameter of lateral ties
φtr <| 5 mm
φtr <| φ [i.e., 0.25 × 25 = 6.25 mm)
Provide 8 mm diameter lateral ties.
Spacing (pitch) of lateral ties
p >| Dcore [i.e., (480 – 60 – 60 + 8 + 8) = 376 mm]
p >| (16 × 25 = 400 mm)
p >| (48 × 8 = 384 mm)
The details of lateral ties are also shown in Fig. 12.23 (a).
(B) Column with spirals
Let the percentage of reinforcement be 3 percent. 25 mm diameter bars shall be provided as
main reinforcement. Let the effective cover be 60 mm. From IS : 456–1978, for column with
spirals,
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Pcuz = 1.05 × Pcm (column with lateral ties)

= (1.05 × 3269.42) = 3432.89 kN
PB = 1.05 PB (column with lateral ties)
= (1.05 × 701.384) = 736.45 kN
⎛ 3432.89 – 1000 ⎞
kx = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9023
⎝ 3432.89 – 736.45 ⎠
′ ⋅x = kx . M add
M add ′ ⋅x
= (0.9023 × 45.375)
= 40.94 kN-m
′ ⋅ y = (0.9023 × 20.167) = 18199 kN-m
M add
Step 4(B) Total ultimate factored (design) moment
Mcux = M cux
′ + M add
′ ⋅x
where M cux
′ from step 4(A) above
′ = 98 kN-m
M cux
Mcux = (98 + 40.94) = 138.94 kN-m
where M cuy
′ from step 4(A) above
M cuy
′ = 36 kN-m
M cuy
′ = (36 + 18.199) = 54.199 kN-m
Step 5(B) Calculate the following ratios
From step 5(A)
⎛ p ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.15
⎝ fck ⎠
⎛ Pcu ⎞
Ratio ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = 0.216
⎟
⎝ fck ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ d´ ⎞
Ratio ⎜ D ⎟ = 0.125 @ 0.150
⎝ ⎠
Step 6(B) Non-dimensional ratio for moment capacities
For above ratios and circular column (Chart 57), moment resisting capacity
⎜⎜ 3
⎟⎟ = 0.105
⎝ fck ⋅ D ⎠
⎛ 0.105 × 20 × 480 × 480 × 480 ⎞

Mcux.lim = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ×1000 ⎠
= 232.24 kN-m
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Step 7(B) Check for adequacy of column section for biaxial bending
⎛ Pcu ⎞ ⎛ 1000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2913
⎝ Pcuz ⎠ ⎝ 3432.89 ⎠
⎛ 0.2913 − 0.2 ⎞
α n = ⎜1.0 + × 1.0 ⎟ = 1.1522
⎝ 0.8000 − 0.2 ⎠
αn αn
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ M cuy⋅lim
⎝ M cux ⋅lim ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1.1522 1.1522
⎛ 138.10 ⎞ ⎛ 54.199 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ 232.24 ⎠ ⎝ 232.24 ⎠
= (0.5533 + 0.1870) = 0.7403 < 1.0
Step 8(B) Main reinforcement
The strength of column is nearly equal to its value needed, the assumed percentage of
reinforcement is used.
⎛ 3 π ⎞
Asc = ⎜ × × 480 × 480 ⎟ = 5428.67 mm2
⎝ 100 4 ⎠
Aφ = 490874 mm2
⎛ 5428.67 ⎞
Number of bars = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.059 (say 12)
⎝ 490.874 ⎠
The details of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 12.23 (b).
Step 9(B) Transverse reinforcement
Diameter of spirals
| 5 mm
φtr <
⎛1 ⎞
| ⎜ × 25 = 6.25 mm⎟
<
⎝4 ⎠
Provide 8 mm diameter spirals.
Core diameter = (480 – 60 – 60 + 8) = 368 mm
Spacing (pitch) of spirals
p <| 75 mm
1 ⎛1 ⎞
p <
| th core diameter ⎜ × 368 = 6133 mm⎟
6 ⎝6 ⎠
p <
| 25 mm
| 3θ spirals, (3 × 8 = 24 mm)
p <
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Pitch of spirals shall be kept 50 mm.

The details of main and spiral reinforcement are shown in Fig. 12.23 (b).
8 m m la tera l 8 m m sp ira ls
ties
1 2 B ars 2 5 m m φ 1 2 b ars 2 5 m m φ
(a ) C o lu m n w ith la te ral ties (b ) C o lu m n w ith sp ira ls
Fig. 12.23 Circular column carrying axial compression and biaxial bending
Step 10(B) Requirement of spiral reinforcement

The circular column with spiral reinforcement may take load 1.05 times the load supported
by column with lateral ties, in case the following requirements specified by IS: 456–1978 is
satisfied.
The ratio of volume of helical reinforcement to the volume of core shall not be less than
⎛ Agr ⎞ ⎛f ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ Agr ⎞ f
0.36 ⎜ − 1⎟ × ⎜ ck ⎟ , ⎜ h ⎟ <
| 0.36 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ × ck
A
⎝ c f V
⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ core ⎠ ⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
Volume of helical reinforcement
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
⎢ ⎜⎝ × 8 × 8⎟⎠ ⎥
4
Vh = ⎢( π × 360) × ⎥ mm3
⎢⎣ p ⎥⎦
⎛ 56848.92 ⎞ 3
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1136.98 mm /mm
⎝ 50 ⎠
Volume of core per 1 mm
π
Vcore = × (368 × 368 × 1)
4
= 106361.76 mm3/mm
⎛ Vh ⎞ ⎛ 1136.98 ⎞
⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 106361.76 ⎟ = 0.01069
core ⎝ ⎠
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⎛π ⎞
Agr = ⎜ × 4802 ⎟ = 180955.74 mm2
⎝4 ⎠
Ar = 106361.76 mm2
⎛ Agr ⎞ ⎛ 180955.74 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.70132
⎝ Ac ⎠ ⎝ 106361.76 ⎠
⎛ Agr ⎞ f ⎡ 20 ⎤
0.36 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ × ck = ⎢0.36 (1.70132 − 1) × = 0.01216
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy ⎣ 415 ⎥⎦
Two sides of above inequalities are practically equal. Hence, it is alright.
PROBLEMS
12.1. Design a bi-axially eccentrically loaded braced rectangular reinforced concrete column
deformed in single curvature for the following data
Ultimate axial load, Pcu = 1500 kN
Ultimate moment in longer direction,
at bottom Mcu × 1 = 160 kN-m
at top Mcu × 2 = 100 kN-m
Ultimate moment in shorter direction,
at bottom Mcu.y1 = 60 kN-m
at top Mcu.y2 = 40 kN-m
Size of column (b × D) = 380 mm × 580 mm
Unsupported length of the column, lu = 6.40 m
Effective length in the long direction, ly = 6.20 m
Effective length in the short direction, lty = 3.80 m
12.2. In Problem 12.1, in case the effective lengths of column in long and short directions
are 6 m and 5.80 m, respectively, design the column.
12.3. In Problem 12.2, in case the circular column of diameter 580 is to be used, design the
column.
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PART VI : DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
Design of Independent
13 Footings
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The portion of a structure above the plinth is called as super-structure and the portion of a
structure below the plinth is known as sub-structure. The sub-structure is also defined as that
part of the structure which is usually placed below the surface of the ground. The footing or
foundation is defined as that part of sub-structure which remains in contact with the soil or
rock. The footing or foundation transmits safely the load (the dead load of the super-structure,
the live load (as in dwellings, warehouses, industrial buildings) or fill (as in soil, bunkers, tank
supporting structures and the like), the ground effects of various lateral forces (such as wind,
blast or earthquake) to the soil stratum of sufficient strength and distributes and load over a
sufficiently large area of that stratum so that the bearing pressure developed in the soil remains
less than the safe bearing capacity of the soil and it is ensured that any settlement which may
occur shall be nearly uniform as possible and the differential settlement of the various parts of
the structure shall be eliminated as nearly as possible. In case the satisfactory soil directly
underlies the structure, it is simply essential to spread the load by the footing. In case the
adequate soil is not seen immediately below the structure, it becomes essential to provide deep
foundations (such as piles or caissons) to transfer the load to deeper and firm layers. In case
the forces to be transferred to the soil are of dynamic character, an allowance for impact should
be included in the estimate of their magnitude unless a more exact evaluation is needed. The
footings also include the foundation elements that are provided to resist the uplift, overturning
and the sliding.
There are many ways and means to transmit these forces into the soil. These depend primarily
on the magnitude of load, the stiffness and the structural behaviour of the super-structure, the
bearing capacity of the soil in general and that of a certain stratum in particular, the depth
below the ground surface where the soil stratum of sufficient strength is encountered. The
design of foundation for a structure comprises of three stages. In the first stage, the nature of
the ground is seen and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is evaluated. In the second stage,
the type of foundation is decided and the suitability of one or more types is compared. In the
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third stage, the selected foundation to transmit and distribute the loads from the structure to
the ground is designed. Professor Terzaghi gave the criterion and defined the shallow foundation
in case its depth is equal to, or less than its width and the deep foundation, in case its depth is
more than its width. The design of independent or isolated footings has been described in this
chapter while the design of combined footings have been described in Chapter 14.
13.2 TYPES OF INDEPENDENT FOOTINGS

The independent footings are also known as isolated footing. The independent footings are
defined as the footings which support the individual columns. The independent footings
distribute and spread the load of sufficiently large area of the soil stratum to minimize the
bearing pressure therefore, these types of footings are referred as spread footings. The
independent spread footings are of two types, namely, axially loaded independent spread
footings, and eccentrically loaded independent spread footings. The axially loaded spread
footings are used to resist column loads that are concentric (axial) with the centroid of footing.
Theoretically, and shape may be used for such footings. The wall footings (which is a continuous
strip of concrete that support a bearing wall) as shown in Fig. 13.1 (a), the square footing and
the rectangular footing as shown in Fig. 13.1 (b) the circular footing as shown in Fig. 13.1 (c)
and the sloped footing as shown in Fig. 13.1 (d) are the footings which are commonly used.
P P P P
E levatio n E levatio n E levatio n E levatio n
P lan P lan P lan P lan

(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
W a ll/step pe d S q ua re /recta n gu la r C ircu la r fo o tin g S lop ed fo o tin g
fo otin g fo otin g
Fig. 13.1 Axially loaded independent spread footing
However round and polygonal footings are provided under certain conditions. These footings
may be solid or without a central portion (viz., like a ring). In these footings, the bearing
pressure distribution is usually assumed uniform over the complete area. Many times, a pedestal
is provided between the column and the footing slab. The pedestal provides for a more favourable
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Design of Independent Footings 761
transfer of the load. In many gases the pedestal is needed in order to provide the necessary
development length. The spread of footing is done by providing steps as shown in the wall
foiling and the footing is referred as stepped footing. In stepped footing, the concrete must be
poured in a single pour in order to provide monolithic action. The sloped footings need less
concrete as compared to the stepped footing. However, the additional labour required to produce
the sloping surfaces usually makes the stepped footings convenient and more economical.
The eccentrically loaded independent spread footings or independent spread footings subjected
to axial load and moment at the base shall be described later on this chapter.
13.3 BEARING PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL

The load from a wall or a column is transferred vertically and axially to the footing. All the soils
compress noticeably when loaded, as a result of which the bearing pressure develops in the
soil, which acts in the upward direction and supports the load. The vertical axial load acting
P P P
(a ) B e aring pre ssu re (b ) B e aring p ressure (c) B e aring p ressure

gra in ular so il coh esive so il u nifo rm (A ssu m ed )
Fig. 13.2 Bearing pressure distribution in soils
downward is symmetrical with respect to the bearing area. The actual bearing pressure
distribution under the footing resting on the coarse-grained soil is larger at the centre of the
footing and reduces toward the perimeter (edges) as shown in Fig. 13.2 (a). The individual
grains in the granular soils are somewhat mobiles. Such soils near the edges shift very slightly
in the outward direction of smaller soil pressure. Whereas, the actual bearing pressure
distribution under the footings resting on the clay soils is higher nearer the edges that at the
centre of the footing as shown in Fig. 13.2 (b). In clay soil (cohesive soils), a shear resistance
around the perimeter develops, which adds to the upward pressure. The numerical values of
the bearing pressure in both these types of soils are uncertain and highly variable. It is customary
to disregard the non-uniformities. The bearing pressure distribution is assumed as uniformly
distributed as shown in Fig. 13.4 (c) over the entire bearing area for reasons of simplicity and
it is common design practice. This assumption is on the safe side as the most of the common soil
types develop uniform bearing pressure distribution.
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13.4 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

The maximum bearing capacity of the soil is evaluated from the consideration of soil mechanics.
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum allowable bearing pressure. It is a combined
function of both the site conditions and the characteristics of the super-structure proposed to be
constructed on the ground. It is defined as the maximum intensity of load on the ground. It is
determined from the ultimate bearing capacity of soil (defined as the intensity of loading at
the base of a foundation which will result shear failure of the soil support) or type of tolerable
settlement expected and the capability of the proposed structure to take up this settlement. The
safe bearing capacity (viz., the maximum intensity of loading that the soil will carry safely
without any possibility of the shear failure irrespective of any settlement that may occur) is
found on the basis of plate load tests and other experimental determinations. Professors R.B.
Peck, W.E. Hanson, and T.H. Thornburn ‘Foundation Engineering’ second edition, published
by John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York, 1974 and Professors K. Terzaghi and R.B Peck ‘Soil
Mechanics in Engineering Practice’ second edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York. 1967
references may be seen for this purpose. The allowable bearing pressures, qa under service
loads are obtained by assuming appropriate factor of safety (2.5 to 3.0) against exceeding the
ultimate bearing capacity of the particular soil and the settlements are kept within the tolerable
limits. Many building codes specify the allowable bearing pressures for the various types of
soils and soil conditions found in the particular locality. The safe bearing pressure (defined as
the maximum intensity of loading that the soil will carry without exceeding the settlement
prescribed for the structure. The bearing capacity of soil is equal to safe bearing capacity of
safe bearing pressure whichever is less.
The area of footing base must be adequate to care for the column load, self weight of the
footing, and weight of any over burden (if any) under the footing. Sometimes this overall
pressure called gross soil pressure to distinguish it from the net soil pressure. The weight of
footing and overburden is usually nearly uniform over the footing area. The design moment or
shear on any section is the result of the gross soil pressure acting upward less the design of
footing and other overburden weight acting downward. It is convenient to think in terms of
the resultant load or net soil pressure, that is the difference between these the resultant load or
net soil pressure, that is the difference between these upward and downard unit pressure. The
simplest way to determine the net pressure caused by the vertical axial load (i.e., without
moment) is to divide the design column load by the footing area. The safe bearing capacities of
the soils are given in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Safe bearing capacity, σbr
S No. Types of rocks/soil σbr kN/m 2 Remarks
1 2 3 4
1. Rocks
(a) Rocks-hard without lamination 3300 —
and defects, e.g., granite, trap and diorite)
(b) Laminated rocks, (e.g., sand stone 1650 —
and lime stone in sound condition)
Contd.
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Table 13.1 Contd.

1 2 3 4
(c) Residual deposits of shattered and broken 900 —
bed rock and hard shale, cemented material
(d) Soft rock. 450 —
2. Non-cohesive soils
(a) Gravel, sand and gravel, compact 450 (See NB : 2)
and offering high resistance to
penetration when excavated by tools
(b) Coarse sand, compact and dry* 450
(c) Medium sand, compact and dry* 250
the base of the foundation
(d) Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily 150 —
pulverized by the fingers)
(e) Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, 150 —
loose coarse to medium sand, dry
(f) Fine sand, loose and dry 100 —
3. Cohesive soils
(a) Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in 450 Susceptible to long
deep bed dry term consolidation
settlement
(b) Medium clay, readily indented 250 —
with a thumb-nail
(c) Moist clay and sand clay mixture which 150 —
can be indented with strong thumb pressure
(d) Soft clay indented with moderate 100 —
thumb pressure
(e) Very soft clay which can be penetrated 50 (See NB : 3)
several centimetres with the thumb
(f) Black cotton soil or other shrinkable — To be found by
or expansive clay in dry condition investigation
(50 percent saturation)
4. Peat
Peat — (See NB : 3 and 4)
5. Made-up ground
Fills or made up ground — (See NB : 3 and 4)
*Depth of water table <
| width of foundation below the base of the foundation
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( Note. 1. Values listed in Table 13.1 above are from the shear considerations only
2. Values listed above are very much rough due to the following reasons :
(i) Effect of characteristics of foundations (i.e., effect of depth, width, shape, roughness, etc.) has not been
considered.
(ii) Effect of range of soil properties (i.e., angle of frictional resistance, cohesion, water table, density, etc.
has not been considered.
(iii) Effect of eccentricity and indication of loads has not been considered.
3. For non-cohesive soils, the values listed in Table 13.1 shall be reduced by 50 percent if the water table is above
or near the base of footing.
4. Compression or looseness of non-cohesive soils may be determined by driving the cone of 65 mm diameter and
60° apex angle by a hammer of 0650 kN falling from 750 mm. If corrected number of blows (N) for 300 mm
penetration are less than 10, the soil is called loose, if N lies between 10 and 30, it is called medium, if more
than 30, the soil is called dense.
(Reference: IS 6403-–1971: Code of practice for determination of allowable bearing pressure on shallow
foundations).
5. Ultimate bearing capacity of soil. The ultimate bearing capacity of soil, qu may be assumed as twice
the safe bearing capacity, viz.,
(qu = 2 × qo)
13.5 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

The depth of foundation is decided by keeping the following factors into consideration.
(i) The safe bearing capacity of soil is secured.
(ii) In case of clay, the foundation is to be penetrated below the zone where shrinkage and
swelling of soils due to seasonal weather changes are likely to cause significant movement.
(iii) In case of fine sands and silts, the foundation is to be penetrated below the zone in
which the trouble may be expected from the frost.
(iv) The foundation is carried sufficiently below the maximum depth of scour (if likely to
occur).
IS : 1080–1962 recommends that a minimum depth of foundation of atleast 500 mm below
natural ground level should be provided in all types of soils. In case of rock or such other
weather-resisting natural ground, the top soil may be removed. The surface is cleaned. If
necessary, the surface is stepped or otherwise prepared to provide a suitable bearing. The
slipping or any other movement is prevented. The minimum depth of foundation is determined
by Ranknie formula
2
p ⎡1 − sin φ ⎤
hmin = ...(13.1)
r ⎢⎣1 + sin φ ⎥⎦
where hmin = minimum depth of foundation
p = gross bearing capacity of the soil
r = density of soil
φ = angle of repose of the soil
In case there had been excavation, ditch, pond, water course and the earth is filled up (viz.,
in filled up ground or similar conditions adjoining to the subsoil on which the structure is
proposed to be constructed) which is likely to damage the stability of a structure, either the
foundation of such structure shall be placed to a depth beyond the damage influence of these
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conditions or earth retaining structures (viz., retaining walls) are built for the purpose of sheilding
from the damaging effects.
13.6 THICKNESS AT EDGE OF FOOTING

IS : 456–1978 recommends that in the reinforced and plain concrete footings, the thickness at
edge shall be not less than 150 mm for footings or soils, nor less than 300 mm above the tops of
piles for footings on piles.
The sloped or stepped footings, are designed as a unit shall be constructed to assure action
as a unit. The effective cross-section in compression shall be limited by the area above the
neutral plane, and the angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall be such that the
design requirements are satisfied at every section.
C o lu m n
E B D F
P lain co ncrete
p ed esta l
9 0° 9 0°
α
α α
A C
Fig. 13.3
In case of plain concrete pedestals, the angle α between the plain passing through the
bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal
and the horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 13.3. It shall be controlled by Eq. 13.2
1
tan α < 0.9 ⎡⎢100q0 + 1⎤⎥

2
...(13.2)
⎣ fck ⎦
where q0 = calculate maximum bearing pressure at the base of the pedestal in N/mm2 and
fck = characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2
BE AE
Deciding the width of projection , the depth of pedestal may be calculated as under:
DE CF
⎛ BE ⎞
tan (90 – α) = ⎜ ...(i)
⎝ AE ⎟⎠
Therefore, AE = BE . tan α ...(ii)
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13.7 MOMENT AND BENDING MOMENTS IN FOOTINGS

IS : 456–1978 specific that in case of footings on piles, computation for moments may be based
on the assumption that the reaction from any pile is concentrated at the centre of the pile.
For the purpose of calculating stresses in footings which support a round or hexagonal
octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal shall be taken as the
side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round or octagonal column or pedestal as
shown in Fig. 13.4.
(a ) R o un d co lum n (b ) H e xa go na l co lu m n (c) O cta go na l co lu m n

p ed esta l p ed esta l p ed esta l
Fig. 13.4 Square column inscribed inside
13.7.1 Bending Moments

The column load coming on the footing is not distributed evenly over the complete foundations.
At first, a large part of the load comes directly under the column and this produces a small
settlement of the footing directly under the column. In case, the column would have not
connection with the footing, the settlement would have continued until the ground compressed
sufficiently to hold the load. But the column is actually connected with the footing, the downward
C o lu m n
C a ntile ver C a ntile ver

p rojection p rojection
Fo otin g ∆
∆
cracks
B e nd in g of fo oting p rojection s ∆ = S e ttlem e nt of colu m n

(Fa ilure o f foo tin g )
Fig. 13.5
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movement of the column in the beginning produces shear in the adjacent sections and forces
them down, although to a slightly less degree because of bending produced. These sections in
turn bring their neighbouring sections into play, so that finally the complete footing presses on
the earth and complete footing settles. The magnitude of settlement is less at the edge than at
the centre. Therefore, the cantilever projections projecting out from the column in both the
directions and loaded upward by the soil pressure bends in a curve as shown in Fig. 13.5.
Due to bending of the cantilever projections as shown in Fig. 13.5, the bending tensile stresses
develop in both these directions at the bottom surface. Therefore, the steel bars are provided as
reinforcement in tension in two layers perpendicular to each other and parallel to the edges.
C o lu m n
X X
X X
a X1 a
X1 X X X1
(a ) (E L E VATIO N )
XX : C ritica l se ctio n at face of colum n pe de stal o r con crete w a ll
X
b c g
X' X'
e
f
a d (b ) (P L A N ) h
X
XX, X'X' = C ritical section a t fa ce o f co lu m n p ed esta l or co ncre te w all
Fig. 13.6
The bearing pressure of soil q0 at the base of footing as shown in Fig. 13.6 (as discussed in
Art. 13.3) is assumed uniform. The bending moment at any section X1 X1 at a distance from
free edge shall be determined by passing through the section a vertical plane which extends
completely across the footing and calculating the moment of forces acting over due entire area
of the footing on one side of the said plane.
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qu ⋅ a 2
M x1x1 = ...(13.3)
2
The maximum bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated concrete footing
which support a column, pedestal or concrete wall, shall be the moment calculated at the critical
section XX as shown in Fig. 13.6 (a) at any section XX at a distance x from the free edge
qu ⋅ x 2
MXX = ...(13.4)
2
13.7.2 Critical Sections for Bending Moment

The critical section XX for bending moment shall be at the face of the column, pedestal or
concrete wall, for footing supporting a concrete column, pedestal or wall as shown in Fig. 13.6
(b) in plan.
The bending moment about XX (viz., cd) Fig. 13.6 (b) is caused by the upward pressure q0
on the area to one side of the section (viz., area abcd). The reinforcement perpendicular to this
section XX (viz., cd) i.e., the bars running in the long direction are calculated from this bending
moment. Similarly the moment about the section X´X´ (viz., ef) Fig. 13.6 (b) is caused by the
pressure q0 on the area befg and the reinforcement in the short direction (i.e., perpendicular
to ef) is calculated for this bending moment.
The critical section XX for bending moment for the masonry walls shall be halfway between
the centre line and the edge of the wall for footings under masonry walls as shown in Fig. 13.7.
M aso nry
w a ll
Fo otin g
XX : C ritical section
Fig. 13.7
The critical section for bending moment for footings under gusseted bases shall be halfway
between the face of column or padestal and the edge of gusseted base.
13.7.3 Critical Sections for Development Length

The critical sections for checking the development length in a footing shall be assumed at the
same planes as those described for bending moments (as above) and at all other vertical planes
where the abrupt changes of footing section occur. In case the reinforcement is curtailed, the
anchorage requirement shall also be checked as described for the design of beams.
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In a single column footing, the available development length of steel bar is from the face of
column to the edge of the footing less the end cover.
13.7.4 Failure of Footing

When a footing fails it does not mean that the reactions of the soil move the footing upward,
but that the projecting footing is not able to hold the column itself from settlement. The column
settles, while the projections of the footing, instead of following the column crack as shown in
Fig. 13.5 and break away from it.
13.8 SHEAR FORCES IN FOOTINGS

IS : 456–1978 recommends that in case of footings on piles, the calculations for shears may be
based on the assumption that the reaction from any pile is concentrated at the centre of the
pile.
For the purpose of calculating stresses in footings which support a round or hexagonal or
octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal shall be taken as the
side of square inscribed within the perimeter of the round or hexagonal or octagonal column or
pedestal as shown in Fig. 13.4.
X X
d d
d d
X X
(a ) S h ea r failure p la ne s (b ea m sh ea r)
X (E leva tio n) X
C ritical
section
fo r b ea m
she ar
X d d X
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.8
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Two different types of shears, namely beam shear (one-way shear) and shear as in flat slabs
(two-way shear) are distinguished in footings.
In beam shear (viz., one-way shear), it is considered that the footing essentially acts a wide
beam and a potential diagonal tension crack extends on an approximately 45° plane. The
shear crushing this crack is produced by the upward load to the left of X, that is, the load
beyond a plane XX a distance equal to the effective depth, d from the face of column footing or
wall footing as shown in Fig. 13.8. The sections XX are the critical sections from beam shear.
In case of footings on piles, the critical section shall be at a distance equal to half the effective
depth of footing.
In flat slab type shear i.e., two way shear, when failure occurs, the fracture takes the form of
truncated cone (for a round column) or truncated pyramid (for a square or rectangular column)
with sides sloping outward on all the faces. The probable reason for this type of failure is the
heavy compressive stresses footing, with this compression accentuated by the upward soil
reaction. The concrete subjected to shear stress is also in vertical compression from the stresses
spreading out from the column, and in horizontal compression in both major directions because
of the bi-axial bending moments in the footing. This triaxiality of stress increases the shear
strength of concrete. The average shear stress in the concrete which fails in this manner may
be taken as that acting on vertical planes laid through the footing around the column on a
perimeter at a distance equal to half the effective depth (viz., d/2) from the faces of column
(vertical section through abcd) as shown in Fig. 13.9.
C o lu m n
X X
d d
2 2
d d
X X
(a ) C ritical section fo r tw o -w a y sh ea r (e le vation )
a d
a bcd d
2
C ritical
section fo r
P yra m id
tw o -w a y sh ea r
a rou nd
colum n
b c
d
2
(P lan )
(b ) a bcd = b 0 = p erim e te r
Fig. 13.9
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The nominal shear stress in footing, shall be

VFd
τv = N/mm2 ...(13.5)
bo ⋅ d
where
V Fd = factored shear force due to the design load
b 0 = perimeter of the critical section (abcd in Fig. 13.9 (b))
d = effective depth.
13.8.1 Permissible Shear Stress

When the shear reinforcement is not provided the calculated shear stress at the critical section
shall not exceed the permissible shear stress equal to ks . τc.
where
ks = (0.5 + βc), but not greater than unity
βc = ratio of short side to long side of the footing
τc = 0.25 (fck)1/2 N/mm2 ...(13.6)
It is generally not economical and convenient to use shear reinforcement in footings. For
this reason only, the footings are designed such that all shear is carried by the concrete.
13.9 TRANSFER OF LOAD AT BASE OF COLUMN (BEARING UNDER COLUMN)

A column rests on a footing or a pedestal. It transfers its load to only a part of the total area of
the supporting member. The adjacent concrete of footing provides lateral support to the directly
loaded part of the concrete. This causes triaxial compression stresses that increases the strength
of the concrete which is loaded under the column.
The bearing from the column on the footing is allowed to be more than the value of the same
concrete in the column. That is, lower strength concrete is allowed in the fitting without lowering
the load carrying capacity of the column or necessarily increasing the dowels provided.
The compressive stress in concrete at the base of a column or pedestal shall be considered as
being transferred by bearing to the top of the supporting pedestal or footing. IS : 456–1978
(originally based on tests and provisions of ACI Code) that when the supporting area is wider
than the loaded area on all the sides, the design bearing stress on the loaded area of footing
shall not exceed the permissible bearing stress in direct compression multiplied by a value
1
⎛ A ⎞2
equal to ⎜ 1 ⎟ but not greater than 2 (two), viz.,
⎝ A2 ⎠
1
⎛ A ⎞2
q0 = >/ σcbr1. ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(13.7a)
⎝ A2 ⎠
The permissible bearing stress on full area of concrete shall be taken as 0.45. fck, viz.,
σcbr1 = 0.45fck ...(13.7b)
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Equation 13.7, then, becomes

1
⎛ A ⎞2
q0 >/ 0.45 fck . ⎜ 1 ⎟ < 0.90 fck ...(13.8)
⎝ A2 ⎠
The advantage of confinement of the bearing area is because of triaxial state of compressive
stresses, (as described in paragraph one earlier), in the immediate vicinity of the loaded area of
the footing. The concrete around the loaded area in the footing provides considerable support
through the confinement.
In Eqs. 13.7 and 13.8, A2 is the loaded bearing area under the column base and A1 is the
maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface. The area A1 is the area of the lower
base of the largest frustrum of a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge contained wholly within the
support and having for its upper base the loaded area. The area A1 is geometrically similar to
concentric with the loaded area as shown in Fig. 13.10.
It is established by going down and out from the loaded area at the slope of V (vertically)
and H (horizontally), [V : H : 1 : 2] until one intersects the boundary closest to the column. The
boundary fixes one side of A1 and it is simplest to draw the complete area on the plan view
similar to A2. From the similar areas.
2
⎛ A1 ⎞ ⎛ x1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
A
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ x2 ⎠
1
⎛ A1 ⎞ 2 x1
⎜ ⎟ = ≤2 ...(ii)
⎝ A2 ⎠ x2
1
⎛ A ⎞2
It shows how limit for ⎜ 1 ⎟ has been specified as 2 (two).
⎝ A2 ⎠
All axial forces, and bending moments which act at the bottom section of a column may be
transferred to the footing at the bearing surface. The compressive forces are transferred by
bearing by compression in the concrete. In case, the design values of bearing stresses are
exceeded, the reinforcement or dowels should be detailed so as to take up the remaining forces
and should be extended across the interface into the column as well as footing so that sufficient
development lengths are provided on side.
The tensile force (uplift) are transferred by reinforcements properly anchored into column
as well as footing.
The lateral forces are transferred by shear friction, shear keys etc.
13.8.1 Dowels into Footing

The longitudinal reinforcement is extended into the column footing or by providing dowels,
which are embedded in the footing and project above it. In the latter case, the column bars
merely rest on the footing and in most cases are tied to dowels. This results in a simpler
construction procedure than extending the column bars into the footing. IS : 456–1978 (so also
ACI Code) specifies that the minimum area of reinforcement that crosses the bearing surface
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(dowels or column bars) be 0.005 times (viz., 0.5 percent) the gross cross-sectional area of the
supported column or pedestal and a minimum of four bars shall be provided. Where the dowels
are used, their diameter shall not exceed the diameter of column bars by more than 3 mm. The
column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm, in compression can only be dowelled at the footings
with the bars of smaller size of necessary area. The dowel shall extend into the column, a
distance equal to the development length of the column bar and into the footing, a distance
equal to the development length of the dowel.
C o lu m n
A2
H P e de stal
fo otin g
v A1
d Fo otin g d
A 2 = L oa de d a re a o f co lu m n b ase
A 1 = C o ncen tric to an d ge om etrically sim ilar to A 2
(a ) E levatio n
A2
A1
X2
X1
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.10 Definition of areas A1 and A2
Under normal circumstances, the lap splicing of bars is prohibited because tests have shown
that welded splices or other positive connections are necessary to develop these heavy bars
fully. The long-standing successful use was relied and the code allowed the splicing of heavy
bars to dowels of lesser diameter provided the dowels have a development length into the
column corresponding to that of the column bar and into the footing as specified for the particular
dowel.
13.10 BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS

For isolated footing and so also for combined footing if these are held in static equilibrium
solely by bearing pressure acting against its base, the footing has to satisfy the following four
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basic requirements :
1. The resultant of all bearing pressure, acting against the footing base (reaction) must
be of equal intensity and opposite direction to the resultant of all loads and/or vertical effects
due to moments and lateral forces, acting on the footing element (action).
2. The line of action of the resultant vector of the reaction must coincide with the line of
action of the resultant vector of the action applied at the footing base.
3. The maximum intensity of the bearing pressure under the most severe combination of
service loads must be smaller than, or equal to, the maximum bearing pressure allowed for this
kind of loading and type of soil, as determined by the principles of soil mechanics.
4. The resultant vector of the least favourable combination of vertical loads, horizontal
shears and bending moments that may occur under service load conditions, including wind or
earthquake, must intersect the footing base within a maximum eccentricity that will provide
safety against overturning.
The method most commonly used for the design of footings and related elements for ordinary
building construction, is the one in which the static equilibrium is obtained by bearing pressures
against the footing base only. This method is also the standard method. ACI Code 318–83
‘Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete’ has also included this method.
When the columns are having axial loads P (viz., the eccentricity is zero), the bearing pressure
will be uniformly distributed over the entire base area of the footing, AF.
13.11 WALL FOOTINGS

A footing provided under a wall used to be continuous along the length of wall. The nature of
load transferred by the wall to the footing is axial and uniform. Therefore, for the design of a
footing under a wall, a design strip of one metre length of the wall is considered. The simple
principles of beam action applies to wall footing with only minor modifications. The position of
critical section for bending moment depends upon the type of the material used for the
construction of the wall. A wall may be a masonry wall or a concrete wall.
13.11.1 Analysis of Footing Under a Masonry Wall

A continuous footing under a masonry wall with the forces acting on it is shown in Fig. 13.11.
The self-weight of wall is assumed as ten percent of the column load. The factored load shall
be 150 times the service load acting over the column (viz., 15 × (D.L. + L.L.). The ultimate
bearng capacity of the soil, qu shall be assumed as twice the safe bearing capacity of soil, q0
(i.e., qu= 2 × q0). The area of footing, AF is calculated as under :
1.10 (0.5 × P )
AF = (where AF = B × 1)
qu
where B is the width of footing in metres.
The critical section XX for bending moment is halfway between the centre-line and edge of
the wall as shown in Fig. 13.11 (a) [as described in Art 13.7, Fig. 13.7]. The maximum factored
(design) bending moment in footing at section XX for 1 metre design strip may be calculated as
under :
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2 2
1 ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ bw ⎤ 1 ⎛ bw ⎞
MFd = qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎥ − 2 qu ⎜ 4 ⎟ ...(i)
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
1 ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ bw ⎤ 1 ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ bw ⎞
or MFd = ⋅⎢ ⎟ + 4 ⎥ − 2 ⋅ ⎜ b ×1 ⎟ ⎜ 4 ⎟
2 ⎜⎝ B × 1 ⎟⎠ ⎣⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ w ⎠⎝ ⎠
...(13.9)
M aso nry
A xia l
w a ll
lo a d u nifo rm
X O ne m e tre
w id e strip
X
D istribu tion re in fo rce m en t
re in force m en t for b en d in g
XX : C ritical section fo r B M
B B
2 2
(a ) Fo otin g un der m aso nry w a ll
(b ) S o il pressu re (A ssum e d u nifo rm )
Fig. 13.11
The maximum factored (design) shear force in footing at section XX for 1 metre design strip
may be calculated as below :
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ bw ⎤ ⎛ bw ⎞
FFd = qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎥ − qu ⋅ ⎜ 4 ⎟ ...(ii)
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ bw ⎤ ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ bw ⎞
or FFd = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎥ − ⎜ b × 1 ⎟ ⎜ 4 ⎟ ...(13.10)
⎝ B × 1 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ w ⎠⎝ ⎠
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13.11.1.1 Effective Depth

The design strip of one metre length of the footing is designed as a balanced section. Therefore,
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd ...(13.11)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
13.11.1.2 Tension Reinforcement

Total tension reinforcement at any section provide a moment of resistance at least equal to the
bending moment on the section calculated as per Eq. 13 9. The tension reinforcement (viz., the
steel bars) is provided along the length of wall, that is, only in one direction. Therefore, the
footing is referred as one-way reinforced footing. The reinforcement is distributed uniform
across the full width of the footing. The cross-sectional area of reinforcement in tension per one
metre length
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy.Ast.d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(13.12)
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
In case, the cross-sectional area of one steel bar is Aφ, than the spacing of steel bars
⎛ Aφ ⎞
s = ⎜1000 ...(13.13)
⎝ A ⎟⎠ st
In addition to this, the temperature and shrinkage (viz., distribution) reinforcement is also
provided along the length of the wall. It is also called longitudinal reinforcement.
The section of footing is checked for one-way shear at the critical section.
Full development is needed from the point of maximum bending moment.
13.11.2 Analysis of Footing Under a Concrete Wall

The concrete wall and the footing are cast integrally. The critical section for bending moment
XX is at the face of concrete wall as shown in Fig. 13.12.
The self-weight of wall in length is assumed as ten percent of the wall load. The factored load
shall be 1.50 times the service load, acting over the column, [viz., 1.5 × (D.L. + L.L.)]. The
ultimate load carrying capacity of the soil, qu shall be assumed as twice the safe bearing capacity
of the soil, q0 (i.e., qu = 2 × q0). The area of footing required
1.10 (1.50 × P )
AF = .... (AF = B × 1)
qu
where, B is the width of footing for 1 m length.
The maximum factored (design) bending occurring at the critical section XX
2
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞
MFd = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
M = ⋅ ⋅ ...(13.14)
2 ⎝⎜ B × 1 ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
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C o ncrete
bw w a ll
B – bw B – bw
2 2
d d
D D
B B
2 2
(a ) Fo otin g u n de r con cre te w a ll
Fig. 13.12
The maximum factored (design) shear force occurring at the critical section
⎛ B − bw ⎞
FFd = qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
or FFd = ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ...(13.15)
⎝ B ×1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
The effective depth of footing, main tension reinforcement, the distribution reinforcement
and the development length remain same as described for the footing under masonry wall
above.
The section of footing is checked for one-way shear force at the critical section.
13.12 SQUARE FOOTING

The square footings are usually provided under single-columns. In the square footing, the
cantilevers project out from the column in both the directions. The column transfers the axial
(viz., concentric) load acting downward to the footing. The footing is loaded upward by the soil
pressure. The tension stresses develop in both these directions at the bottom surface. Such
footings are therefore, reinforced by two layers of steel bars, perpendicular to each other and
parallel to the edge.
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C o lu m n
B – bw B – bw
2 2
( d – φ)
B
2
(a ) E levatio n
S o il pressu re un d er foo tin g

(b ) (A ssum e d u nifo rm )
X1 X
X1 X1
d /2 d /2
X ( d /2) X
( d /2)
X1 X
C ritical section s fo r bm XX , for on e-w ay she ar X 1 X 1 for tw o-w ay she ar AB C D
(c) S q ua re fo otin g und e r an iso la te d foo tin g
Fig. 13.13
A square footing under a single column with the forces acting on it, is shown in Fig. 13.13.
The required bearing area of footing is found by dividing the total load including the self-
weight of the footing (the column load P + 10% of column load) by the bearing capacity of the
soil. The factored load shall be 1.50 times the service load acting over the column, [viz., 1.5 ×
(D.L. + L.L.)]. The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil, qu shall be assumed as twice the safe
bearing capacity of the soil, q0, (i.e., qu = 2 × q0). The required bearing area of footing
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1.10 P
A F = 1.5 × ...(i)
q0
A F = (B × B) . m2
where
B = width of the square footing measured in metre.
The critical section XX for bending moment is at the face of column as shown in Fig. 13.13.
The maximum factored (design) bending moment in the footing at the section XX may be
calculated as under :
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
MFd = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ 1.5 × P ⎞ ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
or M = ⋅ ⋅⎢ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ...(13.16)
2 ⎜⎝ B × B ⎟⎠ ⎣⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
The factored (design) shear force at the critical section XX,
⎛ 1.5 × P ⎞ ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
V Fd = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎥ ...(13.17)
⎝ B × B ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎦
The effective depth of footing, d
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd ...(13.18)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
13.12.1 Tension Reinforcement

The total tension reinforcement at any section provides a moment of resistance at least equal to
the bending moment at the section. The tension reinforcement extending in each direction is
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing. In the square footing, the steel bars
are provided in two directions. Therefore, it is called as two-way reinforcement. The effective
depths d for the upper layer is less by one diameter of the bar than that of the steel bars in
lower layer, consequently, the area of steel reinforcement is larger for the upper layer. Instead
of using two different areas of reinforcements, the area of steel bars for upper layer is calculated
and reinforcement in two layers are kept equal. The area of steel reinforcement in each direction,
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87fy . Ast . d ⎜⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(13.19)
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎟⎠
The steel bars are provided uniformly in the full width of the footing. In case, Aφ is the cross-
sectional area of one steel bar, then, the spacing of steel bars shall be as under :
(1000 × B ) ⋅ Aφ
s = ...(13.20)
Ast
The depth of square footing shall be checked for one-way (bear shear) and for tywo-way
shear as described in Art. 13.8. The steel bars shall be provided for the full development length
from the critical section for the bending moment.
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13.13 RECTANGULAR FOOTING

The rectangular footings are also provided under the single column in case there is space
restriction or if the supported columns are of elongated rectangular cross-section. In the simplest
form, the rectangular footings consist of single slab. In the rectangular footing, the cantilevers
project out from the column in both the directions. The column transfers the axial (concentric)
load acting downward to the footing. The footing is loaded upward by the soil pressure. The
tension stresses develop in both these directions at the bottom face. Such footings are therefore,
reinforced by two layers of steel bars perpendicular to each other and parallel to the edge.
A rectangular footing under a single column with the forces acting on it, is shown in Fig.
13.14. The required bearing of footing is obtained by dividing the total load including the self-
weight of the footing (the column load P + 10% of the column load) by the bearing capacity of
the soil. The factored load shall be 150 times the service load acting over the column, [viz, 1.50
× (D.L. + L.L.)]. The ultimate load carrying capacity to soil, qu shall be taken twice the safe
bearing capcity of the soil q0 (i.e., qu= 2 × q0). The required bearing area of the footing,
1.10 (1.50 × P )
AF = ...(i)
qu
A F = (L × B) ...(ii)
The critical sections XX and X1X1 for bending moment are at the faces of column as shown in
Fig. 13.14. The maximum factored (design) bending moment in the footing at the section XX
may be calculated as under :
⎡ L l ⎞ ⎛ L − lw ⎞ ⎤
M LFd = 1 qu ⋅ ⎢⎛⎜ − w ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎡ L l L l ⎤
or M LFd = 1 × ⎜⎛ 1.50 × P ⎟⎞ ⋅ ⎢⎛⎜ − w ⎞⎟ ⋅ ⎛⎜ − w ⎞⎟ ⎥ ...(13.21)
2 ⎝ L × B ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
The maximum factored (design) bending moment in the footing at the critical section X1 X1
may be obtained as below :
1 ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞⎤
M BFd = qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
1 1.50 × P ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
or M BFd = × ⋅⎢ ⋅ ⎥ ...(13.22)
2 ( L × B ) ⎣⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦
Similarly the factored (design) shear forces are determined at the critical sections XX and
X1Xl are as under :
⎛ L − lw ⎞
VLFd = qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ L − lw ⎞
VLFd = ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(13.23)
⎝ L× B ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ B − bw ⎞
VBFd = qu ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
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⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
or VBFd = ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(13.24)
⎝ L× B ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
P P
lw bw
L – lw L – lw
2 2
L L B B
2 2 2 2
(L – B ) (L – B )
B
2 2
E d ge C e ntral (m id dle) E d ge
b an d b an d b an d
E L E VAT IO N S ID E V IE W
S o il pressu re (A ssum ed u nifo rm )
(a ) R e ctan gu la r fo otin g u n de r colum n
X3 X
X2 X2
A B d
( d –2 )
X1 X1
B
D C
X3 X
L L
2 2
L –B L– B
2 2
E d ge C e ntral (M id dle) E d ge
b an d b an d b an d
C ritical section s XX , X 1 X 1 fo r B M X 2 X 2 , X 3 X 3 F o r o ne –w a y she ar ABC D for tw o-w ay she ar
Fig. 13.14 Rectangular footing under a column
The bending moment, ML is larger than the bending moment MB. The effective depth of
footing is determined as under :
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⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bd = MFd ...(13.25)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
13.13.1 Tension Reinforcement

In rectangular footing, the reinforcement in the long direction is distributed uniformly across
the full width (viz., the shorter dimensions, that is, parallel to length of the footing. It is calculated
as below :
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(13.26)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
The spacing of the bars across the width
(1000 × B ). Aφ
SL = ...(13.27)
Ast⋅L
For reinforcement in the short direction (viz., across the length, that is parallel to width), the
length of footing is divided into two bands, namely middle band (or central band) and edge
bands. The central band shall have width equal to the width of the footing. The width of each
edge band shall be equal to 0.5 (L–B). The middle portion of rectangular footing (viz., central
band), gets concentrated support from the column. Therefore, the curvature of footing is
sharpest, that is, the moment per metre is largest, immediately under the column. Hence, the
central portion needs a larger steel area than the edge bands (the far ends of footing). The area
of steel bars required
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(13.28)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
⎡ 2 ⎤
The reinforcement in the central band is increased by an amount equal to ⎢ ⎥ , where
⎣ (β + 1) ⎦
β is the ratio of long side to the short side of the footing. That is,
Reinforcement in central band ⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
Total reinforcement in short direction ⎝β + 1⎠
That is,
⎛ 2 ⎞
(Ast)central band = ⎜ ⎟ . Ast . B ...(13.29a)
⎝ + 1⎠
β
This reinforcement is uniformly distributed across the central band.
⎛ 1000 × B × Aφ ⎞
(s)central band = ⎜ ⎟ ...(13.30a)
⎝ ( Ast )central bond ⎠
The remaining area of steel renfocement (viz., Ast B – Ast central band) shall be uniformly
distributed in the two outer portions (edge bands) of the footing.
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The minimum reinforcement specified by the code to prevent precipitous fracture applies in
1
footings separately to each of the two directions unless the reinforcement provided is rd more
3
than needed.
The footing may be checked for one-way and two-way shears as described in Art. 13.8.
The critical sections for the bending moments are also the critical section for the development
length. The development length is also checked at all vertical planes where the changes of
cross-section of footing or the reinforcement occur, as at the edge of pedestals or where the part
of reinforcement is terminated.
13.14 STEPPED FOOTINGS

In isolated spread footings, different depths are needed at the different critical section. These
depths so calculated are not required at the edge of the footings. The depth of footing provided
near the centre is reduced by providing steps (as shown in Fig. 13.15) towards the edges
without exceeding the permissible stresses. By providing the steps in the cross-section of footing,
the concrete is saved in the areas where, it is not structurally needed. These steps are provided
where the thickness (or depth) of single slab of the footing is becoming excessively thick (usually
more than one metre). The size and thickness are designed in such a way that each step (viz.,
change in cross-section), is safe to resist the bending and shear.
The area of footing at the base required is calculated for the total load, that is, the column
load and the self-weight of the footing (viz., the column load, P + 10% of the column load as the
self-weight of the footing). The factored load shall be 1.50 times the service load acting over the
column, [viz., 1.50 × (D.L. + L.L.)]. The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil, qu shall be assumed
as twice the safe bearing capacity of soil, q0 (i.e., qu = 2 × q0). Therefore,
1.10 (1.5 × P )
AF = ...(i)
qu
where qu is the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
The bending moments and shear forces at the various critical sections (X1X1, X2X2 etc.) are
determined. The factored (design) bending moment at critical section X1X1 at the face of column
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
M1Fd = qu ⎟⋅⎜ 2 ⎟ ...(13.30)
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
or M1Fd = ⎜ ⎟⋅ ⋅ ...(13.29b)
2 ⎝ L × B ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The effective depth of footing measured from first step from the top
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ bd = MFd ...(13.31)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The depth of footing is checked for one way shear viz., beam shear and two-way shear viz.,
flat slab type shear.
The cross-sectional of steel bars to provide as tension reinforcement, Ast, is calculated as it is
found for the square footing.
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C o lu m n
B–b B – bw
2 2
X4 X3 X2 X1
d1
d2
d3
d4 d4 d4
X4 X3 X2 X 1
( B /2) ( B /2)
(a ) E levatio n
B
B1
B1
B
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.15 Stepped footing under a square column
The depths of footings at the second, third, etc. steps (from top) are obtained the bending
moments as d2, d3, etc. and so also from the reinforcement side. The depths at various steps
shall be whichever is more obtained from two considerations. The depths provided at various
levels of steps are also checked for one-way and two-way shears.
13.15 SLOPED FOOTINGS

In isolated spread footings, the calculated thickness are required at the various critical sections
near the centre of the footing but not at the edges of the footing. In order to save the concrete
in areas where it is not structurally needed, it is common practice to provide sloped footing. The
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depth of footing provided near the centre is reduced by providing a taper upto the edge as
shown in Fig. 13.16 without exceeding the permissible stresses. The sloped footings are provided
where the thickness (or depth) of single slab of the footing is becoming excessivly thick (usually
more than one metre). The size and thickness are designed in such a manner that each transverse
section is safe to resist the bending and shear.
B–b B–b
2 2
X X1
N e utral A xis
α α
( B /2) ( B /2)
(a ) E levatio n
B
C ritical section f r B M
X 1 X1
d
X1 2
A B
( d /2)
B–b B–b
2 2 B
C o lu m n
bw × bw
D X1 C
C ritical section fo r tw o
w a y sh ea r A , B , C , D
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.16 Sloped footing under a square column
The area of footing at the base needed is obtained for the total load, that is, the column load
and the self-weight of the footing (viz., the column load, P + 10% of the column load as the self-
weight). The factered load shall be 1.50 times the service load acting over the column, [viz., 1.5
× (D.L. + L.L.)]. The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil be assumed as twice. The safe bearing
capacity of soil, q0, (i.e., qu= 2 × q0). Therefore,
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1.10 (1.5 × P )
AF = ...(i)
qu
where qu is the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
The factored bending moment at the critical section X1 X2 at the face of column
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
M1 = qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ 1.50 × P ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ B − bw ⎞
or M1 = ⋅⎜ ⎟⋅ ⎟⋅⎜ 2 ⎟ ...(13.32)
2 ⎝ B × B ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The cross-sectional shape of the footing, Fig. 13.16 (a), resisting this bending moment is
trapezoidal. The moment of resistance of this trapezoidal cross-section shall comprise of the
moment of resistance of the middle rectangular portion and that of the two triangular portions
at the sides. The horizontal component of total compressive force (which shall be acting
horizontally)
Ccu.H = 0.36 fck.b.xu.cos2α ...(ii)
The moment of resistance of middle rectangular portion
MR1 = Ccu.H × Lever Arm ...(iii)
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
or MR1 = 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d
2 2
⎟ × bwd × cos α
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
Let RB = 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 d ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
or MR1 = RB . bw . d2 . cos2 α ...(13.34)
Example 13.1. A 450 mm masonry wall supports a deal load of 180 kN/m and a live load of
160 kN/m. The allowable bearing pressure on soil is 150 kN/m2. Design a reinforced concrete
footing under the masonry wall. Use M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel bars less than or
equal to 20 mm. The footing shall be 1.24 m below the ground surface. The height of wall is
3 m.
Solution
Design : M 15 grade of concrete and mild steel bars, Fe 250 reinforcement shall be used.
The section of footing shall be designed as balanced section. The design constants are as
follows :
The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to effective depth ratio
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.53
⎝ ⎠
Step 2. Width footing
Consider 1 m length of masonry wall. Weight of the masonry wall
450
× 3 × 1 × 20 = 27 kN/m
1000
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Dead load supported by the wall

= 180 kN/m
Live load supported by wall
= 160 kN/m
Total load = 367 kN/m
The self-weight of footing is assumed as 10 percent of total load to be transferred
= 3.67 kN/m
Total load is order to calculate the width of footing
= (367 + 3.67) = 370.67 kN/m
W Fd = 1.5 × 370.67 = 556.01 kN
The level of footing is 1.240 m below the ground surface. The overall depth of footing may be
assumed as 350 mm. The moment of resistance of two triangular portions of the footing, MR2 is
determined.
The bending moment due soil pressure may be equated to the sum of MR1 and MR2 to find
the effective depth. Instead of this, an equivalent rectangular cross-section of width bequiv., the
depth, d may be used as an approximation for the trapezoidal cross-section and the depth of
footing may be determined.
= 45 0 m m
b w bw b w 2 0 m m φ stee l
B–b b 4 4 4 b ars @ 6 0 mm c/c
+
2 2
X1
10 m m φ
3 00 m m
60 24 0
1 60 c/c sp acin g
X1 X
1 .50 m 1 .50 m
B=3m
(a ) Fo otin g un de r m aso nry w a ll
X
(b ) S h ea r force diag ram
Fig. 13.17
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The footing may be checked for one-way and two-way shears and also for the development
lengths. The area of steel bars in each direction may be calculated and the reinforcement is
provided as usual for the square footing.
⎛ bw + ( B – bw ) ⎞
bequiv @ ⎜ ⎟ ...(13.35)
⎝ 8 ⎠
and MR @ MFd
Therefore,
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bequiv d2 = MFd ...(13.36)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
Weight of earth per square metre
= (1.24 – 0.35) × 1 × 1 × 20 = 17.8 kN/m
Consequently, the portion of allowable bearing pressure which shall be available or effective
for carrying the wall load
qu = 1.5 × (150 –17.8)
= 1.5 × 132.2 kN/m2
= 198.3 kN/m2
Width of footing required
1.5 × 370.67
B = = 2.804 mm
1.5 × 132.2
Provide a width of 3 m under the masonary wall as shown in Fig. 13.17.
Step 3. Bending momert and shear force
Total load to be transferred to the footing is 367 kN/m. Therefore, the actual soil pressure
1.5 ×367
qu = = 1.5 × 122.33 = 183.495 kN/m2
3
For 1 m width
qu = 1.5 × 122.33 = 183.495 kN/m
⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎛ 3 − 0.450 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.275 m
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
For the masonry wall, the critical section for moment lies at the quarter point of the wall
thickness. The critical section XX for the masonry wall is shown in Fig. 13.17. The distance of
section XX from the edge
⎛ B − bw ⎞ bw ⎛ 0.450 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ + 4 = ⎜1.275 + = 1.3875 m
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Bending moment about the critical section XX, (Fig. 13.17)
1
M = × 1.5 × 122.33 × 1.38752 = 1.5 ×117.75
2
= 176.625 kN-m
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The position of critical section XX for bending is explained by Fig. 13.17 (b). The shear force
diagram is shown in Fig. 13.17 (b). This diagram shows that the maximum bending moment
occurs at the middle of the wall. However, in case the cantilever projection is extended back to
the quarter point of the wall thickness, as shown by the dotted line, the area under the shear
force diagram is nearly the same.
Step 4. Depth of footing
Let the effective depth of footing be d. Then
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 ⋅ u⋅max ⎟ bd 2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
0.36fck × 0.53 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.53) . bd2 = MFd
0.14833 fck bd2 = MFd
0.14833 × 15 × 3000 × d2 = 15 × 117.75 × 106
d = 162.67 mm
Provide effective cover of 60 mm. Over all depth of footing
= (162.67 + 60) = 222.67 mm
Provide 300 mm thick footing. The effective depth of footing shall be
d = (300 – 60) = 240 mm
Step 5. Shear force about the critical section
X1X1, (Fig. 13.17), at a distnace d from the wall
V Fd = 1.5 × 122.33 × (1.3875 – 0.240)
= 1.5 × 140.37
= 210.555 kN
Step 6. Reinforcement for bending
Main reinforcement. The cross-sectional area of the steel bars to be provided as reinforcement
in tension
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87fy.Ast.d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 250 ⎞
or 0.87 × 250 × Ast × 240 ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 117.75 × 106
⎝ 3000 × 240 × 15 ⎟⎠
5.22 × 104 Ast – 1.208 Ast2 – 176.625 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 4.32 × 104 Ast+ 1.4617 × 108 = 0

Ast = 3700.626 mm2
Provide 20 mm diameter bars. The cross-sectional area of one bar
Aφ = 314.16 mm2
Spacing of the bars
1000 ×314.16
s = = 84.89 mm
3700.626
Provide the steel bars at 60 mm spacing centre to centre.
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Distribution reinforcement : 0.15 percent of the cross-sectional area of the footing is provided
as the distribution reinforcement to resist stresses due to tension and shrinkage.
0.15
Ad = × bD (b = 1 m)
100
0.15
= × 1000 × 300 = 450 mm2
100
Provide 10 mm diameter bars, Aφ = 78.54 mm2
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 174.53 mm
450
Provide 10 mm bars at 160 mm distance centre to centre
Step 7. Development Length
For mild steel reinforcement, the development length required
Ld @ 58.3 × φ = 58.3 × 20 = 1166 mm
Provide 25 mm end distnace. The length of steel bars available upto the critical section for
bending moment
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25 ⎥ mm
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3000 – 450 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25 ⎥ = 1250 mm
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
Available length of bar is more than the development needed. In addition to this, a standard
hook is also provided at the end of the bar.
( Note . The design of footing under a concrete wall is similar to this except that the critical section for bending
moment shall be at the face of concrete wall.
Example 13.2. A column 450 mm × 450 mm in size with 8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter
transfers a dead load of 620 kN and a live load of 860 kN to the footing. The bearing capacity
of soil is 120 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 shall be used. Design
a square footing to support the column.
Solution
Design : M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade 415 shall be used.
The section of footing shall be designed as balanced section. The design constants area s
follows:
The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth ratio
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Step 2. Size of footing to maintain allowable soil pressure
Dead load and live load to be transferred by the column
P = (620 + 860) = 1480 kN
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Self-weight of footing may be assumed 10% of the column load

= 148 kN
Total load = 1628 kN
Factored load
W Fd = 1.5 × 1628 = 2442 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of soil (assumed)
qu = 2 × q0 = 2 × 120 = 240 kN/m
= 45 0 m m
B–b B–b
2 2
M 2 0 g ra de 2 0 m m φ ba rs
o f con crete @ 2 30 m m c/c
B = 3 .70 m
(a )
X1 X
A B
( d /2)
B = 3 .70 m
( d /2)
D C
d
2
X1 X
B = 3 .7 0 m
(b )
C ritical section fo r b m XX , fo r one -w ay she a r X 1 X 1 a n d for tw o-w ay shear ABC D
Fig. 13.18 Square footing under column
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Area of the footing required in plan

1.5 × 1628
AF = = 10.1295 m2
2 × 120
A square footing shall be provided to support the load from the square column. Size of
footing
B = (10.1295)1/2 = 3.1827 m
A square footing of size 3.70 × 3.70 m shall be provided as shown in Fig. 13.18. Net ultimate
soil pressure acting upward
1.5 × 1480
qu = = 1.5 × 108.11
3.700 × 3.700
= 162.165 kN/m2
< ultimate bearing capacity of the soil. Hence safe.
Step 3. Bending moment
Bending moment at the critical section XX at the face of the column for 1 m strip of the
footing
2
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞
MFd = q ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
2 u ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 3.70 − 0.450 ⎞
or MFd = 1.5 × × 108.11 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
or MFd = 1.5 × 142.739 = 214.1085 kN-m/m
The effective depth of footing, since 1 m strip is considered
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 × ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
0.36fck × 0.48 × (1– 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 142.739 × 106
d = 278.56 mm
Let the effective of footing be 50 mm. The overall depth of footing
D = (278.56 + 50) = 328.56 mm
Adopt D = 450 mm
Therefore d = 400 mm.
Step 5. Check for single shear
Shear force at the critical section X1X1 at a distance d = effective depth from the face of the
footing.
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
V Fd = qu ⎢⎜ ⎟ − d ⎥ ×1
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
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⎡⎛ 3.70-0.450 ⎞ ⎤
or V Fd = 1.5 × 108.11 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.4 ⎥ × 1 kN/m
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
or V Fd = 1.5 × 108.11 × 1.225 = 1.5 × 132.435
= 198.653 kN/m
Nominal shear stress across the depth of footing
1.5 × 132.435 × 1000
τv = = 0.4965 N/mm2
1000 × 400
For the balanced section for footing, percentage area of the steel reinforcement
PB = 100 As = 0.96 percent

bd
From IS : 456–1978, the permissible shear stress in concrete (without shear reinforcement)
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τv = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
Therefore, the depth of footing needed for one way shear
1.5×132.435×1000
d = = 325.66 mm
1000 × 0.61
Effective cover
EC = 50 mm
Overall thickness of concrete
D = (325.66 + 50) = 375.66 mm
However, D may be adopted as 526 mm. Revised effective depth shall be 485 mm.
1.5 ×132.435 × 1000
τv =
1000 × 470
= 0.423 N/mm2
It is less than the permissible stress, τc. Hence, safe.
Step 6. Check for two-way shear
The critical section for two-way shear shall be BCDA, Fig. 13.18 (b). The pheripherial
perimeter
⎛ 485 485 ⎞
b 0 = 4 × ⎜ 450 + + = 3740 mm
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
∴ AB = 935 mm
Total shear force
V Fd = qu [(B2 – AB2)]
= 1.5 × 108.11 [(3.72 – 0.9352)]
= 1.5 × 108.11 × 12.816
= 1.5 × 1385.513
= 2078.27 kN
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VFd
τv =
b0 . d
1.5 × 1385.513 × 1000

= = 1.1457 N/mm2
3740 × 485
Permissible shear stress in concrete for two-way shear for M 20 grade
τv́ = k s . tc
⎛ B ⎞
ks = (0.5 + βc) >/ 1, ⎜ βc = = 1.0 ⎟
⎝ B ⎠
ks = 1.00
τv́ = 0.25 (fck)1/2
or τ´v = 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The effective depth of footing needed to resist two-way shear
1.5 × 1385.513 × 1000
d = = 497.02 mm
3740 × 1.118
Add the effective cover of 50 mm. The overall depth of footing required
D = (497.02 + 50) = 547.02 mm
Say D = 570 mm
EC = 50
∴ d = 520 mm
Fig. 13.18 (b)
⎛ 520 520 ⎞
AB = ⎜ 450 + + = 970 mm
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
b 0 = 4 × 970 = 3880 mm
1.5 × 1385.513 × 1000
τv = = 1.03 N/mm2
3880 × 520
It is less than τv = 11.18 N/mm2. Hence, the footing is safe in two-way shear also.
In the square footing, the area of steel bars to be provided in the upper layer shall be more
than the area of steel bars to be provided in the lower layer.
Therefore, the area of steel bars needed, for upper layer is also provided for that in the lower
layer. The area of steel bars required for upper layer for 1 m strip of the footing. Let φ = 20 mm
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
⎛ A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × (520 – 20) ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 142.739 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 500 × 20 ⎠
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18.0525 × 104 Ast – 7.49179 Ast2 – 214.11 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 2.4096 × 104 Ast + 28.5793 × 106 = 0

Ast = 1251.01 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
Spacing of the steel bars in the upper layer and lower layer both are equal
1000 ×314.159
s = = 251.124 mm
1251.01
Provide 20 mm diameter Hysd bars of grade Fe 415 at 220 mm spacing centre to centre in
both the layers.
Step 8. Check for the transfer of load at the base of the column
The concrete of footing is having the same strength as the concrete of column, the bearing at
the top of the footing is adequate.
Example 13.3. A rectangular column 450 mm × 600 mm transfers a dead load of 880 kN
and a live load of 1420 kN without any moment and there is no overburden. The safe bearing
capacity of soil is 140 kN/m2, M 20 grade of Concrete and Hysd-steel bars of Fe 415 grade shall
be used. Design the rectangular footing to support the column.
Solution
Design :
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade 415 shall be used.
The section of footing shall be designed as a balanced section. The design constants are as
follows :
The limiting value of the depth of neutral to the effective depth ratio
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
P = (880 + 1420) = 2300 kN
Self-weight of the footing may be assumed 10 % of the column load
= 230 kN
Factored load
W Fd = 1.5 × 2530 = 3795 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil (assumed)
qu = 2 × q0 = 2 × 140 = 280 kN/m2
Area of the footing required in plan
1.5 × 2530
AF = = 13.5525 m2
2 × 140
A rectangular footing shall be provided to support the load from the rectangular column.
The proportions of width and length of the footing may be assumed same as that of the column
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⎛ bw 450 3 ⎞ ⎛3⎞
dimensions, ⎜ viz., = = . The width of footing may be taken as ⎜ ⎟ th of the length of
⎝ lw 600 4 ⎟⎠ ⎝4⎠
the footing. Therefore,
3
L × L = 13.5525
4
or L = 4.251 m
and B = 3.1882 m
C o lu m n
lw = 60 0 m m 4 50 m m x 60 0 m m
b w = 45 0 m m
L–l L–l
2 2
L L
= 2.50 m = 2.50 m
2 2
(a ) E levatio n
X3 X1
X4 X4
d d
2 lw 2
d A B
X2 ( d /2) X2
( d /2)
D C
d
X3 X1
5m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.19 Critical sections for BM X1 X1, X2 X2 one - way shear X3 X3 , X4 X4, two-way shear ABCD
rectangular footing under rectangular column
The width and length of the footing may be adopted as 3.75 m and 5.00 m, respectively as
shown in Fig. 13.19. Net soil pressure acting upward
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⎛ 880 + 1420 ⎞
qu = 1.5 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5 × 122.67
⎝ 3.75×5.00 ⎠
= 184.01 kN/m2 < 280 kN/m2
Bending moment at the critical section X1X1 at the face of column for 1 m strip along the
length.
2
1 ⎛ L – lw ⎞
ML = . qu . ⎜ ⎟ . 1 kN-m/m
Fd 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 5.00 – 0.60 ⎞
or ML = × 1.50 × 122.67 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
Fd 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
or ML = × 1.5 × 296.86 = 445.29 kN-m/m
Fd 2
Bending moment at the critical section X2X2 at the face of column for 1 strip along the width
2
1 ⎛ B – bw ⎞
MB = × qu ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
Fd 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 3.75 – 0.450 ⎞
or MB = × 1.50 × 122.67 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
Fd 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
(MBFd < MLFd)
1
or MB = × 1.5 × 166.985 = 250.48 kN-m/m
Fd 2
The effective depth of footing, (since 1 m strip is considered)
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck.bd2 = MFd
0.137% × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 296.86 × 106
Let the effective cover be 60 mm, Then, the overall depth of footing
D = (401.726 + 60) = 461.726 mm
Provide overall depth footing as 650 mm the, the effective deepth shall be 590 mm.
Shear force at the critical section X3 X3 at a distance d = effective depth from the face of the
footing for 1 m strip along the length
⎡⎛ L − lw ⎞ ⎤
VL = qu × ⎢⎜ ⎟ − d ⎥ × 1 kN/m
Fd
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
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⎡⎛ 5 − 0.60 ⎞ ⎤
VL = 1.5 × 122.67 × ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.59 ⎥ × 1 kN/m
Fd
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
VL = 1.5 × 197.50 = 296.25 kN/m.
Fd
Shear force at the critical section X4 X4 at a distance d = effective depth from the face of the
footing for 1 strip along the width
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
VB = qu. ⎢⎜ ⎟ − d ⎥ × 1 kN/m
Fd
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3.75 – 0.450 ⎞ ⎤
VB = 1.5 × 122.67 × ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.590 ⎥ × 1 kN/m
Fd
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
VB = 1.5 × 130.03 = 195.045 kN/m (VB < VL)
Normal shear stress across the depth of footing
VLFd 1.5 × 197.50 × 100
τv = = = 0.502 N/mm2
1000 × d 1000 × 590
For the balanced section for footing percentage area of the steel reinforcement
100A
pB = = 0.96 percent
bd
From IS : 456–1978, the permissible shear stress is concrete (without shear reinforcement)
⎛ 0.60 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τv = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
Therefore, the depth of footing required for one way shear
1.5 × 197.50 × 1000
d = = 485.66 mm
1000 × 0.61
Effective cover has been one d as 60 mm. Therefore, the overall depth
D = 485.66 + 60 = 545.66 mm
Keep overall depth, D of the footing as 770 mm. Then, the effective depth of footing shall be
710 mm. Therefore,
1.5 × 197.50 × 1000
τv = = 0.417 N/mm2
1000 × 710
It is less than the permissible stress, τc. Hence, safe.
The critical section of two-way shear shall be ABCD, Fig. 13.19 (b), the peripherial perimeter
⎡⎛ 710 710 ⎞ ⎛ 710 710 ⎞ ⎤
b 0 = 2 × ⎢⎜ 600 + + + 450 + +
⎣⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
∴ b 0 = 2 × [(1310) + 1160)] = 4940 mm
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Total shear force

V Fd = qu [(5.0 × 3.75) – (0.6 × 0.450)] kN
or V Fd = 1.5 × 122.67 × [(18.75 – 0.27)]
= 1.5 × 2266.94 = 3400.41 kN
VFd 1.5 × 2266.94 × 1000
τv = = = 0.969 N/mm2
bo ⋅ d 4940 ×710
τc = ks . τc
⎛ 3.75 ⎞
ks = (0.5 + βc) >/ 1, ⎜ βc = = 0.75⎟
⎝ 5 ⎠
∴ ks = 1
τc´ = 0.25 (fck)1/2
or τc´ = 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The nominal shear stress τv is less than the permissible stress, τc. Hence, the depth is
satisfactory.
Step 7. Reinforcement for bending moment
The cross-sectional area of the steel bars needed along the length for 1 m strip.
Let φ L = 20 mm
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
⎛ Ast ⋅ 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 710 ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 296.86 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 710 × 20 ⎟⎠
25.635 × 104 Ast – 7.491787 × 104 × Ast2 – 445.29 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 3.42175 × 104 Ast+ 0.59437 × 108 = 0
Ast = 1835.476 mm2
Ast = 314.159 mm2
Spacing of the steel bars along the length (distributed uniformly)
1000 ×314.159
sL = = 171.159 mm
1835.476
Provide these bars at 150 mm spacing. The cross-sectional area of the steel bars required
along the width for 1 m strip.
Let φ B = 20 mm. (φB = φc = φ)
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast . d = ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
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⎛ st A ⋅ 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × (710 – 20) = ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 166.985 × 106
1000 × 690 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
24.912 × 104 Ast – 7.491787 Ast2 – 250.470 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 3.32524 × 104 Ast + 0.33434 × 108 = 0

Ast = 1037.855 mm2
Reinforcement in central (middle) band
⎛ 2 ⎞
Ast.CB = ⎜ ⎟ × Total reinforcement in short direction
⎝ β +1 ⎠
Long side of footing
β =
Short side of footing
5.00
or β = = 1.333
3.75
Therefore,
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
ASt.CB = ⎜ ⎟ × 1037.855 mm
⎝ 1.333 + 1 ⎠
or Ast.CB = 889.717
Reinforcement in two side (edge) bands
Ast.EB = (1037.855 – 889.717) = 148.138 mm2
1 1
Ast.EB = 148.138 = 74.07 mm2
2 2
Spacing of bars in central (m=middle) band
1000 × 314.159
S.CB = = 353.10 mm2
889.717
S.CB (say) = 300 mm
Spacing of bars in side (edge) hand
1000 × 314.159
S.EB = = 4241.38 mm2 >/ 450 mm
74.07
S.EB (say) = 450 mm
Development required for Hysd steel bars
0.87 fy ⋅ φ
Ld =
4 × 1.60 ( τbd )
0.87 × 415 × φ
= = 47.01 φ
4 × 1.60 × 1.20
= 47.01 × 20 = 940.234 mm
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Development length available along the length (from the face of column)
⎡⎛ L − lw ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − end distance ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 5000 − 600 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25⎥ = 2175 mm (satisfactory)
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
Development length available along the width (from the face of column)
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3750 – 450 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25 ⎥ = 1625 mm (satisfactory)
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
Step 9. Check for transferred of load at the base of column
Loaded area at the column base
A 2 = 450 × 600 = 27 × 104 mm2
Supporting area for bearing of footing which one is sloping at the rate of 2 : 1.
Spread along the length upto the effective depth
= (2d + lw + 2d)
= (2 × 710 + 600 + 2 × 710)
= 3440 mm
Spread along the width upto the effective depth
= (2d + bw + 2d)
= (2 × 710 + 450 + 2 × 710)
= 3290 mm
Supporting area for bearing
A 1 = (3440 × 3290) =1131.76 × 104 mm2
1 1
⎛ A1 ⎞2 ⎛ 1131.76 × 104 ⎞2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟ = 6.47 > 2.0
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎝ 27 × 10 ⎠
Permissible bearing stress on full area of concrete
σcbr = 0.45 . fck = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2
1
⎛ A ⎞2
σcbr . ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 9 × 2 = 18 N/mm2
⎝ A2 ⎠
Compressive stress in concrete at the base of a column
(880 + 1420)
qu = 1.50 × = 1.5 × 8.593 = 12.89 N/mm2
600 × 450
It does not exceed the permissible stress.
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It is to note that because of the slope of spread of footing is 2 : 1, where the effective depth of
footing is more than half the width of column the permissible stress q will not exceed the
permissible stress as calculated above.
It is further to note that when the concrete in footing is having same strength as the concrete
of column [which shall be enhanced by (A1/A2)1/2] shall be clearly capable of carrying that part
of the column load transmitted by the column concrete.
Example 13.4. Design a stepped square footing to support the column, in Example 13.2.
Solution
Design :
The section of footing shall be designed as the balanced section. From Example 13.2, the
design constants are as under : for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars of Fe 415 grade.
⎛ xu.max ⎞
The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Dead load and live load to be transmitted by the column
P = (620 + 860) = 1480 kN
Self-weight of the footing may be assumed 10% of the column load
= 148 kN
Factored load
W Fd = 1.5 × 1628 = 2442 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil (assumed)
qu = 2 × qo = 2 × 120 = 240 kN/m2
Area of footing required in plan
1.5×1628
A1 = = 10.1745 m2
2×120
footing
B = (10.1745)1/2 = 3.1897 m
A square footing of size 3.70 m × 3.70 m shall be provided as shown in Fig. 13.20. Net soil
pressure acting upward
1.5 × 1480
qu = = 1.5 × 108.11 = 162.165 kN/m2
3.70 × 3.70
It is less than the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. Hence safe.
Overall depth of footing (From Example 13.2, overall depth of footing needed for two-way
shear) is assumed as 570 mm. An effective cover of 50 mm shall be kept. Therefore, the effective
depth shall be 520 mm. It will now be checked for bending moments, one way shear and two
way shear. The factored (design) bending moment at the critical section XX,X´X´ for 1 m strip
of footing considered
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2
1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞
MFd = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 370 – 0.450 ⎞
MFd = × 1.5 × 108.11 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
MFd = 142.739 = 214.11 kN-m/m
The effective depth of footing required to resist the bending moment. (Only 1 m strip is
considered)
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u. max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 ⋅ u. max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 142.739 × 106
d = 278.564 mm
An effective depth of footing 520 mm assumed is more than this effective depth. It is safe.
Bending moment at the critical section X1X1
2
1 ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
M1 = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.400 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
2
1 ⎡⎛ 370 – 0.450 ⎞ ⎤
or M1 = ×1.5 × 108.11× ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.4 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
or M1 = 1.5 × 81.116 = 121.674 kN-m/m
Effective depth of the footing after one step. (Only 1 m strip is considered)
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d12 = 1.5 × 81.116 × l06
d 1 = 209.994 mm
Effective depth of footing provided is (520 – 120) = 400 mm is more than needed.
Bending moment at the critical section X2 X2
2
1 ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
M2 = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 2 × 0.4 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
2
1 ⎡⎛ 3.70 – 0.450 ⎞ ⎤
M2 = × 1.5 × 108.11× ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.8 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
M2 = 1.5 × 36.791 = 55.1865 kN-m/m
Effective depth of the footing after two steps, (only 1 m strip considered)
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d22 = 1.5 × 36.791 × 106
d 2 = 141.424 mm
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Effective depth of footing provided is (400 – 120) = 380 mm is more than needed.
Bending moment at the critical section XX
2
1 ⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
M3 = ⋅ qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 3 × 0.4 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
2
1 ⎡⎛ 3.70 – 0.450 ⎞ ⎤
M3 = × 1.5 × 108.11 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1.2 ⎥ × 1
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
or M3 = 1.5 × 22.973 = 34.4595 kN-m/m
Effective depth of footing required after three steps
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u. max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 ⋅ u. max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
036 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd32 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d32 = 1.5 × 22.973 × 106
d 3 = 111.754 mm
Effective depth of footing provided is (380 – 120) = 260 mm, which one is more than required.
Hence safe.
The thickness of the footing at the edge actually provided (570 – 3 × 120) = 210 mm is more
than 150 mm specified by IS : 456–1978.
The factored (design) shear force at the critical sections X4X4 and X4´ X4´, at a distnace d =
effective depth of footing for 1 m strip of the footing
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
V Fd = qu ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − d⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3.70 – 0.450 ⎞ ⎤
V Fd = 1.5 × 108.11 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.520 ⎥ kN/m
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
= 1.5 × 119.462 = 179.193 kN-m/m
Nominal shear stress across the depth of footing
1.5 × 119.462 × 1000
τv = = 0.345 N/mm2
1000 × 520
For the balanced section for footing percentage of area of steel reinforcement
100 As
pB = = 0.96 percent
bd
From IS : 456–1978, the permissible shear stress in concrete (without shear reinforcement)
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τv = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
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Nominal shear stress, τv is less than the permissible shear stress, τc. Hence, it is safe. Similarly,
the depth of footing after one, two and three steps may also be checked for one-way shear.
C o lu m n
4 50 m m x 45 0 m m
X3 X2 X1 X
4 00 4 00
mm mm
4 00 4 00
mm mm
4 00
4 00 4 00
mm mm
20 m m φ hysd-bars
@ 220 m m c/c
20 m m φ hysd-bars
@ 220 m m c/c
X3 X2 X1 X
B B
2
= 1.86 5 m 2 = 1.86 5 m
B = 3 .70 m m
(a ) E levation
X4 X
d = 52 0 m m
X4' X4'
A B
X' X
B = 3.70
D C
X4 X
B = 3 .70 m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.20 Stepped footing under square column
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The critical section for two-way shear shall be ABCD, Fig. 13.20 (b). The peripherial perimeter
⎡ 520 520 ⎤
b 0 = 4 × ⎢450 + + = 3880 mm.
⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
Total shear force
V Fd = qu × [B2 – AB2]
or V Fd = 1.5 × 108.11 × [(3.702 –0.9702)]
= 1.5 × 1378.305 = 20.67.457 kN/m
1.5 × 1378.305 × 1000
τv = = 1.025 N/mm2
3880 × 520
τv́ = ks .τc
⎛ B ⎞
ks = (0.5 + βc) >/ 1, ⎜ βc = = 1.0 ⎟
⎝ B ⎠
ks = 1.00
τc = 0.25 × (fck)1/2
τć = 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The nominal shear stress, τv calculated above is less than the permissible shear stress, τc´.
Hence safe.
Step 7. Check for transfer of load at the base of column
The concrete of footing is having the same strength as the concrete of column, the bearing at
the top of footings is adequate. [See step 9, Example 13.3].
than the area of steel bars to be provided in the lower layer. Therefore, the area of steel bars
required for upper layer is also provided for that in the lower layer.
The area of steel bars needed for the upper layer for 1 m strip of the footing. Let φ = 20 mm
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87fy . Ast. d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 Ast × (520 – 20) ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 142.739 × 10
⎝ 3880 × 500 × 20 ⎠
18.053 × 104 Ast – 1.931 Ast2
– 214.11 × 106 = 0
2
Ast – 9.3496 × 10 Ast+ 1.11 × 108 = 0
4
Ast = 1201.45 mm2

Ast = 314.159 mm2
Spacing of the steel bars in the upper layer and the lower layer both are equal
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1000 × 314.159
s =
1201.45
= 261.48 mm
Provide 20 mm diameter Hysd bars of grade Fe 415 at 220 mm spacing centre to centre in
both the layers.
Example 13.5 Design a sloped square footing to support the column in Example 13.2.
Solution
Design :
The section of footing shall be designed as the balanced section. From Example 13.2, the
design constants are as under for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 grade.
The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth ratio (xu.max)/d = 0.48.
P = (620 + 860) = 1480 kN
Self-weight of the footing shall be assumed as 10% of the column load
= 148 kN
Factored load
W Fd = 1.5 × 1628 = 2442 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of soil (assumed)
qu = 2 × q0 = (2 × 120)
= 240 kN/m2
Area of footing needed
1.5 × 1628
AF = = 10.1745 m2
20 × 120
footing
B = (10.1745)1/2 = 3.1897 m.
A square footing of size 3.70 m × 3.70 m shall be provided as shown in Fig. 13.21. Net soil
pressure acting upward
1.5 × 1480
qu = = 1.5 × 108.11
3.70×3.70
= 162.165 kN/m2
It is less than the bearing capacity of the soil. Hence safe.
Overall depth of footing (For Example 13.2, overall depth of footing needed for two-way
shear) is assumed as 570 mm. An effective cover of 50 mm shall be used. Therefore, the effective
depth of footing shall be 520 mm. It will now be checked for bending moment, one-way shear
and two-way shear.
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C o lu m n
4 50 m m x 45 0 m m
X1
d
d = 7 60 m m
α α
20 m m φ
H ysd @
3 60 m m c/c
B B
= 1.85 0 m = 1.85 0 m
2 2
X1 X
X1 (a ) E levation
d
d bw d
2 4 50 m m 2
A B
( d /2)
b w = 4 50 m m
( d /2)
C
X1 X
3 .70 m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.21 Sloped footing under square footing
The/ bending moment at the critical section XX, X´X´ for 1 m strip of footing is considered.
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1 ⎛ B − bw ⎞
Mu = × qu × ⎜ ⎟ × 1 kN-m/m
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
1 ⎛ 3.70 – 0.450 ⎞
MFd = 1.5 × × 108.11 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 1
2 ⎝ 2
= 1.5 × 142.739
= 214.109 kN-m/m.
Total factored (design) bending moment for complete width
MFd = 1.5 × 142.739 × 3.70 kN-m
= 1.5 × 528.134 = 792.201 kN-m
The cross-sectional shape of the footing, Fig. 13.21 (a), resisting this bending moment is
trapezoidal. The moment of resistance of this trapezoidal section shall comprise of the moment
of resistance of the middle rectangular portion and that of the two triangular portions at the
sides. The horizontal component of total compressive force (which shall be acting horizontally).
Alternatively. The trapezoidal section may be considered as the equivalent rectangular section
of width [bw + (B – bw)/8] and depth, d may be used as an approximation.
Width of Equivalent rectangular section
= [bw + (B – bw)/8]
= [450 + (3700 – 450)/8]
= 856.25 mm
Therefore, the moment of resistance of the section as an approximation
⎛ xu. max ⎞⎛ 0.42xu. max ⎞ 2

= 0.36 fck ⎜ ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
= 0.36 fck × 0.48 ( 1– 0.42 × 0.48) bd2
= 0.13796 fck . bd2
Equating the moment of resistance to bending moment
MR = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 85625 × d2 = 1.5 × 528.134 × 106
d = 579.148 mm
Let the effective cover be 60 mm. Then, the overall depth of footing shall be (579.148 + 60)
= 639.148 mm. The overall depth of footing may be adopted as 740 mm. Then, the effective
depth of footing shall be 680 mm. Then effective depth of footing at the edge shall be
0.2 d = 0.2 × 680 = 136 mm
The overall thickness at the edge shall be (136 + 60) = 196 mm > 150 mm minimum specified
in IS : 456–1978. The cross-section of the footing resisting one-way shear is shown in
Fig. 13.22.
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C o lu m n
4 50 m m x 45 0 m m
d = 6 80 m m
Fo r B M
X
B – bw B – bw
2 2
X1 X1
X1 X X1
B B
2 2
Fig. 13.22 Section resisting one-way shear (sloped footing)
Step 5. Check for one-way (beam) shear

Shear force at the critical section X1X1 Fig. 13.22, at a distance a from the face of the column,
for complete width of footing
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
V = q0 . B. ⎢⎜ ⎟ − d⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
108.11 × 3700 ⎡⎛ 3700 − 450 ⎞ ⎤

= 1.5 × × ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 0.680 ⎥
1000 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
= 1.5 × 378.01 kN
Effective depth at the critical section X1 X1, Fig. 13.22
680 × 945
= 136 + = 531.446 mm
⎛ 3700 − 450 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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Width at the critical section X1 X1 Fig. 13.22

⎡ (680 − 136) − (531.446 − 136) ⎤
= 450 + 2 × 1625 × ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (680 − 136) ⎦
= 450 + (2 × 1625 × 148.554/544)
= (450 + 2 × 443.75) = 1337.50 mm
Depth of neutral axis for this section resisting the shear
= 0.48 × 531.446 = 255.094 mm
Width at the level of neutral axis
⎡ ⎛ 148.554 + 153.375 ⎞ ⎤
= 450 + ⎢2 × 1625 × ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 544 ⎠⎦
= 2253.80 mm
Nominal shear stress at the section X1X1
1.5 × 378.01 × 1000
τv =
2253.80 × 531.446
= 0.4734 N/mm2
For balanced section pB = 0.96 for M 20 concrete
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm2
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
The effective depth of complete section is increased in the ratio of τV/τC.
The revised depth of complete section
⎛ 0.4734 ⎞
⎜ 680 × 0.6100 ⎟ = 527.724 mm
⎝ ⎠
Adopt overall depth of complete section
= (760 + 60) = 820 mm.
Step 6. Check for two-way (Flat slab type) shear
The critical section for two-way shear round the column shall be ABCD. The peripherial
length of the perimeter
b 0 = 4 × (450 + 760) = 4840 mm
V Fd = 1.5 × l08.11 [37 × 3.7 – 0.450 × 0.450]
= 1.5 × l08.11 × 13.4875
= 1.5 × l458.134 kN
= 2187.201 kN
Nominal shear stress for two-way shear
VFd ⎛ 1.5 × 1458.134 × 1000 ⎞ 2
τv = = ⎟ N/mm
b0 ⋅ d ⎜⎝ 4840 × 760 ⎠
or τv = 0.5946 N/mm2
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Permissible shear stress (ks . τc)

ks = (0.5 + βc ) |> 1.0
450
βc = =1
450
τc = 0.25 (fck)1/2
∴ ks τc = 0.25 (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
τv is not more than ks . τc. Hence, the section is safe in two-way shear.
than the area of steel bars to be provided in the lower layer. Therefore, the area of steel bars
required for upper layer is also provided for that in the lower layer. The area of steel bars
needed for the upper layer for 1 m strip of footing. (Let φ = 20 mm)
⎛ Ast . fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d. fck ⎠
⎛ st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415Ast × (780 –20) ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 142.739 ×106
856.25 × 760 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
27.4398 × 104 Ast – 8.7495 Ast2
– 214.11 × =0 106
= Ast2 – 3.1361 × 104 Ast + 29.47 × 106 = 0
Ast = 800.712 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
Spacing of the steel bars along the length (distributed uniformly)
1000 × 314.159
s = = 392.35
800.712
Say = 350 mm.
Step 8. Check for transfer of load at base of column
A 2 = 450 × 450 = 20.25 × 104 mm2
Supporting area for bearing of footing which one is sloping at the rate of 2 : 1. Spread of the
footing upto the effective depth
= (2 × 760 + 450 + 2 × 760) = 3490 mm
Supporting area of the bearing
A 1 = 3490 × 3490 = 1218.01 × 104 mm2
1 1
⎛ A1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 1218.01 × 104 ⎞2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 7.398 > 2.0
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎜ 22.25 × 104
⎝ ⎠
Permissible bearing stress on full area of concrete
σcbr = 0.45 fck = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2
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1
⎛ A ⎞2
σcbr . ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 9 × 2 = 18 N/mm2
⎝A ⎠
2
Compressive stress in concrete at the base of the column

⎛ (620 + 860 ) × 1000 ⎞
q = 1.5 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1.5 × 7.308 N/mm2
⎝ 450 × 450 ⎠
= 10.962 N/mm2
It does not exceed the permissible stress. Hence safe.
It is to note that the dowel bars are provided in the column and footing in case the permissible
stress becomes less than the actual bearing stress.
Step 9. Check for the development length
Development length required for Hysd steel bars
0.87 fy ⋅ φ 0.87 + φ
Ld = = = 47.01φ
4 × 1.60 ⋅ τbd 4 × 1.60 × 1.20
= 47.01 × 20 = 940.234 mm
Development length available from the critical section XX for the bending moment that is, at
the face of column
⎡⎛ B − bw ⎞ ⎤
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ 3700 – 450 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 25⎥ = 1600 mm
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
Actual length available is more than the development length needed. Hence, satisfactory.
Design of sloped footing is shown in Fig. 13.21.
13.16 CIRCULAR FOOTING

The circular footings are usually provided under single circular columns. In the circular footing,
the cantilevers project out from the column in all the directions. The column in all the directions.
The column transfers the axial (viz., concentric) load acting downward to the footing. The
footing is loaded upward by the soil pressure. The tensile stresses develop in the directions at
the bottom surface. Such footings are therefore reinforced by two layers of steel bars
perpendicular to each other. A circular footing under a single circular column with the forces
acting on it, is shown in Fig. 13.23. The required bearing area of footing is determined by
dividing the total load including the self-weight of the footing (the column load P + 10% of
column load) by the bearing capacity of the soil. The factored load shall be 1.50 times the
service load acting over the column, [viz., 1.50 × (D.L. + L.L.)]. The ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil, qu shall be assumed as twice the safe bearing capacity of the soil, q0 (i.e., qu = 2 × q0).
The required bearing area of footing
1.10 P
A F = 1.5 × ...(i)
qu
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Let R be the radius of circular footing and r be the radius of circular column. Then
1
⎛ A ⎞2
πR2 = AF, R = ⎜ F ⎟
⎝ π ⎠
R a dius o f colum n r
squ are inscrib ed
R R
(a ) E levatio n
( d /2) ( d /2)
X X
2γ
( d /2) ( d /2)
R– r R– r
2 2
X
(b ) P lan
Fig. 13.23 Critical section XX for BM circular footing under circular column
For the purpose of calculating stresses in footings which support a circular concrete column
or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal shall be taken as the side of a square inscribed
within the perimeter of the circular column or the pedestal as shown in Fig. 13.23. The
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perpendicular distance from the centre of the column upto the side of square inscribed within
⎛ r ⎞
the perimeter of column is ⎜ ⎟ . The critical section XX for calculating the maximum bending
⎝ 2⎠
moment shall be at the face of the square as shown in Fig. 13.23 and Fig. 13.24.
The maximum bending moment in the circular footing supporting a circular column may be
determined by considering a quadrant of a circle OPQ as shown in Fig. 13.24.
P X' D istan ce o f C .G . o f sha pe d are a fro m ce ntre

X D istan ce o f C .G . o f sha pe d are a fro m face o f squ are
r r
2 2
0 .6 r E xact critica l se ction a t

fa ce o f sq ua re
0 .6 R
A p pro xim ate critical
section at fa ce o f colum n
X
X'
Fig. 13.24
The areas of quadrants of two circles of radii, r and R, respectively.

π 2
A1 = ⋅r ...(i)
4
π 2
and A2 = ⋅R ...(ii)
4
The distances of centres of gravity G1 and G2 of two circles of radii, r and R, respectively.
OG 1 = 0.6 r ...(iii)
and OG 2 = 0.6 R ...(iv)
The distance of centre of gravity G3 of the shaded area from the centre
⎡π 2 π 2 ⎤
⎢ 4 R × (0.6 R ) − 4 r × (0.6 r )⎥
⎣ ⎦
X´ = ...(v)
⎛π 2 π 2⎞
⎜ 4 ⋅ R − 4 ⋅r ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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or X´ = 0.6
(R 3
− r3 ) ...(vi)
(R 2
− r2 )
⎛ R2 + R ⋅ r + r 2 ⎞
or X´ = 0.6 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ R+r ⎠
The exact distance of centre of gravity, G3 of the shaded area from the face of the square
⎡ ⎛ R2 + R ⋅ r + r 2 ⎞ r ⎤
x = ⎢0.6 ⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎥ ....(viii)
⎜ R+r 2 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠
(0.6R2 + 0.6R ⋅ r + 0.6r 2 – 0.707R ⋅ r – 0.707 r 2 )

x = ...(ix)
( R + r)
⎡ 5.6075R2 − R ⋅ r − r 2 ⎤
x = 0.107 ⎢ ⎥ ...(13.37)
⎢⎣ (R + r ) ⎥⎦
The approximate distance of centre of gravity, G3 of the shaded area from the face of circular
column instead of face of the square
⎡ ⎛ R2 + Rr + r 2 ⎞ ⎤
x = ⎢0.6 ⎜ ⎟⎟ − r ⎥ ....(x)
⎜ R+r
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(0.6R 2 + 0.6 Rr + 0.6r 2 – Rr – r 2 )

or x = ...(xi)
(R + r )
0.2
or x = [3R 2 − 2.Rr − 2.r 2 ] ...(13.38)
(R + r )
The soil pressure acting upward on the shaded area
π 2
= ( R − r 2 ) ⋅ qu ...(xii)
4
The factored (design) bending moment at the face of circular column
π 2 0.2
MFd = (R – r2) . qu × × [3R2 – 2.Rr – 2.r2] ...(xiii)
4 (R + r )
1
= π.(R – r) qu . [3R2 – 2Rr – 2r2] ...(13.39)
20
Bending moment at the face of square inscribed within the column
π 2 0.107
MFd = (R – r2) . qu – × [5.6R2 – R.r – r2] ...(xiv)
4 ( R + r)
or MFd = 0.084 qu (R – r). [5.6R2 – R.r – r2] ...(13.40)
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Width of the quadrant P1 Q1, Fig. 13.24 shall be

2π r 1
= = π⋅r ...(xv)
4 2
Width of the face of square, P1 Q inscribed within the perimeter of column
2.r1
= = 2 ⋅r ...(xvi)
2
The effective of circular footing at the critical section
⎛x ⎞⎛ 0.42 xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bd = MFd ...(13.41)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
The cross-sectional area of steel bars in one direction in lower layer.
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast1 ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(xvii)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck ⎠
The cross-sectional area of steel bars in the other (viz., perpendicular) direction in upper
layer
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy φ ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast2 ⋅ d ⋅ ⎜1 − − ⎟ = MFd ...(xviii)
⎝ bd ⋅ fck d ⎠
It is to note that Ast2 , shall be more than Ast1 , therefore, Ast2 area of steel shall be provided
in lower layer and so also in the upper layer at uniform spacing in both the directions.
Check for two way shear
The critical section for two-way shear as shown in Fig. 13.23 shall be at a distance (d/2) from
the periphery of the column. The shear force
⎡ 2
2 ⎛ d⎞ ⎤
V Fd = qu ⋅ π ⎢ R − ⎜ r + ⎟ ⎥ kN ...(xix)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
The peripheral distance of critical section,

⎛ d⎞
b 0 = 2π ⎜ r + ⎟ ...(xx)
⎝ 2⎠
The nominal shear stress
VFd
τv = ...(13.42)
bo ⋅ d
The nominal shear stress shall not exceed the permissible stress for two-way shear.
Check for the development length
The available length of steel bars from the face of square upto the edge of footing less end
distance shall be more than the development needed for the type of steel bars used.
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( Note. In case a square footing is provided under a circular column, then also, the square shall be inscribed
within the perimeter of the circle. Then, it shall be the case of square footing supporting the square column,
and which shall be designed as usual.
13.17 FOOTINGS ON ROCK

Very commonly, only a nominal footing is needed on rock because rock is usually at least as
strong as concrete. Moreover, the rock is loaded on only a small part of its surface.
A heavy steel column needs a significant footing. In such case, instead of calculated unit
stresses, the deformation and relative stiffness become significant. A reinforced concrete footing
functions only on elongation of the steel bars provided as reinforcement and on deflection of
the cantilever projections. The rock underlying the footing used to be more stiffer against the
compressive deformation than the reinforced concrete footing is, again bending deflection. As
such the footing does not distribute the load laterally to any significant extent. Therefore, a
reinforced concrete footing on rock has a little value.
The transfer of stress through shear with small deformations is more reliable. Therefore, it
needs deep footing. A plain concrete footing on rock is just as effective as the reinforced footing
on rock.
The frictional (interlocking) forces in the usual rough rock surface is sufficient to prevent
any significant stretching of the bottom surface of the footing. A large depth (viz., the depth
more than the length of projection) of the footing on rock gives shear stiffness. The quality of
rock, below the footing, its surface roughness (interlock) and its lack of volume change are the
factors which influence the development of tension on the bottom surface. For a footing on a
poor rock, the concrete is designed to resist the total moment as for a long footing on soil.
However, under the ideal rock conditions, the tension from bending may be neglected.
Formerly, it was the accepted concept that the footings would undergo essentially uniform
settlements in case these footing develop the same soil loading per unit area under the usual
loads on the structures. These footings used to have balanced footing areas. The usefulness of
this concept is greatly restricted in the modern soil mechanics. In most practical cases, it is
established that the uniform soil pressure does not lead to uniform settlement. For outside wall
footings, the balanced footing pressures need a large size. In a heavy structure on a thick
stratum of material that consolidates slowly under additional load, such an increase in exterior
footing size actually increases the final differential settlement. In case, the footing is on expansive
soils, and on application of downward loads, the foundation may move upward. The concept of
balanced footing areas should be used after ascertaining that special foundation situation
justifies this approach. Very commonly, the differential settlements increase rather than
decrease.
The term usual load is applied to the average load or the load frequently on the structure,
for a balanced footing design.
In case, all footings are designed for the usual load, at complete permissible soil pressure,
the footing that cared for the maximum percentage of live load (compared to dead load) would
overstress the soil when the total live is acting. This result suggests the clue for balanced
footing area design. That, the footing with the maximum ratio of live load to dead load is
designed first by the usual procedures using largest load and the total permissible soil pressure.
The usual soil pressure under this footing is established later on for the usual load, very commonly
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something between the dead load alone and dead plus half the live load. The bearing areas of
all other footings are then decided to give this same usual soil pressure under the usual footing
loads. (This action automatically gives them less than the maximum permissible soil pressure
under the maximum live load). The isolated footings are then designed for thickness and
reinforcement using these balanced areas and the total design live load.
Example 13.6 A circular column of 480 diameter transfers an axial dead load of 650 kN
and an axial live load of 500 kN. The column is having 8 steel bars of 18 mm diameter. The
safe bearing capacity of the soil is 140 kN/m2 use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of
Fe 415 grade. Design a circular footing to support the circular column.
Solution
Design :
The section of footing shall be designed as a balanced section. The design constants are as
under. The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth ratio
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Step 2. Size of the footing to maintain allowable pressure
P = (650 + 500) = 1150 kN
Self-weight of the footing shall be assumed as 10% of the column load
= 115 kN
Factored load, W Fd = 1.5 × 1265 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of soil qu = 2 × 140 = 280 kN/m2
Area of the footing required
1.5 × 1265
A = = 6.7767 m2
2 × 140
The radius of circular footing
1 1
⎛ A ⎞ 2 ⎛ 6.7767 ⎞ 2
R = ⎜ F ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 1.4687 m
⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ π ⎠
The radius of circular footing may be adopted as 180 m and then, its diameter shall be
3.60 m. The net soil pressure (R = 1.80 m)
1.5 × 1150
qu = 2
= 1.5 × 112.98 = 169.47 kN/m2
π ⋅ (1.80 )
The critical section for bending moment, XX shall be at the face of square inscribed within
the column. The distance of face of square from the centre of the column, Fig. 13.23 (b). (The
radius of column is 240 mm).
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r 240
= = 169.7 mm
2 2
r
2. = 2 × 0.1697 = 339.41 mm
2
The distance of C.G. of the shaded area from the face of square, Fig. 13.24, Eq. 13.37 [R =
1.80 m, r = 0.240 m].
⎡ 5.6075R 2 − R.r − r 2 ⎤
x = 0.0107 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (R + r) ⎦
⎡ 5.6075× 1.802 – 1.80 × 0.240 – 0.2402 ⎤

or x = 0.107 ⎢ ⎥m
⎣ (1.80 + 0.240) ⎦
x = 0.9273 m
Soil pressure acting upward on the shaded area, Fig. 13.24
π
= 112.98 ×
4
(
− R2 − r2 )
π
= 1.5 × 112.98 × (1.802 – 0.2402) kN
4
= 1.5 × 282.388 kN = 423.582 kN
Factored (design) bending moment at the critical section XX, located at the face of square,
Fig. 13.23
= 1.5 × 282.388 × 0.9273 = 1.5 × 261.858 kN-m
= 392.787 kN-m
Step 4. Effective depth of footing
The effective depth of footing
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 ⋅ u⋅max ⎟ bd 2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
1.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 339.41 × d2 = 1.5 × 261.858 × 106
d = 647.626 mm
Let the effective cover be 60 mm. Then the overall depth of footing shall be
D = (647.626 + 60) = 707.626 mm
Adopt D @ 1980 mm, and
d = 920 mm
The critical section for two-way shear shall be the circumference of a circle of radius (r + d/2)
or at a distance (d/2) of the column.
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Shear force for two-way shear

⎡ 2 ⎛ 2
1 ⎞ ⎤
V Fd q
= u ⋅ π ⎢ R − ⎜ r + d ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ 2
2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
V Fd = 1.5 × 112.98 × π ⎢1.80 − ⎜ 0.240 + × 0.920 ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
V Fd = 1.5 × 976.077 kN = 1464.1155 kN

The peripheral distance or circumference of the critical section for two-way shear
⎛ 1 ⎞
b 0 = 2π ⋅ ⎜ r + d ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
or b 0 = ⎢2π ⎜ 240 + × 920 ⎟ ⎥ = 4398.23 mm
⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎠⎦
The effective depth at the outer edge is assumed as 184 mm.
The effective depth of footing under the critical section for two-way shear shall be as follows :
(as shown in Fig. 13.25)
⎛ 920 ⎞
⎜⎝ (920 –184)× 2 ⎟⎠
d = 920 –
(1800 –240)
= 702.974 mm
2 40 m m 2 40 m m
1 69 .07 m m 1 69 .07 m m
d C o lu m n
= 92 0 m m A t sq u are fa ce
d
2
X
d = 92 0 m m
184 m m
1 84 m m
(R – r) X (R – r)
= 15 60 m m = 15 60 m m
1 80 0 m m 1 80 0 m m
Fig. 13.25
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VFd
τv =
b0 ⋅ d´
1.5 × 976.077 × 1000

=
4398.23 × 702.974
= 0.474 N/mm2
Permissible shear stress for two way shear under triaxial compression
τc = 0.25 (fck)1/2
τc = 0.25 (20)1/2
= 1.118 N/mm2
The nominal shear stress is less than the permissible shear stress. Hence, the depth of footing
is satisfactory.
The critical section for one-way (beam) shear X1X1 shall be at a distance d from the face of
square inscribed within the column. The distance of critical section X1X1 from the centre shall
be
⎛ r ⎞
⎜d + ⎟ = (920 + 169.7) = 1089.7 mm
⎝ 2⎠
The distance of critical section X1X1 from the face of column, Fig. 13.25
= (1089.7 – 240)
= 849.7 mm
The effective depth of footing at the critical section X1X1, Fig. 13.25
⎛ [(920 – 184)×849.7] ⎞
d´´ = ⎜ 920 − ⎟ = 519.12 mm
⎝ (1800 – 240) ⎠
Width of the footing at this section, Fig. 13.25
b´´ = (2 × 849.7 + 480) = 2149.4 mm
Shear force at this section
2⎤
π⎡
2 ⎛ 2.1494 ⎞
VFd´ = qu ⋅ ⎢ R − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN
4 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
π
or VFd´ = 1.5 × 112.98 × [1.8002 – 1.07452] kN
4
or VFd´ = 1.5 × 185.05 kN = 277.575 kN
1.5 × 185.05 × 1000
τv́ =
2149.4 × 519.12
= 0.249 N/mm2
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Permissible stress for shear in concrete of M 20 grade, with

pB = 0.96 percent
⎡ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎤
τv́ = ⎢0.56 + = 0.61 N/mm2
⎣ 0.25 ⎥⎦
Hence safe.
Step. 7 Reinforcement for bending
The steel bars shall be provided in two layers as provided in the square footing. The area of
steel bars provided in the lower layer shall be kept equal that provided in upper layer. The
area of steel bars. (Let the diameter of bars be 20 mm.)
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFD
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
⎛ st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × (920 – 20) ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 261.858 × l06
2149.4 × 900 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
32.4945 Ast × 104– 34855 Ast2
– 392.787 × =0 105
Ast2 – 9.3227 Ast + 1.1269 × 108 = 0
Ast = 1224.873 mm2
Area of steel bars required for 1 m width
1224.873
= = 340.242 m2
3.6
Area of one steel bars
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
1000 ×314.159
S =
340.242
= 923.3386 mm
Spacing of steel bars shall not be more than 450 mm. Therefore 20 mm diameter bars shall
be provided at 450 mm centre to centre as shown in Fig. 13.25.
Development length required for Hysd steel bars for M 20 grade of concrete
⎛ 0.87 fy × φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.60 × τbd ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
= ⎜ = 47.01 φ
⎝ 4 × 1.60 × 1.2 ⎟⎠
Ld = 47.01 × 20
= 940.234 mm
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Development length available from the critical section for bending, that is, from the face of
square
= (R – 169.07 – 25) = (1800 – 169.07 – 25) mm
= 1605.93 mm
Available development length of the steel bars is more than the development length required.
Step 9. Check for transfer of load at column base
π
Aφ = × 0.4802 = 0.181 m2
4
Supporting area for bending of footing which one is sloping at the rate of 2:1. Spread of the
footing upto the effective depth
= (2d + r + 2d)
= (2 × 0.920 + 0.240 + 2 × 0.920) = 3.92 m
Supporting area of the bearing
π
A1 = × 3.922 = 12.069 m2
4
1 1
⎛ A1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 12.069 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 8.166 > 2
A
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 0.181 ⎠
Permissible bearing stress for full area
σcbr = 0.45fck = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2
1
⎛ A1 ⎞ 2
σcbr ⎜ ⎟ = 9 × 2 = 18 N/mm2
⎝ A2 ⎠
Compressive stress at the base of column
1.5 × 1150 × 1000
q = = 1.5 × 6.355 N/mm2
π
× 480× 480
4
= 9.5325 N/mm2
It does not exceed the permissible bearing stress.
Step 10. Check for dowels into the footings
( Note. In case the actual bearing stress exceeds the permissible bearing stress, the load is transferred by
dowels. Code of practice IS : 456–1978 also permits the use of dowels into the footing. In case the permissible
stress would have worked out as 4.8 N/mm2, then, the dowels have to be provided to transfer the excess of the
load.
In case a minimum of 4 dowel bars of 16 mm diameter are provided, then, the capacity of
concrete plus the dowels to transfer the load
⎡ ⎛π π π ⎞⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢4.8 ⎜ ⋅ (480)2 – 8× (18)2 + 4 × ×162 ×230 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝4 4 4 ⎠⎦
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⎡ 4.8 (178919.98) + (184976.98) ⎤

= 1.5 ⎢ ⎥ kN
⎣ 1000 ⎦
= 1.5 (858.816 + 184.97698)
= 1.5 × 1043.793 = 1565.69 kN
The column load to be transferred
P = (650 + 550) = 1150 kN
Excess load to be transferred
= 1.5 × (1150 – 1043.793)
= 1.5 × 106.21 kN = 159.315 kN
Instead of 4 dowel bars, 8 dowel bars are provided. Additional load transferring capacity
π 162 × 0.87 × 415

= 4× × = 290.09 kN
4 1000
Hence, the load transferring capacity
(1565.69 + 290.09) = 1855.78 kN
It is more than the load to be transferred. Hence, it would have been satisfactory.
PROBLEMS
13.1. A 360 mm masonry wall supports a dead load of 160 kN and a live load of 140 kN. The
allowable bearing pressure on soil is 130 kN/m2. Design reinforced concrete footing under the
masonry wall. Use M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars less than or equal to 20 mm.
The footing shall be 120 m below the ground.
13.2. In Problem 13.1, the design footing in case the wall is a concrete wall.
13.3. A column 540 mm × 540 mm in size with 8 steel bars of 20 mm diameter transfers a dead load
of 560 kN and a live load of 880 kN to the footing. The bearing capacity of soil is 130 kN/m2.
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 grade shall be used. Design a square
footing to support the column.
13.4. A rectangular column 380 mm × 520 mm transfers a dead load of 760 kN and a live load of
1350 kN without any moment and there is no overburden. The safe bearing capacity of sol is
124 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 grade shall be used. Design
the rectangular footing to support the column.
13.5. Design a stepped footing to support the column in Problem 13.3.
13.6. Design a sloped square footing to support the column in Problem 13.3.
13.7. A circular column 440 mm diameter transfers an axial dead load of 520 kN and an axial live
load of 450 kN. The column is having 8 steel bars of 12 mm diameter. The safe bearing
capacity of the soil is 110 kN/m2. Provide M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415
grade. Design a circular footing to support the circular column.
13.8. A reinforced concrete column of size 460 mm × 460 mm transfers a load of 548 kN and a
moment of 36 kN-m. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 100 kN/m2. Use M 20 grade of
concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415. Design
(a) a symmetrical squaring footing.
(b) an unsymmetrical square footing.
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Design of Combined
14 Footing
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The combined footings are the spread footings which support more than one column or a wall.
In case, two interior columns carrying loads P1 and P2 are so closely spaced and the bearing
capacity of the soil q is small, the isolated (single) footing areas, AF and AF are large and
1 2
overlap as shown in Fig. 14.1, then, the combined footing is used.
C o lu mn C o lu mn
P1 P2
1 .10 P 1
AF1 = q
1 .10 P 2
A F2 =
q
Isolated fo otin g Isolated fo otin g

a rea A F 1 a rea A F 2
Fig. 14.1 Overlapping of footing areas
The combined footing is also used, in case, the projection of footing of an exterior column is
likely to project into the others property line. In such cases, a combined rectangular footing or
a combined trapezoidal footing in plan as shown in Fig. 14.2 is used so that the projection from
the footing remain within the own property line.
In each case the centroid of the combined footing must coincide with the resultant of the two
column loads marked as O.
In addition to above two essential circumstances, the combined footing is also used in case (i)
insufficient bearing capacity of sub-soil requiring large areas, or (ii) sensitivity of the
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Design of Combined Footing 827
superstructure to differential settlements, or (iii) advantage in construction procedure such as

trench excavation or similar.
The combined footings may be divided into two categories, viz., those which support two
columns and those which support more than two (commonly large numbers of) columns. The
continuous strip footings, the grid foundations, the mat foundations, the strip foundations,
the raft foundations, etc. are the combined footings and are used under different conditions.
These have been described in subsequent sub-sections.
C o lu m n size C o lu m n size
(b w 1 × b w 1) ( b w 2 × b w 2)
P1 L ine o f a ctio n of P2
re su ltan t coincid es
w ith C .G . o f foo tin g
m k n
P ro pe rty lin e
1 1
2 2
(a ) R e ctan gu la r fo otin g
C o lu m n size
(b w 1 × b w 1 ) C o lu m n size
(b w 2 × b w 2)
d
O
C .G . C e ntre C
P2
P1
P ro pe rty lin e
m k n
L
(b ) Trap ezoida l foo ting com b in ed fo oting
Fig. 14.2
The combined footing may have any reasonable shape as long as the resultant of column
loads is collinear with the resultant of a uniform soil pressure and it satisfies the basic
requirements in Art. 13.10.
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14.2 CANTILEVER OR STRAP FOOTING

A strap beam is used to join two spread footings under an exterior column and an interior
column as shown in Fig. 14.3. Because of property line restrictions, an exterior column footing
needs some type of a combined footing and the nearest interior footing is some distance away,
then the ordinary combined footing becomes long and narrow and it is subjected to excessive
bending moment. The cantilever footing presents itself as an alternate solution. The exterior
column footing is kept eccentrically under an exterior column so that it does not project beyond
the property line. Such an eccentric position of the exterior column may result in strongly
uneven distribution of bearing pressure which may lead to overturning or even tipping of the
exterior footing. The strap beam counteracts the eccentricity and prevents the overturning of
the exterior footing. The strap footing does not provide any footing area. This strap beam is
subjected to a constant shearing force and linearly varying negative bending moment. It behaves
like a cantilever beam and the footing is therefore, called as cantilever footing.
Both the footings are so proportioned that under service load, the intensity of soil pressure q
acting upward under each of the footing, remains uniform and equal. It is achieved by keeping
the centroid of the combined area for the two footings and the line of action of resultant of the
two column loads coinciding as in case of other combined footing. The various forces acting on
the footing are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 14.3.
The footing under the exterior column is eccentric by a distance e from the centre line of the
exterior column. It will produce by itself a very unsatisfactory soil pressure distribution. A
strap beam is joined to balance the overturning moment, P1.e. It is carried to the symmetric
footing under the interior column for necessary balancing reaction. The strap beam is kept stiff
so that it functions well. The strap beam functions most simply as it is kept relieved from the
soil pressure from below, except to carry possibly that required to carry the self-weight of the
beam. This feature may be obtained in several ways, most commonly by loosening or spading
the soil under the beam, occasionally by keeping the beam free from the soil.
It is assumed that the self-weight of the strap beam is carried by the soil. Then, the cantilever
footing may be analysed quite easily. The strap beam becomes effectively weightless. The
resultant reactions under the exterior column footing R1 and the interior column footing R2 are
also shown in Fig. 14.3. The column load P2 and the reaction R2 are collinear. The column load
P1 and the reaction under the exterior column footing R1 form a resulting couple and balances
the effect of the eccentricity of the column relative to the centre of footing. Consider the footing
under the exterior column and the strap beam as shown in Fig. 14.3 (c). The overturning
couple and the balancing couple are equal. Therefore,
∆R . (L – e) = P1 . e
R1 = P1 + ∆R
R2 = P2 – ∆R
The footing under exterior column is kept slightly larger than required for P1 alone and the
footing under the interior column be slightly reduced than that for P2 alone. The strap beam
carries a constant shear force ∆R and a moment, ∆R . (L – e). In proportioning the footings
under exterior and interior columns, the service loads with the usual permissible soil pressures
may be used.
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P1 P2
q q
R1 R2
e (a ) E levatio n
E xte rio r colum n

In te rio r colum n
S trap b ea m
E xte rio r
E xte rio r fo otin g - B
fo otin g - A
P ro pe rty lin e (b ) P lan

P1 ∆R
L
E xte rio r
fo otin g - A
(L – e )
R 1 = ( P 1 + ∆R )
(c) Fo rces a ctin g o n fo oting - A an d stra p be am
∆R P2
(d ) L in ea rly varyin g ne ga tive B M
In te rio r
fo otin g- B
R 2 = ( P 2 + ∆R )
Fig. 14.3 Cantilever or strap footing
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14.3 CONTINUOUS STRIP FOOTINGS

Heavily loaded columns need large bearing areas when these are supported on relatively weak
or uneven soils having low bearing capacity. In such cases, continuous strip footings are
provided to support more than two columns in a row, instead of individual footings, as shown
in Fig. 14.4. The continuous strip footings run along the column row. The strip footings may
be cast in-situ or composed of precast members. The strip footings have tee-sections and the
flanges of tee-sections face downward. The projections of the tee-section flange behave as
cantilevers. These projections (cantilevers) have fixed ends in the ribs. The flange is made
enough thick to resist the shear forces, without transverse or bent-up bars. The thickness of
flange is kept constant when the cantilever projections are of small length. Otherwise the
depth of flange is increased towards the rib. In the longitudinal direction, an isolated strip
footing behaves in bending as a beam carrying concentrated column loads from above and the
distributed contact soil pressure acting upward from the bottom side.
P i –1 Pi Pi +1
L L
L R
Fo otin g's R Ib
Fo otin g's fla ng e
(a ) E levatio n
(b ) P lan
C o ntinu o us strip foo tin g
(c) S e ttlem e nt ∆
qML qMR
q1
S im p lifie d
(d ) S u b-g ra de re action (soil p re ssure)
LL LR
+ + 2 2 + +
MML MMR
q1
(e ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gram
Fig. 14.4 Continuous strip footing supporting more than two columns
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For the analysis and design, for compressible soils it is assumed in first approximation that
the deformation or settlement of the soil at a given location and the bearing pressure at that
location are proportional to each other. In case, the columns are spaced at moderate distances
and the strip footing is very rigid, the settlements in all proportions of the footing will be
substantially the same. It means that the bearing pressure will also be equal in case the centroid
of footing coincides with the line of application of the resultant of the column loads. In case
these two do not coincide, then for such rigid footings, the sub-grade reactions (viz., bearing
pressures are called as sub-grade reaction) may be assumed as linear and found from the
statics, in the same way as described for independent footings. In this case, the column loads
acting downward and the soil pressure acting upward are known. Therefore, the moments and
shear forces may be obtained by statics alone. Once these are known, the design of strip footing
is similar to that of inverted continuous beams.
In case the footing is relatively flexible and the spacing between columns is large, then, the
settlement will not remain linear or uniform. The settlements under the heavily loaded columns
will be large and the sub-grade reactions will also be large. The strip footing between the
columns deflects upward. Therefore, the settlement of the soil and the sub-grade reactions will
be small as compared to those directly under the columns as shown in Fig. 14.4 (b) and (c),
respectively. The analysis of strip footing may then be done by theory of beams on elastic
foundation. [Reference may be made in M. Heteneyi, ‘Beams on Elastic Foundation’ University
of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1946].
In the report of ACI Committee 436, Journal of ACI, Vol. 63 No. 10, October 1966 (pp 1041–
1057), the suggested Design Procedures for combined footings and Mats have been described.
As per above reference, a simplified procedure for most frequent situations may be adopted.
This simplified procedure defines the condition according to which a footing may be regarded
as rigid such that uniform or overall linear distribution of subgrade reaction may be assumed.
The average of two adjacent span length in a continuous strip footing is given by
1
LAve. = ( LL + LR ) ...(i)
2
where
LL = left span between the centre to centre of the columns being considered
LR = right span between the centre to centre of the columns being considered.
In case, LAve. does not exceed (1.75/λ), provided also that the adjacent span and column
loads do not differ by more than 20 percent of the larger value, then,
1
⎛ k ⋅ b ⎞ 4 −1
λ = ⎜ s ⎟ m ...(14.1)
⎝ 3 ⋅ Ec ⋅ I ⎠
where ks = S . kś
ks´ = coefficient of subgrade reaction as defined in soil mechanics basically force per
unit area needed to produce unit settlement kN/m2
b = width of footing, metre
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, kN/m2
I = moment of inertia of the footing, m4
S = shape factor
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For granular soils such as sands

2
⎡ (b + 1 ) ⎤
S = ⎢ ⎥ ...(14.2)
⎣ 2b ⎦
For cohesive soils such as clays
⎡ (n + 0.5 ) ⎤
S = ⎢ ⎥ ...(14.3)
⎣ 1.5 n ⎦
where n = ratio of longer to shorter, side of the strip footing.
The foundation shall be regarded as flexible in case LAve. exceeds (1.75/λ). In case, the adjacent
spans and column loads do not differ by more than 20 percent, the complex curvilinear
distribution of subgrade reaction may be substituted by a set of equivalent trapezoidally
distribution reactions, as shown in Fig. 14.4 (c).
Reference may also be made to Kramrisch, F. and Rogers P., ‘Simplified Design of Combined
Footings’ Proceedings ASCE, Paper No. 2959, 87 (SM 5), October, 1961 and Kramrisch, Fritz
‘Footings’ in Handbook of Concrete Engineering, second edition, edited by Mark Fintel.
The reinforcement in the rib is provided in the manner similar to that in multi-span beams.
The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement is taken on the basis of normal section
analysis for bending moments and that for transverse shear reinforcements (stirrups and bent
up bars) is obtained by the inclined section shear analysis. The rigidity of footing is increased
by choosing the cross-sectional area adequate with low percentage of reinforcement, but it
should not be less than the minimum safe area for the bending members.
14.4 GRID AND MAT (RAFT) FOUNDATIONS

Heavily loaded column require large bearing areas when these are supported on relatively
weak or uneven soils having low bearing capacity. When the columns are located in rows
mutually in perpendicular directions, then either sets of continuous strip footings are provided
intersecting at right angles and forming one continuous grid foundation or grid foundation
is provided as shown in Fig. 14.5. The grid foundation provides much larger bearing area more
economically as compared to single footings because, the individual strips of the grid foundations
represents continuous beams whose moments are much smaller than the cantilever moments
in large single footings which project fair out from the column in all the four directions.
When the bearing capacity of soil is still smaller than as discussed above, the strip footings
are merged resulting in mat (raft) foundation as shown in Fig. 14.6. In mat foundation, a
solid reinforced concrete slab is provided below the complete building. The structural behaviour
of mat foundation is similar to flat slab or a flat plate, upside down, that is, loaded upward by
the soil pressure and the concentrated column reactions acting downward. The line of action of
the resultant of all column loads coincide with the centre of gravity of the mat (raft) foundation.
The mat foundation provides the maximum available bearing below the building. The mat
foundation provides continuity and rigidity which help in reducing the differential settlement
of individual columns relative to each other.
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(a ) E levatio n
X X
(b ) P lan
Fig. 14.5 Grid foundation
Mat (raft) foundation likewise, needs different approaches for the analysis, depending on
whether these may be classified as rigid or flexible. Similar to strip footings, in case the spacing
1
between the adjacent column is less than (λ as determined by Eq. 14.1), the mat (raft)
λ
foundation may be considered as rigid and the soil pressure may be assumed as uniformly or
linearly distributed.
While the mat (raft) foundation shall be treated flexible as defined above, and if the variation
of adjacent column loads and span is not more than 20 percent, the simplified procedure which
one used for the strip and grid footings may be used for the mat (raft foundation). The mat
foundation is divided into two sets of strip footings mutually at right angles to each other, of
width equal to the distance between mid-spans, and the distribution of bearing pressures and
bending moment are determined for each strip as explained earlier. Once, the moments are
obtained, the mat in essence is regarded as flat slab or plate, with the reinforcement placed
between the columns and middle strips as in these slab structures.
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(a ) E levatio n
X X
(b ) P lan
Fig. 14.6 Mat foundation
Above approach is applicable only when the columns are positioned in a regular rectangular
grid pattern. When a mat which may be treated as rigid support columns at random positions,
the subgrade reactions may still be taken as uniform or as linearly distributed. The analysis of
mat (raft) foundation may be done by statics. In case, the mat (raft) foundation is flexible
which support such random positions columns, the design is based on the theory of plates on
elastic foundation and the reference may be made in ‘Suggested Design Procedures for Combined
Footings and Mats’ Report of ACI Committee, 436, Journal of ACI. Vol. 63, No. 10, October
1966, (pp. 1041–1057).
14.5 RECTANGULAR FOOTING SUPPORTING TWO COLUMN LOADS

A rectangular footing supporting two column loads P1 and P2 is shown in Fig. 14.7 (in plan).
When the columns transfer only the axial loads, then, the line of application of column loads
may be made to coincide with the centroid of the footing and the distribution of soil pressure
shall be uniform. In case, in addition to loads, moment is also transferred then two alternative
procedures may be used.
The design of such combined footings, similar to design of many other reinforced concrete
structures is not standardized. The structural behaviour of such combined footing is not yet
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certain. Two different approaches are used for the design of such footings. These approaches
are as below :
The footing may be designed only as a slab or a beam and slab.
14.5.1 First Approach

It is assumed that the structural behaviour of such footing consists of transverse slab strips
below the column that act to distribute the load laterally and longitudinal slab strips that act
like slabs supported on these cross-beams. Such an analysis is appropriate for long and narrow
footings.
E F
A B
P1 P2
D C
N G
(a ) R e ctan gu la r foo tin g su pp ortin g tw o co lu m ns
(b ) D istrib ution o f soil pre ssu re

J K P Q
M L S R
(c) S lab strips JKLM an d P Q R S a ct tran sve rse b ea m s
P1 P2
bw 1
( b w 1 + d ) to ( b w 1 + 2 d ) ( b w 2 + d ) to ( b w 2 + 2 d )
(d ) D isp ersion of colum n lo ad com b in ed fo otin g
Fig. 14.7
The slab as shown in Fig. 14.7 (a) is regarded as spanning longitudinally and it carries
upward soil pressure. Two columns support a strip ABCD only. The two portions of slabs ABFE
and DCGH have no supports. In order to have longitudinal action some arrangement is needed.
It is obtained by distributing the column loads with the help of transverse beams, JKLM and
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PQRS as shown in Fig. 14.7 (b). These transverse beams span in the transverse direction.
These transverse beams are not separate structural beams but these beams act as separate
strips within the depth of the slab. These are reinforced in an appropriate manner so that the
moments and shears are resisted by two cantilevers JKLM and PQRS, respectively.
The transverse beam do not exist as isolated strips below the columns different from the
adjoining portion of the footing slab. The dispersion of column loads P1 occurs over a width (bw1
+ d) or (bw1 + 2d) and similarly for column load P2, it occurs over a width (bw2 + d) or (bw2 + 2d).
The dispersion over a width (bw1 + 2d) and (bw2 + 2d) be used in design as the dispersion occurs
with 45° with the horizontal. bw1 and bw2 are the widths of columns at the top surface.
14.5.2 Second Approach

In this approach, the combined footing may be designed as a longitudinal beam along the
length of the slab as shown in Fig. 14.8, and this beam connects the two columns. The remaining
portion of the slab acts as slabs cantilevering out transversely. The structural behaviour in this
approach is simple. The longitudinal beam may project below along the depth in case the
L on gitud in al b ea m
D efo rm ed sha pe
B P1 P2
(a ) R e ctan gu la r fo otin g su pp ortin g tw o co lu m ns
(b ) D istribu tion o f soil p re ssu re

P1 P2
(C ra cks d evelop a t p oints o f co ntraflexu res)

(c) D e fo rm e d sh a pe of lo ng itud in al b ea m
Fig. 14.8
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sagging bending moment is more. Otherwise, if hogging moment is more, the beam may project
upward above the slab in depth.
The bending moments and the shears are resisted by the longitudinal beam. The area of
steel reinforcement for the beam and the cantilever projection of slab are calculated as usual.
So, also, the area of steel to be provided as transverse reinforcement is also determined. The
main reinforcement is checked for requisite development length.
Both approaches have been further explained by working out illustrative examples.
14.6 TRAPEZOIDAL FOOTING SUPPORTING TWO COLUMN LOADS

A trapezoidal footing supporting two column is shown in Fig. 14.2 (b).
The line of action of the resultant of the column loads is made to coincide with the centre of
gravity of the footing. Let the centre to centre distance between the two columns be K and it is
known. The projections of footing are m and r. One of the projection, n is known and it is fixed
because of the property line. The other projection, m is assumed such that, as far as possible,
the bending moments under the columns and between two columns (viz., hogging and sagging)
are approximately equal. However, it is by trial to fix up these projections most satisfactory. In
case, there is any restriction for the projection, the other projection is fixed accordingly, as
stated above. The length of footing, L is known, knowing the centre to centre distance between
the columns K and fixing the projections of the footing. The area of base of the footing, AF
required to spread the two column loads is known, knowing the permissible bearing capacity of
the soil. The widths of two sides at the ends of the footing b and c as shown in Fig. 14.2 (b) are
determined as follows :
Let d be the distance between centre of the footing and centroid (viz., centre of gravity,
C.G.) of the footing. The distance of centre of gravity from the width b of footing is given by
L ⎛ b + 2c ⎞
x = ...(i)
3 ⎝⎜ b + c ⎠⎟
L⎛ c ⎞
or x = ⎜ 1+ ...(ii)
3⎝ b + c ⎟⎠
Then,
L L⎛ c ⎞
d = − ⎜1 +
3 3⎝ b + c ⎟⎠
⎛ c ⎞
or 6d = 3L – 2L ⎜1 +
⎝ b + c ⎟⎠
6d ⎡ 2c ⎤
or = ⎢3 − 2 −
L ⎣ b + c ⎥⎦
6d ⎡ ⎛ 2c ⎞ ⎤
or = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(iii)
L ⎣ ⎝ b + c ⎠⎦
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6d ⎡ (b + c − 2c ) ⎤
or = ⎢ ⎥
L ⎣ b+c ⎦
6d ⎡⎛ b − c ⎞ ⎤
or = ⎢⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(iv)
L ⎣⎝ b + c ⎠ ⎦
⎛A ⎞
Multiply both the sides of the expression (iv) by ⎜ F ⎟ . Then
⎝ L ⎠
6d AF ⎛ b − c ⎞ AF
× = ⎜ ⎟⋅ ...(v)
L L ⎝b+ c ⎠ L
But,
(b + c) . L = 2 . AF ...(vi)
Therefore,
6d AF (b − c ) ⋅ AF
× =
L L 2 ⋅ AF
6 AF ⋅ d ⎛b −c ⎞
or 2
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(vii)
L ⎝ 2 ⎠
And from the expression (vi)
AF ⎛b +c ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
L ⎝ 2 ⎠
Then, from the expressions (vii) and (viii)
⎛A 6 ⋅ AF ⋅ d ⎞
b = ⎜ F + ⎟ ...(14.4)
⎝ L L2 ⎠
⎛A 6 ⋅ AF ⋅ d ⎞
and b = ⎜ F − ⎟ ...(14.5)
⎝ L L2 ⎠
or b and c are given by
AF ⎛ 6 ⋅ d⎞
= ⎜⎝1 ± L ⎟⎠ ...(14.6)
L
where (+) sign gives width b, and (–) sign gives width c.
The effective ultimate soil pressure acting upward shall be uniform below the footing. It is
obtained as
(P1 + P2 )
qu = 1.5 × ...(ix)
AF
(b + c )
where AF = L ⋅ ...(x)
2
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Let x be the distance from left side width (i.e., width, b) of the trapezoidal footing upto a
section at which the bending moment is to be calculated. Then, the bending moment due to
effective soil pressure, qu acting upward is
qu ⋅ x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
M = ⋅ ⎢b − ⎜ ...(xi)
2 ⎣ 3 ⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
The bending moment under the heavily loaded column
2
⎡ ⎛ bw2 ⎞ ⎤
2 ⎢ x − ⎜ m + k − 2 ⎟⎥
q ⋅x ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤ P2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
M1 = u . ⎢b − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 1.5 × b .
2 ⎣ 3 ⎝ L ⎠⎦ w2 2
...(14.7)
The bending moment between the two columns
qu ⋅ x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
M2 = ⋅ ⎢b − ⎜ – 1.5 × P1 ⋅ ( x − m ) ...(14.8)
2 ⎣ 3 ⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
The bending moment under the other column load
qu ⋅ x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
M3 =
2
⋅ ⎢b − ⎜
3 ⎟ ⎥ – 1.5 × P1 ⋅ ( x − m )
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠⎦
2
⎡ ⎛ bw 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ x − ⎜ m + k − 2 ⎟⎥
P2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
−1.5 × ⋅ ...(14.9)
bw2 2
The bending moments M1, M2 and M3 are differentiated with respect to x, and are equated
to zero individually. The values of x are obtained for the maximum bending moments in the
above expressions. The maximum bending moments are calculated from above expressions by
substituting the separate values of x. The maximum of maximum bending moment (viz.,
absolute maximum bending moment) is obtained and it is used for the design of depth of the
footing.
14.7 APPROXIMATION METHOD OF DESIGN OF FOOTING SUPPORTING

TWO COLUMNS
The line of action of resultant of two column loads is made to coincides with the centre of
gravity of the footing as usual.
The sizes of columns (bw1 × bw1) and (bw2 × bw2) are known. The footing acts as inverted slab
loaded with uniform soil pressure acting upward supported at two columns. The footing has
cantilever projections at both the sides. The footing is subjected to the cantilever moment at
each end and the span moment in between the two columns. The cantilever moments and the
span moments are of opposite sign.
The cantilever moments are assumed to be maximum at the centre line of the columns. The
maximum span moment is assumed to occur at the point where the shear force changes sign.
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The maximum cantilever moments and the maximum span moments are thus, determined.
The footing is designed for absolute maximum bending moment.
The shear force and the bending moment diagrams are drawn as shown in Fig. 14.9.
P1 P2
(a ) Fo rces a ctin g o n fo oting
q0.n
S h ea r fo rce
q0.m cha ng e sign
(b ) S h ear fo rce diag ram
+ 1 q .m 2 1 q .n2 +
0 0
2 2
(c) B e nd in g m om en t d ia gram
Fig. 14.9 Design of combined footing by approximate method
Example 14.1 Two reinforced concrete columns 800 mm × 800 mm and 600 mm × 600 mm
in size carry axial loads of 1500 kN and 1000 kN, respectively. These columns are placed 4 m
apart centre to centre. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 200 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete
and Hysd steel bars shall be used for the footing. Design the combined slab type rectangular
footing. The cantilever projection available from centre line of column 1 upto property line is
1.72 m.
Solution
Design
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars Fe 415 are as follows:
Limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to effective depth ratio
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
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Step 2. Area of combined rectangular footing

Axial load from column 1,
P1 = 1500 kN
Axial load from column 2,
P2 = 1000 kN
The self-weight of footing may be assumed as 10% of total load transferred through the
columns.
10
0.10 (P1 + P2) = (1500 + 1000) = 250 kN
100
Factored load
W Fd = (1.5 × 2750) kN
Ultimate load bearing capacity of soil (assumed)
qu = (2 × q0)
= (2 × 200) kN/m2
Area of combined rectangular footing required
1.5 × 2750
AF = = 10.3125 m2
2 × 200
Length of the rectangular footing
The cantilever projection available from the centre-line upto the property line is 1.72 m as
shown in Fig. 14.10 (a).
The distance of line of action of the resultant of two column loads from 1500 kN load
⎛ 1500 × 0 + 1000 ×4 ⎞
x1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.60 m
⎝ (1500 + 1000) ⎠
The centre of gravity of footing is kept coinciding with the line of action of resultant of
columns (that is, the footing has to be symmetrical about (i). Therefore, the length of the
footing, LF
2 (1.72 + 1.60) = 2 × 3.32 = 6.64 m
Width of the rectangular footing
AF 10.3125
BF = = = 1.553 m
LF 6.64
B F @ 2.20 m (Say)
Effective soil pressure acting upward
1.5 × (1500 + 1000)
qu = kN/m2
6.64 × 2.20
= 1.5 × 171.139 = 256.71 kN/m2
Intensity of upward load per metre length of the footing and for complete width of footing
= 1.5 × l71.139 × 2.2 = 1.5 × 376.506
= 564.759 kN/m
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4m
1 .32 m
P 1 = 1 50 0 kN P 2 = 1 50 0 kN
1 .72 m 1 .60 m 2 .40 m
(a ) Fo otin g slab in p la n
1 87 5 kN /m 1 66 6.6 7 kN /m
X1 X2 X4
A B D F H J
X1 3 76 . 5 06 kN /m X2 X4
(b ) L oa ds o n foo ting sla b
D1 E1 G 1 H 1 J1
A1 B1 C1 F1
(4 .0 – 0.4 – 0 .3) 0 .6 m 0 .62

1 .32 m 0 .8 m
B 1 C 1 = 0 .33 2 m D 1 E 1 = 1 .86 4 m F 1 G 1 = 0 .41 9 m

C 1 D 1 = 0 .46 8 m E 1 F 1 = 1 . 4 36 m G 1 H 1 = 0 .41 9 m
(c) S h ea r force diag ram
4 08 kN -m
1 9.8 05 kN-m
A2 B2 C2 D2 F2 G 2 H 2 J2
E2 7 2.3 64 kN -m
3 28 .01 2
2 46 .08 4 kN -m 9 3.4 82 kN-m
kN -m
4 10 .42 7 kN -m
(d ) B e nd ing m o m en t d ia gram
Fig. 14.10 Design of combined footing (Slab type)
Step 3. Factored (design) shear force in footing slab

The column load P1 = 1500 kN acts over the size 0.8 m along the length. Therefore, the
distributed factored (design) load per metre length acting downward
1.5 × 1500
= 2812.5 kN/m
0.8
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The column load P2 = 1000 kN acts over the size 0.6 m along the length. Therefore, the
distributed factored (design) load per metre length acting downward
1.5 × 1000
= 2500 kN/m
0.6
The loads acting downward and the intensity of soil pressure acting on the footing upward
are shown in Fig. 14.8 (b). The shear force at B1
= 376.506 × 1.32
= 496.988 kN
Factored (design) shear force at B1
= (1.5 × 496.988) = 745.482 kN
Shear force at D1 = [376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8) – 1500]
= 701.807 kN
Factored (design) shear force at D1
= (1.5 × 701.807) = 1052.710 kN
Shear force at F1 = [376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3) – 1500]
= 540.663 kN
Factored (design) shear force at F1
= (1.5 × 540.663) = 810.995 kN
Shear force at H1 = [376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3 + 0.6) – 2500]
= 233.434 kN
Factored shear force at H1
= (1.5 × 233.434) = 350.151 kN
In the portion B1D1, the shear force changes sign at C1 under column 1. From the similar
triangles
B 1C1 C1 D1
= (B1 C1 = x1)
496.988 701.807
496.988
x1 = × (0.8 – x1 ) = 0.332 m.
701.807
In the portion D1F1, the shear force changes sign at E1 between two columns. From the
similar triangles
D 1 E1 E1 F1
= (D1 E1 = x2)
701.807 540.663
701.807
x2 = × (3.3 − x 2 ) = 1.864 m.
540.663
In the portion F1H1, the shear force changes sign at G1, under the column 2. From the
similar triangles
F 1G1 G 1 H1
= (F1 G1 = x3)
540.663 233.434
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540.663
x3 = × (0.6 − x3 ) = 0.419 m.
233.434
(Shear force at point of contraflexures are found, after locating these points in the step 4
below). Shear force at x = 0.392 m right of point D, Fig. 14.10,
= [367.506 (1.32 + 0.8 + 392) – 1500]
= 554.217 kN
Factored shear force at x = 0.392 m
= (1.5 × 554.217) = 831.326 kN
Shear force at 0.191 m below the second column
= [376.506 (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3 + 0.191)
–1500 – 1666.67 × 0.191]
= –294.24 kN
Factored (design) shear force at 0.191 m below the second column
= 1.5 × (–294.24) = – 441.360 kN
Step 4. Bending moments in footing slab
The bending moments are calculated from left side.
Bending moment at B2
376.506 × 1.322
M B2 = = 328.012 kN-m (viz., sagging)
2
Factored (design) moment at B2
= (1.5 × 328.012) = 490.02 kN-m
Bending moment at C2
376.506 × (1.32 + 0.332)2 1875 × 0.3332
MC2 = −
2 2
= (513.762 – 103.335) = 410.427 kN-m (viz., sagging)

Factored (design) moment at C2
= (1.5 × 410.427) = 615.686 kN-m
Bending moment at D2
376.506 ×(1.32 + 0.8)2 1875 × 0.82
MD2 = −
2 2
= (846.084 – 600) = 246.084 kN-m (viz., sagging)
Factored (design) moment at D2
= (1.5 × 246.084) = 369.126 kN-m
Bending moment at E2
376.506 × (1.32+ 0.8 + 1.864)2

ME2 = – 1500 (0.4 – 1.864)
2
= (2988 – 3396) = 408 kN-m (viz., hogging)
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Factored (design) moment at E2

= (1.5 × 408) = 612 kN-m
Bending moment at F2
376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3)2
MF2 = – 1500 × (0.4 + 3.3)
2
= (5530.195 – 5550) = 19.805 kN-m (viz., hogging)
Factored (design) moment at F2
= (1.5 × 19.805) = 29.708 kN-m
Bending moment at G2
376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3 + 0.419)2
MG2 =
2
1666.67 × 0.4192
– 1500 (0.4 + 3.3 + 0.419) –
2
= (6418.283 – 6178.5 – 146.301) = 93.482 kN-m
(viz., sagging)
Factored (design) moment at G2
= (1.5 × 93.482) = 140.223 kN-m
Bending moment at H2
376.506 × (1.32 + 0.8 + 3.3 + 0.6)2
MH2 =
2
– 1500 (0.4 + 3.3 + 0.6) – 1000 × 0.3
= (6822.364 – 6450 – 300)
= 72.364 kN-m (viz., sagging)
Factored (design) moment at H2
= (1.5 × 72.364) = 108.546 kN-m
Let the point of zero moment (viz., point of contraflexure) be at a distance x from the point D,
Fig. 14.8
376.506(1.32 + 0.8 + x )2
Mx = – 1500 (0.4 + x)
2
376.506 (2.12 + x )2
or Mx = – 1500 (0.4 + x) = 0
2
Therefore, x = 0.392 m and x = 3.336 m
( Note . This value has to be found again by considering second load also). As such
376.506 ( 2.12 + x )2
Mx = – 1500 (0.4 + x)
2
1666.67 ( x − 3.3 )2
− =0
2
Therefore, x = 3.4310 m [i.e., (3.4910 – 3.3) = 0.191 m = 0] below the second column.
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Step 5. Effective depth of footing slab

The absolute maximum factored (design) bending occurs at C2, MC2 = 615.686 kN-m for the
complete width of the footing. The effective depth of footing
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × 20 × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) 2200 × d2 = 615.686 × 106
(0.13196 fck . bd2 = MF)
6070.395 d2 = 615.686 × 106
d = 318.47 mm
Let the effective cover be 60 mm. Then, the overall depth of footing slab shall be (318.47 +
60) = 378.472 mm, say 520 mm. Then, the effective depth of slab shall be (520 – 60) = 460 mm.
Step 6. Check for two-way (flat slab type) shear
(i) The critical section for two-way shear shall be periphery at a distance d/2 from the periphery
of the column (carrying 1500 kN column load)
⎡ ⎛ 460 ⎞ ⎛ 460 ⎞ ⎤
b 0 = 4 × ⎢800 + ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ⎥ mm
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
= (4 × 1260) = 5040 mm
Effective soil pressure acting upward is 1.5 × 171.139 = 256.71 kN/m2.
Shear force = column load – upward pressure on the area within
the periphery
= [1500 – 171.139 × 1.260 × 1.260] kN
= (1500 – 271.70) = 122.830 kN
= (1.5 × 1228.30) = 1842.45 kN
1.5 × 1228.3 × 1000
τv =
5040 × 460
= 0.7947 N/mm2
Permissible shear stress for tri-axial compression is ks τi (ks = 1)
= ks × 0.25 × (fck)1/2
= 1 × 0.25 × (20)1/2
= 1.118 N/mm2
The permissible stress, τc is more than the nominal shear stress. Hence, it is safe.
(ii) The critical section for two-way shear shall be periphery at a distance d/2 from the
periphery of the column (carrying 1000 kN column load)
⎡ ⎛ 4.60 ⎞ ⎛ 460 ⎞ ⎤
b 0 = 4 × ⎢600 + ⎜ + mm
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= 4 × 1060 = 4240 mm
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Factored shear force on the area within the periphery

= column load – upward pressure
= 1.5 × (1000 – 171.139 × 1.06 × 1.6)
= 1.5 × (1000 – 192.292) = 1.5 × 807.708 kN
807.708 × 1000
τv = 1.5 × = 0.621 N/mm2
4240 – 460
Permissible shear stress for tri-axial compression
= kt . τc (ks = 1)
= 1 × 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The permissible shear stress is more than the nominal shear stress. Hence, it is safe.
(i) The critical section for one-way (beam) shear shall be taken at a distance, d (the effective
depth of the slab) from the face of column carrying 1500 kN load (viz., (1.32 – 0.460) = 0.85 m)
on the left side. The factored shear force at the critical section X1X1, Fig. 14.8 (b)
V X X = 1.5 × 376.506 × 0.86 = 1.5 × 323.80 kN
1 1
Normal shear stress
1.5 × 323.80 × 1000
τv = = 0.48 N/mm2
2.20 × 1000 × 460
Permissible shear stress in concrete without shear reinforcement. τc, for percentage
reinforcement for balanced section pB = (100 As/bd) = 0.960
⎛ 0.06×0.21 ⎞ 2
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
Let the overall depth of footing be 590 mm. The effective cover is 60 mm. The effective depth
of footing shall be (590 – 60) = 530 mm.
(ii) The critical section for one-way (beam) shear shall be taken at a distance, d (the effective
depth of slab) from the face of the column carrying 1500 kN load (viz., 1.32 + 0.80 + 0.530
= 2.65 m).
On the right side factored shear force
V X X = 1.5 × (376.506 × 2.65 – 1500) = –1.5 × 502.26 kN
2 2
1.5×502.26×1000
τv = = 0.645 N/mm2
2200 × 530
Permissible shear stress (k s = 1)
τc = 0.610 N/mm2 (as above)
It is less than the nominal shear stress. As such, the effective depth of the footing slab is
again increased
0.645
d = 530 × = 560.41 mm
0.610
Effective cover = 60 mm.
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Let overall depth be 880 mm. The effective depth shall be 820 mm.
(iii) The critical section one-way (beam) shear shall be taken at a distance, d (the effective
depth of slab) from the face of column carrying 1000 kN. (viz., 0.62 – 0.82 m, i.e., out the side),
on the right side. The shear force is zero.
(iv) The critical section for one-way (beam) shear shall be taken at a distance, d from the
face of column carrying 1000 kN, (viz., 0.62 + 0.82 = 1.44 m) on the left side.
The factored (design) shear force at VX X (from right side)
4 4
VX 1.5 × (376.506 × 1.44 – 1000) = – 1.5 × 457.83 kN
4X4 =
It is less than (1.5 × 502.26 = 753.39) kN, shear force.
Step 8. Reinforcement along the length of footing
(i) Reinforcement for tension MC :
2
The maximum bending moment under the column load 1500 kN (on left side of the footing)
occurs at C2. The reinforcement for ‘tension shall be calculated for MC (which one is sagging).
2
It shall be provided along the length of footing near the bottom surface under the column load
1500 kN. Area of steel bars to be provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 410.427 × 10
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
+ 29.606 × 104 × Ast – 3.405 Ast2 – 615.64 × 106 = 0
Ast2 = 8.695 Ast × 104 + 18080 × 106 = 0

Ast = 2130 mm2
20 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
2130
Number of bars = = 6.78 (say 8 bars)
314.159
8 bars of 20 mm φ shall be provided as uniformly distributed in 2.20 m width of the footing.
(iii) Reinforcement for tension for ME2
The maximum bending moment in between the two columns occurs at E2. The reinforcement
for tension shall be calculated for ME2 (which one is hogging). It shall be provided along the
length of footing near the top surface in between the two columns. Area of steel bars to be
provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 408 × 10
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
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Ast2 – 8695 Ast × 104 + 179.736 × 106 = 0

Ast = 2119.66 mm2
For 20 mm φ steel bars
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
Number of the steel bars
2119.66
= = 6.747 (say 8 bars)
314.159
8 bars shall be provided as uniformly distributed in 2.20 m width of the footing slab.
(iii) Reinforcement for tension for MG2
The maximum bending moment under the column load 1000 kN (on right side) occurs at G2.
The reinforcement for tension shall be calculated for MG2 (which one is sagging). It shall be
provided along the length of footing near the bottom surface under the column load 1000 kN.
Area of steel bars to be provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 93.482 × 10
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
Ast2 – 8.695 Ast × 104 + 41.18 × 106 = 0
Ast = 477.11 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
477.11
Number of the steel bars = = 1.519 (say 6)
314.159
6 bars of 20 mm φ shall be provided as uniformly distributed in 2.20 m width of the slab.
Step 9. Reinforcement along the width of footing
(i) Under 1500 kN column load :
The projection of footing along the width
1
= × (2200 – 800) = 700 mm
2
The width of transverse beam within the footing slab under 1500 kN column load
= (800 + 2 × d)
= [800 + (2 × 460)] = 1720 mm
Width available on the left side of oolumn face is 1320 mm (more than 460 mm). Hence, it is
alright.
The effective soil pressure acting under this transverse beam
1.5 × 1500
= 1.5 × 396.41 kN/m2
2.200 × 1.720
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Maximum bending at the face of column per one metre strip
1.5 × 396.41 × 0.72

Mt1 = = 1.5 × 97.12 kN-m
2
Effective depth required for the beam
⎛x ⎞⎛ 0.42 xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 d2 = 1.5 × 97.12 × 106
d = 229.775 mm
Actual effective depth of the footing slab 820 mm is more than 229.775 mm.
Area of the steel bars to be provided as tension reinforcement (using 20 mm φ bars)
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 97.12 × 10
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
Ast2 – 8.695 × 104 × Ast + 42.784 × 106 = 0

Ast = 495.75 mm
Spacing of bars
1000 × 314.159
s t.1 = = 633.70 mm
495.75
Provide bars at 450 mm spacing.
(ii) Under 1000 kN column load. The projection of footing along the width
1
= (2200 – 600) = 800 mm
2
The width of transverse beam within the footing slab under 1000 kN column load
= (600 + 2 × 460) = 1520 mm
Width available on the right side of column face is 920 mm (more than 460 mm). Hence, it is
alright. The effective soil pressure acting under this transverse beam
1.5 × 1000
= = 1.5 × 299.043 kN/m2
2.2 × 1.520
Maximum bending moment at the face of the column per one metre strip
1.5 × 299.043 × 0.82

Mt.2 =
2
= 1.5 × 95.694 kN-m
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Effective depth required for this beam

⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = 1.5 × 95.694 × 106
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 95.694 × 106
d = 228.08 mm
Actual effective depth of the footing slab 820 mm is more than 228.08 mm. Area of the steel
bars to be provided bars as tension reinforcement (using 20 mm φ)
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 95.694 × 10
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
Ast2 – 8.695 × 104 Ast + 28.94 × 106 = 0

Ast = 334.995 mm2
Spacing of the bars
1000 ×314.159
st2 = = 937.8 mm
334.995
Provide bars at 450 mm spacing.
Step 10. Distribution reinforcement
The distribution reinforcement equal to 0.12 percent of the cross-sectional area (for Hysd-
steel bars) shall be provided at locations, when the transverse reinforcement is not provided.
This reinforcement is also provided in transverse direction (viz., in the perpendicular direction
to longitudinal reinforcement)
⎛ 0.12 ⎞
Ad = ⎜ × 1000 × 880 ⎟ = 1056 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
Spacing of the distribution reinforcement steel bars
1000 ×78.54
sd = = 74.375 mm
1056
10 mm φ steel bars shall be provided at 70 mm, spacing centre to centre. Let 20 mm φ Hysd
steel bars be provided as distribution reinforcement at the top surface
π
Aφ1 = × 202 = 314.159 mm2
4
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1000 ×314.159
s d1 = = 297.50 mm
1056
20 mm φ steel bars shall be provided at 280 mm spacing centre to centre near the top surface
as distribution reinforcement.
(i) (A) At point of zero moment near D2 :
The point of zero moment near the point D is at a distance x = 0.392 m towards right of D.
Let the number of steel bars needed at the point of zero moment be N to satisfy the following
condition specified in IS : 456–1978
[Ld |> 1.30 (M1/V) + L0]
The moment of resistance of section
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
= 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ N-mm
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
The factored shear force at point of zero moment from step 3
V = (1.5 × 554.217) = 831.33 kN
At point of zero moment, as per IS : 456–1978
L0 = d or 12 φ whichever is greater
= 820 mm or (12 × 20 = 240 mm) = 820 mm
0.87 × 415 × 20
Ld = = 940.234 mm
4 ×1.60× 1.20
Therefore,
M1
Ld = 1.30 × + L0
V1
1.30 × 1
940.234 = × 0.87 × 415 × Ast
831.33 × 1000
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
× 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ + 820
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
Ast = 475 mm2
Number of 20 mm φ bars
⎛ 475 ⎞
N = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5124
⎝ 314.159 ⎠
8 bars have already been provided at the bottom face and these bars shall be extended upto
either edge of the footing.
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(B) The number of bars near the top face should also satisfy the following condition specified
in IS : 450–1978
[Ld |> 1.30 (M1/V) + L0]
From above step
Ast = 475 mm2
475
N = = 1.512
314.159
8 bars have already been provided near the top surface. These bars shall extend 820 mm
beyond the point of contraflexure.
(ii) (A) At point of zero moment near F2 :
The point of zero moment near the point F2 is at a distance x = 3.491 m from the point D2 i.e.,
at a distance
(3.491 – 3.3) = 0.191 m
From F2 towards right, the factored shear force at the point of zero moment
V Fd = 1.50 × 294.324 kN
Let the number of steel bars needed at the point of zero moment be N1 to satisfy the following
condition specified IS : 456–1978
[Ld |> 1.30 (M1/V) + L0]
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
= 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 820 ⎜1 − ⎟ N-mm
⎝ 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎠
At the point of zero moment, as per IS : 456–1978
= 820 mm or (12 × 20 = 240 mm) = 820 mm
0.87 × 415 × 20
Ld = = 940.234 mm
4 ×1.60× 1.20
Therefore,
M1
Ld = 1.30 + L0
V1
1.30 415 × 0.87 × Ast × 820

940.234 = ×
1.50 294.4 ×1000
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
× ⎜1 − 2200 × 820 × 20 ⎟ + 820
⎝ ⎠
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∴ Ast = 251.56 mm2

251.56
N = = 0.8
314.159
6 bars have already been provided at the bottom face.
(B) At top surface, 8 bars have already been provided near the top surface. These bars shall
extend 820 mm beyond the point of zero moment.
Details of design of combined rectangular footing slab type are shown in Fig. 14.11.
0 .8 m 0 .6 m
1 50 0 kN 1 00 0 kN
8 80 m 8 0 mm
20 m m φ hys d s tee l 20 m m φ hys d s tee l

(a ) S e ctio na l ele vation @ 4 50 m m c/c
@ 4 50 m m c/c 20 m m φ hys d s tee l
1
2
3 2.2 m
4
5
6
7
8
10 m m φ hy sd steel
B ars @ 70 m m
3 .32 m 3 .32 m
(b ) D e tails o f re in fo rcem en t n e ar bo tto m su rfa ce (P la n)
20 m m φ hy sd steel B ars 8 N o.
20 m m φ hy sd D istribution reinforcem ent
2.2 m
3 .32 m 3 .30 m
(c) D e ta ils o f reinfo rcem e nt ne ar top su rface (P lan )
Fig. 14.11 Design of combined footing (Slab type)
Example 14.2 Two reinforced concrete columns 800 mm × 800 mm and 600 mm × 600 mm
in size carry axial loads of 1500 kN and 1000 kN, respectively. These columns are placed 4 m
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and Hysd steel bars shall be used for the footing. Design beam and slab type rectangular
combined footing. The cantilever projection available from the property line of column 1 is
1.72 m.
Solution
Design. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 shall be used.
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars are as follows : (From
Example 14.1)
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Step 2. Area of combined footing
Axial load from the column 1
P1 = 1500 kN
Axial load from the column 2
P2 = 1000 kN
The self-weight of footing may be assumed as 10% of the total load transferred through the
columns
10
0.10 (P1 + P2) = (1500 + 1000) = 250 kN
100
Factored load
W Fd = (1.5 × 2750) = 4125 kN
Ultimate load bearing capacity of soil
qu = 2 × q0 = (2 × 200) = 400 kN/m2
Area of combined rectangular footing required
⎛ 1.50 × 2750 ⎞ 2
AF = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.3125 m
⎝ 2 × 200 ⎠
From Example 14.1, length and width of footing are 6.64 and 2.20 m, respectively.
Effective ultimate soil pressure acting upward
1.5 × (1500 + 1000)
qu =
6.63 × 2.20
= 1.5 × 171.139
= 256.7 kN/m2
Effective soil pressure acting upward per metre length of the footing and for complete width
of the footing
qu = 1.5 × 171.139 × 2.2
= 1.5 × 376.506
= 564.759 kN/m
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Step 3. Shear forces

From Example 14.1, the loads acting downward and the intensity of soil pressure acting
upward on the footing are shown in Fig. 14.8 (b). Therefore, the shear forces at different
locations will remain same. As such, from Example 14.1, factored (design)
S.F. at B1 = 1.5 × 496.988 = 745.482 kN
S.F. at D1 = 1.5 × 701.807 = 1052.710 kN
S.F. at F1 = 1.5 × 540.563 = 810.995 kN
S.F. at H1 = 1.5 × 233.434 = 350.151 kN
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 14.10 (c). In Example 14.1 the points of change in
shear force have been located. From Example 14.1 their positions are as below :
B1C1 = 0.332 m, D1E 1 = 1.864 m, F1G1 = 0.419 m
C1D 1 = 0.468 m, E1F1 = 1.436 m, G 1 H 1 = 0.181 m
The shear forces at points of zero bending moments are found after locating these points in
the step 4 below.
From Example 14.1, the factored (design) shear force at
x = 0.392 m
right of point D, Fig. 14.8
= 1.5 × 554.217 = 831.326 kN
And, the factored shear force at
x = 0.191 m
below the second column
= – 1.5 × 294.24 = – 441.360 kN
Step 4. Bending moments
From Example 14.1, the factored (design) bending moments at different locations, Fig. 14.8 (d)
are as follows :
B.M. at B2 = 1.5 × 328.012 = 492.02 kN-m (viz.. Sagging)
B.M. at C2 = 1.5 × 410.427 = 615.686 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at D2 = 1.5 × 246.084 = 369.126 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at E2 = 1.5 × 408 = 612 kN-m (viz., hogging)
B.M. at F2 = 1.5 × 19.805 = 29.708 kN-m (viz., hogging)
B.M. at G2 = 1.5 × 93.428 = 140.123 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at H2 = 1.5 × 72.364 = 108.546 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
The points of zero moments have been located in Example 14.1. The points of zero moments
are at following positions. From Example 14.1.
At a distance x = 0.392 m towards right from the point D, Fig. 14.8 (d).
At a distance x = 0.191 m towards right from the point F. The bending moment diagram is
shown in Fig. 14.8 (d).
Step 5. Effective depth of beam
The combined footing shall be designed as the beam and slab. The width of beam shall be
kept equal to the size of column, whichever is more, (i.e., b = 800 mm). The effective depth of
beam shall be calculated for absolutely maximum bending moment. From above, |M| = 1.50 ×
410.427 kN-m. The effective depth for the balanced section of rectangular beam, 800 mm wide.
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⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48)bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 800 × d2 = 1.5 × 410.427 × 106
d = 528.11 mm
Let the effective cover be 60 mm. Then, the overall depth of beam shall be (528.11 + 60) =
588.11 mm. Adopt 820 mm. Then, the effective depth of beam shall be (820 – 60 = 760 mm).
Step 6. Reinforcement along length of beam
(i) Reinforcement for tension for MC2
The maximum sagging bending at C2 is MC2= 410.427 kN-m. Reinforcement for tension
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 760 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 410.427 × 10
⎝ 800 × 760 × 20 ⎠
27.44 × 104 Ast – 9.365 Ast2 – 6.1564 × 108 = 0
Ast2 – 293 × 104 Ast + 0.6574 × 108 = 0

Ast = 2448.173 mm2
Area of one 20 mm φ Hysd steel bar
Aφ = 14.159 mm2
2448.268
Number of bars = = 7.793
314.159
Provided 10 bars of 20 mm φ near the bottom face.
(ii) Reinforcement for tension for ME3
The maximum bending moment at E2 is ME2 = 408 kN-m (hogging)
Reinforcement for tension
Ast2 – 2.93 × 104 Ast + 0.654 × 108 = 0
Ast = 2432.173 mm2
2432.173
314.159
Provide 10 bars of 20 mm diameter near the top face also.
The maximum bending moment at G2 under the column load 1000 kN is 93.482 kN-m.
Reinforcement for tension Ast2 – 2.93 × 104 Ast + 0.15 × 104 = 0
Ast = 520.177 mm2
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Number of the steel bars

520.177
= = 1.656
314.159
Provide 4 bars of 20 mm Hysd steel of grade Fe 415.
Step 7. Shear reinforcement in beam
The factored shear force is maximum at D, and it is equal to 1.5 × 701.807 kN. For pB = 0.96
percent and M 20 grade of concrete, from IS : 456–1978
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
Normal shear force
1.5 × 701.807 × 1000
τc =
800 × 760
= 1.731 N/mm2
From IS : 456–1978, for M 20 grade of concrete
τc.max = 2.8 N/mm2
τv |
> τc.max
The shear reinforcement shall be provided for
V 1 = (VFd – Vc)
⎡ ⎛ 0.61 × 800 × 760 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢1.5 × 701.807 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN
⎣ ⎝ 1000 ⎠⎦
= 681.83 kN
Provide 4 legged stirrups of 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars
π
Av = 4 × × 122 = 452.39 mm2
4
The spacing of four legged stirrups
Asv ⋅ 0.87 ⋅ fy ⋅ d
sv =
Vs
452.39 × 0.87 × 415 × 760

sv = = 182.06 mm
681.83 × 1000
Provide 4-legged stirrups of 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 at 140 mm centre to
centre throughout the length of beam.
The slab projects out as cantilever on each side of 800 mm wide beam and it is subjected to
uniform soil pressure 1.5 × 171.139 kN/mm2. The length of cantilever projection on each side
1
= (2200 – 800) = 700 mm.
2
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Consider 1 m strip of the slab. The bending moment to be resisted by the slab, (maximum
bending moment occurs at the junction with the beam)
1
M = × 1.5 × l71.139 × 0.7002 kN-m/m
2
= 1.5 × 41.93 = 62.895 kN-m/m
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 41.93 × 106
d = 150.98 mm
Let the effective cover for the slab reinforcement be 25 mm. Then, the overall depth of slab
shall be 175.98 mm. Adopt 250 mm. The effective depth shall be 225 mm.
Step 9. Tension reinforcement for slab
The tension reinforcement for slab
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠ = MFd
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 225 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 41.937 × l0
⎝ 1000 × 225 × 20 ⎠
8.124 × 104 Ast – 7.492 Ast2 – 62.895 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 1.084 Ast × 104 + 8.395 × 106 = 0
Ast = 839.45 mm2
Let 16 mm φ Hysd steel bars be provided for tension reinforcement near the bottom surface
π
Aφ = × 162 = 201.062 mm2
4
Spacing of 16 mm φ bars
1000 × 201.062
s = = 239.515 mm
839.45
16 mm φ Hysd steel bars be provided at 220 mm spacing centre to centre.
Step 10. Distribution reinforcement for slab
The distribution reinforcement for slab 1 and overall depth
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 250 = 300 mm2
100
Cross-sectional area of one bar 10 mm φ
π
Aφd = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
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Spacing of the distribution reinforcement

1000 × 78.54
sd = = 261.80 mm
300
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd steel bars at 240 mm c/c.
0 .8 m L on gitud in al b ea m 0 .6 m 0 .62
P 1 = 1 50 0 kN P 2 = 1 50 0 kN
(a ) Fo otin g b e am a nd sla b typ e (P la n )
d = 76 0 m m P 1 = 15 00 kN , P 2 = 10 00 kN , d = 76 0 m m
D = 82 0 m m 10 B a rs 2 0 m m φ h ysd ste el D = 82 0 m m
D d d D
1 0 b ars 2 0 m m φ h ysd stee l 4 ba rs

4 Le gg e d stirrup s12 B a rs φ h ysd ste el
1 40 m m c/c (S he a r re inforce m e nt)
(b ) D e tails o f m a in an d sh ea r re in fo rce m en t in recta ng ular be am
10 m m φ C o lu m n
10 m m φ at
a t 2 40 m m c/c 240 m m c/c
82 0 m m
82 0 m m
25 0 m m
2 50 m m
S lab S lab
16 m m φ 4 Le gg e d
a t 2 20 m m c/c stirrup s φ
8 00 m m
(A t to p a n d b otto m ea ch surface 10 b ars 2 0 m m φ )
(E n la rge d ske tch)
(c) C ro ss - se ctio na l elevatio n o f b e am
Fig. 14.12 Design of beam and slab type footing
The details of reinforcement for the combined footing beam (and slab type) are shown in
Fig. 14.12.
Example 14.3. Two reinforced columns 800 mm × 800 mm and 600 mm × 600 mm in size
carry axial loads of 2250 kN and 1800 kN respectively. The columns are placed 3 m apart. The
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available space by the side of 1800 kN column is only 1.4 m from the centre line. The safe
bearing capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415
quality shall be used. Design a combined trapezoidal slab type footing.
Solution
Design :
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel of Fe 415 shall be used.
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 quality are as
follows : (from Example 14.2)
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ d ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ ⎠
Step 2. Area of combined trapezoidal footing
The combined footing supports two column loads.
Column load P1 = 2250 kN
Self-weight = 0.10 (P1 + P2)
= 0.10 (2250 + 1800) kN
= 405 kN
Factored load
w Fd = 1.5 × 4450
= 6675 kN
Ultimate load bearing capacity of the soil
qu = 2 × qo = 2 × 200 = 400 kN/m2
1.5 × 4450
AF = = 16.71 m2
2 × 200
Provide 22.50 m2 area for the footing.
Length of the trapezoidal footing
Distance between centre to centre of columns
K = 3m
Available space by the side of 1800 kN column load is 140 m from the centre upto the property
line towards right, as shown in Fig. 14.11
n = 1.4 m
The distance of line of action of the resultant of two column loads from 2250 kN load
2250 × 0 + 1800 × 3
x1 = = 13.33 m
(2250 + 1800)
(3 – x1 ) = 1.667 m
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Provide a cantilever projection on the left side of column load

P1 = 2250 kN
m = 1.10 m
Length of the combined footing
L = (m + K + n)
= (1.10 + 3.0 + 1.4) = 5.5 m
Distance of C.G. of combined footing from the larger width of trapezium (viz., from left side)
= (1.1 + 1.333) = 2.433 m
Distance of centre of combined footing
L 1
= × 5.5 = 2.75 m
2 2
Distance between centre and the C.G. of the combined footing
d = (2.75 – 2.433) = 0.317 m
Width of trapezoidal combined footing
AF ⎛ 6d ⎞
b = ⎜1 + L ⎟
L ⎝ ⎠
22.5 ⎛ 6 × 0.317 ⎞
b = × 1+ = 5.50 m
5.5 ⎜⎝ 5.5 ⎟⎠
Smaller width of the trapezoidal footing
22.5 ⎛ 6 × 0.317 ⎞
c = × ⎜1 − = 2.68 m
5.5 ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎟
Let y 1 be the width of trapezoidal footing at the centre of column load P1 = 2250 kN
K +n
y 1 = c + (b – c) ×
L
⎛ 3 + 1.4 ⎞
or y 1 = 2.68 + (5.50 – 2.68) × ⎜ ⎟ = 4.936 m
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
Let y 2 be the width of trapezoidal footing at the centre of column load P2 = 1800 kN
n
y 2 = c + (b – c) ×
L
1.4
= 2.68 + (5.50 – 2.68) × = 3.398 m
5.5
Area of the footing provided
⎛b+ c ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟×L
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 5.50 × 2.68 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ × 5.50 = 22.495 m
⎝ 2 ⎠
@ 2250 m (more than 22.275 m2)
2
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Effective ultimate soil pressure acting upward

1.5 × (2250 + 1800)
qu =
22.5
= 1.5 × 1800 = 2700 kN/m2
The combined trapezoidal footing in plan is shown in Fig. 14.11 (a).
The bending moment due to effective soil pressure acting upward alone is given by
x2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
M = qu . ⎢b − 3 ⎜ L ⎟ ⎥ ...(i)
2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
The bending moment at the face of column carrying column load P1 = 2250 kN
180 x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c⎞ ⎤
M B2 = ⎢b − 3 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(ii)
2 ⎣ ⎦
Distance upto the face of column
x = (1.10 – 0.4) = 0.7 m
0.180 × 0.72 ⎡ 0.7 ⎛ 5.5 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

∴ M B2 = ⎢5.50 − 3 ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
M B2 = 237.274 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
M B2 = 1.5 × 237.274
= 355.911 kN-m
The maximum bending moment under the column carrying load P1= 2250 kN
2
0.180 × x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ 5.5 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤ 2250 ⎛ x − 0.7 ⎞
M C2 = ⎢5.50 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 0.8 ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 ⎣ 3⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦ ⎝ ⎠
...(iii)
Differentiating M C2 w.r.t. x and equating
⎛ dM C2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0,
⎝ dx ⎠
x = 1 m.
M C2 = 255.74 kN-m (Sagging)
M B2 = 1.5 × 255.74 = 383.61 kN-m
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The bending moment M D2 at x = 1.5 m
2 2
M D2 = 0.180 × 1.5 1.5 ⎛ 5.5 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤ 2250 ⎛ 1.5 − 0.7 ⎞
⎡
⎢5.50 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ − ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎣ 3 ⎝ 5.5 ⎠ ⎦ 0.8 ⎝ 2 ⎠
M D2 = 161.836 kN-m (sagging)

M D2 = 1.5 × 161.836 = 242.754 kN-m
The maximum bending moment between the two columns
180 x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ 5.50 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

M E2 = ⎢5.50 − 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ – 2250 (x – 1.10) ...(iv)
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.50 ⎠⎦
Differentiating M E2 w.r.t. x and equating
⎛ dM E2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0, x = 2.60 m.
⎝ dx ⎠
Substituting this in the expression (iv)
M E2 = – 257.143 kN-m (viz., hogging)
M E2 = 1.5 × (–257.143) = – 385.71 kN-m
The bending moment shall be zero on the right side of D2
180 x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ 5.50 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

M1 =
2 ⎣ ⎢5.50 − ⎜
3⎝ 5.50 ⎟ ⎥ − 2250 ( x − 1.10 ) = 0
⎠⎦
At x = 1.71 m, and x = 3.50 m. The distance x is measured from extreme left edge.
The bending moment at the face of the column carrying load P2 = 1800 kN at x = 3.8 m
0.180 × 3.82 ⎡ 3.8 ⎛ 5.50 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

M F2 = 5.50 −
2 ⎢
⎣ 3 ⎜⎝ 5.50 ⎟⎥
⎠⎦
–2250 (3.8 – 1.10)
M F2 = 228.764 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
M F2 = 1.5 × 228.764 = 343.146 kN-m
The maximum bending moments under the column carrying load P2=1800 kN
180 x 2 ⎡ x ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
M G2 = ⎢5.5 − 3 ⎜ L ⎟ ⎥ –2250 (x – 1.10)
2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
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2
1800 ⎛ ( x − 3.80)2 ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
0.6 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Differentiating M G2 w.r.t. x and equating
⎛ dM G2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0, at x = 4.395 m
⎝ dx ⎠
Substituting this in the expression (v)
180×4.3952 ⎡ 4.3952 ⎛ 5.5 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

M G2 = ⎢ 5.5 − ⎟⎥
2 ⎣⎢ 3 ⎜⎝ 5.5 ⎠ ⎦⎥
1800
– 2250 (3.395 – 1.10) – (4.395 – 3.80)2 kN-m
0.6
M G2 = 310.82 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
M G2 = 1.5 × 310.82 = 466.23 kN-m
The bending moment at the face of column P2 = 1800 kN (left face) i.e., at x = 4.4 m
180×4.42 ⎡ 4.4 ⎛ 5.5 − 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

M H2 = ⎢5.50 − 3 ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
– 2250 (4.4 – 1.10) – 1800 (4.4 – 4.1) kN-m
or M H2 = 307.915 kN-m
M H2 = 1.5 × 307.915 = 461.873 kN-m
The bending moment diagram for the combined trapezoidal footing is shown in Fig. 14.3 (b).
The shear force at a section is the algebraic sum of the forces acting on one side of the
section. The upward force due to effective soil pressure is given by the intensity of soil pressure
acting upward multiplied by the trapezoidal area of the footing.
The width of trapezium at a distance x from the larger edge
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢ c + ( L − x ) ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ (b − c ) ⎤ ⎛b−c⎞
= ⎢c + L ⋅ −x⎜ ⎟
⎣ L ⎥⎦ ⎝ L ⎠
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
= ⎢b − x ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
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Area of trapezoidal portion of the footing upto a distance x

1⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
Ax = ⎢b+b− x⎜ ⎟ ⋅x
2⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
x⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
= ⎢ 2b − x ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
2⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
hear force due to soil pressure alone
qu . x ⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
Fx = ⎢2 b − x ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(iii)
2 ⎣ ⎦
Shear force at B1 at
x = 0.7 m
180 × 0.7 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
FB1 = ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 0.7 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
= 670.388 kN
= 1.5 × 670.388 = 1005.582 kN
Shear force at D1, at x = 1.5 m
180 × 1.5 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
FD1 = 2 ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 1.5 ⎜
⎝ 5.5
⎟ ⎥ – 2250 kN
⎠⎦
⎣
= (1381.172 – 2250) = –868.827 kN ...(v)
= 1.5 × (– 868.827) = – 1303.24 kN
Shear force at F1 at x = 3.8 m
FF1 = 180 × 3.8 ⎢2 × 5.5 – 3.8 ⎛⎜ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞⎟ ⎥ –2250 kN

⎡ ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
= (3095.305 – 2250) = 845.305 kN ... (vi)
FF1 = 1.5 × 845.305 = 1267.958 kN
Shear force at H1 at x = 4.4 m
180 × 4.4 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
FH1 = ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 4.4 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ – 2250 – 1800
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
FH1 = (3462.149 – 4050) = – 587.851 kN

FH1 = 1.5 × (– 587.851) = – 881.777 kN
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5 .5 m
0 .7 m 0 .8 m 0 .6 m
2 .3 m 1 .1 m
d = 0 .31 7
2 .6 8 m
A
D C .G O F H J
B
1 .66 7 m
2 .75 m 2 .75 m
k=3m n = 1 .4 m
(a ) Trap ezo id al footing (P lan )
2 57 .14 3
kN -m
A2 B2 C2 D2 F2 G2 H2 J2
E2
2 37 .27 4 3 07 .91 5
2 28 ..7 6 kN -m
kN -m 2 55 .74 kN -m 3 10 .82 kN -m kN -m
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia g ram
6 70 .38 8 kN 8 45 .30 5 kN
C1 D1 E1 G 1H 1 J1
A1 B1 F1
8 68 .82 7 kN 0 .6 m 8 57 .85 1 kN
B 1 C 1 = 0 .34 8 m D 1 E 1 = 1 .16 5 m F 1 G 1 = 0 .35 4 m
C 1 D 1 = 0 .45 2 m E 1 F 1 = 1 .13 5 m G 1 H 1 = 0 .24 8 m
(c) S h e ar force diag ra m
Fig. 14.13 Combined (Trapezoidal) footing
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 14.13 (c).

In the portion B1D1, the shear force changes sign at C1
B1C1 C1 D1
=
670.388 868.827
670.388
B1C1 = × (0.8 – B1C1)
868.827
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0.6173
B1C1 = = 0.348 m
1.7872
C1D 1 = (0.8 – 0.398) = 0.452 m
In the portion D1F1, the shear force changes sign at E1
D1 E1 E1 F1
=
868.827 845.305
868.305
D1E 1 = (2.3 – D1E1)
845.305
1.0272 × 2.3
D1E 1 = = 1.165 m
2.0272
∴ E1F1 = (2.3 – 1.165) = 1.135 m
In the portion F1H1, the shear force changes sign at G1
F1G1 F1C1
=
845.305 587.851
845.305
F1G1 = × (0.5 – F1G1)
587.851
1.438 × 0.6
F1G1 = = 0.354 m
2.438
G 1 H 1 = (0.6 – 0.354) = 0.246 m
Shear force at a distance 1.71 m from A1 at point of zero moment (viz., 1.71 – 1.50 – 0.21
from D1). From Fig. 14.13 (c). D1E1 = 1.165 m,
⎛ 1.165 × 0.21 ⎞
F = 868.827 × ⎜ ⎟ = 712.21 kN
⎝ 1.165 ⎠
Factored (design) shear force at F
= 1.5 × 712.21 = 1068.315 kN
Shear force at a distance 3.5 m from A1 at second point of zero moment (viz., 3.8 – 3.5 = 0.3
m F1 towards left), from Fig. 14.13 (c), E1F1 = 11.35 m
⎛ 1.135 × 0.3 ⎞
F = 845.305 × ⎜ ⎟ = 621.876 kN
⎝ 1.135 ⎠
F = 1.5 × 621.876 = 932.814 kN
Step 5. Effective depth for footing slab
The absolute maximum tending moment per metre width (when calculated); it occurs at G2,
M G2 = 310.82 kN for the width of footing at G2. The width of footing at G2
⎛b −c ⎞
= b – x .⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
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⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞
= 5.5 – 4.395 ⎜ ⎟ = 3.245 m
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
Bending moment at G2 per metre width
1.5 × 310.82
M G2 = = 1.5 × 95.784 = 143.676 kN-m/m
3.245
Effective depth of footing slab
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 95.784 × 106
d = 228.189 mm
Let the effective cover be 25 mm. The overall depth of slab shall be 253.189 mm. Let the
overall depth of slab be 350 mm. The effective depth of slab shall be 325 mm.
Step 6. Check for two-way (flat slab type) shear
(i) The critical section for two-way shear shall be periphery at a distance d/2 from the
periphery of column (carrying 2250 kN column load)
⎡ ⎛ 325 ⎞ ⎛ 325 ⎞ ⎤
b 0 = 4 × ⎢800 + ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ mm
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 4 × 1125 = 4500 mm
Effective soil pressure acting upward is 1.5 × 1800 kN/m2
Shear force = Column load – upward pressure on the area within
the periphery
= (2250 – 180 × 1.125 × 1.125)
= 2022.188 kN
= 1.5 × 2022.188 = 3033.282 kN
1.5 × 2022.188 × 1000
τv = = 2.0745 N/mm2
4500 × 325
Permissible shear stress for tri-axial compression is ks, τc. (ks = 1)
τc = ks × 0.25 × (20)1/2 N/mm2
or = 1 × 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The effective depth of slab shall be increased
2.0745
d = × 325 = 603.03 mm
1.118
EC = 25 mm
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Overall depth of the footing slab

= (603.03 + 25) = 628.03 mm
Adopt, Ds = 660 mm, then d = 635 mm
(ii) The critical section for two-way shear shall be periphery at a distance d/2 from the
periphery of column (carrying 1800 kN column load)
⎡ ⎛ 635 ⎞ ⎛ 635 ⎞ ⎤
b 0 = 4 × ⎢600 + ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ kN
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= (4 × 1235) = 4940 mm
Shear force = column load – upward pressure on the area within
the periphery
= (1800 – 180 × 0.935 × 0.935) mm
= (1800 – 157.36) = 1642.64 kN
= 1.5 × 1642.64 = 2463.96 kN
1.5 × 1642.64 ×1000
τv = = 0.7845 N/mm2
4950 × 635
The permissible shear stress in triaxial compression is ks . τc . (ks = 1)
= 1 × 0.25 × (20)1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2
The permissible shear stress is more than the nominal shear stress. Hence, the depth of
footing is safe for two-way shear.
(i) The critical section for one-way (beam) shear shall be taken at a distance, d from the face
of column carrying 2250 kN load (viz., (0.7 – 0.635) = 0.065 m), on the left side. The width of
trapezium at a distance x from the larger edge
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 5.5 – 0.065 × ⎛⎜ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞⎟ – 5.467 m

⎝ 5.5 ⎠
Shear force is due to soil pressure alone at the critical section
180 × 3.065 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
F = ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 0.065 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
= 64.159 kN
= 1.5 × 64.159 = 96.238 kN
1.5 × 64.159 × 1000
τv = = 0.027 N/mm2
5467 × 635
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Permissible shear stress in concrete without shear reinforcement for the balanced section pB
⎛ 100 As ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.96
⎝ bd ⎠
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞
τv = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm2
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
It is more than the nominal shear stress at the critical section. The effective depth of footing
slab at that section is safe.
(ii) The critical section for one-way shear shall be taken at a distanced from the face of
column carrying 2250 kN load (viz., (0.7 + 0.8 + 0.635) = 2.135 m) on the right side. The width
of footing at a distance x from the larger side
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
or bx = ⎢5.5 – 2.135 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 4.305 m
⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
Shear force at the critical section
180 × 2.135 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
F = ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 2.135 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ –2250
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
F = – 346.80 kN
F = 1.5 × (– 346.80) = 520.2 kN
1.5 × 346.80 × 1000
τv = = 0.186 N/mm2
4.405 × 635
Permissible stress in concrete from above τc = 0.61 N/mm2
It is more than the nominal shear stress at the critical section. The effective depth of footing
slab at the section is again safe.
(iii) The critical section for one-way shear is taken at a distance d from the critical section
from the column carrying column load of 1000 kN (viz., (3.8 – 0.635) = 3.165 m), on the left
side of column. The width of trapezoidal footing from the large edge
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
or bx = ⎢5.5 – 3.165 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 3.876 m
⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
Shear force
q⋅x ⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
= ⎢2b − x ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎥ − 2250
2 ⎣ ⎦
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180 × 3.165 ⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢ 2 × 5.5 – 3.165 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 2250
2 ⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
= 420.855 kN
= 1.5 × 420.855 = 631.283 kN
1.5 × 420.855×1000
τv = = 0.2565 N/mm2
3876 × 635
Permissible shear stress from above τc = 0.61 N/mm2
It is more than the nominal shear stress. Therefore, the depth of footing slab is safe at that
section.
(iv) The critical section for one-way shear is taken at a distance d – 0.635 m on the right side
of the face of column, whereas the available cantilever projection is 1.1 m. The distance from
the large edge
x = (3.8 + 0.6 + 0.635) = 5.035 m
width of the slab
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢5.5 – 5.035 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 2.197 m
⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
Shear force
q0 ⋅ x ⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
= ⎢ 2b − x ⎜ ⎟ − 2250 − 1800
2 ⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
= – 235.816 kN
= 1.5 × (– 235.816) = – 353.724 kN
1.5 × 235.816 × 1000
= = 0.11 N/mm2
5035 × 635
Permissible shear stress from above
τc = 0.61 N/mm2
It is more than the nominal shear stress. Therefore, the effective depth of the footing slab at
that section is safe.
Step 8. Reinforcement along the length of footing
(i) Reinforcement for tension for M C2
The maximum bending moment under the column load 2250 kN (on the left side of footing)
occurs at C2. The reinforcement for tension shall be calculated for M C2 (which one is sagging).
It shall be provided along the length of footing near the bottom face. Area of the steel bars to be
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⎛ fy ⋅ Ast ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ 415 × Ast ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 ×Ast × 635 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 255.74 × 10
⎝ 5035 × 635 × 20 ⎠
22.927 Ast × 104 – 1.480 Ast2 – 383.61 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 15.408 Ast + 257.80 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1692 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
1692
314.159
| shall be provided as uniformly distributed in the width of footing, near
8 bars of 20 mm <
bottom surface.
(ii) Reinforcement for tension for M E2
The maximum bending moment in between the two columns occurs at E2. The reinforcement
for tension shall be calculated for M E2 (which one is hogging). It shall be provided along the
length of footing near the top surface in between the two columns. Area of the steel bars to be
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 Ast × 635 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 257.143 × 10
⎝ 3876 × 635 × 20 ⎠
22.927 × 104 Ast – 1.933 Ast2 – 385.7145 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 11.86 × 104 Ast+ 199.553 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1707.06 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
1707.06
= = 5.434 (say 8 bars)
314.159
8 bars of 20 φ shall be provided as uniformly distributed in the width of footing near top
surface.
(iii) Reinforcement for tension for M G2
The maximum bending moment under the column load, 1800 kN (on right side) occurs at
G2. The reinforcement for tension shall be calculated for M G2 . It shall be provided along the
length of footing near the bottom surface under the column load 1800 kN. Area of the steel
bars to be provided as tension reinforcement
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⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 635 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 310.82 × 10
⎝ 2197 × 635 × 20 ⎠
22.927 × 104 Ast – 3.41 Ast2 – 466.23 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 6.723 × 104 Ast + 1.3672 × 108 = 0
Ast = 2099.159 mm2
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
2099.159
314.159
8 bars of 20 mm φ shall be provided as uniformly distributed in the width of footing near
bottom surface.
Step 9. Reinforcement along the width of footing
(i) Under 2250 kN column load
The centre of the column is at a distance x = (0.7 + 0.4) = 1.1 m from the larger face. The
width of footing through the centre of column
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢5.5 – 1.1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 4.9357 m
⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎠⎦
The length of cantilever projection from the face of column on each side
1
= × (4.935 – 0.8) = 2.068 m
2
A pedestal of 1 m × 1 m size extra on each side be provided for the column. A beam shall be
provided within the slab. The width of beam, (b + 2d)
= (800 + 635 + 635) = 2070 mm
Area of distribution of 2250 kN load
= 2.068 m × 2070 m
Effective pressure
1.5 × 2250
= = 1.5 × 525.6076 = 788.41 kN/m2
2.068 × 2.070
The moment at the face of pedestal
525.6076 × (2.068 – 1)2
M = kN-m/m
2
M = 299.76 kN-m/m
M = 1.5 × 299.76 = 449.64 kN-m/m
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Effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 299.76 × 106
d = 403.68 mm
The effective depth already provided is more than this depth. The area of reinforcement
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast × d ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 299.76 × 106
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ st A × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × (635 – 20) ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 299.76 × l06
1000 × 615 × 20 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
22.205 × 104 Ast – 7.492 Ast2 – 449.64 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 2.9630 × 104 Ast + 0.60 × 108 = 0

Ast = 2185.60 mm2
Number of bars
2185.60
= = 6.957 (say 8 bars)
314.159
(ii) Under 1800 kN column load
The centre of the column load is at a distance
x = (3.8 + 0.3) = 4.1 m
from the larger face. The width of footing through the centre of column
⎡ ⎛ b − c ⎞⎤
bx = ⎢b − x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 5.5 – 2.68 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢5.5 – 4.1 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 3.40 m
⎣ ⎝ 5.5 ⎦
The length of the cantilever projection from the face of column on each side
1
= × (3.40 – 0.6) = 1.4 m
2
A pedestal of 1 m × 1 m side extra on each side be provided for the column. A beam shall be
provided within the slab. The width of beam (b + 2d)
= (600 + 635 + 635) = 1870 mm
Area of distribution of 1800 kN load
= (1.4 × 1.870) m2
Effective pressure
1.5 × 1800
= 1.5 × 687.548 = 1031.322 kN/m2
1.4 × 1.870
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The moment at the face of pedestal
1.5 × 687.548 × (1.4 – 1)2

M = = 1.5 × 55
2
= 82.50 kN-m/m
Effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1– 0.42 × 0.48) b.d2 = 1.5 × 5.5 × 106
0.13796 fck bd2 = 1.5 × 55 × 106
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 55 × 106
d = 172.92 mm
The effective depth available is already more than this depth. The area of reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 615 ⎜1 − = 1.5 × 55 × 106
⎝ 2197 × 635 × 20 ⎟⎠
Ast2 – 2.9635 × 104 Ast + 1.3672 × 108 = 0

Ast = 375.913 mm2
375.913
Number of bars = = 1.196 (8 bars)
314.159
The distribution reinforcement equal to 0.12 percent of the cross-section area (for Hysd-steel
bars) shall be provided at locations, where the transverse reinforcement not provided. This
reinforcement is also provided in the transverse direction (viz., in the perpendicular direction
to longitudinal reinforcement)
⎛ 0.12 ⎞
Ad = ⎜ × 1000 × 660 ⎟ = 792 mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 99.167 mm
792
10 mm steel bars shall be provided at 90 mm spacing centre to centre. Let 20 mm diameter
Hysd bars be provided as distribution reinforcement at top surface
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π
Aφ = × 202 = 314.159 mm2
4
1000 × 314.159
s d1 = = 396.66 mm
792
20 mm φ steel bars shall be provided at 380 mm spacing centre to centre near the top surface
as distribution reinforcement.
(i) (A) At point of zero moment near D2
The point of zero moment near the point D is at a distance (1.71 – 1.50) = 0.21 m towards
right of D . Let the number of steel bars needed at the point of zero moment be N to satisfy the
following condition specified in IS : 456–1978
[Ld >/ 1.30 (M1/V) + L0]
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
= 0.87 × 415 × Ast × 635 ⎜1 − N-mm
⎝ 4780 × 635 × 20 ⎟⎠
M1
Ld = 1.30 + L0
V1
1.30×0.87 ×415× Ast ×635 ⎛1 − Ast × 415 ⎞

940.234 = ⎜ ⎟ + 635
1.5 × 712.21 × 1000 ⎝ 4780 × 635 × 20 ⎠
+ 0.279 Ast – 1.91 Ast2 × 104 + 36.04 = 0
Ast2 – 14.6073 × 104 + 18.8691 × 106 = 0
Ast = 258.12 mm2
The factored (design) shear force at point of zero moment from step 3
V = 1.5 × 712.21 = 1068.315 kN
At point of zero moment, as per IS : 456–1978
= 635 mm or (12 × 20 = 240 mm)
L0 = 635 mm
0.87 × 415 × 20
Ld = = 940.234 mm
4 × 1.60 × 1.20
⎛ 258.12 ⎞
N = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.82
⎝ 314.159 ⎠
8 bars have already been provided at the bottom face and these bars shall be extended upto
either edge of the footing.
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0 .8 m 0 .6 m
1 .1 m 3m 1 .4 m
2 0 m m hysd stee l b ars at

3 80 m m ce n tre to ce n tre
8 ba rs hysd 20 m m
u nd er 18 00 kN lo a d
8 ba rs hysd 20 m m φ at bo tto m surfa ce
(a ) S e ctio na l ele vation
10 m m stee l b ars a t 90 m m c/c
2.68 m
5 .5 m
U nd er 1800 kN
8 b ars 20 m m hy sd ste el
8 b ars 20 m m hy sd ste el u nder 22 50 k N
(b ) D e tails o f re in fo rcem en t ne ar bo ttom su rfa ce (plan)
8 ba rs 20 m m hysd stee l
2 .6 8 m
5.5 m
20 m m h ysd ste el at 3 80 m m c/c
1 .4 m
(c) D e tails o f reinfo rcem e nt ne ar top surface (P lan )
Fig. 14.14 Design of trapezoidal footing (Slab type)
(B) The number of bars near the top face should also satisfy the following condition specified
in IS : 456–1978
[Ld >/ 1.3 (M1/V) + L0]
From above step
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
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The factored (design) shear force at the point of zero moment

V = 1.5 × 712.21 kN = 1068.315
L0 = 635 mm
Ld = 940.234 mm
Therefore,
1.30×0.87 ×415× Ast ×635 ⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
940.234 = ⎜1 − 4780 × 635 × 20 ⎟ + 635
1.5 × 712.21 × 1000 ⎝ ⎠
Ast = 258.12 mm2
258.12
N = = 0.82
314.159
8 bars have already been provided near the top surface. These bars shall extend 635 mm
beyond the point of contraflexure.
(ii) (A) At point of zero moment near F2
The point of zero moment near the point F2 is at a distance x = 3.5 m from the point A (i.e.,
at a distance (3.8 – 3.5) = 0.3 m from F2 towards left side). The factored shear force at the point
of zero moment.
V Fd = 1.5 × 621.876 kN
Let the number of steel bars needed at the point of zero moment be N1 to satisfy the following
condition specified in IS : 456–1978
[Ld >/ 1.3 (M1/V) + L0]
The moment of resistance of the section
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
At the point of zero moment, as per IS : 456–1978
= 635 mm or (12 × 23 = 240 mm)
= 635 mm
230 × 20
Ld = = 598.958 mm
4 × 1.60 × 1.20
Therefore,
1.30×0.87×415× Ast ×635 ⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
940.234 = × ⎜1 − ⎟ + 635
1.50 × 621.876 × 1000 ⎝ 4780 × 635 × 20 ⎠
Ast2 – 16.73 × Ast × 104 + 18.8691 × 106 = 0
234.10
N = = 0.74
314.159
Ast = 234.10 mm2
8 bars have already been provided at the bottom face.
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(B) At the top surface, 8 bars have already been provided near the top surface. These bars
shall extend 635 mm beyond the point of zero moment.
Details of design of combined trapezoidal footing slab type are shown in Fig. 14.14.
Example 14.4. Two reinforced concrete columns 800 mm × 800 mm and 600 mm × 600 mm
in size carry axial loads of 2250 kN and 1800 kN respectively. These columns are placed 3 m
and Hysd steel bars shall be used for the footing. Design beam and slab type trapezoidal
footing. The available space by the side of 1800 kN column is only 1.40 m for the centre line.
Solution
Design :
M 20 grade of concrete ad Hysd steel of Fe 415 grade shall be used.
The design constants for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars are as follows: (from
Example 14.3).
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
Limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to effective depth ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Step 2. Area of combined footing
The combined footing supports two column loads
Self-weight = 0.10 (P1 + P2)
= 405 kN
Safe bearing capacity of the soil is 200 kN/m2.
W Fd = (1.5 × 4450) = 6675 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is assumed twice that of the safe bearing capacity
qu = 2 × q0 = 2 × 200 = 400 kN/m2
2 × 4450
AF = = 16.7063 m2
2 × 200
Provide 22.50 m2 area for the footing from Example 14.3, the length of footing
L = 5.5 m, and
the width of trapezoidal footing, the larger width
b = 5.50 m, and
the smaller width
c = 2.68 m
The effective soil pressure acting upward
⎛ 2250 + 1800 ⎞
qu = 1.5 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5 × 180 = 270 kN/m2
⎝ 22.50 ⎠
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From Example 14.3, the factored (design) bending moments at different locations are as
follows :
B.M. at B2 = 1.5 × 237.274 = 355.911 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at C2 = 1.5 × 255.74 = 383.61 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at D2 = 1.5 × 161.836 = 242.754 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at E2 = 1.5 × 257.143 = 385.715 kN-m (viz., hogging)
B.M. at F2 = 1.5 × 228.764 = 343.146 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at G2 = 1.5 × 310.82 = 466.23 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
B.M. at H2 = 1.5 × 307.915 = 461.873 kN-m (viz., Sagging)
The bending moments are zero at the points x = 1.71 m and x = 3.50 m from the larger width
the bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 14.11 (b)
From Example 14.3, the factored (design) shear forces at different locations will remain
same. As such, their values have been noted form Example 14.3.
S.F. at B1 = 1.5 × 670.388 = 1000.582 kN
S.F. at D1 = 1.5 × 868.827 = 1303.241 kN
S.F. at F1 = 1.5 × 845.305 = 1267.958 kN
S.F. at H1 = 1.5 × 587.851 = 881.777 kN
The shear force diagram is shown in Fig. 14.11 (c).
Factored shear force at x = 1.71 m at point of zero moment is 1.5 × 712.21 kN = 1068.315 kN
Shear force at x = 3.5 at point 4 zero moment is 1.5 × 621.876 kN = 932.814 kN.
Step 5. Effective depth of beam
The combined footing is designed as the beam and slab. The width of beam shall be kept
equal to the size of column, whichever is more, (i.e., b = 800 mm). The effective depth of beam
shall be calculated for absolutely maximum bending moment from above, |M | = 310.82 kN-m.
The effective depth for the balanced section of rectangular beam, 800 mm wide.
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48)bd2
= 1.5 × 310.82 × 106
(0.13196 fck bd2 = MFd)
0.13796 × 20 × 800 × d2 = 1.5 × 310.82 × 106
d = 459.58 mm
Let effective cover be 60 mm. Then, the overall depth of shall be (459.58 + 60) = 519.58 mm.
Adopt 720 mm. Then, the effective depth of beam shall be 660 mm.
Step 6. Reinforcement along the length of beam
(i) Reinforcement for tension of Mc2
The maximum sagging bending moment at c2 is Mc2 = 255.74 kN-m. Reinforcement of tension
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 fy × Ast × d × ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
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⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 660 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 255.74 × 10
⎝ 800 × 660 × 20 ⎠
Ast2
– 2.545 Ast × 104 + 40.963 × 106 = 0
23.83 × 104 Ast – 9.365 Ast2 – 383.61 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1726.699 mm2
20 mm φ Hysd-steel bars shall be provided
(Aφ = 314.159 mm2)
1726.699
314.159
Provided 8 bars of 20 mm φ near the bottom face.
(ii) Reinforcement for tension for ME2
The maximum bending moment at E2 is ME2 = 257.143 kN-m. Reinforcement in tension
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 fy × Ast × d × ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 660 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 257.143 × 10
⎝ 800 × 660 × 20 ⎠
23.83 × 104 Ast – 9.365 Ast2 – 385.715 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 2.545 Ast2 × 104 + 41.188 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1736.933 mm2
20 mm φ Hysd-steel bars shall be provide (Aφ = 314.159 mm2)
1736.933
314.159
Provide 8 bars of 20 mm φ near the top face.
The maximum bending moment at G2 is 1.5 × 310.82 × 106 kN-m
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 fy × Ast × d × ⎜⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎟⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞ 6
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 660 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 310.82 × 10
⎝ 800 × 660 × 20 ⎠
23.83 × 104 Ast – 9.365 Ast2 – 466.23 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 2.545 Ast + 497.86 × 106 = 0
Ast = 2135.40 mm2
20 mm φ Hysd-steel bars shall be provided, (Aφ = 314.159 mm2)
2135
314.159
Provide 8 bars of 20 mm φ Hysd-steel at bottom face.
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Step 7. Shear reinforcement in beam

The maximum shear force is at D2. It is VD1 – 1.5 × 868.827 kN. For PB = 0.96 percent and
M 20 grade of concrete, from IS : 456–1978
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
1.5 × 868.827 × 103
τc =
800 × 660
= 2.469 N/mm2
From IS : 456–1978, for M 20 grade of concrete
τc.max = 2.8 N/mm2
τv >/ τc.max
The shear reinforcement shall be provided for
Vs = (VFd – Vc)
⎛ 0.61 × 800 × 660 ⎞
= ⎜1.5 × 868.827– ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 981.16 kN
Provide 4 legged stirrups of 12 mm φ Hysd-steel bars
π
Asv = 4 × × 122
4
= 452.39 mm2
The spacing of four legged stirrups
Asv 0.87 fy ⋅ d
sv =
Vs
452.39 × 0.87 × 415 × 660

or sv =
981.16 × 1000
= 109.87 mm
Provide 4 legged stirrups of 12 mm φ Hysd-steel bars of grade Fe 415 at 90 mm spacing
centre to centre throughout the length of beam.
The slab projects out as cantilever on each side of 800 mm wide beam it is subjected to
uniform upward soil pressure of 180 kN/m2. The length of cantilever projection.
1
= (4.935 – 0.8) = 2.068 m
2
It is to note that width of trapezium through the centre of 2250 kN, form Example 14.3
(reinforcement along the width of footing, step 9) is 4.935 m. The moment at the face of column
180 × 2.0682
M = 1.5 × ×1
2
= 1.5 × 384.896 kN-m2
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⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 d2 = 1.5 × 384.896 × 106
d = 457.43 mm
Let the effective cover for the slab reinforcement be 25 mm. Then, the overall depth of slab
shall be 482.43 mm, (Adopt 680 mm). The effective depth shall be 655 mm.
L o n g itu d ina l b e a m
(a ) Trap ezoida l foo ting b ea m an d slab type (P la n)
P 1 = 2 25 0 kN P 2 = 1 80 0 kN
d = 66 0 m m B B ars 2 0 m m d = 66 0 m m
D = 7 20 m m H ysd ste el D = 72 0 m m
8 b ars 20 m m hy sd ste el
4 legge d s tirrups 1 2 m m φ h ys d s teel
90 m m c /c (S hear reinc orc em ent)
(b ) D e tails o f m a in an d sh ea r re in fo rcem en t in recta ng ular be am
10 m m
@ 90 m m c /cl C o lu m n
68 0 m m
8 80 m m
7 20 m m
7 20 m m
S lab 4-le gged

20 m m s tirrups
8 00 m m
@ 100 m m c /cl 12 m m φ
(A t to p a n d b otto m ea ch surface
8 ba rs 20 m m φ h ysd stee l Fe 41 5) (E n la rge d sk etch )
(c) C ro ss se ctio na l e le va tion o f b ea m
Fig. 14.15 Design of beam and slab type footing
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Step 9. Tension reinforcement for slab

The tension reinforcement for slab
⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 655 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 834.896 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 655 × 20 ⎠
– 7.49178 Ast2 + 23.649 × 10+4 Ast– 577.344 × 106 = 0

Ast2 – 3.1566 × 104 Ast – 77.064 × 106 = 0
Ast = 2277.344 mm2
Let 20 mm φ Hysd-steel bars be provided for tension reinforcement, (Aφ = 314.152 mm2). The
spacing of bars
1000 × 314.159
sd = = 137.95
2277.344
20 mm φ Hysd-steel bars be provided at 100 mm spacing centre to centre.
Step 10. Distribution reinforcement for slab
The distribution reinforcement for slab for 1 m and overall depth 680 mm
0.12
= × 1000 × 680 = 816 mm2
100
Let 10 mm φ Hysd-steel bars be provided as distribution reinforcement (Aφ= 78.54 mm2).
The spacing of distribution reinforcement
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 96.25 mm
816
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 90 mm spacing centre to centre.
The details of reinforcement for the combined footing (beam and slab type) are shown in
Fig. 14.15.
PROBLEMS
14.1. Two reinforced concrete columns 600 mm × 600 mm and 500 mm × 500 mm in size carry
axial loads of 1260 kN and 840 kN, respectively. These columns are placed 3.6 m apart centre
to centre. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 180 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-
steel bars shall be used for the footing. Design combined slab type rectangular footing the
cantilever projection available from centre line of column 1 upto the property line is 1.58 m.
14.2. Tn Problem 14.1, design combined beam and slab type footing.
14.3. Two reinforced columns 800 mm × 800 mm and 600 mm × 600 mm in size carrying axial
loads of 1760 kN and 1340 kN, respectively. The columns are placed 3.2 m apart. The available
space by the side of 1340 kN column is only 1.42 m from the centre line. The safe bearing
capacity of soil is 160 kN/m2. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of Fe 415 quality
shall be used. Design a combined trapezoidal slab type footing.
14.4. In Problem 14.3, design combined beam and slab type trapezoidal footing.
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PART VII : DESIGN OF OTHER CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Design of Stairs
15
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Stairs are needed for ascending and descending from floor to floor. The stairs are the structures
which consist of a series of steps with or without landing and give access from floor to floor. A
flight between landing to landing is also called as stair. The stairs provide vertical circulation
from one level to another level. The space within which a stair is built is known as staircase.
The staircase provides an enclosure for a stair. A stair consists of number of steps. There may
be 3 to 12 steps in one flight (i.e., between two adjacent landings). Each step has one tread
(going) and one rise. The tread and rise are proportioned while designing a stair so that the
stair provides a convenient access. The relationship between a tread and a rise is determined in
one of the two ways (i) twice the rise plus tread equals 600 mm to 640 mm and (ii) the product
of rise and tread equal 40,000 mm2 to 42,6000 mm2 (the rise and tread) both are measured in
millimetres.
In a residential building, a stair is located in a place easily accessible to all the members. In
a public building, a stair is located near main entrance. The stairs are well planned so that
these remain easily approachable from all the rooms. The rise of a step is kept easy (about 150
mm). It increases by 12 mm to 13 mm and depending upon necessity, the rise is also kept as
200 mm. A step is kept sufficiently wide. In a hospital building, the tread may be kept about
300 mm. It decreases by 25 mm and it may be kept about 200 mm. The width of a step of a stair
is kept (about 0.90 m in a residential building). It is kept about 180 m in a public building. Two
persons may cross each other conveniently while passing in a stair.
The stair may also be defined as an inclined structural form. ISI recommends that the pitch
of a stair should not be less than 25° and it should not be more than 40°. The clear distance
between tread and the soffit of a flight immediately above (called as head room), should not be
less than 2.14 m. A landing is usually provided after 12 to 15 steps. The width of landing
should not be less than the width of stair.
Only the reinforced cement concrete stairs have been described in this chapter.
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Design of Stairs 887
15.2 TYPES OF STAIRS

The different types of reinforced cement concrete stairs are as under:
1. Straight stair. In a straight stair as shown in Fig. 15.1 (a), all the steps rise in one
direction. The straight stair may have one single flight (i.e., it may not be having any landing)
or two or more flights having loadings in between the two adjacent flights. A straight stair
provided when the available space is straight, narrow and long and it is not possible to provide
other types of the stairs.
(a ) S traigh t sta irs w ith or w ith ou t lan ding
L an ding
(b ) D o g-L eg ge d stair (c) O p en -w ell (N ew e l) sta ir
(d ) O pe n -w ell sta ir w ith (e ) O pe n -w ell sta ir w ith step s

q ua rte r la nd in g (in stea d o f q u arte r lan ding )
(f) Q ua rte r-tu rn sta ir (g ) Q ua rte r-tu rn stair w ith ste p s

w ith qu arter la nd in g (in stea d of qu arter la nd in g)
Fig. 15.1 Different types of stairs
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2. Dog-legged stairs. In a dog-legged stair, two straight flights are provided in opposite
directions as shown in Fig. 15.1 (b) and there is no space between the flights in plan. A level
landing is provided across the two flights. The dog-legged stair is provided when the available
space width is just equal to twice the width of steps.
3. Open-well (open newel) stair. In an open-well stair, two straight flights are provided
in opposite directions between two adjacent floors as shown in Fig. 15.1 (c) and there remains
a space between the two flights in plan. A level landing is provided across the two flights. The
open-well stair is provided when the space width is more than twice the width of steps.
Sometimes, it is not possible to cover complete height between two floors, then, a third flight
having 3 to 6 steps are provided instead of landing as shown in Fig. 15.1 (d) and quarter-
landing is left between two adjacent perpendicular flights.
Sometimes, even instead of quarter landing, the steps are also provided in the space of
quarter landing as shown in Fig. 15.1 (e).
4. Quarter-turn stair. A quarter-turn stair having two adjacent flights mutually
perpendicular to each other (viz., a stair turning through 90°) with a quarter landing as shown
in Fig. 15.1 (f) is adopted.
Sometimes, the steps are also provided as shown in Fig. 15.1 (g) to cover the complete height
between two floors.
In addition to the above types of stairs, the stairs of some geometrical shapes, as described
below are also built.
(a ) G e om etrical sta ir (b ) C ircu la r sta ir
(c) S p ira l stair ge o m e trica l stairs
Fig. 15.2 Geometrical stairs
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1. Geometrical stair. The geometrical stair is similar to the open well stair except that
the steps are also provided in a curved shape instead of landing [as shown in Fig. 15.2 (a)]
between forward and rear flights. The winders (steps in curved portion) are provided to change
the direction. The curved portion of the stair may have any geometrical shape.
2. Circular stair. In a circular stair as shown in Fig. 15.2 (b), all the steps radiate from
a column point (viz., centre of a circle). These steps are of winder type.
3. Spiral stair. A spiral stair as shown in Fig. 15.2 (c) is also seen as circular stair in plan.
In its elevational view, the stair has a spiral shape. All steps also radiate from newel post or
well hole.
15.3 EFFECTIVE SPAN OF STAIRS

The stair slabs may span either in the horizontal direction or in the longitudinal direction. The
effective span for each type is adopted as described below.
1. Stair slab spanning horizontally. When the stair slab spans in the direction of
width of the steps, it is called as stair slab spanning horizontally. The stair slab is supported
either on each side by side walls or by stringer beams or by a beam on one side and a wall on
the other side as shown in Fig. 15.3. The stair slab remains simply supported parallel to the
steps. The distance between centre to centre of supports AB is adopted as the effective span, L.
H ig h er step s
S tep s
M ain reinforcem e nt
D istribu tion
re in fo rce m en t
S p an = L
S ide w a ll / C e ntre to ce ntre o f su pp orts
strin g er b eam S trin ge r b ea m /
sid e w all
Fig. 15.3 Stair slab spanning horizontally
For the purpose of design, each step is taken as equivalent to a rectangular beam of width b
and effective depth equal to D/2 as shown in Fig. 15.4. Figure 15.3 also shows the section at
⎛ w ⋅ L2 ⎞
XX. The maximum bending moment for the slab spanning horizontally shall be ⎜ ⎟ . The
⎝ 8 ⎠
main reinforcement is provided in the direction parallel to the plane of paper sheet) and the
distribution reinforcement is provided parallel to the stringer beam (viz., parallel to the flight).
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Tre ad
D
R ise R m m)
(8 0
=D 1 S trin ge r
s lab b ea m
is t M ain
wa
of re in force m en t
ss
ne
ick
Th D istrib ution
re in force m en t
Fig. 15.4 Stair slab spanning horizontally
From Fig. 15.4, it is seen that

b = (R2 + T2)1/2 ...(15.1)
Depth, D = (D + y) ...(i)
From similar triangles
y AC
=
AB BC
(Since AB = T, AC = R and BC = b)
⎛T ⋅ R ⎞
y = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ b ⎠
⎛T ⋅ R ⎞
D = D1 + ⎜ ⎟ ...(15.2)
⎝ b ⎠
The thickness of waist slab, D1 may be assumed about 50 mm per metre span.
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally. When the stair slab spans in the direction of
going, it is called as stair slab spanning longitudinally. The stair slab is supported at two ends
(viz., at the top and at the bottom of the flight There is a continuous support at each end of the
flight, (i.e., the support is continuous along the width of flight). There is no stringer beam
along the flight (neither at both the ends nor at the middle of the width of stair slab). The stair
slab again remains simply supported at both the ends. The effective span of stair slab is adopted
as following horizontal distance as recommended in IS : 456–1978.
(a) Where a stair slab is supported at the bottom riser and so also at the top riser by beams
spanning parallel with the risers, the effective span of the stair slab shall be the distance
between centre to centre of beams, as shown in Fig. 15.5 (a).
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L an ding be a m
M ain
re in force m e n t
D istribu tion re in force m e n t
ES
L an ding E ffe ctive S pa n
b ea m
(a ) S ta ir slab sup p orte d at bo tto m a nd to p risers
W idth o f
la nd in g = 2 Y
L an ding L an ding
S ta ir slab sup po rte d
o n sid es
W idth o f
la nd in g = 2 X
X X Y Y
ES = ( G + X + Y ) m
E LE VAT IO N
L a ndin g ce ntre lin e
C entre lin e
La nd in g
P LA N
(b ) S ta ir slab sup p orte d on e dg e o f a la nd in g sla b
Fig. 15.5
(b) Where a stair slab is spanning on to the edge of a landing, which spans parallel with the
risers, the effective span, ES of the stair slab is adopted as below : [as shown in Fig. 15.5 (b)]
(i) a distance equal to the going of the stairs, G plus half the width of landing, bL at each
end
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1 1
ES = (G + 2 bL + 2 bL) ...(15.3)
or (ii) a distance equal to the going of the stairs, G plus one metre at each end
ES = (G + 1 m + 1 m) ...(15.4)
The effective span is adopted as determined by Eq. 15.3 or Eq. 15.4, whichever is less IS :
456–1978 recommends a general expression as under:
ES = (G + X + Y) ...(15.5)
The values of X and Y are adopted depending upon whether each one is less than or equal
to or more than 1 m. It is indicated in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Effective span of stair slab
(Spanning in longitudinal direction)
X Y Span in metres
< 1 m < 1 m ES = (G + X + Y)
< 1 m ≥ 1 m ES = (G + X + 1)
≥ 1 m < 1 m ES = (G + X + 1)
≥ 1 m ≤ 1 m ES = (G + 1 + 1)
(c) When the stair slab is spanning longitudinally and the landing slabs in the same
direction as the stair, it is considered that the slabs and landing act together to form a single
slab. The effective span is determined as the distance centre to centre of the supporting beams
or walls as shown in Fig. 15.6. The going is measured horizontally as usually.
L an ding
sla b
L an ding
sla b S tair slab
ES
E ffe ctive S pan
Fig. 15.6 Landing slabs spanning in the same direction as stair slab
15.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS ON STAIRS

The distribution of loads on stairs depends upon types of stair and its construction. The loads
are distributed on stairs as below :
1. Stairs with open wells (spans) partly crossing at right angles. In such types of
stairs, the load on the areas common to any two spans (crossing at right angles) may be taken
1
as in each direction as shown in Fig. 15.7.
2
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L oa d W
p er u n it len gth L oa d 0 .5 W
p er u n it len gth
0 .5 W
L oa d pe r u nit le n gth
O pe n w ell sta ir w ith sp an
W
crossin g a t rig ht an gles
Fig. 15.7 Load on stair with open wells 0.5 W
2. Flights or landings embedded into walls. When the flights of a stair or landings
are embedded into walls for a length of not less than 110 mm as shown in Fig. 15.8 and are
designed to span in the direction of flight (viz., spanning in the longitudinal direction) a 150
mm wide strip adjoining the wall shall not carry load and the effective breadth of the section
shall be increased by 75 mm for the purpose of the design.
11 0 m m
L oa d
1 50 m m
75 m m
E ffe ctive bread th
Fig. 15.8 Load on stairs built in to wall
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15.5 LOADS ON STAIRS

The loads on stair are dead and live load. The loads are determined as under:
1. Dead load. The dead loads are self-weight of the waist slab and the self-weight of the
steps. These self-weights are estimated as follows :
(i) Self-weight of the waist slab. The self-weight of the waist slab is first determined in the
direction perpendicular to the slope for 1 m length along the flight and for 1 m along the width
of steps. Let D1 be the thickness of the waist slab. Then, the self-weight normal to the slab as
shown in Fig. 15.9
wn = (Volume of waist slab) × unit weight
⎛ D ⎞
= ⎜ 1 ×1m×1m⎟ × 24
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 24 D1kN/m2 ...(i)
D1
R ab
A B is t sl
e of wa
C ess
ckn
Thi
θ
Wv
Wv
W v = Ve rtica l loa d pe r squ are m e ter
o f h orizon tal p la n a re a
Fig. 15.9
Let W v be the vertical load acting per square metre of horizontal plan area.
Then
Wv = cos θ = W n ...(ii)
⎛ W ⎞
and Wn = ⎜ n ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ cos θ ⎠
From the triangle ABC,
AB
cos θ =
BC
T
or cos θ = 1
...(iv)
(T 2 + R2 2 )
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Substituting from the expression (iv) the value of cos θ in the expression (iii)
1
Wv = W n .
(T 2 + R2 )2 ...(15.5)
T
or Wv = 24 D1 .
(T 2 + R2 )2 kN/m2 ...(15.6)
T
where D1 is the thickness of waist slab. It is usually kept 80 mm. The self-weight of finishing
and floor attached with the stair is calculated and treated as also acting vertically.
(ii) Self-weight of steps. The step is treated as equivalent rectangular beam of width b and
D
depth as already mentioned in Art. 15.4.
2
From Eq. 15.1, and Fig. 15.4,
1
b = (T 2 + R 2 )2 ...(iv)
From Eq. 15.2 and Fig. 15.4,
⎛ T ⎞
D = D1 + ⎜ ...(v)
⎝ R b ⎟⎠
2. Live load. The live load to be considered on stairs and landings are specified in IS :
875–1964. The live load on stairs, landings and corridors (not liable to overcrowding) is taken
as 3 kN/m2 of horizontal plan area and when these are liable to overcrowding, then, the live
load is adopted as 5 kN/m2.
Above specified live load is subjected to a minimum of 1.30 kN concentrated load at the
unsupported end of each step for stairs construction out of the structurally independent cantilever
steps.
15.6 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF STAIR SLAB

In Art. 15.3, the effective span of a stair slab has been described. The stair slab may span
horizontally or longitudinally. The structural system of these types of stair slabs is as follows :
1. Stair slab spanning horizontally. Structurally, a stair slab spanning horizontally
may be simply supported or cantilevered as below :
(a) Simply supported waist slab. A stair slab spanning horizontally (i.e., in the direction of
steps) may have beam/wall supports at both the ends or a wall at one support and a beam at
the other support. In both these cases, the stair slab acts as simply supported at both the ends.
(b) Cantilever waist slab. A stair slab spanning horizontally (viz., in the direction of steps)
may be built in a wall at one end only acts like a cantilevered slab as showin in Fig. 15.10.
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H ig h er ste ps H ig h er ste ps
S ta ir slab S ta ir slab
B e am B e am
L ow e r ste ps L ow e r ste ps
(a ) S lab sup porte d by w a lls (b ) S lab sup porte d by b ea m s
H ig h er ste ps H ig h er ste ps
S ta ir slab S ta ir slab
B e am
L ow e r ste ps B e am L ow e r ste ps
(c) S lab sup porte d by w a ll an d a be am (d ) S lab sup porte d by a be am a n d w a ll
Fig. 15.10 Simply supported stair (waist) slabs stair slab spanning horizontally
H ig h er ste p s H ig h er ste p s
S tair slab S tair slab
L ow e r ste ps L ow e r ste ps
(a ) (b )
Fig. 15.11 Cantilevered stair (waist) slab stair slab spanning horizontally
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally. The waist slab of a stair slab spanning
longitudinally (viz., parallel to flight) may act simply supported or completely fixed or partially
fixed at the supports as shown in Fig. 15.12, depending upon the fixity from the supports.
Sometimes, instead of a waist slab, only steps are kept cantilevered from a wall edge beam
from one side as shown in Fig. 15.13 (a). Many times, the steps are cantilevered on both sides
from a middle stringer beam as shown in Fig. 15.13 (b). Such systems of stairs are referred as
stair way.
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W a ist slab
(a ) S im ply su pp o rted w ith w a ist sla b
W a ist slab
(b ) S tair w a ist sla b co m plete ly/p artia lly fixed sta ir slab spa nn in g lo ng itu d ina lly
Fig. 15.12
C a ntile ve re d S te ps
W a ll/ed g e b ea m M id dle strin ge r

b ea m
(a ) S tep s ca ntile vere d fro m a (b ) S tep s ca ntile vere d fro m
w all/e dg e be am m idd le string er be am
Fig. 15.13 Stairway cantilevered on one /both sides
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Example 15.1. The steps of a stair of a residential building having rise of 160 mm and
tread of 250 mm are supported at their ends by a wall on one side and a stringer beam on the
other side. The distance between centre to centre of supports is 1.40 m. Design the stair slab.
Provide M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars of grade Fe 415.
Solution
Design : For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars, Fe 415 the design constants are as
under : The stair slab shall be designed as balanced section.
The ratio of limiting values of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
The stair slab spans parallel to the strips, (viz., horizontally). The steps are supported by a
wall on one side and string beam on the other side. The distance between centre to centre of
supports is 1.40 m.
∴ Effective span = 1.40 m.
Step 2. Loads on stairs
The load on stairs shall be dead load and live load as under.
(i) dead load. The steps of the stair may be considered as equivalent rectangles of width b
⎛D⎞
and the depth ⎜ ⎟ as shown in Fig. 15.4. Let the thickness of waist slab D1 be 80 mm. Then,
⎝2⎠
from Fig. 15.4, Eq. 15.1
1
b = (T 2 + R2 )2 ...(i)
The rise of each step R is equal to 160 mm and the tread T is equal to 250 mm. Therefore,
b = (1602 + 2502)1/2 = 296.82 mm
From Eq. 15.2
⎛ T ⋅R⎞
D = ⎜ D1 + ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞
or D = 80 + ⎜ ⎟ = 214.76 mm
⎝ 296.82 ⎠
⎛D⎞ 1 214.76
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = ×D= = 107.38 mm
⎝2⎠ 2 2
Self-weight of the steps per metre (parallel to steps running horizontally)
296.80 × 107.38 × 1
= × 24 = 765 kN/m
1000 × 1000
Self-weight of the waist slab, from Eq. 15.6
1
2 2 2
Wv = 24 × D1 ⎛⎜ T + R ⎞⎟
⎝ T ⎠
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1
80 ⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞ 2
or Wv = 24 × ×⎜ ⎟
100 ⎝ 250 ⎠
80 296.82
or Wv = 24 × × ×1
100 250
= 2.280 kN/m
Let the weight of finishing be 0.075 kN/m. Total dead load
= 3.12 kN/m.
(ii) Live load. The live load on stair for residential building may be adopted as 3 kN/m2
horizontal plan area
= 3 × 0.250 × 1 = 0.750 kN/m
Total dead load plus live load
W = (3.12 + 0.750) = 3.870 kN/m
Factored load
W Fd = 1.5 × 3.870 = 5.805 kN/m
Step 3. Effective depth of section
The stair slab is spanning horizontally and it acts as simply supported beam. The maximum
bending moment
WFd ⋅ L2
M =
8
3.870 × 1.402
= 1.5 × kN-m
8
= 1.5 × 0.948 kN.m = 1.422 kN.m
Effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
1.13796 fckbd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 296.82 × d2 = 1.5 × 0.948 × 106
d = 37.71 mm
⎛D⎞
The available depth ⎜ ⎟ is equal to 107.38 mm.
⎝2⎠
Step 4. Steel reinforcement
The area of steel bars provided as reinforcement in tension
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
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⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 107.48 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 296.82 × 107.48 × 20 ⎠
= 1.5 × 0.948 × 106
3.881 × 104 × Ast – 25.24 Ast2 – 1.422 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 15.37628 × 102 Ast + 5.634 × 104 = 0

Ast = 75.48 mm2
A 10 mm diameter Hysd-steel bar (Aφ = 78.54 mm2) is provided in each step as main
reinforcement. The distribution reinforcement is provided as under
0.12
sd = × 296.82 × 214.76 mm2
1000
= 76.494 mm2
Spacing of the distribution bars of 6 mm
1000×28.27
sd =
76.494
= 369.93 mm
These bars are provided at 350 mm c/c.
Example 15.2. The clear dimensions of a staircase hall is 2.4 mm × 4.750 m. The floor to
floor height is 3.52 m. A two flight stair is to be provided for the two floors. Design the overall
geometry of the stair.
Solution
Design. The clear width of staircase hall is 2.4 m. A dog-legged stair shall be provided. The
clear width of each step
1
= × 2.4 = 1.20 m
2
The rise of each step is kept 150 mm to 160 mm, and the tread of each step is kept 250 mm to
300 mm. Let the rise of each step be 160 mm. Then, number of risers
3.52 × 1000
= = 22
160
The number of risers in each flight
22
= = 11
2
Number of treads = (11– 1) = 10
Let the tread of each step be 250 mm. Going of each flight
= 10 × 250 = 2500 mm.
The loadings are provided on both the sides. The clear width of each loading
⎛ 4.750 × 1000 – 2500 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 1125 mm
⎝ 2
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The overall geometry of two flight stairs is shown in Fig. 15.14.
10
9
8 Ten ste ps in
7 e ach fligh t
6
5
4 1 76 0 m m
3 52 0 m m 3
Tre ad 2
1
= 25 0 m m
= 25 0 m m 10
9
8
R ise 1 76 0 m m
= 1 60 m m
A B C D
4 75 0 m m
(a ) E levatio n
L an ding L an ding
G oing
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 20 0 m m
2 40 0 m m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 20 0 m m
(b ) P lan
Fig. 15.14 Overall dimensions of a dog-legged stair
Example 15.3. The overall dimensions of a dog-legged stair are shown in Fig. 15.14. The
landing slabs span in the same direction as the stair and are supported by the walls at the
ends. Design the stair slab. Provide M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars of grade Fe
415. The stair is used inside a residential building.
Solution
Design :
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars Fe 415, the design constants are as under.
The stair slab shall be designed as a balanced section.
The ratio of limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
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The stair slab spans in the longitudinally direction (viz., parallel to flight). The landing slabs
span in the same direction as the stair and are supported by the walls at the ends. The effective
span, ES shall be the distance centre-to-centre of the supporting walls. Let the thickness or
width of supporting wall be 400 mm. Then, from Fig. 15.14,
ES = ( 12 × 300 + 1125 + 2500 + 1125 + 1
2 ×300) ...(15.3)
ES = 5050 mm = 5.05 m
Step 2. Loads on the stair
The loads on the stair will consist of dead load and live load as below :
(i) Dead load. The step of the stair may be considered as equivalent rectangle of width, b
⎛D⎞
and the depth ⎜ ⎟ . Let the thickness of waist slab, D1 be assumed as 250 mm (viz., @ 50 mm
⎝2⎠
per metre span). From Eq. 15.1
b = (T2 + R2)1/2 ...(i)
The rise of each step R is equal to 160 mm and the tread T is equal to 250 mm. Therefore,
b = (1602 + 2502)1/2 = 296.82 mm ...(ii)
From Eq. 15.2
⎛ T ⋅R⎞
D = ⎜ D1 + ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞
or D = ⎜ 250 + ⎟ = 384.76 mm ...(iii)
⎝ 296.82 ⎠
⎛D⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 × 384.76 = 192.38 mm
⎝2⎠
(A) Dead load on landing. Thickness of landing may be assumed equal to that of waist slab
250 × 1 × 1
= × 24 = 6 kN/m
1000
Weight of finishing (assumed)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Total = 6.60 kN/m2 ...(iv)
For 1.2 m width of step (stair)
= 6.60 × 1.2 = 7.92 kN/m
Factored load,
W Fd = (1.5 × 7.92) = 11.88 kN/m
(B) Dead load of going. The vertical component of this dead load is as under
1
⎛ T 2 + R2 ⎞ 2
Wv = (0.250 × 1 × 1 × 24) × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠
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296.82
= 6× = 7.12 kN/m2
250
Weight of finishing (assumed as above)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Weight of one step. The step may be considered as equivalent rectangle of width, b and
⎛D⎞
depth ⎜ ⎟.
⎝2⎠
⎛ 296.82 192.38 ⎞
Self-weight = ⎜ × × 1 × 24 ⎟ kN/m2 = 1.37 kN/m2
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
Number of steps of tread 250 mm per m
1000
= =4
250
Self-weight of steps
= 1.37 × 4 = 5.48 kN/m2
Total weight = (7.12 + 0.6 + 5.48) = 13.2 kN/m2
Total weight for complete width of the step (stair)
= 13.2 × 1.2 = 15.84 kN/m
Factored load
w Fd = (1.5 × 15.84) = 23.76 kN/m
(ii) Live load. The live load on the stair for the residential building may be adopted as 3 kN/
m2 horizontal plan area. For complete width of the stair, the live load
= 3 × 1.2 = 3.6 kN/m.
Factored live load = 1.5 × 3.6 = 5.40 kN/m
The loads acting on the stair slab shall be as shown in Fig. 15.15.
kN /m 1 5.84 kN /m
3.6 15 .84 kN /m
3 .6 7.92
3 .6 7.92
kN /m
3.6
11 25 m m 2 50 0 m m 11 25 m m
A B C D
Fig. 15.15 Loads on stair slab landings supported on walls

The end reaction at the support,
1
RA = [3.60 × 4.750 + 7.92 × 2 + 15.84 × 2.5] kN
2
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∴ RA = 36.27 kN
The factored (design) bending moment occurs at the centre
⎡ 5.05 ⎛ 1.125 ⎞ 2.5×1.25 ⎤
MFd = 1.5 × ⎢36.27 × –(3.6 +7.92) × 1.125 × ⎜ + 1.25⎟ – (3.6 + 1584) × ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎦
MFd = 1.5 × 37.75 kN-m = 56.625 kN-m
Step 4. Effective depth
The cross-section of the stair slab shall be designed as balanced section. Therefore, the required
effective depth of slab
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 bd2 = 1.5 × 37.715 × 106
d = 143.189 mm
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. The overall depth of the slab shall be 163.189 mm. Let the
overall thickness of the slab be 240 mm. Then, the effective depth of slab will be 220 mm.
Step 5. Reinforcement
Let the cross-sectional area of steel bars be Ast
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 220 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 37.715 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 220 × 20 ⎠
7.943 × 104 Ast – 7.492 Ast2 – 56.625 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.06 Ast × 104 + 7.558 × 106 = Ast = 768.805 mm2
Provide 16 mm φ steel bars
π
Aφ = × 162 = 201.062 mm2
4
Spacing of bars
1000 × 201.062
= = 261.525 mm
768.805
Provide 16 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 200 mm, spacing centre to centre.
The cross-section area of distribution reinforcement Ad for Hysd-steel bars
0.12
Ad = ×d×D
100
0.12
or Ad = × 1000 × 240 = 288 m2
100
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Let the diameter of distribution reinforcement steel bars be

π
Aφd = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 272.71 mm
288
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 250 mm spacing centre to centre. The details of
reinforcement in one flight is shown in Fig. 15.16. The reinforcement is also provided in the
same manner in the other flight.
Tre ad
= 25 0 m m
= 25 0 m m 10
9
8
7
10 m m φ
6 h ysd ba rs
R ise 5 @ 2 50 m m c/c
= 16 0 m m 4
3 W a ll th ickn ess
3 00 m m 2 3 00 m m
1
M ain reinfo rcem e nt
1 6 m m φ hysd b a rs
@ 2 00 m m c/c
A B C D
1 50 m m 1 50 m m
Fig. 15.16 Detail of reinforcement (Stair slab landings supported on) walls
Example 15.4. The overall dimensions of a dog-legged stair are shown in Fig. 15.14. The
landing slabs are supported on the sides. Design the stair slab. Provide M 20 grade of the
concrete and Hysd-steel bars of grade Fe 415. The stair is used inside a residential building.
Solution
Design :
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars, the design constants are as under. The stair
slab shall be designed as a balanced section.
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
The stair slab spans in the longitudinal direction (viz., parallel to the flight). The landing
slabs are supported on the side walls.
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Half the width of landing one side

X = 0.15 × 1125 = 562.5 mm < 1 m
Half the width of landing on other side
Y = 0.5 × 1124 = 562.5 mm < 1 m
Going for the stair slab
G = 2500 mm.
Effective span, ES of the stair slab from IS : 456–1978
ES = G + X + Y = (2500 + 562.5 + 562.5) = 3625 mm
The loads on the stair will consist of dead load and live load as below:
(i) Dead load. The steps of the stair may be considered as equivalent rectangles of width, b
D
and the depth, . Let the thickness of the waist slab, D1 be assumed as 180 mm (viz., @ 50
2
mm per metre run). From Eq. 15.1
b = (R2 + T2)1/2
The rise of each step, R is 160 mm and the tread of each step, T is 250 mm. Therefore,
b = (1602 + 2502)1/2 = 296.82 mm
From Eq. 15.2
⎛ T ⋅R⎞
D = ⎜ D1 + ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞
= ⎜180 + ⎟ = 314.76 mm
⎝ 296.82 ⎠
⎛D⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 × 314.76 = 157.38 mm
⎝2⎠
(A) Dead load on landing. Thickness of landing may be assumed equal to that of waist slab
180
= × 1 × 24 = 4.32 kN/m2
1000
Weight of the finishing (assumed)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Total = 4.92 kN/m2
For 1.2 m width of the step (stair)
= 4.92 × 1.2 = 5.90 kN/m
(B) Dead load on going. The vertical component of this dead load is as under
1
⎛ 1602 + 2502 ⎞ 2
Wv = 4.32 × ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ = 5.13 kN/m2
250
Weight of the finishing (assumed as above)
= 0.60 kN/m2
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Weight of one step

⎛ 296.82 157.38 ⎞
= ⎜ × × 1 × 24 ⎟ kN/m2
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 1.12 kN/m2
1000
= =4
250
Self-weight of the steps
= 1.12 × 4 = 4.48 kN/m2
Total weight
= (5.13 + 0.6 + 4.48)
= 10.21 kN/m2
= 10.21 × 2.2 = 12.52 kN/m
Factored dead load
W Fd = 1.5 × 12.52 = 18.78 kN/m
m2 horizontal plan area. For complete width of the stair, the live load per metre
= 3 × 1.2 = 3.6 kN/m
Factored live load
W Fd = 1.5 × 3.6 = 4.8 kN/m
1 2.52 kN /m
1 2.52 kN /m
5 .90 kN /m
5.90 kN /m
3 .6 3 .6 3 .6 3 .6
11 25 11 25 11 25 11 25
2 50 0 m m
2 2 2 2
2 62 5 m m
Fig. 15.17 Loads on stair slab (Landings supported on) side wall
The loads acting on the stair slab shall be as shown in Fig. 15 17.
The reaction at the end
1
= [5.90 × 0.5625 + 12.25 × 2.5 + 3.6 × 3.625] kN
2
= 25.494 kN
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The factored (design) bending moment occurs at the centre
⎡ 3.625 ⎛ 0.5625 ⎞⎤
⎢25.494 × 2 – (3.6 +5.90) × 0.5625 × ⎜⎝ 2 +1.25 ⎟⎠ ⎥
MFd = 1.5 × ⎢ ⎥ kN-m
⎢ 1.25 ⎥
⎢⎣ – (3.6 + 12.52) × 1.25×
2 ⎥⎦
MFd = 1.5 × 25.43 kN-m = 38.1456 kN-m
The cross-section of the stair slab shall be designed as balanced section. Therefore, the required
effective depth of the slab
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 bd2 = 1.5 × 25.43 × 106
d = 117.578 mm
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. Then, the overall depth of slab shall be 137.578 mm. Let
the overall thickness of the slab be 200 mm. The effective depth of the slab shall be 180 mm.
Let the cross-sectional area of the steel bars be Ast
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 180 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 25.43 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 180 × 20 ⎠
+ Ast2 – 0.8675 × 106 Ast + 5.091575 × 106 = 0

Ast = 698.764 mm2
Provide 16 mm φ steel bars of Hysd-steel
π
Aφ = × 162 = 201.062 mm2
4
1000 × 201.062
s = = 287.733 mm
698.764
Provide 16 mm φ steel bars of Hysd-steel at 240 mm spacing c/c.
Let the cross-sectional area of the distribution reinforcement be Ad
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 200 = 240 mm2
100
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Let 10 mm φ steel bars be provided as distribution reinforcement

π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
The spacing of the distribution reinforcement steel bars
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 327.25 mm
240
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 300 mm spacing centre to centre. The details of the
reinforcement is shown in Fig. 15.18.
L an ding sup po rte d
o n sid e wall
Tre ad
= 25 0 mm
= 25 0 mm
10
9
8
7
6
R ise 5
= 16 0 mm 4 10 m m φ
3 h ysd ba rs
2 3 00 m m c/c
L an ding sup po rte d
o n sid e wall 1
M ain reinfo r
1 6 m m hysd ba rs
2 40 m m c/c
1 0 @ 2 50 m m = 2 50 0 m m
11 25 11 25 11 25 11 25
2 50 0 m m
2 2 2 2
3 62 5 m m
Fig. 15.18 Details of reinforcement (Stair slab landings supported side walls)
Example 15.5 The clear dimensions of a dog-legged stair are shown in Fig. 15.13. The
stair slab is supported by the beams spanning parallel with the risers. These beams are provided
below the top and the bottom risers. Provide M 20 grade of the concrete and Hysd-steel bars of
grade Fe 415. The stair is used in a residential building. Design the stair slab.
Solution
Design : For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars, the design constants are as under.
The stair slab shall be designed as a balanced section.
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
The stair slab is supported by the beams spanning parallel with the risers. These beams are
provided below the top and the bottom risers. The effective span shall be the distance centre to
centre of the beams. Therefore, the effective span, from Fig. 15.14
ES = 2500 – 125 + 125 = 2500 mm
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(i) Dead load. The steps of the stair may be considered as equivalent rectangles of width, b
⎛D⎞
and the depth, ⎜ ⎟ . Let the thickness of the waist slab, D1 be assumed as 125 mm (v/z., @ 50
⎝2⎠
mm per metre run). From Eq. 15.1
b = (R2 + T2)1/2
The rise of each step, R is 160 mm and the tread of each step, T is 250 mm. Therefore,
b = (1602 + 2502)1/2 = 296.82 mm.
From Eq. 15.2
⎛ D +T ⋅ R ⎞
D = ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞
= ⎜125 + ⎟ = 259.76 mm
⎝ 296.82 ⎠
⎛D⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 × 259.76 = 129.88 mm
⎝2⎠
Dead load on going. The vertical component of this dead load is as under :
⎡ 1⎤
⎛ 2 2 ⎞2
⎢⎛ 12 ⎞ 160 + 250 ⎥
Wv = ⎢⎜ × 1 × 1 × 24 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN/m2
⎣⎝ 1000 ⎠⎝ 250 ⎠ ⎦
∴ Wv = 3.12 kN/m2
Weight of the finishing (assumed as below)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Weight of one step
⎛ 259.76 129.88 ⎞
= ⎜ × × 1 × 24 ⎟ = 0.81 kN/m2
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
1000
= =4
250
Self-weight of the steps
= 0.81 × 4 = 3.24 kN/m2
= (3.24 + 0.60 + 3.12) × 1.2 = 8.352 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 × 8.352 = 12.528 kN/m2
m2 horizontal plan area. For complete width of the stair, the live load per metre
= 3 × 1.2 = 3.6 kN/m
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Factored live load = 1.5 × 3.6 = 48 kN/m

The loads acting on the stair slab is shown in Fig. 15.19.
8 .35 2 kN/m
3 .6 kN /m
2 .5 m
Fig. 15.19 Loads on stair slab
Beams spanning parallel to the risers are provided under top and bottom risers.
Total uniformly distributed factored (design) load (dead load plus live load) per metre
W Fd = 1.5 × (8.352 + 3.6)
= 1.5 × 11.952 kN/m = 17.928 kN/m
Factored (design) bending moment occurs at the centre
w ⋅ l2
MFd = 1.5 ×
8
1.952 × 2.5 × 2.5

MFd = 1.5 × = 1.5 × 9.3375
8
= 14.01 kN-m
The cross-section of the stair slab shall be designed as the balanced section. Therefore, the
required effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
036fck × 0. 48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = 1.5 × 9.3375 × 106
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 d2 = 14.01 × 106
d = 71.257 mm
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. Then, the overall depth of slab shall be 91.257 mm. Let the
overall thickness of the stair slab be 125 mm. The effective depth of the slab shall be 105 mm.
Let the cross-sectional area of the steel bars be Ast
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠ = MFd
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 105 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 9.3375 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 105 × 20 ⎠
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3.791 × 104 Ast – 7.492 Ast2 – 14.01 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 0.506 × 104 Ast + 1.87 × 106 = 0

Ast = 401.42 mm2
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
1000 × 78.54
s = = 195.655 mm
40.142
Provide 10 mm φ steel bars of Hysd-steel bars at 150 mm spacing centre to centre.
Let the cross-sectional area of the distribution reinforcement be Ad
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 125 = 150 mm2
1000
Aφ = 78.54 mm2
Spacing of the distribution steel bars
1000 × 78.54
sd = = 523.6 mm.
150
Tre ad
= 25 0 m m
= 25 0 m m
B e am
1 0 m m φ hysd
R ise b ars
= 16 0 m m @ 4 50 m m c/c
W a ll th ickne ss
3 00 m m
3 00 m m
1 0 m m φ hysd ba rs
@ 3 00 m m c/c
B e am
1 25 0 m m 2 50 0 m m 1 25 0 m m
Fig. 15.20 Details of reinforcement (Stair slab supported by beams) below top and bottom risers
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 450 mm spacing centre to centre. The details of the
reinforcement is shown in Fig. 15.20.
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Example 15.6. A stair with an open well consists of two flight and a span partly crossing at
right angles. There are ten steps of rise 160 mm and tread 250 mm in each flight and six such
steps in the cross span. The width of landings and stair is 120 m. The landings are supported
on the walls at the ends. Design the stair slab. Provide M 20 grade of the concrete and Hysd-
steel bars of grade Fe 415.
Solution
Design :
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars, the design constants are as under. The stair
slab shall be designed as a balanced section
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Step 1. Overall dimensions
The overall dimensions of the stair are shown in Fig. 15.21.
The stair slab span in the longitudinal direction (viz., parallel to the flight). The landing
slabs span in the same direction as the stair and are supported by the walls at the ends. The
effective span, ES shall be the distance centre to centre of the supporting walls. Let the thickness
or width of supporting wall be 300 mm. Then from Fig. 15.21
ES = ( 12 × 300 + 1200 + 2500 + 1200 + 1
2 × 300) mm
ES = 5200 mm
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
6
O pe n w ell stair w ith
15 00 m m
15 00 m m
5
cross-sp a n 4
rise o f ste p = 1 60 m m 3
tre ad o f ste p - 2 50 m m 2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 15.21 Dimensions of an open-well stair with cross-span

(i) Dead load. The steps of the stair may be considered as equivalent rectangle of the width,
⎛D⎞
b and the depth ⎜ ⎟ . Let the thickness of waist slab D1 be assumed as 250 mm (viz., @ 50 mm
⎝2⎠
per metre span). From Eq. 15.1.
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b = (R2 + T2)1/2
The rise and tread are 160 mm and 250 mm respectively. Therefore,
b = (1602 + 2502)1/2 = 296.82 mm
From Eq. 15.2,
⎛ T ⋅R⎞
D = ⎜ D1 + ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ 250 × 160 ⎞
D = ⎜ 250 + ⎟ = 384.76 mm
⎝ 296.82 ⎠
⎛D⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 × 384.76 = 192.38 mm
⎝2⎠
(A) Dead load on landing. Thickness of landing may be assumed equal to that of the waist
slab
250 × 1 × 1
= × 24 = 6 kN/m2
1000
Weight of the finishing (assumed)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Total = 6.60 kN/m2
For 1.2 m width of step (stair)
= 6.60 × 1.2 = 7.92 kN/m
(B) Dead load of going. The vertical component of this dead load is as under
⎡ 1⎤
⎢( ⎛ 1602 + 2502 ⎞ 2 ⎥
Wv = ⎢ 0.250 × 1 × 1 × 24 ) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ ⎝ 250 ⎠ ⎦
⎛ 6 × 296.82 ⎞ 2
or Wv = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.12 kN/m
⎝ 520 ⎠
Weight of finishing (assumed as above)
= 0.60 kN/m2
Weight of one step. The step may be considered as equivalent rectangle of width, b and
⎛D⎞
depth ⎜ ⎟.
⎝2⎠
⎛ 296.82 192.38 ⎞
= ⎜ × × 1 × 24 ⎟ kN/m2
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 1.37 kN/m2
1000
= =4
250
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Self-weight of the steps = 1.37 × 4 = 5.48 kN/m2

Total weight
= (7.12 + 0.6 + 5.48) = 13.2 kN/m2
Total weight for complete width of the steel (stair)
= 13.2 × 1.2 = 15.84 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5 × 15.84 = 23.76 kN/m
m2 horizontal plan area. For complete width of the stair live load
= 3 × 1.2 = 3.6 kN/m.
Factored live load = (1.5 × 3.6) = 4.8 kN/m
Step 4. Distribution of loads on the stair
In case of stair with open-well where a span partly cross at right angles occurs, the load on
areas common to any two such spans may be taken as one-half in each direction as shown in
Fig. 15.22.
(D e ad L oa d + L ive Lo ad )
11.52 kN /m
19.4 4 kN /m
19.4 4 kN /m
9.72 kN /m
2 50 0 m m
1 50 m m 1 50 m m
5 20 0 m m
Fig. 15.22 Details of loads

The end reaction at left support, Fig. 15.22
⎡ 4.450 19.44×2.500 0.750 ⎤
RA = ⎢(9.72 ×1200 ) × + + (9.72 ×1.200 ) × ⎥ kN
⎣ 5.200 2 5.200 ⎦
∴ RA = (1.830 + 24.3 + 1.666) = 37.80 km
Factored (design) bending moment occurs approximately near the centre
⎡ 1.250 ⎤
MFd= 1.5 × ⎢(37.80 × 2.6) – (11.52 × 12.00) (0.6 + 1.25) – (19.44 × 1.250) × kN
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
MFd = 1.5 × (98.28 – 25.57 – 15.19) = 1.5 × 57.52 kN-m = 86.28 kN-m
The cross-section of the stair slab shall be designed as the balanced section. Therefore, the
required effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck.bd2 = MFd
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0.13796 × 20 × 1000 d2 = 1.5 × 57.52 × 106

d = 176.833 mm
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. Then, the over-all depth of slab shall be 196.833 mm. Let
the overall thickness of the stair slab be 280 mm. The effective depth of the slab shall be 260
mm.
Tre ad
= 25 0 m m
= 25 0 m m
10
9
8
7
6 1 0 m m φ hysd
R ise 5 ba rs
= 16 0 m m 4 @ 2 20 m m c/c
3 W a ll th ickne ss
3 00 m m
2 3 00 m m
1
1 6 m m φ h ysd ba rs @ 1 80 m m c/c
1 20 0 m m 1 20 0 m m
4 90 0 m m
1 50 m m 1 50 m m
5 20 0 m m
Fig. 15.23 Details of reinforcement (Stair slab landings supported on) walls
Let the cross-sectional area of the steel bars be Ast.
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 260 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 57.52 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 160 × 20 ⎠
Ast2 – 1.253 × 104 Ast + 11.517 × 106 = 0
Ast = 998.729 mm2
π
Aφ = × 162 = 201.062 mm2
4
1000 × 201.62
s = = 201.877 mm
998.729
Provide 16 mm φ steel bars of Hysd at 180 mm spacing c/c.
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Let the cross-sectional area of the, distribution reinforcement be Ad
0.12
Ad = × 100 × 280 = 336 mm2
100
Let 10 mm φ steel bar be provided as distribution reinforcement
π
Aφ = × 102 = 78.54 mm2
4
The spacing of the distribution reinforcement steel bars
100 × 78.54
sd = = 233.75 mm.
336
Provide 10 φ Hysd-steel bars at 220 spacing centre to centre. The reinforcement in the cross-
span required shall be less. However, same reinforcement provided in the main flight (stair
slab) may be provided in the cross-span slab.
The details of the reinforcement is shown in Fig. 15.23.
PROBLEMS
15.1. The steps of a stair of a residential building having rise of 150 mm and tread of 300 mm are
supported at one end by a wall on one side and a stringer beam on the other side. The distance
between centre to centre of supports is 1.30 m. Design the stair slab. Provide M 20 grade of
concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415.
15.2. The clear dimensions of a staircase hall is 3 m × 6 m. The floor to floor height is 3.60 m. A two
flight stair is to be provided for the two floors. Design the overall geometry of the stair.
15.3. The overall dimensions of a dog-legged stair may be adopted as in Problem 15.2. Provide M 20
grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415. The stair is used inside a residential
building. Design the stair slab. The landing slabs span in the same direction as the stair and
are supported by the walls at the ends.
15.4. Design the stair-slab in Problem 15.3, in case the landing slabs are to be supported on the
sides.
15.5. Design the stair slab in Problem 15.3, in case the stair slab is supported by the beams
spanning parallel with the risers. These beams are provided below the top and the bottom
risers.
15.6. A stair with an open well consists of two flights and a span partly crossing at right angles.
These are twelve steps of rise 150 mm and tread 300 mm in each flight and six steps in the
cross-span. The width of landings and stair is 1.150 m. The landings are to be supported on
the walls at the ends. Design the stair slab, provide M 20 grade of the concrete and Hysd steel
bars of grade Fe 415.
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Design of Retaining Walls
16
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Retaining walls are the structures used to retain the earth on either side of it at two different
levels. The retaining walls hold back the masses of earth and loose material. The retaining wall
prevent a bank from slipping down. The retaining walls provide soil stability at a vertical
change in ground elevation. The retaining walls also prevent the soil to assume the natural
angle of repose at locations where an abrupt change in ground elevation occur. In the railway
and highway construction, the width of the right of way is fixed, and the cut or embankment
is to be contained within that width. The basement walls of buildings are to be kept within the
property. The soil surrounding the basement is to be retained. The wing walls and the abutments
in the bridges also retain the earth. The loose material (viz., earth, soil, etc.,) retained is called
as back fill. The retained material exerts a push on the structure and tends to overturn and or
slide it. In order to achieve and maintain the stability, the weight of the retaining wall structures
is of considerable importance. The retaining walls are the free-standing structures and do not
form the part of the other structures.
16.2 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

The various type of retaining walls are shown in Fig. 16.1. The type of a retaining wall depends
on the mode of resisting the earth pressure and their shape. The most common types of the
retaining wall are as follow.
16.2.1 Gravity Wall

The gravity retaining walls as shown in Fig. 16.1 (a) retain the earth entirely by its own
weight to provide the necessary stability. Plain concrete and stone masonry gravity walls are
most commonly used for walls up to about 3 m height. It is designed chiefly with keeping the
thrust line within the middle third of the cross-section, and the tension does not develop anywhere
in the cross-section.
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Design of Retaining Walls 919
16.2.2 Cantilever Retaining Walls

The reinforced concrete cantilever retaining walls are most commonly used for walls of height
ranging from 3 to 8 m. It consists of the vertical arm which retains the earth and is held in
position by the footing or base slab. In addition to the self-weight, the weight of backfill on the
top of heel is utilized to obtain the stability of the structure. The stem, heel and toe of such a
wall each acts as a cantilever slab, as shown in Fig. 16.1 (b). L-shaped and the reversed L-
shaped as shown in Fig. 16.1 (c) and (d) are also cantilever retaining walls. The bending
moment and therefore, the wall thickness of stem (viz., arm which represents the vertical
cantilever) increase rapidly with the increasing height.
δ
A n gle of
surch arg e
re taine d S te m (a rm )
m aterial re taine d
crush ed m aterial
ston e (T-sh ap e d)
w a ll Tile dra in
Tiled ra in C ru sh ed sto ne
Toe H e el
Top sla b H e el slab
(a ) G ra vity w all (b ) C a ntile ve r w a ll
R e taine d R e taine d
m aterial m aterial
(L -sh ap e d) re ve rsed
w a ll (L -sh ap e d)
w a ll
(c) C a ntile ver w all (d ) C a ntile ve r w a ll
C o un terforts
S te m B u ttre sse s
w e ep S te m
h ole s R e taine d re taine d
1 00 m m pipe m aterial m aterial
S lab S lab
(E levatio n) (E levatio n)
(P lan ) (P lan )
(e ) C o un te rfort w a ll (f) B u ttre ss w a ll
Fig. 16.1 Types of retaining wall
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16.2.3 Counterfort Retaining Walls

In order to reduce the bending moments and wall thickness, the triangular walls are attached
with the vertical wall and the base slab both at horizontal spacing equal to or slightly more
than one-half of the height as shown in Fig. 16.1 (e), towards the backfill side. The counterforts
act as tension ties and provide horizontal force opposite to that due to earth pressure. The
counterforts change the support conditions of the stem and heel slab. The stem becomes a slab
spanning horizontally between the counterforts. The heel slab gets support from three sides.
This type of retaining walls are more economical than the cantilever retaining walls. These are
often economical for height over about 8 m.
16.2.4 Buttress Retaining Walls

The buttress retaining walls are similar to counterfort walls. The buttresses are also triangular
walls (attached with the stem and the slab) placed on the side of stem opposite to the retained
material as shown in Fig. 16.1 (f). The buttresses act as compression struts. The buttresses are
more efficient being compression elements than the tension ties (counterforts) and are economical
in the same height range.
A counterfort retaining wall is more widely used than a buttress wall. The counterforts
remain hidden beneath the retained material. The buttresses remain exposed and deemed
unsightly. The buttresses occupy usable space in front of the wall.
16.3 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Soils and other granular masses occupy a position intermediate between liquids and solids as
regards their physical behaviour. In case, sand is poured from a dump truck, it flows, but it will
not assume a horizontal surface like frictionless liquid. The soil maintains in a stable heap. The
sides of heap subtends an angle φ with horizontal. This angle is called as angle of repose. The
tangent of angle of repose is roughly equal to the coefficient of intergranular friction (viz., tan
φ Ω pf).
In case of clay soils, if a pit is dug, the sides may be kept vertical over a considerable depth
without support. The behaviour of clay is like a solid. It retains its given shape. However,
when it is flooded, the sides will give way. The saturated clay becomes nearby a true liquid.
Under ordinary moist conditions, the clay soil exerts less pressure against a wall. But under
the saturated conditions, the clay becomes soft and behaves much as a liquid. Some clays are
also expansive type which exerts greater pressure than the cohesionless material. The expansive
type of soil, such as plastic clay, it totally unsuited for a backfill behind a retaining wall. The
expansive type of soils introduces problems beyond economic solution.
Cohesionless soils have granular material. The well drained cohesionless material (sand and
gravel) is considered as best material to be used as backfill.
Professor W.J.M. Rankine presented a theory of earth pressure (in his paper titled as ‘On
the Stability of Loose Earth’. Phil. Trans. Royal Society, Vol. 147 (London) in (1857) for
homogeneous in compressible cohensionless soil. Professor Rankine analyzed active soil
pressure on a smooth wall as a problem of plastic equilibrium in the soil. A wall tilting slightly
outward and retaining cohensionless materials (sand and gravel) is shown in Fig. 16.2. The
surface of wall is smooth (viz., frictionless).The sliding occurs on two sets of planes in a wedge
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⎛ φ ⎞°
behind the wall. These planes make an angle of ⎜ 45 + ⎟ with the horizontal, where φ is the angle
⎝ 2⎠
of friction for soil on soil. These planes produce the maximum pressure that can follow through
against a wall. (In case, there would not have any tilting at all, the larger pressures may exist).
Tilting of w a ll
a t le a st = (0.0 0 1 x h eigh t)
(4 5 + φ/2)°
(4 5 + φ/2)°
Fig. 16.2 Rankine’s plastic equilibrium for active soil pressure
Consider a wall AB as shown in Fig. 16.3 (a). The wall AB retains sand behind it. The sand
tends to slide on some plane BC1. A free-body of wedge of sand ABC, is in equilibrium under
three forces, namely, the weight of the soil, W 1, the reaction from the soil below BC1, R, and the
holding force from the wall PH1. The reaction from the soil R1 may be considered as a normal
component RN1 normal to BC1 and a frictional force RF1 resisting sliding along BC1. For any
given angle of slope, θ the force PH1 (and R1 if desired) is obtained from the triangle of forces,
Fig. 16.3 (b). Similarly, the triangle of forces for other potential sliding planes BC2 and BC3
leading to other holding forces PH2 and PH3 and so on, may be drawn. The maximum possible
value of PH shall be obtained by number of such trials. A plot of ordinate PH1 over C1, PH1 over
C2, and so on with curve drawn through the points so located. The sliding plane for the maximum
value of PH is located, say BC as shown in Fig. 16.3 (c).
A similar analysis of the soil above point D (a point between A and B, Fig. 16.3 (a) gives a
critical sliding plane through D, parallel to BC. The holding force PHy for the depth AD is
proportional to the weight of sand in the wedge ADE. It means, PHy is proportional to square of
y and the unit weight of soil, γ.
∴ PHy ∝ γ . y2 ...(i)
1
or = K A ⋅ γ ⋅ y3 ...(16.1)
2
⎛K ⎞
where ⎜ A ⎟ is the constant of proportionality. The coefficient K A is called as the coefficient of
⎝ 2 ⎠
active earth pressure. It depends on the angle of sliding friction. It varies from 0.27 to 0.34.
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The total pressure PH increasing with the square of the depth corresponds to a unit pressure,
py which increases directly with the depth as shown in Fig. 16.3 (d).
PH3
P H1 PH2 PH3 P H2
A C1 C2 C C3 PH1
W1
W1
P H1
A cting o n RN1
soil m a ss θ1 W2
φ = A n g le
RF1 o f friction
W3
B
(a ) W a ll (b ) Tria ng le of fo rces
A E C
P Hy p γ = K A γ. y
PH =
K A . γ. H 2
p = K .γ. H
(c) W a ll (d ) P re ssu re distrib ution d ia gra m
Fig. 16.3 Maximum active earth pressure
py = K A . γ . y ...(16.2)
The active soil pressures are called as active because these pressures continue to act on the
retaining wall after it tilts or slides. The tilt of wall is however necessary, it may be 0.001 times
its height.
In case, the soil surface subtends an angle 8 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 16.1 (a),
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then according to Rankine theory of earth pressure, the coefficient for active earth pressure is
given by
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ cos δ – (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
KA = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ cos δ ...(16.3)
⎢ cos δ + (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Usually, the soil surface remains horizontal, that is δ is equal to zero, then coefficient for
active earth pressure for horizontal soil surface
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞
KA.H = ⎜ ⎟ ...(16.4)
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠
16.4 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

In case of active earth pressure, the wall moves or tilts in the forward direction (viz., away from
the soil). In case, the wall is pushed against the backfill, a sliding plane is so formed that the
wedge of earth mass is moved upward by the wall along the plane. The sliding plane becomes
⎛ φ ⎞°
much flatter. As per Rankine’s theory, the angle with the horizontal becomes ⎜ 45 – ⎟ and a
⎝ 2⎠
large weight of soild is involved. In this case, the wall friction is more important. The true
failure surface becomes curved instead of surface. The pressure which this large wedge of soil
mass exerts against the wall is known as passive earth pressure. The passive earth pressure
(viz., passive resistance) is several times as large as the active earth pressure. The coefficient
passive earth pressure is given by
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ cos δ – (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
KP = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ cos δ ...(16.5)
⎢ cos δ + (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
when δ = 0, the earth surface is horizontal, then
⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
KPH = ⎜ ⎟ ...(16.6)
⎝ 1 – sin φ ⎠
16.5 EFFECT OF SURCHARGE ON EARTH PRESSURE

Usually, the surface of backfill behind the retaining wall remains horizontal. Sometimes, this
surface of backfill may slope upward (i.e., forming the angle of surcharge φ +ve) or downward
(i.e., the angle surcharge φ –ve) from the top of retaining wall. Sometimes, the horizontal
surface of backfill may carry uniformly distributed additional load e.g., goods in a storage yard
or traffic in road). In latter two cases, their effect is to increase the horizontal pressure. The
additional load on the surface of ground over a possible sliding plane is called as surcharge.
The effect of surcharged is considered by taking an additional height of soil having an
equivalent weight. Such a surcharge adds a uniform pressure to the triangular soil pressure.
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For the uniformly distributed load on the horizontal surface of backfill as shown in Fig. 16.4,
the increase in pressure caused by uniform surcharge, s is calculated by converting its load
into an equivalent, imaginary height of earth, h´ above the top of the wall.
s
h = ...(16.7)
γ
where γ = unit weight of the soil. Its effect is as if the height of backfill upto horizontal
surface is replaced by (H + h´),
where p HS = K AH . (γ h´) . H ...(16.8)
A load just to the right of C, Fig. 16.3 (c) may influence the sliding on a slightly flatter plane
and may make the plane critical.
A surcharge far to the right of C, Fig. 16.3(c) does not influence the sliding plane BC or the
pressure, PH. h ' = s/y
E q uiva le nt
S u rcha rge = s
h eig h t o f e arth
B a ckfill D u e to
surch arg e
PHS
PH
W a ll
D u e to
L evel
(a ) (b )
S u rcha rge
4 0° to 45 °
h2
PHS
B a ckfill w a ll
h 2 /2
(c) (d )
Fig. 16.4 Effect of surcharge on earth pressure
It is commonly assumed that a surcharge does not influence the pressure above the point
where a line sloping downward form the load interests the wall as shown in Fig. 16.4 (c). In the
past, a slope of 40° to 45° was used. Although, now, the better methods in soil mechanics are
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available that recognize the extent of surcharge. The actual pressure does not charge as abruptly
as shown Fig. 16.4 (d), but this assumption is within the reason and indicates a greatly reduced
overturning effect compared to Fig. 16.4 (b).
16.6 EARTH PRESSURES FOR COMMON CONDITION OF BACKFILL

The active earth pressures for the following conditions of backfill may be calculated as follow.
as per Rankine’s theory of earth pressure.
16.6.1 Dry Backfill

The retaining walls may retain dry backfill. The backfill may have levelled (viz., horizontal)
surface or sloping surface.
16.6.1.1 Levelled Surface

The retaining walls retaining dry backfill having a levelled surface [as shown in Fig. 16.5 (a)]
with the top of the retaining wall. The distribution of earth pressure is triangular. The horizontal
⎛H ⎞
pressure, pH acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ form the base. The active earth pressure per unit length
⎝3⎠
pH = area of pressure distribution diagram, which one is a
triangle.
The active earth pressure at the base of triangle
pH = K AH . γ . H ...(i)
1 1
pH = base × height = k .γ.H ×H
2 2 AH
1
pH = K . γ . H2 ...(ii)
2 H
where γ is the unit weight of backfill and H is the height of retaining wall. The coefficient of
active earth pressure is given by
⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
KAH = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 1 – sin φ ⎠
16.6.1.2 Sloping Surface

In case the surface of the backfill is sloping up by an angle δ, [as shown in Fig. 16.5 (a)] with
the horizontal, the distribution of active earth pressure still remains triangular. The earth
pressure at the base of triangle.
pH = K A . γ . H ...(i)
The earth pressure acts in the direction parallel to the sloping surface. It acts at a height
⎛H ⎞
⎜ ⎟ form the base. It is calculated as the area of pressure distribution diagram, which one is
⎝3⎠
a triangle. Therefore,
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1
p = base × height
2
1
p = K .γ.H.H
2 A
1
or p = K . γ . H2 ...(ii)
2 A
The coefficient of active earth pressure is determined as under.
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ cos δ – (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
KA = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ cos δ ...(iii)
⎢ cos δ + (cos2 δ – cos2 φ) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where φ is the angle of repose for the soil.
S lop in g
surface
8
B a ck fill
d ry
H H PH
PH
( H /3 )
( p A B = p H = K AH . γ.H ) B
( p A B = p H = K AH . γ.H ) A
A B
(a ) L evelle d su rfa ce (b ) S lop in g su rfa ce
Fig. 16.5 Dry backfill
16.6.2 Submerged Backfill

The backfill material retained by the retaining material may be completely submerged or
partially submerged.
16.6.2.1 Completely Submerged Backfill

When the backfill material is completely submerged, the water table is at the level of top of the
retaining wall. The submerged backfill becomes saturated. The lateral pressure consists of that
due to submerged weight of soil and weight of water. Therefore, the lateral pressure at the
base of triangle as shown in Fig. 16.6 (a) is given by
pH = (KAH . γ . H + w . H) ...(i)
where γ´ is the unit weight of submerged soil and w is the unit weight of water. The lateral
force acts horizontally. It is given by
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1
pH = base × height
2
or pH = (KAH . γ . H + w . H) . H ...(ii)
⎛H ⎞
It acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ from the base. In case, the water is on both the sides of retaining
⎝3⎠
wall, then,
pH = K AH . γ´ . H ...(iii)
W a te r
ta ble
W a ll ( K A ' γ´ H ) (w . H ) ( K A ' γ´ H + w.H )
(a ) C o m p le te ly sub m erg ed b ack-fill
H1
B
A
H2
W a ll
p A B = k A.γ . H 1 ( k A . γ. H 2 ) ( k 'A . γ'. H 2 ) ( w H 2 ) ( K A ' γ. H 1 + k A . γ. H 2 + w H 2 )
(b ) P a rtially sub m erg ed b ackfill
Fig. 16.6
16.6.2.2 Partly Submerged Backfill

In case the water table remains below the top of retaining wall, then the soil remains partly
submerged and partly dry. The earth pressure at the base consists of three components as
under, as shown in Fig. 16.6 (b).
pH = (KAff · γ · H1 + K AH· γ· H2 + w· b2)
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16.6.3 Levelled Backfill Carrying Uniformly Distributed Surcharge

In case, the dry backfill levelled with the top of the retaining wall carries uniformly distributed
surcharge s per unit length, then, the surcharged is replaced by an imaginary equivalent soil
of equal weight and height h´. The soil pressure at the base of the retaining wall consists of two
components as shown in Fig. 16.7,
pH = (KA . γ. H + KA . γ . h´) ...(i)
The horizontal pressure may be determined as below
pH = ( 12 KAH . γ . H2 + K AH. γ. h´ . H) ...(ii)
The lines of action of both the components are shown in Fig. 16.7.
or pH = ( 12 KAH . γ . H (H + 2h)
S u rcha rge = s E q uiva le n t

h'
h eigh t o f e arth
PHS
PH
A B C
p H = p A C = p AB + p B C = 1 K A . γ . H + K A . γ. h ´
2
Fig. 16 7 Horizontal surface carrying surcharge
16.7 FORCES ACTING ON RETAINING WALL

The various forces acting on the retaining wall are the vertical loads and lateral forces.
The vertical loads are the gravity loads. The self-weight of the stem W 1, the self weight of the
base, W 2 and the weight of the earth W 3 over the heel. The resultant of all the gravity loads, W
is found. The weight of the retaining wall is of considerable importance in achieving and
maintaining the stability, (i.e., to resist overturning from the lateral earth pressure and to
resist horizontal sliding from the same forces. The weight of the soil (viz., backfill) on the top of
the heel, in addition to the weight of the retaining wall, contributes to the stability.
The backfill retained by the retaining wall causes lateral forces. The surcharge on the surface
of back causes additional lateral forces. The lateral forces are also called as active earth pressures,
which have been described in Art. 16.3. The effect of surcharge on earth pressure has been
described in Art. 16.3.
In addition to the active earth pressure, sometimes, the passive earth pressure described in
Art 16.4, may act on the retaining wall. The passive earth pressure is again the lateral force
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and acts in the opposite direction to that of the active earth pressure. The passive earth pressure
increases the stability of the retaining wall.
It is to note that the water must be prevented from accumulating in the backfill material.
The retaining walls are rarely designed for or assumed to retain saturated material. Therefore,
proper drainage must be provided.
16.8 STRENGTH OF RETAINING WALL

The individual component parts of the retaining wall are made strong enough to resist the
various forces acting on these components. The necessary dimensions, thickness and
reinforcement are determined to resist the moments and the shears. This procedure is similar
to that for the design of other types of reinforced concrete structures. The reinforced concrete
structures are designed for the strength requirement as per code of practice IS : 456–1978.
In case, e.g., the vertical cantilever wall is not strong enough to resist the acting forces, the
vertical wall may crack by active earth pressure acting on it.
In addition to the strength requirement, it is essential to examine the stability of the retaining
wall described in Art. 16.9.
16.9 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALL

The stability of retaining wall under the action of earth forces is assured even prior to determining
the necessary dimensions, thickness and reinforcement for the moments and shears. While
A B
(B a ck-fill) (S u rcha rge
re taine d if an y)
m aterial
W3
H
X3
W1
X1 ΣW
R H /2
H /3
2
W2
E F D C
Toe G H J H e el
X e PHS
b b
6 6
( b /2) ( b /2) PHS = k .A. γ H 1
PHS
q1 < P e rm issible
q2 soil
q1
p ressure
D istrib ution o f b ea ring pre ssu re D istrib ution o f e arth p re ssu re
Fig. 16.8 Stability of cantilever retaining wall (over turning)
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checking the stability of retaining wall, the retaining wall is checked for overturning, sliding
and subsidence.
A cantilever retaining wall is shown in Fig. 16.8 (a). Let W 1 be the weight of vertical wall of
the retaining wall (viz., stem), W 2 be the weight of base slab and W 3 be the weight of earth
acting over the heel slab. These weights W 1, W2 and W 3 acting at the different locations are
also shown in Fig. 16.8 (a). Let the x 1, x 2 and x 3 be the respective distances of the lines of action
of the vertical loads W 1, W2 and W 3, respectively, measured horizontally from the toe of the
retaining wall. Let W be the resultant vertical load acting downward.
The lateral force PH due to active earth pressure acts horizontally (in case, the backfill material
retained by the retain wall is having levelled horizontal surface passing through the top). It
⎛H ⎞
acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ from the base, where H is the total height of retaining wall as shown in
⎝3⎠
Fig. 16.8. The distribution of active earth pressure is shown in Fig. 16.8 (b).
The retaining wall is checked for the following effects as following.
16.9.1 Overturning
The lateral force, PH due to earth pressure tends to overturn the retaining wall about the toe of
the retaining wall. The overturning moment.
H
Mo = PH · ...(i)
3
1 H
or Mo = K AH ⋅ γ ⋅ H 2 ⋅ ...(ii)
2 3
K AH ⋅ γ ⋅ H 2 ⋅ H 3
or Mo = ...(16.9)
6
The various weights W 1,W2 and W 3 tend to restore the position of the retaining wall. These
weights resist the overturning. The weight of earth above toe and passive earth pressure (if
any) are neglected. The restoring moment about the toe of retaining wall
MR = (w1 . x 1 + w2 . x 2 + w3 . x 3) ...(16.10)
It is to note that the live load is also not taken while calculating the restoring moment. The live
load is not transferred to the heel slab because of arching effect of soil. Factor of safety against
overturning may be calculated by dividing the restoring moment MR by the overturning moment
moment, Mo. Therefore,
Moment resisting the overturning
F.S (O.T) =
Moment causing the overturning
MR
F.S (O.T) = ...(16.11)
M0
IS : 456–1978 recommends that the stability of a structure as a whole against overturning
shall be ensured so that the restoring maximum overturning moment MR shall be not less than
the sum of 1.2 times the maximum overturning moment due to the characteristic dead load,
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MC.DL and 1.4 times the maximum overturning moment due to the characteristic imposed
loads, MC.DL that is,
MR <| (1.2 MC.DL + MC.DL) ...(16.12)
In cases, where the dead load provides the restoring moment, only 0.9 times the characteristic
dead load shall be considered. The restoring moment due to imposed loads shall be ignored.
MR = 0.9.(w1 . x 1 + w2 . x 2 + w1 . x 3) ...(16.13)
The characteristic dead load and the characteristic imposed (viz., live load) act as surcharge.
⎛D⎞
The effect of surcharge is to cause lateral force PHS, which acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ form the base.
⎝2⎠
The overturning moments due to characteristic dead load
H H
MC.DL = PHS1 . and MC.DL = PHS1 .
2 2
where, PH1 is the effect of surcharge due to characteristic dead load and PHS2 is the effect of
surcharge due to characteristic imposed load.
16.9.2 Sliding
In addition to the overturning effect of lateral force PH due to active earth pressure, PH also
tends to slide or push the retaining wall. It is resisted by the frictional force, FR, as shown in
Fig. 16.9
FR = µF. 0.9 W ...(i)
FR = µF . 0.9 (W 1 + W2 + W3)
+ lateral force due to passive earth pressure, if any
...(ii)
The force resisting the sliding is called as the frictional force. The frictional force acts between
the surface of concrete slab and the soil, µF is the coefficient of friction between concrete and
the soil in contact.
ΣW ΣW
PH PH
F = µ F . ΣW P a ssive force
she ar ke y
Frictio na l force re sistin g sliding
Fig. 16.9 Stability of cantilever retaining (wall sliding)
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Sliding force
F S = (PH + PHS) ...(iii)
Factor of safety against sliding may be determined by dividing the force resisting the sliding
by the force causing the sliding. Therefore,
Force resisting the sliding
F.S (S.L) =
Force causing the sliding
⎛F ⎞
F.S (S.L) = ⎜ R ⎟ <| 1.4 ...(16.14)
⎝ FS ⎠
IS : 456–1978 specifies that the factor of safety against sliding shall not be less than 1.4
under the most adverse combination of the applied characteristic forces (loads).
It is note that in the expression (i) above 0.9 W has been taken as code recommends that
only 0.9 times the characteristic dead load shall be taken into account.
The values of coefficient of friction, µF, angle of repose, φ and the unit weight of different
types of backfill material (i.e., the density), γ are given in Table 16.1.
Table 16.1 Unit weights, effective angles of internal friction (viz., angle of repose and
coefficients of friction with concrete
S.No. Unit weight kN/m3 φ° µF
1. Sand or gravel without fine particles, 17.28 –18.85 33 – 40 0.5 – 0
highly permeable
2. Sand or gravel with silt mixture, 18.85 – 20.42 25 – 35 0.4 – 0
low permeability
3. Silty sand, sand and gravel with 17.28 – 18.85 23 – 30 0.3 – 0
high clay content
4. Medium or stiff clay 15.71 – 18.85 25 – 35 0.2 – 0
5. Soft clay, silt 14.14 – 17.28 20 – 25 0.2 – 0
( Note. For saturated conditions, f for clays and silts may close to zero.
Sometimes a shear key as shown in Fig. 16.9 (vertical wall projecting from the slab into the
soil) is built under the vertical wall of the retaining wall to check the sliding. In that case, the
passive earth pressure acting on this built-up key should also considered.
16.9.3 Subsidence
It is necessary to ensure that (i) the pressure below the slab does not exceed the permissible
hearing pressure, (ii) the resultant of the gravity loads and the lateral forces lies within the
middle third width of the slab and (iii) there should not be any tension between the slab and
the soil. Therefore following checks are applied.
(i) Check for pressure. The distribution of the pressure due to the combined effect of vertical
load and the lateral forces (i.e., due to the resultant force) is shown in Fig. 16.8 (c). The pressure
below the toe of the horizontal slab is more and that below the heel is less.
The pressure below the toe q1 is the combined pressure due to vertical loads and lateral
forces.
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⎛ ΣW ΣM ⎞
q1 = ⎜ + ...(16.15 a)
⎝ AF Z ⎟⎠
1
Since A F = (bx´) ΣM ΣW . e . and Z = . 1 . b2
6
ΣW ⎛ 6.e ⎞
q1 = ⎜1 + ⎟ ...(16.15 b)
b ⎝ b ⎠
The pressure below the heel, q2 is also the combined pressure due to vertical loads and
lateral forces
⎛ ΣW ΣW ⎞
q2 = ⎜ + ...(16.16 a)
⎝ AF Z ⎟⎠
ΣW ⎛ 6.e ⎞
q1 = ⎜1 − ⎟ ...(16.16 b)
b ⎝ b ⎠
where,
ΣW = The sum of the vertical loads, i.e.,
ΣW = (W 1 + W 2 + W 3) ...(i)
ΣM = Algebraic sum of moments of the vertical loads and the lateral forces about the
toe i.e.,
ΣM = (w1 x1 + w2 x2 + w3 x3 )
⎛ H H ⎞
– ⎜ PH ⋅ + PHS if any ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 3 2 ⎠
A F = area of the footing (viz., the slab)
A F = (b × 1) ...(iii)
The retaining wall and therefore, the horizontal slab of 1 m length is considered for the
analysis, b is the width of slab.
Z = section modulus of the footing (viz., slab)
⎛1 1 2⎞
Z = ⎜ ⋅ 1 ⋅ b2 = ⋅b ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝6 6 ⎠
The bearing pressure q1 should not be more than the maximum permissible bearing pressure
for the soil.
(ii) Check for location of resultant. Let x be the distance upto the point at which the resultant
of the vertical loads and the lateral forces intersects the bottom surface of the horizontal slab of
the retaining wall, measured from the toe. Then,
⎛ ΣM ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ ...(16.17)
⎝ ΣW ⎠
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Therefore, the eccentricity, e measured from the middle line of horizontal slab shall be
⎛b ⎞
e = ⎜ −x⎟ ...(16.18)
⎝2 ⎠
The point of intersection of the resultant with the bottom surface of the horizontal slab
⎛ b⎞
should lie within the middle-third width of the slab that is, ⎜ e ≤ ⎟ . It shows that the
⎝ 6⎠
distribution of pressure below the horizontal slab shall be compressive throughout the width of
slab.
It is good practice, in general, to get the resultant located within the middle-third width. It
reduces the magnitude of the maximum bearing pressure and prevents too large non-uniformity
of the pressure.
In case the soil is highly compressible, such as certain clays, there shall be much large
settlement of the toe than the heel, which will result in the tilt of the vertical wall. In such a
case, the resultant should intersect at or very near the centre of the footing. In case the soil is
highly incompressible, e.g., well compacted gravel or rock, the resultant may be allowed to lie
outside the middle-third.
(iii) Check for tension. In case, the resultant intersects the bottom surface of the horizontal
slab outside middle-third width of slab, it indicates that there shall be tension and which
cannot develop between the soil and the concrete slab. The concrete slab simply rests on the
soil. It implies that the concrete slab will lift slightly at the rear point of the slab (viz., at the
heel). The point of contact of the concrete slab with the soil will shift away form the and
towards the centre. The footing has to be then, analysed accordingly. It is preferred that there
shall be no tension between concrete slab and the soil.
16.10 BEHAVIOUR OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

A cantilever retain wall is shown in Fig. 16.10 (a). The cantilever retaining wall retains the
backfill material. It is constructed on the soil. The vertical wall, (viz., the stem) and the horizontal
slab are the two main components of the wall. However, the horizontal slab again is having
two different slabs, which are called as the toe slab and the heel slab. The stem, heel slab and
the toe slab are three basic elements of the cantilever retaining wall. The behaviour of these
three elements is as under.
16.10.1 Vertical Wall

The vertical wall (viz., the stem) is subjected to active earth pressure acting laterally. The
vertical wall acts a cantilever. It is subjected to the lateral foree due to active earth pressure
having triangular distribution. It bends/deflects away from the backfill side. The backfill surface
of the vertical wall is subjected to the bending tensile stress and it is referred as tension side.
The free surface of the vertical wall is subjected to the bending compressive side. The deflected
shape of all the three elements of the retaining wall are shown in Fig. 16.10 (b). The vertical
wall acting as a cantilever is subjected to maximum bending moment at the junction of vertical
wall and the heel slab. Therefore, it is likely that a crack may develop at this junction and the
vertical wall may fail in bending.
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16.10.2 Heel Slab

The heel slab carries the self-weight, the weight of vertical wall and the weight the backfill
material acting downward. It is subjected to soil pressure acting upward from the bottom surface.
The heel slab also acts as a cantilever and deflects/bends downward as shown in Fig. 16.10 (b).
The top surface of heel slab remains in tension and the bottom surface remains in compression.
The heel slab is subjected to the maximum bending moment at its junction with the vertical. It
is also possible that a crack may develop at the top surface of heel slab near the junction and it
may fail.
16.10.3 Toe Slab

During construction, the earth is removed and the top surface remains free from any burden.
However, the toe slab is subjected to soil pressure acting upward. It deflects/bends upward as
shown in Fig. 16.10 (b) acting as a cantilever. The bottom surface of the toe slab remains in
tension and top surface remains in compression. A crack may develop in the toe slab just below
the front surface of the vertical wall and the toe slab may fail.
It is interesting to note that all the three elements of the cantilever wall act as cantilevers
and the retaining wall is called as cantilever retaining wall.
Ve rtica l
w a ll Ve rtica l
(ste m ) w a ll
H e el slab
H e el slab
Toe sla b
(a ) E lem e nts o f w a ll (b ) B e nd in g of elem en ts (b ) P o sitions of stee l

b ars in elem en ts
Fig. 16.10 Cantilever retaining wall
Main reinforcement. The steel bars are provided as reinforcement of the tension side of
structural member to resist the tension developed due to bending. Therefore, the steel bars are
provided towards the backfill surface of the vertical wall as shown in Fig. 16.10 (c). The steel
bars are provided as main reinforcement near the top surface of the heel slab and bottom
surface of the toe slab as shown in Fig. 16.10 (c).
16.11 PRELIMINARY PROPORTIONS OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

The preliminary proportions of different elements of the cantilever retaining wall e.g., width
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and thickness of the base slab and the relative position of the vertical wall with respect to the
base slab are needed to begin the design. The stability of retaining wall is then checked. In
case, the stability requirements are satisfied, the different elements of the cantilever retaining
wall shall be structurally designed.
The preliminary proportions (viz., the dimensions) of above mentioned elements are estimated
with an approximate use of statics as following.
16.11.1 Width of the Base Slab

The width of the base slab and the relative position of the vertical wall with respect to the base
slab (i.e., the width of toe slab and the width of the heel slab) are estimated by following an
approximate method. The width of base slab may be estimated from the consideration of
overturning and so also from the consideration of sliding as below.
16.11.1.1 Overturning
A cantilever retaining wall retaining the backfill material having the levelled surface is shown
in Fig. 16.11 (a) and the distribution of active earth pressure is shown in Fig. 16.11 (b). The
A B
1 (1 α) . b 1 (1 α) . b
2 2
PH H
( H /3 )
(1 – α) . b
b b
e=
6 6
Toe b b b H e el
3 3 3
Fig. 16.11 Width of base slab
resultant vertical load, W and the lateral force, PH due to active earth pressure acting on the
retaining wall are shown. The weight of toe slab (the slab upto the outer surface of the vertical
wall) is neglected. Let γ be the unit weight of the backfill material. The average unit weight of
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concrete and the backfill material both lying within ABCD is assumed 1.10 γ. One metre length
of base slab shall be considered. Then
W = CD . BC . 1 × Average unit weight
or W = [(1 – x) b.H.1.(1.10 γ)] ...(i)
where, α is the ratio of width of the heel slab to the complete width of the base slab, (i.e., α =
FJ/EJ). The line of action of load W is at a distance 0.5 (1 – α) b from C (i.e., midway between
the width CD. The lateral force due to active earth pressure, PH acts at height (H/3) form the
base as shown in Fig. 16.11
1
PH = K .γ.H2 ...(ii)
2 AH
where KAH is the coefficient of active earth pressure for the backfill material having levelled
surface AB.
In case the resultant of the vertical load W and the lateral force, PH passes through middle-
third points of the base width X1 and X2 as shown in Fig. 16.11 (a), there shall be no tension
below the base slab (viz., the soil pressure below the heel shall be zero). The moment of resultant.
R about X1 (as it passes through X1) shall be zero. That is, the moment of the vertical load and
the lateral load about X1 shall be equal and act in the opposite direction. Therefore,
⎡ 2b 1 ⎤ H
W . ⎢ − (1 − α ).b ⎥ = PH . ...(iii)
⎣3 2 ⎦ 3
substituting the value of W from the expression (i) and the value of PH form the expression (ii)
⎡ 2b 1 ⎤
1.10 γ (1 – α). b .H. ⎢ − (1 − α ).b ⎥ = K AH . γ . H3
⎣3 2 ⎦
or 1.10 γ (1 – γ). b . H. (1 – γ) (1 + 3γ) = KAH . γ . H3
2
⎡ K
AH ⎤
b = 0.95H . ⎢ ⎥ ...(16.19)
⎣ (1 − α )(1 + 3α ) ⎦
The width of slab, b may be calculated, one α is determined. In case, the resultant force, R
⎡ ⎛b⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
passes through X1, the value of eccentricity, e shall be maximum ⎢ viz., ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ . The
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝6⎠
⎣ ⎦
maximum bearing pressure below the toe, q1 shall not exceed the maximum permissible soil
pressure. From, Eq. 16.15,
⎛ ΣW ΣM ⎞
q1 = ⎜ +
⎝ AF Z ⎟⎠
Here, ΣW = W, ΣM = W.e, and
1 ×1
A F = b × 1, Z = × b2
6
b
And e = . Therefore,
6
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⎛ W 6 ⋅W ⋅ b ⎞
q1 = ⎜ + 2 ⎟
⎝ b ×1 b × 6 ⎠
W
or q1 = (1 + 1)
b
2
or q1 = × 1.10 γ (1 – α) b . H ...(v)
b
Let q1 be equal to q0, maximum permissible soil pressure. The (1 – α) = q0 (2.2 . γ .H)
⎡ ⎛ q0 ⎞⎤
α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(16.20)
⎣ ⎝ 2.2 ⋅ γ ⋅ H ⎠ ⎦
The values of width of base slab, b and the ratio α may be found form Eqs. 16.19 and 16.20.
These values provide approximate guidelines. When the backfill material is having an angle of
slope, δ, with the horizontal, the values of α and b may be obtained form the following
⎡ ⎛ q0 ⎞ ⎤
α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(16.21)
⎣ ⎝ 2.7 ⋅ γH ⎠ ⎦
⎡ A K ⋅ cos δ ⎤
And, b = H. ⎢ ⎥ ...(16.22)
⎣ (1 − α )(1 + 3α ) ⎦
The approximate values of width of base slab, b may be adopted from Table 16.2 for the
different conditions of backfill and the different types of the retaining wall.
TABLE 16.2 Approximate values of b = Width of base slab
S.No. Type of cantilever To surface of backfill
retaining wall
Levelled Sloping
1. T-Shaped, Fig. 16.1 (b) b ≈ 0.46 H b ≈ 0.65 H
2. L-Shaped, Fig. 16.1 (c) b ≈ 0.55 H b ≈ 0.74 H
3. Reversed L-shaped, Fig. 16.1 (d) b ≈ 0.65 H b ≈ 0.8 H
16.11.1.2 Sliding
The width of base slab may also be estimated from the consideration of sliding. The factor of
safety against sliding for a retaining wall should not be less than 1.4 under the most adverse
combination of the applied characteristic forces as per IS : 456–1978. In this case only 0.9 times
the characteristic dead load shall be taken into consideration. From Eq. 16.14
⎛F ⎞
F.S.(S.L) = ⎜ R ⎟ <| 1.4 ...(i)
⎝ FS ⎠
µF .0.9 W
or = 1.4 ...(ii)
PH
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As W = 1.10. γ . b. H.(1 – α), and

1
PH = K . γ .H2
2 AH
The expression (ii) may be written as under
1
µF . 0.9 × 1.10 γ.b. H (1 – α) = K . γ .H2 × 1.4
2 AH
0.707 ⋅ H K AH
b = ⋅ ...(16.23)
(1 − α ) µF
The value of α is calculated form Eq. 16.21 and the value of width of the base slab is found
from Eq. 16.23. Knowing the values of α and b, the individual widths of toe slab and heel slab
shall be α – b and (1 – α) . b, respectively.
The thickness of base slab is roughly 7 to 10 percent of the over all height with a minimum
of 300 mm. The actual thickness needed shall be calculated later on from the consideration of
bending and the shear force.
16.11.2 Vertical Wall (Stem)

The position of vertical wall is located as soon the value of α is determined. The height of
vertical wall and its thickness are decided as under.
16.11.2.1 Height of Vertical Wall

The height of the vertical wall, H shall be equal to the difference between the elevations of the
ground level on both the sides of the wall plus the depth below the ground level. That is
H = [(R . L1 – R . L2) + D]
where
R.L1 = level of top surface of the backfill material to be retained.
R.L2 = level of the ground towards outer surface of the vertical wall.
D = depth of the retaining wall below the ground level (R.L2).
Minimum depth of foundation below the ground level may be calculated as per Rankine’s
formula
q0 ⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞
Dmin = ⋅ ...(16.24)
γ ⎜⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎟⎠
where, φ is the angle of repose, γ is the unit weight of soil and q0 is the safe bearing capacity of
the soil. The minimum depth of foundation below the ground level should be about one metre.
16.11.2.2 Thickness of Vertical Wall

The thickness of the vertical wall may be kept about 150 mm to 300 mm depending upon the
overall height of the wall. The thickness at the base of vertical wall may be kept about 8 to 15
percent of the height of wall.
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The stability of the retaining wall is checked, once the preliminary proportions (dimensions)
of all the three components (viz., vertical wall, heel slab and toe slab) are decided. These
estimated dimensions may be revised, if necessary. When the requirements of the stability are
satisfied, the design of retaining wall may be done.
16.12 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

The cantilever retaining wall is designed after estimating the preliminary dimensions of three
elements of the wall as described in Art. 16.12 and checking the stability as described in Art.
16.9. The cantilever retaining wall is designed when the requirements of the stability are
satisfied in the following sequence:
1. Design of heel slab
2. Design of toe slab
3. Design of vertical wall (stem)
These elements are designed as discussed following.
16.12.1 Design of Heel Slab

The heel slab is subjected to the weight of earth fill, and its own weight acting downward, and
the reaction of soil acting upward. The downward load predominates over the upward reaction.
The distribution of upward reaction from the soil on the heel slab is triangular. In the design,
the upward reaction from the soil is neglected. Actually, the distribution of reaction is parabolic
and if it becomes more parabolic, the upward reaction disappears. It is not necessary that the
upward triangular distribution may exist. Further, the effect of upward pressure is to reduce
the bending moment and shear but to a small extent only. The heel slab acts as a cantilever. It
projects from the back face of the vertical wall (stem). The supporting upward reaction comes
from the tension in the stem heel.
The heel slab is often made just long enough to cause the resultant of the forces on the wall
to strike the ground under the stem.
The heel length is chosen such that adequate friction is provided. A shear key is built below
the base to prevent failure from the lesser frictional resistance of concrete on soil.
The increased length of heel slab increases the vertical load (weight of earth fill as well as
self-weight), which will increase the frictional resistance also. However, the cost of retaining
wall and so also the cost of excavation will also increase.
16.12.2 Design of Toe Slab

The toe slab is subjected to self-weight acting downward. The weight of earthfill over the toe is
neglected. It is possible that the earthfill over the toe slab is removed or it gets eroded.
The toe slab acts as a cantilever projecting outward from the face of vertical wall (stem). The
maximum bending moment in the toe slab occurs where the shear force changes sign. The
shear force changes sign inside the face of the stem because of large compression from the
stem. However, the toe slab is considered as supported from the face. It bends upward due to
upward soil pressure. The bottom surface of toe slab remains in tension due to bending.
Therefore, the tension reinforcement is provided near the bottom.
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The shear stress controls the overall depth (viz., thickness of toe slab). However, the thickness
of heel slab and toe slab are kept equal as these are two elements of one base below the vertical
wall.
The diagonal tensional remains critical at a distance equal to the effective depth of toe slab
from the face of vertical wall.
The heel slab and toe slab are inter-related. However, their lengths are established in sequence.
16.12.3 Design of Vertical Wall

The vertical wall (stem) is designed after the design of heel slab and design of toe slab. As a
matter of fact, the dimensions of the vertical wall (viz., the height, the thickness at the top and
the thickness at the bottom) are revised.
The overall thickness of base slab influences the overall height of the vertical wall (stem).
Therefore, the vertical wall is designed, after completing the design of heel slab and the design
of toe slab.
The vertical wall (stem) bends due to the horizontal component of earth pressure. The
maximum bending moment occurs at the junction with the top surface of heel/toe slab. The
thickness required for the maximum bending moment and the reinforcement in tension are
calculated for the maximum bending moment.
The bending moment in the vertical wall decreases rapidly as the distance from the bottom
increases. Therefore, only part of main reinforcement is needed at higher elevations. The
alternate bars may be discontinued where no longer required. The bending moments are
calculated at two or more intermediate levels from the top. The bending moment diagram for
the vertical wall (stem) may be drawn. The points of curtailment of main reinforcement may be
found as usual. The available length of bars may be checked for the development length.
16.12.3.1 Distribution Reinforcement

In addition to the main reinforcement in the vertical wall, the distribution reinforcement is
provided to control the shrinkage and temperature cracking on the inner face. However the
distribution reinforcement is also provided in the vertical and horizontal directions both on the
outer face.
16.12.3.2 Drainage
The retaining walls are not designed for water pressure. Complete drainage is provided for the
backfill. A porous backfill, such as gravel is provided directly behind every wall to allow the
water to reach the drains.
Example 16.1. A backfill material consisting of sand and gravel mixture with a rather
moderate quantity of fine silty particles of 3.5 m height to be retained by a gravity retaining
wall. A live load surcharge of 19.20 kN/m2 shall be acting over the horizontal surface of the
backfill. Design the gravity retaining wall.
Solution
Design : Gravity retaining wall is designed as under :
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Design constant
⎛x ⎞
The ratio of limiting value of the depth of neutral axis to the effective depth ⎜ u.max ⎟ = 0.48.
⎝ d ⎠
Step 1. Material properties of backfill material
The material properties of the given backfill material are as follows. Unit weight the backfill
γ = 18.85 kN/m3 ...(i)
Angle of repose (effective angle of internal friction)
φ = 30° ...(ii)
Coefficient of friction between concrete surface and the soil
µF = 0.5 ...(iii)
Coefficient of active earth pressure for the given backfill, form Eq. 16.4
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞
KAH = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠
KAH = 0.333 ...(iv)
Safe bearing capacity of soil (assumed)
q 0 = 250 kN/m2 ...(v)
Unit weight or reinforced cement concrete, is 25 kN/m3
Coefficient of passive earth pressure
⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
KPH = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 – sin φ ⎠
KPH = 3.0 ...(vi)
Horizontal surface of the backfill is subjected to a live load surcharge
= 19.20 kN/m2 ...(vii)
⎛ s⎞
Equivalent height of surcharge ⎜ h´ ⎟
⎝γ ⎠
19.20
h´ = = 0.02 m ...(viii)
18.85
Step 2. Preliminary proportions (dimensions) or gravity retaining wall
The preliminary dimensions of gravity retaining wall are assumed as shown in Fig. 16.12.
These dimensions may be revised if necessary.
Step 3. Gravity loads
The various components of weights W 1, W3,..., etc. are shown in Fig. 16.12 (a) and their
respective distance from the toe are x 1, x 2,..., etc. These weights and restoring moments due to
this have been calculated as under :
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Weight of Components W (kN) x (m) MR = W. x

Base Height
W 1 = 3.20 × 0.62 × 1 × 24 47.616 1.600 76.185
W 2 = 0.46 × 3.98 × 1 × 12 43.939 0.450 19.773
W 3 = (23/2) × 398 × 1 × 24 109.848 1.447 158.950
W 4 = (23/2) × 398 × 1 × 18.85 86.276 1.533 132.261
W 5 = 0.22 × 3.98 × 1 × 18.85 16.505 3.090 51.000
Total ΣW´ = 304.184 kN M = 438.169 kN-m
W Fd = 1.5 ΣW´
= (1.5 × 304.184) = 456.276 kN
Factored (design) bending moment
MFd = 1.5 M
= (1.5 × 438.169) = 657254 kN
Step 4. Horizontal forces
1
Horizontal force due to active earth pressure is [PH = 2 (KAH . γ. H). H]
1
or PH = [0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 4.6 × 4.6] kN
2
or PH = 1.5 × [66.411 kN = 99.617] kN ...(xi)
⎛H ⎞
This horizontal force, PH acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ = 1.533 m from the base. Horizontal force due
⎝3⎠
to surcharge
PHS = (KAH . γ . h´) . H
or PHS = 0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 1.02 × 4.6 kN
= 1.5 × 29.452 kN = 44 × 178 kN
⎛H ⎞
This acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ = 2.3 m form the base.
⎝2⎠
Step 5. Check for stability
5. (A) Check for overturning. Resisting moment
MR = 1.5 × 438.169 = 657.254 kN-m
Overturning moment
⎡ ⎛H ⎞ ⎛ H ⎞⎤
M0 = 1.5 × ⎢ PH ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ + PHS ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
M0 = 1.5 × [66.411 × 1.533 + 29.452 × 2.3]
= 1.5 × 169.547 = 25.432 kN-m
The distance of resultant from toe, from Eq. 16.17
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⎛ ΣM ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣW ⎠
1.5 (438.169 – 169.547)

∴ = = 0.8831 m
1.5 × 304.184
P re ssu re du e to
e arth surch ag e
W4
W2
( H /3)
K A . γ. H
Fig. 16.12 Design of gravity retaining wall
It is just out side the middle third width of the base b is 3.20 m. Factor of safety against
overturning
M R 1.5 × 438.169
F.S (O.T) = = = 2.584
M O 1.5 × 169.547
As per IS : 456–1978, restoring moment
MR = 1.5 × 438.169 kN-m
Overturing moment due to dead load
H 1.5 × 66.41 × 4.6
MO.DL = MH . = = 1.5 × 101.808
3 3
= 152.712 kN-m
Since live load is not considered, the overturning moment due to live load
MO.IL = Zero
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MR <
| 1.2 MO.DL +1.4 MO.IL
| 1.5 × 438.196 kN-m <
< | 1.5 × [(1.2 × 101.808)
= 1.5 × 122.17 kN-m =183.255
Hence, it is safe against overturning.
5. (B) Check for sliding. The sliding force is as below :
F S = (PW + PHS) = 1.5 × (66.411 + 29.452) kN
∴ F S = 1.5 × 95.863 kN= 143.795 kN
Resisting force
F S = µF × 0.9 (W1 + W 2 + W 3 + W 4 + W 5) kN
or FR = 0.5 × 0.9 × 1.5 × (304.184) = 1.5 × 136.883 kN
= 205.3245 kN
Factor of safety against sliding
⎛ F ⎞ 1.5 × 136.883
F.SSL = ⎜ R ⎟ = = 1.428 <
| 1.4
⎝ FS ⎠ 1.5 × 95.863
Hence, it is safe.
Step 6. Check for bearing stresses
The resultant is just out side the middle-third width of the base. Therefore,
⎛b ⎞ ⎛ 3.2 ⎞
e = ⎜ −x⎟ = ⎜ − 0.8831 ⎟ = 0.7169 m
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The ultimate pressure below the toe of retaining wall, from Eq. 16.15 (b)
WFd ⎛ 6.e ⎞
q = ⎜1 + ⎟
b ⎝ b ⎠
1.5 ×ΣW ⎛ 6.e ⎞

q1 = ⎜1 + ⎟
b ⎝ b ⎠
1.5 × 304.184 ⎛ 6 × 0.7169 ⎞

q1 = ⎜1 + ⎟
3.2 ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
= 1.5 × 222.83 kN-m2 = 334.245
qu = ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
The ultimate pressure below the heal, form Eq. 16.16 (b)
1.5 × 304.184 ⎛ 6 × 0.7169 ⎞ 2
q2 = ⎜1 + ⎟ kN-m
3.2 ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
q 2 = 1.5 × 32.72 = 49.08 kN-m2 (Tension).
The point of zero pressure is slightly inside (viz., 0.41 m). The calculation for the pressures
may be done accordingly. However, the gravity retaining wall shown in Fig. 16.12 is safe. It is
not necessary to raise the dimensions.
Example 16.2. Design a cantilever retaining wall to retaining backfill material consisting
of sand and gravel mixture with a rather moderate quantity of fine silty particles of 3.5 m. A
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live load surcharge of 19.20 kN/m2 shall be acting over the horizontal surface of the backfill.
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars, Fe 415 shall be used. The maximum bearing
capacity of soil is 140 kN/m2.
Solution
Design :
The cantilever retaining wall is designed as under :
Design constants
The ratio of limiting value of depth of neutral axis to the effective depth
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Step 1. Material properties of backfill
The material properties of backfill material are as follows: Unit weight of the backfill
γ = 18.82 kN/m2 ...(i)
φ = 30° ...(ii)
µF = 0.50 ...(iii)
Coefficient of active earth pressure
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞
KAH = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠
KAH = 0.333 ...(iv)
Safe bearing capacity of soil (assumed)
qo = 140 kN/m2 ...(v)
Unit weight of reinforced cement concrete is 25 kN/m2.
Coefficient of passive earth pressure
⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
KPH = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.0 ...(vi)
⎝ 1 – sin φ ⎠
= 19.20 kN/m2 ...(vii)
Equivalent height of surcharge
s 19.20
h´ = = = 1.02 m ...(viii)
γ 18.85
Height of retaining wall shall be (3.5 m + 1.10) m depth of foundation. (H = 4.6 m)
Step 2. Preliminary proportions (dimensions) retaining wall
The preliminary proportions (dimensions) of heel slab, toe slab, thickness at the top and that
at the bottom of vertical wall (stem) are estimated from the guideline rules derived from
approximate statics : Therefore,
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(i) Ratio of width of toe slab to the width of complete slab.

From Eq. 16.20,
⎡ ⎛ q0 ⎞ ⎤
α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2.2γ ⋅ H ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 140 ⎞⎤
or α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.266
⎣ ⎝ 2.2 × 18.85 × 4.6 ⎠ ⎦
(ii) Complete width of the base slab
(A) From (consideration of overturning moment). Eq. 16.19
1
⎡ K AH ⎤2
b = 0.95H ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (1 − α )(1 + 3α ) ⎦
1
⎡ 0.333 ⎤2
b = 0.95 × 4.6 ⎢ = 2.195 m
⎣ (1 − 0.266 )(1 + 3 × 0.266 ) ⎥⎦
(B) From (consideration of sliding) Eq. 16.23,
0.707 H K AH 0.707 × 4.6 0.333
b = ⋅ = × = 2.951 m
(1 – α ) µF (1 – 0.266 ) 0.5
Average width
1
b = (2.195 + 2.951) = 2.573 m
2
Let the complete width of base slab be 2.76 m
(iii) Width of toe slab
α . b = 0.266 × 276 = 0.774 m
Provide 0.70 m width for the toe slab
(iv) Width of heel slab
(1 – α) . b = (1 – 0.266) × 2.76 = 2.026 m
Provide (2.76 – 0.70) = 2.06 m
Let the thickness of heel slab be 0.4 m.
[Thickness of heel slab is kept equal to the thickness of vertical wall at the base, (8 to 15
percent of height of vertical wall)].
(v) Vertical wall (stem)
(A) Thickness. The thickness at the top of the vertical wall is taken as 150 mm to 300 mm.
Let the thickness at the top of vertical wall be 0.240 m.
Thickness at the bottom of vertical wall
⎡⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 15 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎜ × 4.6 ⎟ to ⎜ × 4.6 ⎟ ⎥ m
⎣⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
= (0.368 m to 0.690 m)
Let the thickness at the base of vertical wall be 0.40 m. If required, it may be revised.
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(B) Height of wall. The height of earth retained plus (minimum) depth of foundation = (3.50
+ 1.5) = 4.60. The preliminary proportions (dimensions) of the different elements of the retaing
wall are shown in Fig. 16.13.
The various gravity loads of different components of the cantilever retaining wall, W 1,W 2,
etc. and their respective distances x 1, x 2, etc., from the toe are shown in Fig. 16.13. These have
been calculated and listed as below :
0 .24 m
S u rcha rge , s
3 H e el K A . γ. H
Fig. 16.13 Preliminary dimensions of retaining wall
Consider one metre length of the retaining wall.

Weight of Components W (kN) x (m) MR = W. x (kN-m)
Base Height
W 1 = 0.24 × 4.2 1 × 24 25.20 0.820 20.664
1
W2 = 2 × 0.16 × 4.2 × 1 × 25 4.40 0.873 7.333
W 3 = 2.76 × 0.40 × 1 × 25 27.60 1.380 38.088
1
W4 = 2 × 0.16 × 4.2 × 1 × 18.85 63.34 1.047 6.632
W 5 = 1.66 × 4.2 × 1 × 18.85 131.42 1.930 253.406
Total gravity load ΣW = 98.954 kN 358.811
Factored vertical load
= 1.5 ΣW
W Fd = (1.5 × 98.954) = 148.43 kN
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Factored moment due to vertical load

MFd = (1.5 × 358.811) = 538.216 kN-m
Step 4. Lateral forces
The lateral forces are due to active earth pressure and surcharge: Lateral force due to active
earth pressure
1
PH = kAH ⋅ γ ⋅ H ⋅ H
2
1
= ×0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 4.6 × 4.6 = 1.5 × 66.41 kN
2
= 99.615 kN
⎛H ⎞
This acts at a height, ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
Live load
h =
Unit wt. of backfill
19.20
h´ = = 1.02 m
18.85
Horizontal force due to surcharge
PHS = 0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 1.02 × 4.6 = 1.5 × 29.452 kN
= 44.178 kN
⎛H ⎞
This acts at height, ⎜ ⎟.
⎝2⎠
The cantilever retaining wall is checked for stability viz., against overturning and sliding as
under:
5 (A) Overturning. Resisting moment
MR = 1.5 × 358.811 = 538.216 kN-m
Overturning moment
M0 = 1.5 × (66.411 × 15.33 + 29.452) kN-m
M0 = 1.5 × 169.547
= 254.321 kN-m
The distance of resultant from toe
⎛ ΣM ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣW ⎠
1.5 × (358.811– 169.547)

x = = 1.087 m
1.5 × 198.954
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b 2.76
= = 0.92 m
3 3
⎛b⎞
Since x is more than ⎜ ⎟ , the resultant intersects within the middle-third width of the
⎝3⎠
base. There shall be no tension between bottom surface of the base slab and the soil. Overturning
moment due to dead load
⎛H ⎞
MO.DL = PH. ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
1.5 × 66.411 × 4.6

= = 1. 5 × 101.808 =152.712 kNm
3
The live load is not considered. As such the overturning moment due to live load
MO.IL = zero
MR <
| (1.2MO.DL + 1.4MO.DL)
1.5 × 358.811 kN-m < | 1.5 × (1.2 × 101.808 = 1.5 × 12.217
= 183.255 kN-m
Hence, it is safe against overturning.
5. (B) Sliding. The sliding force is as follows :
F S = (PH + PHS) = 1.5 × (66.411 + 29.452) kN
F S = 1.5 × 95.863 kN = 143.795 kN
Resisting force
FR = µ × 0.9 × 1.5 ΣW
FR = (0.5 × 0.9 × 1.5 + 198.954)
= 1.5 × 89.529 = 134.294 kN
FR 1.5 × 89.529
F.SSL = = = 0.934
FS 1.5 × 95.863
< 1.4
As per IS : 456–1978, the factor of safety against sliding should not be less than 1.4. A shear
shall be provided below the base slab i.e., below the vertical wall), such that the factor of safety
against sliding shall be satisfied. Therefore,
FR = 89.529 + Passive earth pressure
1
or FR = 1.5 × (89.529 + 2 kPH . γ . h2)
1
= 1.5 × (89.529 + 2 × 3 × 18.85 × h2)
FR 1.5 (89.529 + 28.275 h2 )

Now = = 1.4
FS 1.5 × 95.863
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1
⎡ 44.68 ⎤ 2
∴ h = ⎢ = 1.2574 m
⎣ 28.275 ⎥⎦
The height of shear shall be kept 1.26 m. In case, the erosion of soil over the toe slab does not
occur, than, it is necessary to provide shear key of small depth. The depth of foundation 1.10 m
shall provide passive earth pressure. Then, the depth of shear key (1.26 – 1.10) = 0.16 m = 160
mm.
Step 6. Check for subsidence
The pressure below the toe and that below the heel are checked for compression and tension,
respectively, as under :
6. (A) Check for pressure under toe. The distance of resultant from the toe
x = 1.087m
Eccentricity, e from the central line of the slab base
⎛b ⎞ ⎛ 2.76 ⎞
e = ⎜ −x⎟ =⎜ − 1.087 ⎟ = 0.294 m
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The eccentricity (e = 0.294 m) is less than [(b/6) = 0.43 m]. Actual ultimate pressure below
the toe, from Eq. 16.15 (b)
ΣW ⎡ ⎛ 6 × e ⎞ ⎤
q 1 = 1.5 × 1+⎜ ⎟
b ⎢⎣ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
1.5 × 198.954 ⎡ ⎛ 6 × 0.293 ⎞ ⎤ 2

q1 = ⎢1 + ⎜ 2.76 ⎟ ⎥ kN/m
2.76 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
∴ q 1 = 118.0 kN/m2
It is less than the maximum ultimate bearing pressure (assumed as twice of safe bearing
capacity) of soil 2 × 140 kN/m2. Hence, it is safe.
6. (B) Check for pressure below heel. Actual bearing pressure below the heel from Fig.
16.16 (b)
ΣW ⎡ ⎛ 6 ⋅ e ⎞ ⎤
q 2 = 1.5 × 1−⎜ ⎟
b ⎢⎣ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
1.5 × 198.954 ⎡ ⎛ 6 × 0.293 ⎞ ⎤ 2

q2 = ⎢1 − ⎜ 2.76 ⎟ ⎥ = 1.5× 26.17 kN/m
2.76 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
= 39.255 kN/m2
The distribution of actual bearing pressure below the base slab is shown in Fig. 16.14. Pressure
below F
2.06
= 26.17 + (118 × 26.17) = 94.71 kN/m2
2.76
Pressure below, G
⎡ (2.06 − 0.4 ) ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢26.17 + × (118 – 25.17)⎥ kN/m2
⎣ 2.76 ⎦
= 1.5 × 81.40 = 122.10 kN/m 2
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The pressure q2 is also compressive. Hence, the retaining wall satisfies the requirements of
the stability and so also for the pressure. The elements of retaining wall may now be designed.
0 .7 m 2 .06 m
0 .7 m 1 .66 m 0 .4 m
2 6.1 7
kN /m 2
11 8
kN /m 2
p D = 94 .7 1 kN /m 2
p = 81 .4 0 kN /m 2
Fig. 16.14 Pressure distribution below base slab
Step 7. Design of heel slab

Following loads and forces act on the heel slab : Weight of backfill material acting downward
W S = 1.5 × 1.66 × 4.2 × 1 × 18.85
= 1.5 × 131.42 kN
= 197.13 kN
The distance of line of acting of W SH from G is (1.66/2) = 0.83 m. Self-weight of heel slab
acting downward
W SH = 1.5 × 1.66 × 0.4 × 1 × 25 = 1.5 × 16.60 kN
The distance of line of action of W SH from G is (1.66/2) = 0.83 m. Soil reaction acting upward
⎛ 81.40 + 26.17 ⎞
1.5 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1.66 = 1.5 × 89.28 kN = 133.92 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
The distance of line of action soil reaction from G
1.66 ⎛ 81.40 + 2 × 26.17 ⎞
× ⎜ ⎟ = 0.688 m
3 ⎝ 81.40 + 27.17 ⎠
Downward loads predominates over upward soil reaction. Therefore, the heel slab bends
downward. It acts as a cantilever slab. The maximum moment occurs at G. From Fig. 16.14
MG = 1.5 × (131.42 × 0.83 + 16.60 × 0.83 – 89.28 × 0.68)
= 1.5 × 61.43 = 92.145 kN-m
Maximum shear force occurs at G
FG = 1.5 × (131.42 + 16.60 – 89.28) = 1.5 × 58.74
= 88.11 kN
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Effective depth required
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck . ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck.bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 61.43 × 106
d = 182.74 mm
The overall thickness of slab has been provided as 400 mm. Let the effective cover be 40 mm.
Then, d = 360 mm.
Area of steel bars to be provided as reinforcement in tension
⎛ Ast fy ⎞
0.87 fy Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 360 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 61.43 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 360 × 20 ⎠
12.9978 Ast × 104 – 7.492 Ast2 – 92.145 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.735 × 104 Ast + 122.995 × 106 = 0

Ast = 740.508 mm2
Let the diameter of steel bars be 12 mm.
π
Aφ = × 122 =113.10 mm2
4
Spacing of the steel bars in heel slab
1000 × 113.10
SH = = 152.733 mm
740.508
Provide 12 mm φ Hysd-steel bars at 130 mm spacing centre to centre near the top surface.
Provide 8 mm diameter steel bars for the distribution reinforcement
0.12
Aφ = × 1000 × 400 = 480 mm2
100
π
Aφ = × 82 = 50.26 mm2
4
1000 × 50.26
sd = = 104.72 mm
480
Provide distribution reinforcement at 100 mm spacing c/c.
Nominal shear stress in heel at G
1.5 × 58.64 × 1000
τv = = 0.2445 N/mm2
1000 × 360
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It is less than the permissible shear stress for M20 grade of concrete without shear
reinforcements. (τc = 0.61 N/mm2)
Step 8. Design of toe slab
The weight of soil acting over the toe slab is not considered. It is likely that the erosion of this
soil may take place. Following load and force act on the toe slab :
Self-weight of toe slab
W ST = 1.5 × 1.10 × 0.40 = 1 × 25 = 1.5 × 11 kN = 16.5 kN
The distance of line of action of this load from F, Fig. 16.14 is (1.10/2) = 0.55 mm.
Total soil reaction acting upward
⎛ 94.71 + 118 ⎞
= 1.5 × ⎜ ⎟ × 1.10
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 1.5 × 116.99 kN = 175.485 kN
The distance of line of action of the soil reaction from, G
1.10 ⎛ 94.71 + 2 + 118 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.57 m
3 ⎝ 94.71 + 118 ⎠
The soil reaction acting upward predominates over downward load. Therefore, the toe slab
bends upward. It acts as a cantilever slab.
Maximum bending is considered to occur at F
MF = 1.5 × (116.99 × 0.57 – 11 × 0.55)
= 1 5 × 60.03 kN-m = 90.945 kN-m
Shear force at G
FG = 1.5 × (116.99 – 11)
= 1.5 × 105.99 kN = 158.985 kN
Effective depth required for toe slab
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 1000 × 20 × d2 = 1.5 × 60.63 × 106
d = 181.55 mm
Overall thickness of toe slab is 400 mm. Let the effective cover provided be 20 mm. Then, the
effective depth, d shall be 380 mm.
Area of steel provided as tension reinforcement
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 380 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 60.63 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 380 × 20 ⎠
13.7199 × 104 Ast – 7.4918 Ast2 – 90.945 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 18.313 × 104 + 121.393 × 106 = 0

Ast = 688784 mm2
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Let the diameter of the steel bars be 12 mm

π
Aφ = × 122 = 113.10 mm2
4
1000 × 113.10
St = = 164.203 mm
688.784
Provide 12 mm φ steel bars at 130 mm spacing centre to centre near the bottom surface.
Distribution reinforcement
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 400 = 480 mm2
100
π
Aφ = × 82 = 50.26 mm2
4
Spacing of the distribution reinforcement bars
1000 × 50.26
sd = = 104.72 mm
480
Provide 8 mm diameter bars at 100 mm spacing centre to centre.
1.5 × 105.99 × 1000
τv = = 0.417 N/mm2
1000 × 380
Step 9. Design of vertical wall (stem)
The vertical wall (stem) acts as a cantilever slab. The maximum bending moment occurs at
its junction with the heel slab.
Lateral earth force from step 4
PH = 1.5 × 66.41 kN
⎛H ⎞ 4.6
PH acts at a distance ⎜ ⎟ from the base. = 1.533 m.
⎝3⎠ 3
Lateral force due to surcharge from step 4
PHS = 1.5 × 29.452 kN
4.6
PHS acts at a distance = 2.3 m from the base. Take moment of lateral force about the
2
junction
MFd = 1.5 × [66.41 (1.533 – 0.4) + 29.452 × (2.3 – 0.4)]
= 1.5 × 131.22 kN-m = 196.83 kN-m
Effective depth of slab required the junction
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck × ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 × u⋅max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
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0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd

0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 1000 × 20 × d2 = 1.5 × 131.22 × 106
d = 267.088 mm
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. Then, the thickness slab be 287.088 mm. The thickness of
vertical wall at the junction is 400 mm. The effective depth slab be 380 mm. Area of steel
reinforcement
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast × 380 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 131.22 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 380 × 20 ⎠
13.7199 × 104 Ast – 7.4918 Ast2 – 19683 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.8313 × 104 + 26.273 × 106 = 0

Ast = 36.574 mm2
Provide 12 mm diameter Hysd-steel bas (Aφ = 113.10 mm2). The spacing of the steel bars
1000 × 113.20
s = = 277.49 mm.
365.74
These bars may be provided at spacing 225 mm centre to centre from the junction with base
slab.
As the height of vertical wall decreases, the bending moment at any section reduces very
rapidly. Therefore, the area of steel reinforcement provided at the bottom may be curtailed
towards top. The area of steel reinforcement height H1 from top
⎛ Ast2 × fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast1 × d1 × 380 ⎜1 − ⎟ × M1 ...(i)
⎝ b.d1 ⋅ fck ⎠
Similarly, the area of steel reinforcement for height H2 from top
⎛ Ast2 × fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast2 × d2 × 380 ⎜1 − ⎟ = M2 ...(ii)
⎝ b.d2 ⋅ fck ⎠
Ast2 ⎛ M ⎞⎛ d ⎞
Then = ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 1 ⎟ ..(iii)
Ast1 ⎝ M1 ⎠⎝ d2 ⎠
The bending moment, M1 due to active earth pressure for height H1 (considering the terms
within the parenthesis approximately equal).
H13
M1 = K A ⋅ γ ⋅ ...(iv)
6
H 23
M2 = K A ⋅ γ ⋅ ...(v)
6
3
⎛ M2 ⎞ ⎛ H2 ⎞
Then ⎜M ⎟ = ⎜H ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
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Ast2 3
⎛H ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ .⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(vii)
Ast1 ⎝ H1 ⎠ ⎝ d2 ⎠
The area of steel for the vertical wall of height, H2 may be curtailed to half of that for H1.
Then Ast = 0.5 Ast1
3
d2 ⎛H ⎞
0.5 = ⎜ 2⎟ ...(viii)
d1 ⎝ H1 ⎠
As the top of retaining wall, the thickness is 240 mm. For the effective cover of 20 mm, the
effective thickness is 220 mm. Then, the effective depth at height, H2.
d 2 = (220 + x) mm ...(ix)
The effective depth at height, H1
d 1 = (220 + 380) mm ...(x)
From similar triangles,
H2 H1
=
x 380
H
H2 = H1 ...(xi)
380
⎛ H ⎞
Then, d 2 = ⎜ 220 + 380 ⋅ 2 ⎟ ...(xii)
⎝ H1 ⎠
Substituting this in expression (viii)
3
0.5 ⎛ H ⎞ ⎛H ⎞
⋅ ⎜ 220 + 380 ⋅ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟
d1 ⎝ H1 ⎠ ⎝ H1 ⎠
At the height H1, d1 is equal to 380 mm. Therefore
1 1
× × (220 + 380 y) = y 2 ...(xiii)
2 380
⎛H ⎞
where y = ratio of ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ H1 ⎠
The cubic equation may be solved by trial and error
1 220 1 380
or y3 − × − ⋅ y = 0 ...(xiv)
2 3380 6 380
or y 3 – 0.5 y – 0.2895 = 0
By trial and error, y Ω 0.9055
Then, H 2 = 0.9055 H1
or H 2 = 0.9055 × 3.8 = 3.169 m
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For the vertical wall,

thickness at top = 240 mm
thickness at bottom = 400 mm
Average thickness = 320 mm
Distribution reinforcement needed
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 320 = 384 mm2
100
Let the 8 diameter of steel bars be provided. Then
π
Aφ = × 82 = 50.26 mm2
4
1000 × 50.26
sd = = 130.9 mm
383
Provide 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars are 100 mm spacing c/c.
0 .24 m
8 m m φ h ysd
hysd b ars @
1 00 m m c/c
8 mm φ
stee l ba rs @
a t 1 00 m m c/c
8 m m φ h ysd ste el
b ars @ 1 00 m m c/c
3 .16 9 m
3.5 m
1 2 m m φ hysd stee l
b ars a t 1 30 m m c/c
8 m m φ h ysd ste el
8 mm φ b ars a t 1 00 m m c/c
h ysd stee l
b ars a t
1 00 m m c/c
1 2 m m φ hysd 3 00 1 2 m m φ hysd stee l b ars

3 00
stee l ba rs at @ 2 25 m m c/c an d
mm
1 30 m m c/c 2 .75 m @ 4 50 m m c/c
(a ) S e ctio n of ve rtica l w all (b ) D e tails o f cu rtaile d ba rs
Fig. 16.15 Design of cantilever retaining wall
This distribution reinforcement is also provided on the front face in both the directions.
A shear key of 300 mm × 300 mm in size has been provided.
The details of reinforcement for cantilever retaining wall is shown in Fig. 16.15.
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16.13 COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS

A counterfort retaining wall is used when the height of backfill to be retained exceeds 8 m. The
vertical and the base slab both become tied together at regular intervals by the counterforts, as
shown in Fig. 16.16 (a). Sometimes, buttresses are also attached over the toe slab and the
vertical wall below the ground level as shown in Fig. 16.16 (b).
The counterforts which are built on the same side of the backfill material act as tension ties
while the buttresses, which are constructed or built on the opposite side of the vertical wall, act
in compression.
C o un terforts C o un terforts
Ve rtica l Ve rtica l
w a ll w a ll
(ste m ) (ste m )
Pq = d1
9 0°
Toe sla b H e el
sla b
(E levatio n) (E levatio n)
Ve rtica l w a ll (ste m )
B uttresses
= sp an for
h ee l sla b
Toe C o un terfort C o un terfort

sla b
(P lan ) (P lan )
(a ) C o un terfort re taining w a ll (b ) C o un terfort w ith bu ttre ss
re taining w a ll
Fig. 16.16
The general proportions (dimensions) of the counterfort retaining wall base slab and other
elements are kept same as those of the cantilever retaining wall. The thickness of heel slab
may be kept about one-twentieth of the height. The maximum spacing between counterforts
may be taken as 3 m for wall in 8 m to 10 m range to about 240 m for walls 16 m to 15 m range.
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These dimensions are checked for the stability in the same manner as that for the cantilever
retaining wall. When the requirements of stability are satisfied, then, the counterforts walls
are designed.
16.14 BEHAVIOUR OF COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS

The counterforts totally change the support conditions for the vertical wall (stem) and the heel
slab. The vertical wall becomes a slab spanning horizontally between counterforts. The heel
slab becomes a slab supported on three sides. The behaviour of vertical wall and that of the
heel slab are as following.
16.14.1 Vertical Wall

The horizontal earth pressure acts on panels of the vertical wall between two supports. These
panels are supported on three supports, that is, at the two counterforts and the base slab. The
fourth side (viz., the top edge) is not supported. The earth pressure increases rapidly with the
increase of depth (i.e., height) from the top. It involves the calculations of bending moments
and shears in such a slab supported on three sides and loaded non-uniformly. The support of
the vertical wall from the base is disregarded, and the vertical wall is designed as a continuous
slab spanning horizontally between counterforts, as shown in Fig. 16.17 (b).
A p pro xim ate C ra ck C o un te rfort

d istrib u tio n
D efle ction o f ve rtica l w a ll
o f e arth
p ressure
p = K A . γ. H 1 D e fle cted
p
sha pe C ra cks S ´
C o un te rfort
C ra ck C ra cks S ´
Toe H e el sla b C ra cks S ´

sla b
C ra ck C o un te rfort
(a ) C o un te rfo rt re ta in in g w a ll (b ) D e fle cted sha p e o f ve rtica l w a ll
Fig. 16.17 Behaviour of vertical wall and heel slab counterfort retaining wall
Structurally, the vertical wall deforms as shown in Fig. 16.17. The deflection of vertical wall
near the top edge is small. However, it will be maximum at some height above the base slab as
shown in Fig. 16.17 (a). The vertical wall acts as a slab bending in two directions with its edges
fixed against rotation at the counterforts and at the footing. The vertical wall needs reinforcement
in vertical and horizontal directions, both. A point of zero bending moment for vertical bending
occurs near the bottom, of wall, which needs reinforcement in the back side below that region.
The points of zero bending for horizontal bending occurs at about 0.3 times the spacing between
the counterforts, which need horizontal surface reinforcement across the counterforts.
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The cracks in vertical wall may develop due to earth pressure because of insufficient tension
reinforcement.
16.14.2 Heel Slab

The heel slab is also supported similar to the vertical wall. It is loaded downward by the weight
of the backfill resting on the heel slab, its self-weight and surcharge, (if any). The down load is
partially counteracted by the soil reaction acting upward. The influence of support from the
vertical wall is neglected for the simplified anlaysis.
The heel slab is also subjected to two-way bending. Midway between the counterforts, and
in the direction parallel to the counterfort, the heel slab deflects as AOB as shown in Fig.
16.17 (a). The heel slab deflects as a continuous beam (supported at the counterforts) in the
direction along the vertical wall.
The vertical wall may crack and fail at the locations of maximum (+ve) and (–ve) bending
moments (viz., the points having maximum tension due to bending) as shown in Fig. 16.17 (b)
because of insufficient tension reinforcement.
In addition to this, the crack may develop between the counterfort and the heel slab (because
of insufficient tension reinforcement at the outerface of counterfort) or between the counterfort
and the vertical wall (because of insufficient anchorage of the wall to the counterfort). The
separation of vertical wall from counterfort, therefore, means failure of the retaining wall.
16.15 DESIGN OF COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL

The vertical wall (stem), heel slab, toe slab and the counterforts (viz., four elements of a
counterfort retaining wall) are designed after satisfying the requirement of stability (i.e.,
overturning, sliding and bearing pressures) as follows.
16.15.1 Vertical Wall (Stem)

A panel of the vertical wall between two counterforts is subjected to the horizontal earth pressure
as shown in Fig. 16.18 (d). The vertical wall acts as a slab in two-way bending (viz., bending in
the vertical plane and also bending in the horizontal plane). The vertical bending and the
horizontal bending of the vertical wall both may be considered separately as below.
16.15.1.1 Vertical Bending

The vertical wall bends in the vertical plane as shown in Fig. 16.18 (a). For design, a vertical
strip of one metre width is considered. The actual bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig.
16.18 (b). The actual bending moment diagram may be approximated as shown in Fig. 16.18
(c). The bending moment at the bottom of the vertical slab is given by Eq. 16.24, as under. It is
a conservative empirical expression.
⎛ S´ ⎞
M1 = 0.03 . p . H12 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ H1 ⎠
where P = intensity of active earth pressure
p = K . γ . h1́ ...(i)
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H 1 = height of the vertical wall measured from top upto the top surface of base slab.
S´ = clear spacing of the counterforts as shown in Fig. 16.17 (b).
⎛ S´ ⎞
The expression in Eq. 16.24 varies from nearly exact for fixed edges at ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 to about
⎝ H1 ⎠
⎛ S´ ⎞ ⎛ S´ ⎞
30 percent high for ⎜ ⎟ = 0.50. It becomes about three times the theoretical values for ⎜ H ⎟
⎝ H1 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
= 0.25.
The maximum positive bending moment occurs at about the lower quarter point (in the
⎛ S´ ⎞
range ⎜ ⎟ less than unity). It may be reasonably be taken as one-fourth of M1. Therefore,
⎝ H1 ⎠
⎛ S´ ⎞
M2 = 0.0075 p . H12 ⎜ ⎟ ...(16.25)
⎝ H1 ⎠
( H 1 /4 )
H1
M 1 = 0 .0 3 p . H 2 S´
D e flecte d shap e for
( H 1 /2 )
vertical b en ding
Ve rtica l be nd in g
M2
M 2 = 0.25 2
H1
( H 1 /4 )
(a ) D e fle cted sha pe o f (b ) A ctu al (c) A pp rox. (d ) E a rth p ressure

vertical w a ll B .M .D . B .M .D .
Fig. 16.18
The vertical bending moment becomes zero at the counterforts and approximately varies
parabolically between them. Professor Huntington (in his book ‘Earth pressures and retaining
walls, New York, John Wiley and Sons Inc. 1957) suggests taking the vertical bending moment
constant longitudinally over the middle third of the distance between the counterforts and
linearly varying from the maximum to zero over the end one-thirds. The vertical moment
diagram may be taken linearly between the quarter points as shown in Fig. 16.18 (c). Frequently,
a 0.001 minimum percentage of reinforcement is provided vertically in the front face.
16.15.1.2 Horizontal Bending

For horizontal bending a strip of one metre height is considered. This strip is treated as a
continuous beam as shown in Fig. 16.19. The loading on each strip will be uniform and equal
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to the intensity of active earth pressure, (p = K A. γ . h, where, h is the height of vertical wall
measured from top upto the middle of the strip being considered).
The (–ve) bending moment over the counterfort supports
wFd ⋅ L2e
Mn = ...(16.26)
12
where w = p × 1 × 1 = KA.γ.h kN/m
S´ = clear spacing between the counterforts
Le = clear span + effective depth
w Fd = 1.5 × w
The (+ve) bending moment at mid-span
wFd ⋅ L2e
Mp = ...(16.27a)
24
However, it may be adopted as
wFd ⋅ L2e
Mp = ...(16.27b)
16
The moment values for the bottom strips may be reduced to account for the fact that the base
slab provides additional support.
Three or four equally spaced additional strips at higher level be considered. The earth pressure
on the different strips decreases with increasing elevations (i.e., decreasing height from top).
Ve rtica l w all (ste m )
Fig. 16.19 Horizontal bending of vertical wall
16.15.2 Heel Slab

The heel slab is treated as a series of longitudinal strips, with support conditions identical to
those of the vertical wall. It is loaded downward by the weight of the backfill resting on it, self-
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weight of the heel slab and surcharge, (if any). This load is partially counteracted by the soil
pressure. The soil pressure is large near the vertical wall and it is usually smallest at the rear
edge (i.e., at the heel). Therefore, the loading on each strip is uniformly distributed, but it
varies for the various strips of the slabs from maximum at the heel (i.e., at edge) to a minimum
near the wall. The (–ve) and (+ve) bending moments are same as given by Eqs. 16.26 and
16.27, respectively.
Near the vertical wall, the soil pressure may exceed the vertical weights and result in a net
upward load. The nature of the moments may then correspondingly reversed. The reinforcement
is provided according to the nature of moments.
16.15.3 Toe Slab

The toe slab is designed in the same manner as it is designed in cantilever retaining wall. Toe
slab acts as a cantilever slab under the soil reaction acting upward.
16.15.4 Counterforts
The counterforts are the triangular walls built in at the bottom with the base slab. The
counterforts support the vertical wall slab and therefore, these are loaded by the total outward
soil pressure acting over a length equal to the distance centre to centre between the counterforts.
The counterforts also support the net pressure (which acts, in general, downward). Therefore,
the angle between the vertical wall and the heel slab (i.e., 90°) tends to increase because of
outward soil pressure acting horizontally and net downward pressure on the heel slab. The
counterfort ties both the vertical wall and the heel slab with itself. Therefore, the counterforts
serve as tension members between the vertical wall and the heel slab. Therefore, the horizontal
steel bars are provided as reinforcement to tie the counterfort to the vertical wall and the
vertical steel bars are provided as reinforcement to tie the counterfort to the steel bars located
near the back of the counterfort. The tension may be calculated at any section by taking the
moments, about a point located at the centre of slab, of the forces acting above a horizontal
section.
The counterfort acts in combination with the vertical wall as a T-beam as shown in Fig.
16.20. A portion of the vertical wall acts as the flange and the counterfort acts as the web. The
maximum bending moment due to total earth pressure about the bottom of slab (critical location
for moment) may be calculated, as follows.
Ultimate earth pressure acting horizontally
1
PH = .1.5 × KA. γ.H2 . s. cos δ ...(i)
2
where
s = spacing between the counterforts
δ = angle of inclination of earth pressure
Factored bending moment
⎛H ⎞
MFd = PH . ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
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1
MFd = × KA . γ . H3. s. cos δ ...(ii)
2
For the levelled ground, the ange δ is zero and consequently, cos δ is unity. Therefore,
1
PH = .1.5 × K A. γ.H2 . s ...(iii)
6
⎛H ⎞
and MFd = PH . ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
1
MFd = × 1.5 × PH . KA. γ.H3 ...(iv)
6
This moment is held in equilibrium by the tensile force in the steel bars (tension reinforcement
as usual, provided near the inclined edge of the counterfort). Therefore, the effective depth of
T-beam shall be the perpendicular drawn from the centre of bottom section of the vertical wall
to the inclined surface of the counterfort).
The area of steel to resist the bending moment may be calculated in the same manner as for
the ordinary T-beam. That is, from Fig. 16.20 (b)
MFd = Th . jB . d
or MFd = T . cos φ, jB . d = C . jB . d ...(v)
where T = 0.87 fy . Ast
C = 0.36 fck . xu . b
⎛ x ⎞
jB = ⎜1 − 0.42 u ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
The compressive area, bf . tf is relatively large. Therefore, the design is controlled from the
area of steel. The area of steel
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
087fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(16.28)
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
where, φ = angle of the inclined face of the counterfort with the vertical as shown in Fig.
16.20 (a).
The bending moment decreases rapidly in the upper parts of the counterfort, the area of
steel bars may be reduced by bending some bars diagonally across the counterfort toward the
face slab and anchoring them in the compression zone.
The shear in the counterfort may be determined from
V = (VB´ + TV) ...(i)
where V´ = shear resisted by the concrete, including any carried by the stirrups
TV = portion of shear carried by the steel bars in tension
M ⋅ tan φ
TV = Th . tan φ = ...(16.29)
jB ⋅ d
Then, V´ = V – TV
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M ⋅ tan φ
V´ = V – ...(16.30)
jB ⋅ d
V´
τc = ...(vii)
b ⋅ d´
V´ ⎛ M ⋅ tan φ ⎞
∴ τc = ⎜1 − j ⋅ d ⎟ ...(16.31)
b ⋅ d´ ⎝ B ⎠
Any stirrups if needed are designed by the usual methods described for beams.
The clear spacing between the counterforts may be taken as (0.33 to 0.5) times the height of
wall. It may be calculated from the following empirical relation
⎛H ⎞
S´ = 3.5 ⎜ 1 ⎟ 0.25 ...(16.32)
⎝ γ ⎠
where, H1 is the height of vertical wall above base slab and γ is the unit weight of soil in kN/m3.
S
bf
(S e ctio n AA )
P q = E ffective d ep th
S = M axim u m spa cing o f coun terfort

b f = E ffe ctive w id th of flan ge
C + dc C
V
9 0° (J b . d )
Q TV
T
φ Th
P
A A
(a ) (b )
Fig. 16.20 Structurally counterfort T-beam
Example 16.3. Design a counterfort retaining wall to retain a backfill material consisting
of sand and gravel mixture with a rather moderate quantity of the fine silty particles of 8 m
height. A live load of surcharge of 19.20 kN/m2 shall be acting over the horizontal surface of
the backfill, M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars shall be used. The safe bearing capacity
of soil is 250 kN/m2. Take foundation 1.20 m deep.
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Solution
Design :
M 20 grade of concrete, and Hysd steel. Fe 415 shall be used.
The design constants are as follows:
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Step 2. Material properties of backfill
The material properties of the backfill material are as below.
Unit weight of the backfill
γ = 18.85 kN/m2 ...(i)
φ = 30° ...(ii)
µF = 0.50 ...(iii)
Coefficient of active earth pressure
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞
KAH = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.333 ...(iv)
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠
Safe bearing capacity of the soil
q 0 = 140 kN/m2 ...(v)
Unit weight of reinforced cement concrete is 25 kN/m2.
Coefficient of passive pressure
⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
KPH = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.0 ...(vi)
⎝ 1 – sin φ ⎠
= 19.20 kN/m2 ...(vii)
s 19.20
h´ = = = 1.02 m ...(viii)
γ 18.85
Height of retaining wall shall be
H = (8.00 + 1.20) = 9.20 m
Step 3. Preliminary properties (dimensions) of counterfort retaining wall.
(i) Ratio of width of toe slab to the width of complete slab.
From Eq. 16.20
⎡ ⎛ 0q ⎞⎤
α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2.2 γH ⎠⎟ ⎦
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⎡ ⎛ 250 ⎞⎤
α = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2.2 × 18.85 × 9.2 ⎠ ⎦
= 0.345
(ii) Complete width of the base slab.

(A) From (consideration of overturning) Eq. 16.19
1
⎡ K AH ⎤2
b = 0.95 . H ⎢ ⎥
( )( )
⎣ 1 − α 1 − 3α ⎦
1
⎡ 0.333 ⎤2
b = 0.95 × 9.2 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 − 0.345 (1 − 3 × 0.345 ) ⎦
( )
= 4.368 m
(B) From (consideration of sliding), Eq. 16.23
0.707 H K AH
b = ⋅
(1 − α ) µF
0.707 × 9.2 0.333

b = ×
(1 − 0.345) 0.5
= 6.614 m
This value is too high.
The width of base slab may be kept as
= 0.6 × 9.2 = 5.52 m
(iii) Width of toe slab
α.b = 0.345 × 5.52 = 1.904 m
width of toe slab is kept 2.00 m
(iv) Width of heel slab
(5.52 – 2.00) = 3.52 m
Let the thickness of heel slab be 0.4 m. Thickness of heel slab is taken as the thickess of
vertical wall (stem) at the base equal to 8 to 15 percent of height.
(v) Vertical wall (stem)
(A) Thickness. The thickness at the top of the vertical wall is taken as 150 mm to 300 mm.
Let the thickness at the vertical wall be 0.240 m.
Thickness at the bottom shall be equal to that of heel slab, i.e., 0.4 m.
(B) Height of wall. The height of wall
H = (8 + 12) = 9.2 m
One metre length of wall is considered. The various gravity loads of different components of
the counterfort retaining wall. W 1, W2, etc., and their respective distances x 1, x 2, etc. from the
toe are shown in Fig. 16.21. These have been calculated and listed as below.
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Weight of Components W (kN) x (m) MR = W. x (kN-m)

Base Height
W 1 = 0.24 × 8.8 × 1 × 25 52.80 18.70 98.726
1
W2 = 2 × 0.16 × 8.8 × 1 × 25 17.66 20.43 35.957
W 3 = 5.02 × 0.4 × 1 × 25 55.20 27.60 152.352
1
W4 = 2 × 0.16 × 8.8 × 1 × 18.85 13.27 20.97 27.827
W 6 = 3.12 × 8.8 × 1 × 18.85 517.55 3.96 2049.498
Total gravity loads ΣW = 656.42 236.437
Factored vertical load = 1.5 × 656.42 kN
= 984.63 kN
Factored bending moment
MFD = (1.5 × 2364.37) = 3546.555 kN-m
0 .24 m
S u rcha rge , S
4
B a ck fill
S h ea r
3
key
(a ) P re lim ina ry prop ortion s (d im en sion s)
cou nterfo rt reta in in g w all
1 4.2 2
kN /m 2
2 23 .62
kN /m 2 = 14 7. 75 kN /m 2
= 13 2. 58 kN /m 2
(b ) P re ssu re distrib ution d ia gra m
Fig. 16.21
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Step 5. Lateral forces

The lateral forces are due to active earth pressure and the surcharge
Lateral earth pressure due to active earth pressure
1
PH = 2 K AH .γ.H.H
1
or PH = 2 × 0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 9.22 kN
= 1.5 × 265.64 kN = 398.46 kN
⎛H ⎞
This acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ = 3.067 m.
⎝3⎠
Live load 19.20
h´ = = = 1.02
Unit wt. of backfill 18.85
Horizontal force due to surcharge
PHS = 0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 1.02 × 92 kN
= 1.5 × 58.90 kN = 88.35 kN
⎛H ⎞
This acts at a height ⎜ ⎟ = 4.6 m.
⎝2⎠
The counterfort retaining wall shall be checked for stability (viz., against overturning and
sliding) and pressures below the base slab as below :
6. (A) Overturning. Resisting moment
MR = 1.5 × 2364.37 kN-m
Overturning moment
M0 = (265.74 × 3.067 + 58.90 × 4.6)
= 1084.43 kN-m
The distance of the resultant from the toe
⎛ 1.5 × ΣM ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.5 × ΣW ⎠
1.5 × (2364.37–1084.43)
x = = 1.95 m
1.5 × 656.42
b 4.6
= = 1.533 m
3 3
Overturning moment due to dead load
MO.D = 1.5 × 265.24 × 3.067 = 1.5 × 813.49 kN-m
= 1220.235 kN-m
The live load is not considered. As such the overturning moment due to live load
MI.IL = zero.
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Restoring moment is due to dead loads only. Therefore, restoring moment

MR = 0.9 × 1.5 × ΣW x = 0.9 × 1.5 × 2364.37
= 1.5 × 2127.933 kN-m
= 3191.90 kN-m
M <
| 1.2 MO.DL+ 1.4 MO.IL
1.5 × 2127.933 kN-m < | 1.5 [(1.2 × 813.49 + 0) = 1.5 × 976.186 kN-m]
= 1464.279 kN-m
Hence it is safe against overturning.
Step 6. (B) Sliding. Sliding force
Fs = (PH + PHS) = 1.5 × (265.64 + 58.90)
= 1.5 × 324.54 kN = 486.81 kN
Restoring force
FR = µF × 0.9 × 1.5 ΣW kN
FR = (0.5 × 0.9 × 1.5 × 656.42)
= 1.5 × 295.389 kN = 443.084 kN
1.5 × FR 1.5 × 295.389
F.SS.L = = = 0.910
1.5 × FS 1.5 × 324.54
As per IS : 456–1978, the factor of safety against sliding should not be less than 1.4. A shear
key shall be provided below the base slab (i.e., below the vertical wall, such that the factor of
safety against sliding shall be satisfied. Therefore,
FR = 1.5 × (295.389 + Passive pressure)
1
FR = 1.5 × (295.389 + 2 K PH .γ.h2)
1
or FR = 1.5 × (295.389 + 2 × 3 × 18.85 × h2)
⎛ 1 ⎞
1.5 × ⎜ 295.389 + × 3 × 18.85 × h2 ⎟
FR ⎝ 2 ⎠
Now = = 1.4
FS 1.5×324.54
h´ = 2.636 m.
Depth of foundation is 1.20 m. Then, the depth of shear key below the base slab shall be
(2.626 – 1.20) = 1.426 m.
Passive earth pressure
1
× 3 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 2.6262 = 1.5 × 194.98 kN.
2
⎛ 295.389 + 194.98 ⎞
∴ F.SSL = 1.5 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.511 > 1.4
⎝ 1.5 × 324.54 ⎠
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Step 6. (C) Pressures below base slab. The distance of resultant from the toe of the base
slab :
⎛ ΣM ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ΣW ⎠
⎛ 2464.37 – 1084.93 ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.95 m
⎝ 656.42 ⎠
b 4.6
= = 1.533 m.
3 3
The resultants acts at 1.95 m from the toe i.e., the middle third width of base slab. The
eccentricity, e of the resultant (distance of resultant from the centre-line of base slab)
⎛b ⎞ ⎛ 5.52 ⎞
e = ⎜ −x⎟ =⎜ − 1.95 ⎟ = 0.81 m
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The pressure below the base slab
ΣW ⎡ 6⋅e⎤
q1 = ⎢⎣1 + b ⎥⎦
b
656.42 ⎡ 6 × 0.81 ⎤
q 1 = 1.5 × 1+
5.52 ⎢⎣ 5.52 ⎥⎦
= 1.5 × 223.62 = 335.43 kN/m2
q1 is less than 2 × 250 kN/m2 (assumed, qu = 2 × q0)
656.42 ⎡ 6 × 0.81 ⎤
q 2 = 1.5 × ⎢1– = 1.5 × 14.22 kN/m2
5.52 ⎣ 55.2 ⎥⎦
= 21.33 kN/m2
Pressure at F
⎡ ⎛ 3.52 ⎞ ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢14.22 + (223.62 – 14.22) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 5.52 ⎠ ⎦
= 1.5 × 147.75 kN/m2 = 221.625 kN/m2
Pressure at G
⎡ ⎛ 3.12 ⎞ ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢14.22 + (223.62 – 14.22) ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 5.52 ⎠ ⎦
= 1.5 × 132.58 kN/m2 = 198.87 kN/m2
The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 16.21 (b).
Step 7. Design of vertical wall (stem)
Height of vertical wall above heel slab
H 1 = (0.2 – 0.4) = 8.8 m.
Consider a strip of 1 m height. This strip acts as a continuous beam. Clear spacing of
counterforts, from Eq. 16.32
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0.25
⎛H ⎞
S´ = 3.5 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ γ ⎠
0.25
⎛ 8.8 ⎞
S´ = 3.5 ⎜ ⎟ = 2.893 m
⎝ 18.85 ⎠
Let the thickness of counterforts be 0.4 m (assumed). Effective span of the above strip
S = ES = [2.893 + (0.2 + 0.2)] = 3.293 m.
Intensity of active earth pressure (average of top and bottom of strip)
⎛ 8.8 + 7.8 ⎞
p = K AH . γ. ⎜ ⎟ kN/m2
⎝ 2 ⎠
= (0.333 × 1.5 × 18.85 × 8.3) = 1.5 × 52.10 kN/m2.
= 78.15 kN/m2
Bending moment over the counterforts (–ve)
1.5 × 52.10 × 3.2932

MCF = = 1.5 × 47.08 kN-m
12
= 70.62 kN-m
Effective depth of vertical slab
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.1396 fck.b.d2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 47.08 × 106
d = 159.98 mm
Let the effective cover be 30 mm. Then, the overall thickness shall be 257.095 mm. The
thickness of slab (assumed) was 400 mm at the base. Hence it is alright. The effective depth of
slab shall be 370 mm.
Step 7. (A) Steel reinforcement for negative BM, Area of steel bars required per 1 m height
⎛ Ast fy ⎞
0.87 fy Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠ = MFd
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 47.08 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
13.35885 × 104 Ast – 7.49178 Ast2 – 70.62 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.783 Ast + 9.426 × 106 = 0

Ast = 560.335 mm2
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Provide 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars. Area of one steel bar

π
Aφ = × 122 = 113.10 mm2.
2
Spacing of bars,
1000 × 113.10
s = = 201.84 mm
560.335
Provide 12 mm φ steel bars horizontally near counterforts face at 180 mm vertical spacing
towards counterforts face shear force near the counterforts
1
V Fd = × 1.5 × (3.293 – 0.2) × 52.10 = 1.5 × 80.57 kN
2
= 120.855 kN
VFd 1.5 × 80.57 × 103

τv = = = 1.5 × 0.218 N/mm2
b⋅d 1000×370
= 0.327 N/mm2
For balanced action, (pB = 0.96)
100 As
= 0.96
b⋅d
and for M20 grade of concrete, the permissible shear stress in concrete without shear
reinforcement, from IS : 456–1978
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
τc is more than τv, the vertical walls slab is safe in shear. It does not need shear reinforcement.
Step 7. (B) Steel reinforcement for positive BM. Bending moment mid-way between the
counterforts
1.5 × 52.10 × 3.2932

MMCF =
17
= 1.5 × 35.31 kN-m = 52.965 kN-m
Area of steel bars required for 1 m weight
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast × d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 35.31 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
13.35885 × 104 Ast – 7.49178 Ast2 – 52.965 × 106 = 0
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Ast2 – 17.831 Ast × 104 + 7.0697 × 106 = 0

Ast = 405.718 mm2
Provide 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars
Aφ = 113.10 mm2.
1000 × 11.310
s = = 278.765 mm
405.718
Provide 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars horizontally at 240 mm vertical spacing on the outer face.
Step 7. (C) Distribution reinforcement. Are of steel for distribution reinforcement
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 400 = 480 mm2.
100
Aφd = 50.26 mm2.
Spacing
100 × 50.26
Sd = = 104.71 mm.
480
Provide 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars at 100 mm spacing of both the faces.
The main reinforcement may be checked for the development length near the point of zero
moments.
The bending moments may be calculated at higher elevations and the spacing of bars may
be calculated.
1. Design of heel slab. Clear spacing between the counterforts (from above)
= 2.893 mm.
Thickness of counterforts assumed as
= 0.4 m = 400 mm.
Effective span = (2.893 + 9.2 + 0.2) = 3.293 m
Consider a strip of 1 m width. This strip acts as a continuous beam supported by the
counterforts at the ends.
Downward load due to weight of backfill
= 1 × 1 × 8.8 × 18.85 = 165.88 kN/m2
Downward load due to self-weight
= 1 × 1 × 0.4 × 25 = 10 kN/m2
Upward soil pressure at G, from Fig. 16.21 (b)
= 132.58 kN/m2
Upward soil pressure at 2.12 m from J (Heel)
⎡ 2.12 ⎤
= ⎢14.22 + (223.62 – 14.22) × = 94.14 kN/m2
⎣ 5.52 ⎥⎦
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Average upward pressure due to soil

⎛ 132.58 + 94.14 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ =113.36 kN/m2
⎝ 2 ⎠
Net downward load
= (165.88 + 10 – 113.36) = 62.52 kN/m2
Factored load
= 1.5 × 62.52 = 93.78 kN/m2
Factored (Maximum) bending moment over the counterforts (–ve)
1.5 × 62.52 × 3.2932

= = –1.5 × 56.50 kN-m
2
= – 84.75 kN-m
Effective depth required
⎛x ⎞⎛ 0.42 xu⋅max ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 + 1000 × d2 = 1.5 × 56.50 × 106
d = 175.258 mm
Let the effective cover be 30 mm. Then overall thickness shall be 205.258 mm. The thickness
of counterfort slab has been kept as 400 mm. Hence, it is alright.
Shear force
1.5 × 62.50 × 3.293
V Fd = = 1.5 × 102.91 kN
2
= 154.365 kN
1.5 × 102.91 × 103
τv = = 0.417 N/mm2
1000 ×370
Permissible shear stress in M20 grade of concrete without shear reinforcement for (pB = 100
Ast/bd) = 0.4398 percent
⎛ 0.06 × 0.21 ⎞ 2
τc = ⎜ 0.56 + ⎟ = 0.61 N/mm
⎝ 0.25 ⎠
τc is more than τV, the heel slab is safe is in shear. It does not need shear reinforcement.
Step 8. (A) Steel reinforcement for negative BM.
Area of Hysd steel bars required for 1 m width
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 ⋅ fy ⋅ Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d × fck ⎠
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⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 56.50 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
Ast = 658.76 mm2
Aφ = 113.10 mm2.
Spacing of the steel bars for negative from (near the counterforts)
1000 × 113.10
s = = 153.96 mm
658.76
Provide 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars at 140 mm spacing centre to centre.
Step 8. (B) Steel reinforcement for positive BM.
Bending moment mid-way between the counterforts heel slab strip shall be positive
62.52 × 3.2932
= = 42.37 kN-m
16
Area of steel reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy Ast ⋅ d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 43.37 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
13.35885 × 104 Ast – 7.4918 Ast – 64.995 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.78313 × 104 Ast+ 8.675 × 106 = 0
Ast = 500.556 mm2
Aφ = 113.10 mm2
Spacing of the steel reinforcement bars for +BM
1000 ×113.10
s = = 225.95 mm
500.556
Provide 12 mm φ Hysd steel at 200 mm spacing centre centre in the heel slab near the
bottom face.
Step 8. (C) Distribution reinforcement. Heel slab is not exposed to temperature. However
shrinkage may take place. Area distribution reinforcement
0.12
Ad = × 1000 × 400 = 480 mm2.
100
Adφ = 50.26 mm2
Spacing
1000 × 50.26
sd = = 104.71 mm.
480
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Provide 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars at 100 mm spacing on the sides.

The main reinforcement steel bars may be checked for development for point of zero moment.
Two or three more strips of 1 m width may be considered and calculations may be carried for
bending moment, reinforcement and the spacing of the steel bars. The bending moment due to
downward loads shall be increasing as the soil; pressure shall be reducing towards heel point.
Step 9. Design of toe slab
Toe slab acts as a cantilever due to soil pressure as shown in Fig. 16.21 (b) acting upward.
Total upward reaction due to soil acting over toe slab
1.5 × (263.62 + 147.75)
= = 2 × 1.5 × 371.37 kN
2
Distance of line of reaction from the face of the vertical wall (stem) viz., point F, Fig. 16.21
(b)
2 ⎛ 147.75 + 2 × 220.62 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ = 1.068 m
3 ⎝ 147.75 + 223.62 ⎠
Bending is maximum about the face
= 1.5 × 371.37 × 1.068
= 1.5 396.06 kN-m = 594 kN-m
The slab shall be designed as the balanced section. The moment of resistance of the toe slab
with 370 mm effective depth and 1000 mm strip
⎛x ⎞⎛ 0.42 xu⋅max ⎞ 2
= 0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ bd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
= 0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2
= 0.13796 fck bd2
⎛ 0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × 3702 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 377.734 mm
⎝ 1000 ×1000 ⎠
Toe slab shall be designed as doubly reinforcement beam
M1 = 377.734 kN-m
M2 = 1.5 × (396.04 – 377.734 = 216.356 kN-m
9. (A) Tension reinforcement for B.M., M1
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 × fy × Ast × d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 377.734 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
13.35885 × 104 Ast – 7.49178 Ast2 – 377.734 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.7831 × 104 Ast + 50.42 × 106 = 0

1
Ast1 = 310.222 mm2
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9. (B) Area of steel reinforcement for B.M., M2

⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 Ast2 × 350 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 216.356 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 350 × 20 ⎠
12.6368 Ast2 × 104 – 749.178 Ast2 2 – 216.356 × 106 = 0
Ast2 2 – 1.8202 × 104 Ast + 28.88 × 106 = 0

2
Ast2 = 175.5994 mm2
9. (C) Total area of steel reinforcement in tension
= ( Ast1 + Ast 2 )
= (3102.22 + 1755.994) = 4858.214 mm2
π
Aφ = × 202 × 314.1598 mm2
4
1000 ×314.159
S = = 64.666 mm
4858.214
Provide 20 mm φ Hysd steel bars at bottom surface at 50 mm spacing centre to centre.
9. (D) Area of steel on compression side (i.e., near the top surface)
(mc – 1) Asc . (x u.max – dc) = mAst2 (d – xu.max)
Ec = × 105 N/mm2,
Ec = 0.255 × 105 N/mm2
⎛ 2 × 105 ⎞
m = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.843
⎝ 0.255 ⎠
(mc– 1) = (1.5 × 7843– 1) = 10.765
x u.max = 0.48 × 370 = 177.60 mm
10.765 . Asc (177.60 – 30) = 7.843 × 1755.994 (370 – 177.60)
Asc = 1669.932 mm2
Spacing
1000 ×314.159
= = 188.126 mm
1669.932
Provide 20 mm φ Hysd steel bars at 30 mm spacing centre to centre near top surface.
9. (E) Distribution reinforcement 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided at 100 mm
spacing c/c at top surface and 50 also at the bottom surface.
Step 10. Design of shear key
Depth of shear slab below the base shall be 1.426 m. Depth of shear slab below the ground
level shall be (1.426 + 1.2) = 2.626 m.
Consider 1 m length of the retaining wall.
Bending moment on shear key due to passive soil pressure
2.626
= 1.5 × ∫ K P . γ . H (H – 1.426) dH
1.426
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2.626
= 3 × 18.85 × 1.5 × ∫ ( H 2 – 1.426 H ) dH
1.426
= 1.5 × 90.423 kN-m

Effective depth
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u⋅max ⎟ bd 2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 1000 × d2 = 135.63 × 106
d = 221.714 mm
Let the effective cover be 30 mm. The overall thickness shall be 251.714 mm. The overall
thickness is kept as 400 m. Then, the effective depth shall be 370 mm. Area of steel reinforcement
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 × fy . Ast .d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 370 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 90.423 × 106
⎝ 1000 × 370 × 20 ⎠
13.35885 × 104 Ast – 7.49178 Ast – 135.6345 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 1.7831 × 104 Ast + 18.104 × 106 = 0
Ast = 1080.666 mm2
Let 12 mm φ Hysd steel bare be provided
Aφ = 113.10 mm2
Spacing of bars
1000 × 113.10
S = = 104.658 mm
1080.666
Provided bars at 90 mm spacing c/c. Shear shall be critical at a depth 370 mm below the base
slab. Shear force shall be
2.626
V Fd = ∫ K P .1.5 . γ . HdH
1.57
2.626
or V Fd = 300 × 1.5 × 18.85 × ∫ HdH
1.57
or V Fd = 1.5 × 125.286 kN = 187.929 kN
1.5 × 125.286 × 102
τv = = 0.5079 N/mm2
1000×370
100 As
For = pB = 0.96 percent and for M 20 grade of concert
bd
τc = 0.61 N/mm2
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Let the effective cover be 30 mm. Let the overall thickness be 480 mm. Distribution
reinforcement
0.12
= × 1000 × 480 = 576 mm2
100
8 mm diameter Hysd steel bars shall be provided
(Aφ = 50.26 mm2)
1000 × 50.26
Spacing = = 87.266 mm
576
These bars are provided at 80 mm spacing centre to centre.
Step 11. Design of counterforts
The structural behaviour of counterforts is like T-beam. The vertical wall (stem acts as the
flange and the counterfort acts as wab. Along the inclined edge of the counterfort, the bars
shall be provided as tension reinforcement.
From Fig. 16.21,
⎛ 3.12 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3545
⎝ 8.8 ⎠
φ = 19.52°
Perpendicular distance PQ
PQ = 8.8 sin φ
= 8.8 × 0.3342 = 2.941 m
Thickness of counterfort is 0.4 m clear spacing between the counterfort
S´ = 2.893 m.
Factored (design) bending moment at the base of slab
1
MFd = .1.5 × KAH . γ.H3. s´
6
1
= × 1.5 × 0.333 × 18.85 × 8.83 × 2.893 kN-m
6
= 1.5 × 2062.53 kN-m = 3093.795 kN-m
Effective depth of beam required (even, in case, it is considered as rectangular beam)
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⋅ ⎜ u⋅max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 × u⋅max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 × fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.36 × fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 0.48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fckbd = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 370 × d2 = 1.5 × 206.253 × 106
d = 1740.82 mm
Let the effective cover be 30 mm.
Then, the overall depth shall be 2501.08 mm
However, the overall depth is PQ = 2941 mm
Let the lever arm factory for the T-beam be assumed as 0.90. Area of steel bars needed
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⎛ Ast × fy ⎞
0.87 × fy . Ast1 . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b.d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast × 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × (2941 – 30) ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.5 × 206.253 × 106
⎝ 370 × 2911 × 20 ⎠
10.51 × 105 Ast – 202.481 Ast2 – 3093.795 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 5.191 × 104 Ast + 152.795 × 106 = 0

Ast = 3134.666 mm2
Provide 20 mm φ Hysd stees bars
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
3134.666
314.159
Provide 12 bars of 20 mm φ Hysd steel along the inclined sum face of the counterfort.
11. (A) Horizontal ties. The vertical wall (stem) is firmly attached with the counterforts so
that the vertical wall cannot separale out. Horizontal ties are provided for this purpose.
Horizontal force which tends to separate the wall
= 1.5 × KA . γ . H × s´
= 1.5 × 0.333 × 18.85 × 8.80 × 2.893
= 1.5 × 159.80 kN = 239.7 kN
Area of 2-legged stirrups, (12 mm φ Hysd stees bars)
π
Aφ = 2 × × 122 = 266.19 mm2
4
Area of stress required
1.5 × 159.80 × 103
= = 663.897 mm2
0.87 × 415
Vertical spacing of the horizontal ties shall be
1000 × 226.19
S = = 340.7 mm
663.897
Provide the horizontal ties at 320 mm spacing. This spacing may be increased towards the
top to 450 mm dc.
11. (B) Vertical ties. Because of net load acting downward, the heel slab also tends to separate
out from the counterforts. To check this, the vertical ties are provided. Net downward force per
1 m horizontal width from step 8.
= 1.5 × 62.50 kN/m2 = 9375 kN/m2
Total downward load
= 1.5 × 62.50 × 2.893
= 1.5 × 180.81 kN
= 271.215 kN/m2
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Area of steel required
180.81 × 103
= 1.5 ×
0.87×415
= 751.184 mm2
Two legged 12 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided for the vertical ties.
Aφ = 226.19 mm2.
Spacing of the vertical ties
1000 ×226.19
s = = 287.72 mm
751.184
The vertical ties are provided at a horizontal spacing of 280 mm c/c.
11. (C) Check for shear. The counterforts may be checked for shear. Total shear force
V Fd = 1.5 × ( 12 K AH . γ . H2 × 2.893) kN
V Fd = 1.5 × ( 12 × 0.333 × 18.85 × 8.82 × 2.893) kN

V Fd = 1.5 × 703.136 kN
⎛ M Fd ⎞
⎜ VFd − tan φ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
⎡ 2062 × 106 ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢703.136 − × 0.3545 ⎥ kN
⎣ 2911 × 1000 ⎦
= 1.5 × [703.136 – 251.11] = 1.5 × 452.03 kN
= 678.045 kN
1.5 × 452.03 × 103

τv = = 0.6294 N/mm2
370 ×2911
τc = 0.61 N/mm2
0.61 × 370 × 2911
Vc = = 657.013 kN
1000
Shear strength of horizontal ties
0.87 × 415 × 226.19 × 2911
Vs = = 742.90 kN
320×1000
(Vc + Vs) = (657.013 + 742.90) kN
= 1399.913 kN > 678.045 kN
The counterfort is safe in shear.
11. (D) Curtailment of inclined bars. The inclined bars carrying tension due to bending and
provided near the inclined edge of the counterfort may be curtailed at higher elevations.
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Half of the bars may be curtailed at a height from top

Hl 8.8
H = = 6.22 m
=
2 2
These remaining 6 bars shall be extended 12 times the diameter of the steel bars. Then, the
actual point of cut-off from the top
⎛ 12 × 20 ⎞
= ⎜ 6.22 − ⎟ = 5.98
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Shear force at this height
V´ Fd = 1.5 × ( 12 K AH . γ . H2 × 6.893) kN
= 1.5 × ( 12 × 0.333 × 18.85 × 5.982 × 2.893) kN

= 1.5 × 324.696 kN
= 487.044 kN
Effective depth at this point (for T-beam)
= 0.2 + 5.98 tan 19.52°
= (0.2 + 5.98 × 0.3545) = 2.32 m
⎛π ⎞
Ast = 6 × ⎜ × 202 ⎟ = 1884.96 mm2
⎝4 ⎠
100 Ast 100 × 1884.96
= = 0.2196
bd 370×2320
From IS : 456–1978 for M 20 grade of concrete
τc = 0.36 N/mm2
bd
V 0 = τc kN
1000
0.36 × 370 × 2320
= = 309.024 kN
1000
For 12 mm φ Hysd stress 2-legged
Horizontal ties at 320 mm spacing
226.19 ×0.87×415×2320
Vs = = 592.075
320×1000
(Vc + Vs) = (309.024 + 592.075) = 901.315 kN
Therefore, (Vc + Vs) is more than V´
2 2
3 (Vc + Vs) = 3 × 901.315 = 600.877 kN
It is also more than V´ = 324.696 kN.
Hence, the bars may be curtailed at this height.
The details of reinforcement for the counterfort retaining wall are shown in Fig. 16.22 and
16.23.
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6 ba rs
2 0 m m φ hysd
stee l 2-leg ged
B a ckfill 1 2 m m φ tie s
m aterial
@ 4 50 m m 8 m
cou nterfo rt
8 m m φ h ysd 2 -le gg ed
stee l ba rs 8m
@ 1 00 m m c/c 1 2 m m φ ve rtica l
8 .8 m ties @ 2 80 m m c/c
8 m m φ h ysd
1 2 m m φ hysd ste el stee l ba rs @ 1 2 ba rs @ 32 0
b ars @ 2 40 m m c/c 1 00 m m c/c m m c/c
1 2 m m φ hysd
stee l ba rs @ 8 mm φ
1 .2 m 1 80 m m c/c 1 .2 m @ 1 00 m m c/c
0 .4 m 0 .4
2 0 m m φ hysd ste el 1 2 m m φ hysd
1 .43 m
b ars @ 5 0 mm c/c 1 2 m m φ hysd ste el ba rs @
stee l ba rs 9 0 m m c/c
S h ea r key @ 2 0 m m c/c
0 .4 0 .4
5 .52 m 5 .52 m
(a ) S e ctio nal e le vation (b ) S e ctio nal e le vation
(M idw a y be tw e en cou n terforts) (Th rou gh cou nterforts)
Fig. 16.22 (Details of reinforcement) Design of counterfort retaining wall

0 .4 m
0 .4 m
2 .89 3 m
12 m m φ h ysd ste el bars
C o un te rforts
6.22 m
6.22 m
@ 24 0 m m c/c
0 .4
8.0 m
6 ba rs 20 m m φ
h ysd stee l
1 2 m m φ hysd ste e l b ars
C ou nterforts
12 m m φ hysd
@ 2 0 m m c/c
2 .8 93 m
stee l ba rs
Ve rtica l tie s
@ 1 80 m m c/c
1 2 m m φ hysd ste e l
@ 2 80 m m c/c
H o rizon ta l tie s
1 2 m m φ hysd ste e l
1 .2 m @ 3 20 m m c/c
0 .4
1 2 m m φ hysd 1 2 m m φ hysd H o rizon ta l tie s

1 .43 m stee l ba rs H e el slab stee l ba rs 12 m m @
@ 1 40 m m c/c she ar ke y @ 2 00 m m c/c 3 20 m m c/c
(a ) L on gitud in al e le va tion (b ) S e ctio na l p la n
Fig. 16.23 (Details of reinforcement) Deign of counterfort retaining wall
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PROBLEMS
16.1. A backfill material consisting of sand and gravel without fine particles of 3.20 m height is to
be retained by a gravity retaining wall. A live load load surcharge of 12 kN/m2 shall be acting
over the horizontal surface of the back.
Design the gravity retaining wall.
16.2. Design a cantilever retaining wall to retain a backfill of sand and gravel without fine particles
of 3.20 m height. A live load surcharge of 12 kN/m2 shall be acting over the horizontal surface
of the backfill M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars shall be used. The maximum
bearing capacity of the soil is 160 kN/m2.
16.3. Design a counterfort retaining wall to retain a backfill material consisting of sand and gravel
without fine particles of 40 m height. A live load of 12 kN/m2 shall be acting over the horizontal
surface of the backfill. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars shall be used. The safe
bearing capacity of soil is 220 kN/m2. Take foundation 1.00 m deep.
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Design of Domes
17
17.1 INTRODUCTION
A dome is a structure having thin curved surface formed by revolution of curved surface about
a vertical axis. A vertical section through this axis in any direction is, as a rule, an area of a
curve. A spherical dome is obtained by revolving a segment of a circle about its vertical axis. A
conical dome is formed by the revolution of a right angled triangle about its vertical axis. A
spheroid dome is generated by revolving an elliptical curve through its axis of revolution. In
general, the spherical domes are very commonly used.
Domes are needed to roof large spans e.g., auditoriums, assembly halls, temples, mosques,
hangers, exhibition halls, circular tanks, bins and bunkers, etc. Domes have been built since
the earliest times. Almost all the schools of architecture (modern, ancient, western, oriental)
have recognized the innate beauty of domes. In early days, the masonry domes where built.
The various examples of the masonry domes are pantheon dome in Rome. St. Sophia’s domes
in Constantinople, St. Paul’s dome in London (in western world) and dome of Taj Mahal at
Agra and the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur in India) Dome of the civic centre in Charlotte, U.S.A.
built in 1954, is built in steel. Dome of discovery constructed in London for the festival of
Britain in 1951 (which was later dismantled after the festival was over) was built in aluminium.
Domes built in concrete and suitably reinforced are advantageous, since the wet concrete steadily
takes up the curvature required in two directions.
From the practical point of view, the curved shuttering becomes expensive and there are
difficulties for the accurate erection and placing of concrete on both faces where the inclination
to the horizontal becomes more than 30 degrees. The erection cost becomes very high. However,
it becomes economical, in case, the shuttening is repetitively used.
As compared to the various other dimensions of dome, the thickness of dome is very small. It
may vary from 75 mm to 150 mm. The domes may be designed with the normal dimensions in
case the loading is symmetrical about the axis of revolution and the dome is supported in a
plane at right angles to its axis of revolution and the supports being level all round the edge. In
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case, these specified conditions are satisfied, only direct compressive forces are needed to maintain
the stability.
17.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS RELATED WITH DOMES

The definitions of following terms related with the domes have been given so that the domes
may be studied with convenience. Consider a frustum of a spherical domes as shown in Fig.
17.1 (a) and (b). Hypothetically, the dome may be considered to consist of number of rings
(horizontal slices) of uniform heights and decreasing diameters and placed one above the other.
Each ring supports the load of all the rings above it and transfers the load to the ring immediately
below it.
R in g
L in es o f
L on gitud e s
T´ (M erid ian s)
H´
P a ralle l o f
T la titud e s (C ircle s)
(a ) (b )
Fig. 17.1 Frustum of spherical dome
17.2.1 Latitudes and Longitudes

The latitude is the circle of a ring. In case, the circles are drawn through top and bottom points
diametrically opposite to each other, then, these are called as circles of meridians. A line
corresponding to each circles of meridian is called as longitude.
The latitude and longitude are used to represent two directions. Mathematically, these are
used to represent two angular directions. Geographically these terms are used to represent the
position of a place. The longitude is an arc of the equator between the meridian of a place and
a standard meridian, whereas the latitude is the angular distance from the equator.
The top most point of the spherical dome is called crown. The meridian circles converge at
the crown.
17.2.2 Meridional Thrust

The loads coming from all the above rings over a ring acting down the lines of longitudes, Fig.
17.1 (b) and the reaction from the bottom provides direct compression over the ring. This direct
compressive force acting along the meridians is called as meridional thrust, represented by
letters, T and T´.
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Design of Domes 989
17.2.3 Hoop Compression

It is seen that the dome shown in Fig. 17.1 (b) remains in equilibrium by virtue of top part of
each the wedge shaped sides of each sector pressing one another. The top of each sector tends
to fall inwards.
It is supported by the equal and opposite lateral reaction of the opposite section, this gives
rise to hoop compression represented by letter H and H´.
17.2.4 Hoop Tension

Towards the support, these lateral reactions become circumferential tension. The circumferential
tensions are provided by the circumferential bands or circular ties near the bottom.
17.3 VARIOUS LOADS ACTING ON DOMES

The various loads acting on the domes are as under:
1. Self-weight
2. Live load
3. Snow load
4. Wind load
17.3.1 Self-weight
The self-weight of dome is a very variable factor. It depends upon the type of dome provided.
However, a rough figure of 0.24 to 0.58 kilo-Newton per square metre of projected plan area
may be assumed.
17.3.2 Live Load

The live load acting over the dome is small and it is neglected in the design of dome.
17.3.3 Snow Load

The snow load remains constant per square metre of projected plan area. Reference may be
made to building code for detailed information.
17.3.4 Wind Load

Professor H. Reissner in 1912 put forth the following expression for wind distribution
p = φ0 . sin φ . cos φ ...(i)
The advantage of this expression is that it gives an antimetrical wind distribution as shown
in Fig. 17.2. This enables the equations for stresses in shell domes may be framed very easily
and solved. The main disadvantage of this expression is that it is not a true representation of
the pressure distribution when acts on a dome. This expression neglects the tangential component
of the wind pressure. It considers only the component of the wind pressure normal to the dome.
At low wind velocities, this may be to a certain extent be true, but at high wind velocities, the
life of the dome may seriously affect the pressure distribution.
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P = p 0 sin φ cos φ
Fig. 17.2 Antimetrical distribution of wind pressure
Stresses due to wind. It is difficult to estimate the stresses due to wind, temperature and
shrinkage. The analysis of dome subjected to these effects is complicate. However, the stresses
due to these effects are small as the stresses due to dead load themselves are small. The horizontal
pressure due to wind from one direction tends to cant the otherwise horizontal circumferential
lines of force round the dome to a small angle with the horizontal and at the same time slightly
increase the meridional thrust in the leeward side. The effects are accounted for by the addition
of reinforcement in both the directions to the extent of about 0.2 percent of the cross-sectional
area.
Professor F. Dischinger put the better representation of the wind pressure distribution diagram
on the structure as below :
p = p0 sin2 φ . sin2 ψ ...(ii)
where ψ = (90 – θ)
Experimental tests (conducted by F. Dischinger) gave results closer to those obtained by the
expression (ii) than to those given by the expression (i).
The disadvantage of Dischinger’s expression is that it does not give an antimetrical loading
on the dome. To overcome this difficulty, Professor F. Dischinger replaced sin ψ and sin2 ψ, so
that
p = p0 sin2 φ [c . sin ψ + (1 – c) sin2 ψ] ...(iii)
where, c is a constant determined from the consideration that the horizontal load on the dome
must in both formulae be the same. The value of c was suggested as 0.4. Therefore
sin2 ψ = 0.4 sin ψ + 0.6 sin2 ψ ...(iv)
2
sin ψ = 0.75 sin ψ – 0.25 sin 3 ψ ...(v)
Then p = p0 sin2 φ [0.85 sin ψ – 0.15 sin 3 ψ] ...(vi)
17.4 SPHERICAL DOME CARRYING UNIFORMLY DISTRI BUTED LOAD

The spherical dome of uniform thickness carrying uniformly distributed load may be analysed
and hoop compression and meridional thrust at any fibre of the dome may be found.
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Design of Domes 991
The weight of covering (if any) e.g., tiles, sheet metal or asphalt, and suspended ceiling (if
provided) shall be considered in addition to the self-weight of the structural concrete. The
weight of covering remains proportional to the surface of the dome. Whereas, the weight of the
ceiling remains in proportion to that of the projected area. The sum of those may be adopted as
0.96 kN/m2. It is added to the self-weight of the concrete. It shall be the uniformly distributed
load per unit area. Let the uniformly distributed load acting on the spherical dome be w per
unit area.
Figure 17.3 shows a section through the vertical axis of revolution of a thin spherical dome
of thickness, t and the radius, r. An elemental ring bounded by two horizontal panes CD and
EF close together is considered. The positions of the ring are defined by angles θ and (θ + ∆θ)
with the vertical. The meridional thrust and the hoop compression at any fibre of the concrete
may be determined as under.

The elemental ring DEFE is in equilibrium under meridional thrust, T per unit length of the
circle of latitude CD down the lines of longitude tangential to the surface and a similar horizontal
thrust (T + ∆T) per unit length acting up the lines of longitude also tangential to the surface
round the circle of latitude, EF and the weight of ring acting vertically downward. Two
meridional thrusts T and (T + ∆T) are not equal. These thrusts act at a small angle ∆θ to one
another between them. The meridional thrust (T + ∆T) acting upward is more than the
meridional thrust, T.
(T + ∆T) – (T) = ∆T ...(i)
r . sin θ
A W
(9 0 – θ)
C B θ
D
T
T + ∆T
E F
r θ
∆θ
Fig. 17.3 Spherical dome carrying point load
The meridional thrust T is due to weight of the dome portion CAD. The surface area of
portion of dome CAD.
= 2π γ . AB ...(ii)
Let w be weight per unit area, then, the total weight
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= w.(2 πγ . AB) ...(iii)

From Fig. 17.3,
AB = (AO – BO)
= γ (1 – cos θ) ...(iv)
Therefore, the weight of portion of dome CAD
= w . 2πr2. (1– cos θ) ...(v)
The sum of the vertical components of all the thrust T per unit length acting round the
circumference of circle, CD is equal to the above wt.
T. 2γ.BD . cos (90 – θ) = w . 2πr2 (1 – cos θ)
or T. 2π (γ . sin θ) . sin θ = w . 2πr2 (1 – cos θ)
⎛ 1 − cos θ ⎞
∴ T = w.r. ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.1)
⎝ sin2 θ ⎠
17.4.2 Hoope Compression

The hoop compression, H develops due to the thrust T acting downward and thrust (T + ∆T)
acting upward. These two thrusts act at angles θ and (θ + ∆θ) with the horizontal, respectively.
The breadth of elemental ring, DF measured on great circle are (viz., a line of longitude through
the crown, A) is r∆θ. The hoop force
= – H . e ∆θ ...(vi)
where H is the hoop force per unit length of surface measured on the great circle (already
defined above). The component of the meridional thrust, T acting horizontally and radially
(outward)
= T . cos θ ...(vii)
This horizontal component develops hoop tension and tension to increase the diameter of
this ring.
Hoop tension = T . cos θ . (radius of ring, CD)
= T . cos θ . r sin θ ... (viii)
The component of the meridional thrust (T + ∆T) acting horizontally and radially (inward)
= (T + ∆T), cos (θ + ∆θ) ...(ix)
This horizontal between the two expression and tends to decrease the diameter of this ring.
Hoop compression
= (T + ∆T) . cos (θ + ∆θ) . r sin (θ + ∆θ) ...(x)
The difference between the two expressions (viii) and (ix) gives the hoop compression or
tension (whichever is more) on the elemental ring. The difference is obtained as below :
(T + ∆T) . [cos (θ + ∆θ). r sin (θ + ∆θ)] – T cos θ . r sin θ
= (T + ∆T) . r . [(cos θ . cos ∆θ – sin θ. sin ∆θ) × (sin θ . cos ∆θ + cos θ . sin ∆θ)]
– T cos θ sin θ
2 2 2
= (T + ∆T) . r [(cos θ . sin θ . cos θ ∆θ – sin θ . sin ∆θ . cos ∆θ + cos θ . cos ∆θ sin ∆θ
– cos θ . sin θ . sin2 ∆θ) – T . r . cos θ sin θ ...(xi)
When ∆θ tends to zero, cos ∆θ becomes unity and sin ∆θ becomes zero. Therefore, above
difference may be written
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Design of Domes 993
= (T + ∆T). r cos θ . sin θ – T . r . cos θ sin θ

= ∆(T. r . cos θ . sin θ) ...(xii)
Hoop force
– H . r . ∆θ = ∆ . (T . r. cos θ. sin θ) ... (xiii)
From Eq. 17.1
w. r (1 – cos θ)
T = ...(xiv)
sin 2 θ
Therefore,
1 ∆ ⎡ (1 – cos θ) ⋅ r ⎤
–H = ⎢w ⋅ r ⋅ cos θ sin θ⎥ ...(xv)
r ∆θ ⎣ sin2 θ ⎦
The expression (xv) may be written in the form of differentiation as below :
d ⎡ cos θ cos2 θ ⎤
– H = w.r. ⎢ − ⎥ ...(xvi)
dθ ⎣ sin θ sin θ ⎦
The rules for differentiation for a product and a quotient may be applied.
Therefore,
⎡ − sin2 θ − cos2 θ ⎛ −2sin 2 θ ⋅ cos θ + cos3 θ ⎞ ⎤
– H = w . r. ⎢ −⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ sin 2 θ ⎝ sin2 θ ⎠⎦
⎡ −1 + 2sin 2 θ ⋅ cos θ + cos3 θ ⎤

– H = w . r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin2 θ ⎦
⎡ −1 + 2cos θ – cos3 θ − cos3 θ ⎤

– H = w . r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin2 θ ⎦
⎡ −1 + 2cos θ – cos3 θ ⎤
– H = w . r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin2 θ ⎦
⎡1 − 2cos θ – cos3 θ ⎤
or H = w. r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin 2 θ ⎦
⎡1 – 2 cos θ + cos2 θ – cos2 θ + cos3 θ ⎤

or H = w. r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 + cos2 θ ⎦
⎡ (1 – cos θ)2 + cos2 θ (1 – cos2 θ) ⎤

or H = w. r. ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ (1+ cos2 θ) (1 – cos2 θ) ⎦⎥
⎡1 − cos θ – cos2 θ ⎤
or H = w. r. ⎢ ⎥ ...(17.2)
⎣ 1 + cos θ ⎦
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A
H o op com pressio n
( AB = w.r /2)
B
P lan e of ruptu re
H=0 H =0
H o op 5 1° 48 ' 5 1 ° 48 ' H o op
te nsio n te nsio n
C D
D C
Fig. 17.4 Variation of hoop stress
At A, Fig. 17.3, (viz., crown of the dome) the angle θ shall be zero. From Eq. 17.2,
w⋅r
H = (i.e., compressive) ...(17.3)
2
The intensity of hoop stress shall be
H w⋅r
σH = =− ...(17.4)
t 2t
The hoop stress is compressive and maximum at the crown.
The hoop compressive force shall be zero when the right side of Eq. 17.2 disappears. That is
⎡1 − cos θ – cos2 θ ⎤
w.r. = ⎢ ⎥=0
⎣ 1 + cos θ ⎦
or (1 – cos θ – cos2 θ) = 0
then cos θ = 0.618,
i.e., θ = 51° 48´
Where there is no hoop compression and no hoop tension, the plane through the circle is
called as the plane of rupture. When the angle θ exceeds 51 degrees and 48 minutes, the hoop
force changes its sign. It becomes tensile. The variation of hoop stress is as shown in Fig. 17.4.
17.5 SPHERICAL DOME CARRYING CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CROWN

A spherical dome of uniform thickness carrying a point load W at the crown is shown in Fig.
17.5, through the vertical axis of revolution. The meridional thrust and hoop force due to self-
weight of the dome shall be calculated as described in Art. 17.4. The stresses in dome due to
point load are determined separately. The resultant stresses are obtained by adding the stresses
calculated for the two cases.
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Design of Domes 995
r . sin θ
(9 0 – θ)
C B θ D
T
T + ∆T
E F
θ
∆θ
Fig. 17.5 Spherical dome carrying uniformly distributed load
An elemental ring bounded by two horizontal planes CD and EF close together is considered.
The positions of the ring are defined by angle θ and (θ + ∆θ) with the vertical axis. The meridional
thrust and the hoop force at any fibre of the concrete may be obtained as under.

The elemental ring CDFE is in equilibrium under meridional thrust, T per unit length tangential
to the dome acting downlines of longitude round the circle of latitude CD and thrust (T + ∆T)
per unit length tangential to the dome acting up lines of longitude round the circle EF. Angles
θ and (θ + ∆θ) define the positions of circles CD and EF with respect to the load, W.
The load W is equal to the sum of the vertical components of the thrusts T in magnitude.
∴ T . 2πr . sin θ . cos (90 – θ) = W
or T. 2πr . sin2 θ = W
W
or T = (compression) ...(17.5)
2πr ⋅ sin 2 θ
17.5.2 Hoop Compression

The hoop compression, H develops due to the thrust, T acting downward and thrust (T + ∆T)
acting upward. These two thrusts act at angles θ and (θ + ∆θ) with the horizontal, respectively.
The breadth of elemental ring DF measured on great circle are (viz., a line of longitude through
crown A) is r∆θ. The Hoop force
= – H . r ∆θ ...(i)
where H is the hoop force per unit length of surface measured on great circle. The component
of meridional thrust, T acting horizontally and radially (outward)
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= T . cos θ ...(ii)
This horizontal component develops hoop tension and tends to increase the diameter of this
ring. Hoop tension
= T . cos θ (radius of ring CD)
= T . cos θ sin θ ...(iii)
The component of the meridional thrust (T + ∆T) acting horizontally and radially (inward)
= (T + ∆T) . cos (θ + ∆θ) ...(iv)
This horizontal component develops hoop compressions and tends to decrease the diameter
of this ring. Hoop compression
= (T + ∆T) . cos (θ + ∆θ) . r. sin (θ + ∆θ) ...(v)
The difference between the two expressions (v) and (iii) gives hoop force. Therefore,
– H . r. ∆θ = ∆ (T . r . cos θ . sin θ) ...(vi)
From Eq. 17.5
W
T = ...(vii)
2πr ⋅ sin 2 θ
⎛ W ⎞
∴ – H . r. ∆θ = ∆ . ⎜ ⋅ r ⋅ cos θ sin θ ⎟
2
⎝ 2πγ sin θ ⎠
W ∆ ⎛ cos θ ⎞
or –H = ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
2πγ ∆θ ⎝ sin θ ⎠
The expression (viii) may be written as
W d ⎛ cos θ ⎞
–H = ⎜ ⎟
2πr dθ ⎝ sin θ ⎠
W – sin θ sin θ – cos θ cos θ

or –H = ⋅
2πr sin2 θ
W ⎛ sin2 θ +sin2 θ ⎞
or H = ⋅⎜ ⎟
2πr ⎝ sin 2 θ ⎠
W
or H = . cosec2 θ (tension) ...(17.6)
2πr
At crown the angle θ shall be zero and cosec θ shall be infinity. Therefore, the value of H
shall be infinite. Therefore, when the lantern is attached, the lantern load shall be acting as
concentrated load at angle θ equal to zero. This lantern load is to be spread over an appreciable
area and if necessary, the dome must be thickened, reinforced strongly or both.
The values of various coefficients of the hoop stresses are given for a thin spherical dome of
uniform thickness for uniformly distributed load and for concentrated at the crown for different
values of angle θ in Table 17.1.
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Design of Domes 997
Table 17.1 Coefficients of w. r/(W/r) for meridional thrust T and hoop forces, H
Uniformly distributed load Point load W at crown
Meridional Hoop Meridional Hoop
θ thrust T force H thrust R force N
(deg.) coeffi. of w.γ coeffi. of w.r coeffi. of W/γ coeffi. of W/γ
⎛ 1 – cos θ ⎞ ⎛ 1 – cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⋅ ⎟
⎝ sin2 θ ⎠ ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠ ⎝ 2 π ⋅ sin2 θ ⎠ ⎝ 2 π sin2 θ ⎠
0´ 0.5 –0.5 ∞ ∞
5 0.500 –0.496 21.000 21.000
10 0.505 –0.480 5.300 5.300
20 0.556 –0.425 1.370 1.370
30 0.537 –0.330 0.640 0.640
40 0.566 –0.200 0.380 0.380
50 0.608 –0.034 0.270 0.270
51°48´ 0.618 0.000 0.260 0.260
60 0.667 + 0.167 0.210 0.210
70 0.747 + 0.402 0.180 0.180
80 0.838 + 0.680 0.160 0.160
90 1.000 + 1.000 0.160 0.160
100 1.110 + 1.380 0.160 0.160
110 1.520 + 1.860 0.180 0.180
120 2.000 + 2.500 0.210 0.210
130 2.790 + 3.450 0.270 0.270
140 4.270 + 5.050 0.380 0.380
150 7.480 + 8.330 0.640 0.640
160 16.600 + 17.500 1.370 1.370
170 66.000 + 66.000 5.300 5.300
180 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(Reference. Terrington, J.S., ‘Design of Domes’ Published by Concrete Publications Limited
14 Dartsmouth Street, London S.W. 1)
( Note. Positive sign is for tensile stress.
w⋅r
The coefficients of for meridional thrust, T and the hoop stresses, H are given for
(Wr )
uniformly distributed load and for point load at the crown for the segmental dome of uniform
thickness, separately.
However, for any design, the effect of both the loadings must be considered simultaneously
at any level. The level of zero hoop force or the joint of rupture depends on the relative magnitude
of the unit weight w of the dome and the concentrated load, W and on the radius, r. It shall be
no longer occur at angle of 51° and 48´´. The value of θ at the joint of rupture for the combined
loading, the whole expression may be equated to zero. That is,
⎡ ⎛ 1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞ W ⎤
⎢w ⋅ r ⋅ ⎜ ⎟+ ⋅ cosec2θ ⎥ is equated to zero.
⎣ ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠ 2πr ⎦
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17.6 DESIGN OF DOMES

The thickness of dome needed from the consideration of stresses developed due to load is very
small in comparison with the other dimensions. The thickness of dome is kept as 75 mm minimum
and it may be 150 mm. For water tanks the ratio of span to rise of the dome may be kept as 4
to 6.
Ring beam. Mostly of the domes used to be segmental. At the free edge of the segmental
dome, the meridional compression shall be inclined with the horizontal. The horizontal
component of the meridional compression provides an outward thrust. In order to resist this
outward thrust a ring beam is provided at the base of the dome. The reinforcement provided in
the ring beam resists hoop tension. Only vertical component is transmitted to the supporting
wall. In hemispherical dome, the hoop compression remains vertical.
Reinforcement. A minimum reinforcement of 0.2 percent of the cross-sectional area of the
dome is provided in both the directions (viz., latitudes and longitudes). In order to avoid
congestion of the steel bars, the steel bars are provided upto certain latitude and mesh
reinforcement is provided at the crown.
Example 17.1 The inside diameter of a circular room is 9 m. Design a spherical dome to
carry a uniformly distributed load (live load of 1.50 kN/m2). The dome is to support a lantern
of load 18 kN as point load from a circular opening of 1.8m at the crown. M 20 grade of
concrete and Hysd steel of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
Solution
Design :
M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd-steel bars of grade Fe 415, for the balanced section, the
design constant are as follows.
⎛ xu⋅max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48.
⎝ d ⎠
Step 2. Dimension of dome
The dimension of dome are as shown in Fig. 17.6. The inside diameter of dome is 9 m. The
span to rise ratio is kept 4 to 6. Therefore, the rise of dome
⎛9⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 2.25 m ...(i)
⎝4⎠
⎛9⎞
and ⎜ ⎟ = 1.50 m ...(ii)
⎝6⎠
Provide a rise of 1.8 m.
Let r be the radius of dome. Then
Rise. (2r – rise) = 4.5 2 ...(i)
1.8 × (2r – 1.8) = 20.25
r = 6.525 m
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Design of Domes 999
⎛ 4.5 ⎞
sin θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6897
⎝ 6.525 ⎠
cos θ = 0.7241
and θ = 43.603° ...(iii)
Similar to the expression (i) for the opening of 1.8 m, AB1 may be calculated
AB1 × (2r – AB1) = 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.81
or AB1 × (2 × 6.525 – AB1) = 0.81
AB1 = 0.064 m
⎛ 0.9 ⎞
sin θ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.1379
⎝ 6.525 ⎠
cos θ1 = 0.9904,
and θ1 = 7.928°
0 .9 m 0 .9 m
C1 A D1
B1
R ise = 1.8 m
θ1 θ1
4 .5 m B 4 .5 m
C D
y = R a dius θ θ y = R a dius
O
Fig. 17.6 Dimensions of spherical dome
Step 3. Loads
It is to note that in Arts. 17.4 and 17.5, there was no opening in the dome. In this case, an
opening of 1.8 m diameter has been provided. It may be assumed that there is no opening. The
effective weight of lantern may be considered to consider the effect of opening.
Let the thickness of dome be 100 mm. The uniformly distributed load per square metre of
surface area due to
Self-wt. = 0.1 × 25 = 2.5 kN/m2
Live load = 1.5 kN/m2
Total = 4 kN/m2
w Fd = (1.5 × 4) = 6 kN/m2
Weight of the portion of dome C1AD1
4 × 2πr × AB1 = (4 × 2π × 6.525 × 0.0624)
= 10.23 kN
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Effective weight of lantern

= (18 – 10.23) = 777 kN
Factored weight of lantern
w Fd = 1.5 × (7.77) kN
= 11.55 kN
Step 4. Meridional stress due to combined load
Meridional stress due to uniformly distributed load, from Eq. 17.1
T w ⋅ r ⎛ 1 − cos θ ⎞
= Fd ⎜
1×t 1 × t ⎝ sin 2 θ ⎟⎠
1.5 × 4 × 6.525 ⎛ 1 − cos θ ⎞ 2

= ⎜ ⎟ kN-m ..(v)
1 × 0.1 ⎝ sin2 θ ⎠
Meridional stress due to point load from Eq. 17.5
T WFd 1
= 2
×
1×t 2πr sin θ t × 1
1.5 × 7.77 1 1
= × × kN-m2 ..(vi)
1 × 0.1 2π× 6.525 sin 2 θ
The meridional stress due to combined load shall be obtained by adding the expressions (v)
and (vi). Therefore,
⎡ 4 × 6.525 ⎛ 1 − cos θ ⎞ 7.77 1 ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟+ ⋅ 2 ⎥
⎣ 1 × 0.1 ⎝ sin θ ⎠ 1 × 0.1 × 2π × 6.525 sin θ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 − cos θ ⎞ 11.91 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
= 1.5 × ⎢261 ⎜ ⎟ + 2 ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
⎣ ⎝ sin2 θ ⎠ π ⎝ sin2 π ⎠ ⎥⎦
The values of meridional stress for combined loads for the different values of angle θ have
been tabulated in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2
Meridional stress, kN/m2 Hoop stress, kN/m2
Angle, θ Due to Due to Due to Due to
UDL Point Load Total UDL Point Load Total
5° 130.50 250.11 — – 129.46 250.11 —
7.928° 131.27 140.56 271.83 – 127.01 140.56 + 13.55
10° 131.81 63.12 194.93 – 125.28 63.12 – 62.16
20° 134.68 16.32 151.00 – 110.93 16.32 – 94.61
30° 140.16 7.62 147.78 – 86.13 7.62 – 78.51
40° 147.73 4.53 152.26 – 52.20 4.53 – 47.67
43.603° 151.68 4.06 155.74 – *39.98 *4.6 – 35.92
50° 158.688 3.22 — – 8.874 3.22 —
* This value is calculated by extrapolation instead of intrapolation.
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Design of Domes 1001
Step 5. Hoop stress due to combined load

Hoop stress due to uniformly distributed load, from Eq. 17.2
H w ⋅ r ⎡1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎤
= Fd ⎢ ⎥
t ×1 t ×1 ⎣ 1 + cos θ ⎦
H 1.5 × 4 × 6.525 ⎡1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎤

or = ⎢ ⎥
t ×1 0.1 × 1 ⎣ 1 + cos θ ⎦
H ⎛ 1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞
or = 1.5 × 26.1 ⎜ ⎟ ...(ix)
t ×1 ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠
Hoop stress due to point load, from Eq. 17.6
H w 1
= Fd ⋅ ⋅ cosec2 θ
t ×1 2πr t × 1
H 1.5 × 7.77 1 1
= × × kN/m2
t ×1 2π× 6.525 0.1 × 1 sin2 θ
H 1
or = 1.5 × 1.895 . kN/m2
t ×1 sin2 θ
The value of hoop stress due to combined load shall be obtained by adding the expressions
(ix) and (x). Therefore,
⎡ ⎛ 1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞ 11.91 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
= 1.5 ⎢26.1 ⎜ 2
⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ kN/m
⎣ ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠ 2π ⎝ sin2 θ ⎠ ⎦
The values of hoop stress for combined loads for the different values of angle θ have been
calculated using Table 17.1 and tabulated in Table 17.2.
Step 6. Hoop stress due to combined loading (without live load)
The hoop stress is determined for the combined loading without live load as the hoop tensile
stress near the lantern opening is likely to be more. Self-weight of the dome
0.1 × 1 × 25 = 2.5 kN/m2
Weight of the portion of dome C1AD1
2.5 × 2π × 6.525 × AB1
= 6.5 × 2π × 6.525 × 0.0624
= 6.40 kN
Factored weight of dome
= 1.5 × 0.40 = 9.60 kN
Effective weight of lantern
= (18 – 6.40) = 11.60 kN
Factored weight of lantern
= (1.5 × 11.60) = 17.40 kN
⎛ H ⎞
Hoop stress due to combined loading without live load shall be ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ×1 ⎠
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⎡ 2.5 × 6.525 ⎛ 1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞ 11.60 1 1 ⎤

= 1.5 × ⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + × × ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ 0.1 × 1 1 + cos θ 6 π × 6.625 0.1 × 1 sin2 θ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 1 − cos θ − cos2 θ ⎞ 17.77 ⎤

= 1.5 × ⎢163.125 ⎜ ⎟+ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠ 2π sin2 θ ⎥⎦
The values of hoops stress for combined load without live load shall be calculated by decreasing
⎛ 163.125 ⎞
values of uniformly distributed load in the ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 0.625 and increasing the values
⎝ 261 ⎠
⎛ 17.77 ⎞
of those due to point load in the ratio of ⎜ ⎟ = 1.492 and these values have been tabulated
⎝ 11.91 ⎠
in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3
Hoop stress, Nm/m2
Due to UDL Due to point load Total
7.928° – 79.38 209.72 130.34
10° – 78.30 94.18 15.88
20° – 69.33 24.35 – 44.98
30° – 53.83 11.37 – 42.46
40° – 32.63 6.77 – 25.86
43.603° – 24.99 6.06 – 18.93
From Table 17.3, maximum hoop tension occurs at 7.9280° (i.e., at the opening)
= 1.5 × 130.34 kN/m2
= 1.5 × 0.130 N/mm2
= 0.195 N/mm2
Maximum meridional stress (compression)
= 1.5 × 271.83 kN/m2
= 1.5 × 0.272 N/mm2
= 0.408 N/mm2
Maximum hoop tension occurs at 7.928°
= 1.5 × 0.130 N/mm2
= 0.195 N/mm2
Maximum hoop tension for 1 m length
(0.1310 × t × 1000 )
= 1.5 × kN/m
1000
0.130 × 100 × 1000
= 1.5 × = 1.5 × 13 kN/m
1000
= 19.5 kN/m
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Cross-sectional area of reinforcement (Hysd steel)

13 × 1000
= 1.5 × = 54.10 mm2/m
0.87 × 415
Distribution reinforcement
0.12
= × 100 × 1000 = 120 mm2/m
100
Total reinforcement
= 176.52 mm2/m
Aφ = 50.26 mm2
100 × 50.26
= = 284.758 mm
176.52
8 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided at 200 mm c/c, where, hoop tension exists. In case,
there is no hoop tension 0.12 percent viz., 120 mm2 reinforcement shall be provided at 400 mm
c/c spacing.
The minimum reinforcement of 0.12 percent viz., 120 mm2 shall also be provided in the
direction of the meridian (i.e., at 400 mm c/c spacing).
Step 8. Ring beam at bottom
The meridional thrust at the bottom
= 1.5 × 155.74 kN/m2
= 1.5 × 0.156 N/mm2
= 0.234 N/mm2
Meridional thrust per 1 m length
0.156 × (t × 1000 )
= 1.5 × kN/m
1000
0.156 × 100 × 1000

= 1.5 × = 1.5 × 15.6 kN/m
1000
= 28.4 kN/m
Horizontal component
= 1.5 × 15.6 cos (43.603)
= 1.5 × 15.6 × 0.7241
= 1.5 × 11.297 kN/m
= 16.946 kN/m
This horizontal component tends to rupture the dome
⎛ 2 × 6.525 ⎞
= 1.5 × 11.297 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5 × 73.71 kN/m
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 110.565 kN/m
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Cross-sectional area of steel

73.71 × 1000
= 1.5 × = 469.556 mm2
0.87 × 415
Provide 10 mm φ Hysd steel bars.
Number of rings
469.556
= 5.978
78.54
Provide 10 rings of 10 mm φ bars. Modular ratio of concrete
2 × 105
m = = 7.843
0.255 × 105
The equivalent cross-section are of ring beam
= A + (m – 1) Ast
= A + (7.843 – 1) × 10 × 78.54 mm2
= (A + 5374.6) mm2
Tensile stress of 1.68 N/mm2, may be allowed in M 20 grade of concrete. Then
⎛ 73.71 × 103 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 1.68
⎝ A + 5374.6 ⎠
or 73.71 × 103 = 1.68 × A + 9.029 × 103
64.681
A = × 1000 = 38500.595
1.68
Size of ring beam = 200 mm × 200 mm 6 mm φ ties are provided at 150 mm c/c.
8 m m φ h ysd stee l
b ar rin gs
1 .8 m
@ 2 00 m m c/c
1 50 m m X 1 50 m m
ring be am
8 m m φ h ysd
stee l ba rs
@ 4 00 m m c/c
rise = 1 .8 m
8 m m φ h ysd 8 m m φ h ysd
stee l ba rs rin gs stee l ba rs
@ 2 00 m m c/c @ 4 00 m m c/c
2 00 2 00
4 .5 m 4 .5 m
mm Ten ring s of mm
1 0 m m φ hysd
2 00 m m 2 00 m m
Fig. 17.7 Details of reinforcement (Spherical dome)
Step 9. Ring beam at top

Meridional thrust at top (viz., at θ = 7.928')
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= 1.5 × 271.83 kN/m2

= 1.5 × 0.272 N/mm2
= 0.408 N/mm2
Horizontal component
= 1.5 × 0.272 cos (7.928)°
= 1.5 × 0.272 × 0.9904
= 1.5 × 0.269 N/mm2
= 0.4035 N/mm2
Horizontal component per 1 m length
0.269 × (t × 1000 )
= 1.5 × kN/m
1000
0.269 × 100 × 1000
= 1.5 ×
1000
= 1.5 × 26.9 kN/m
= 40.35 kN/m
Hoop compression
= 1.5 × 26.9 × (Diameter/2)
26.9 × 1.8
= 1.5 × = 1.5 × 24.246 kN/m
2
= 36.369 kN/m
A ring shall be provided which shall be resisting the compression. It will distribute the lantern
load to the dome.
A ring beam of 150 mm × 150 mm may be provided
24.246 × 1000
= 1.5 × = 1.5 × 1.078 N/mm2
150×150
= 1.617 N/mm2
It is safe. 8 mm φ rings shall be extended within the ring beam. The details of reinforcement
17.7 CONICAL DOME

A conical dome is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a right angled triangle about
its vertical axis. A conical dome may also be used to support a load at the crown. A section
through the vertical axis of the dome is shown in Fig. 17.8.
An elemental ring CDFE bounded by two horizontal planes CD and EF close together is
considered. The depths of horizontal plane CD and EF are h and (h + ∆h) from the crown A. T
and (T + ∆T) are the meridional thrusts per unit length of the ring act tangentially as shown
in Fig. 17.8, respectively. The meridional thrust and hoop force are determined as follows.
In conical dome also, the stability of the dome is attained by direct forces acting down the
dome through the apex and circumferentially at all levels, without transverse or bending stresses.
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θ θ
h
∆s
C T D ∆H
∆h
F
E
( T + ∆T ) ∆x
Fig. 17.8 Conical dome
Let w be the weight per unit surface. It includes the weight of the dome, covering and the
superload. The angles which the meridional lines makes with the axis of revolution are constant.
These angles are equal to the half the vertex angle θ as shown in Fig. 17.8.

The vertical component of the total meridional thrust T at the level CD is equal in magnitude
to the weight of the conical dome above. Therefore
w h
(2πh. tan θ). T. cos θ = . (2πh tan θ).
2 cos θ
w h
∴ T = ⋅ ...(17.7)
2 cos2 θ
At the level of EF of the elemental ring, the meridional thrust increases to (T + ∆T).
17.7.2 Hoop Force

The small increase in meridional thrust, ∆T causes hoop compression around the circles of
latitude. The value of compression, H may be found as below :
dh
H . 2πh . tan θ . ds = H . 2πh . tan θ . ...(i)
cos θ
Horizontal component of T acts radially. From the axis of revolution is T . sin θ. This radial
component develops a hoop tension equal to T. sin θ times the radius of the ring at a depth i.e.,
sin2 θ
T . sin θ . h tan θ = T. h . ...(ii)
cos θ
Similarly,
[(T + ∆T). sin θ] . (h + ∆h) tan θ
sin2 θ
= (T + ∆T) (h + ∆h) ...(iii)
cos θ
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(T + ∆T) thrusts have similar effect in the opposite direction. Compressions is developed due
to this effect. The hoop force in the elemental ring is given by the difference of two effects.
Hoop compression developed is more than the hoop tension, at all the points on the surface
− H ⋅ h H (h − dh ) − H ⋅ dh
− = ...(iv)
cos θ cos θ cos θ
− H ⋅ dh ⎡ sin2 θ ⎤
= d ⋅ ⎢T ⋅ h ⎥
cos θ ⎣ cos θ ⎦
− H ⋅ dh ⎡w h h ⋅ sin 2 θ ⎤
or = d⋅⎢ ⋅ ⋅ ⎥
cos θ ⎣ 2 cos2 θ cos θ ⎦
w cos θ ⋅ sin2 θ ( 2 )
–H = ⋅d h
2 cos2 θ
w sin2 θ
−H = = .2h
2 cos2 θ
or H = – w . tan2 δ . h ...(17.8)
The negative sign indicates that the cone is in hoop compression at all the levels. The supports
are to resist the inclined thrust. It gives a horizontal reaction
w ⋅ h ⋅ sin θ
T . sin θ = ...(17.9)
2 ⋅ cos2 θ
This force may be taken by a band of reinforcement in ring tension. The hoop stress in dome
H
shall be .
(t × 1 )
Example 17.2. The inside diameter of a circular room is 16 m. The uniformly distributed
load is 1.8 kN/m2. Design the conical dome. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel of grade Fe
415 shall be used.
Solution
Design : M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
For M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415, the design constants are as
follows :
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
Step 2. Dimensions of dome
The dimensions of dome are as shown in Fig. 17.9. The inside diameter of dome is 16 m. The
span to rise ratio is kept 4 to 6. Therefore, the rise of dome
(16/4) = 4 m ...(i)
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Height of dome = Rise = 4 m

8
tan θ = =2
4
∴ θ = 63.435
sin θ = 0.8944, and cos θ = 0.4472
C ro w n A
C o nica l d om e
θ θ
R ise = 4 m
B D C
8m 8m
Fig. 17.9 Dimensions of conical dome
Step 3. Loads
Uniformly distributed loads = 1.8 kN/m2
Let the thickness of dome be 100 mm. Self-weight of the dome per square metre of surface
area
100
= × 1 × 1 × 25 = 2.5 kN/m2
1000
Total uniformly distributed load
w = 4.3 kN/m2
Factored load
w Fd = (1.5 × 4.3) = 6.45 kN/m2
Step 4. Meridional stress
Meridional force from Eq. 17.7
wFd h
T = ⋅ ...(i)
2 cos θ
From the expression (i), it is seen that to the height (depth) of cone form the crown. The
meridional force is maximum at a = 4 m. Therefore
1.5 × 4.3 4
Tmax = ×
2 (0.4472 )2
= 1.5 × 43.003 kN = 64.505 kN
Tmax 1.5×43.003 × 103

=
(t × 1 m) 100×1000
= 1.5 × 0.43 N/mm2 = 0.645 N/mm2
Hence, it is safe.
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Step 5. Hoop stress

Hoop force from Eq. 17.8
H = wFd tan2 θ.h
At h = 4 m,
H = –1.5 × 4.3 (2 × 2) × 4
= 1.5 × 68.8 kN (compression)
Hoop stress
H 1.5×68.8 × 103
= = 1.5 × 0.688 N/mm2
t ×1 m 100×1000
= 1.032 N/mm2
Hence, it is safe.
Distribution reinforcement shall be provided in both the directions (viz., along the latitudes
and longitudes).
0.12
Ad = × 100 × 1000 = 120 mm2
100
8 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided. Aφd = 50.26 mm2. The spacing of steel bars.
1000 × 50.26
sd = = 418.88 mm
120
8 mm φ Hysd steel bars shall be provided at 400 mm spacing c/c. To avoid congestion of the
steel bars, a wire mesh is provided at the crown of the dome.
Step 7. Ring beam
An outward force acts at the bottom of some due to horizontal component of the meridional
thrust, T.
Hoop component of meridional thrust acting radially outward
= T . sin θ
= 1.5 × (43.003 × 0.8944) kN/m
= 1.5 × 38.462 kN/m = 57.693 kN/m
Total tension = intensity of radial pressure times radius of dome
Total tension = 1.5 × 38.62 × 8 kN
= 1.5 × 307.70 kN = 461.55 kN
Area of steel
1.5 × 307.70 × 103
Ast = = 855.22 mm2
0.87×415
Provided 20 mm φ Hysd steel bars
Aφ = 314.159 mm2
855.22
= = 2.713 (Provide 6 bars)
314.159
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= 6 × 314.159 = 188.466 mm2
2 × 105
m = 7.843
0.255 × 105
Two legged stirrups of 8 mm φ Hysd steel bars may be provided at 400 mm c/c. Equivalent
area of ring beam
= (A + 7.843 × 1884.96) mm2 = (A +14784) mm3
Let the allowable stress in tension in M 20 grade of concrete be 1.8 N/mm2.
⎛ 14784 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 1.8
⎝ A + 14784 ⎠
8213.33 = A + 14784
A = 6570.67
Size of ring beam may be 120 mm × 120 mm. The details of reinforcement is shown in
Fig. 17.10.
M esh
C ro w n A
re in force m e n t
con ical d om e
R ise = 4 m
8 m m φ h ysd 8 m m φ h ysd
stee l ba rs stee l ba rs rin gs
@ 4 00 m m c/c C
B D @ 4 00 m m c/c
8m 8m
R in g be am 1 2 0 m m × 12 0 m m , 20 m m φ hysd 6 rin gs tw o
le gg e d stirrup s 8 m m φ @ 40 0 m m c/c
Fig. 17.10 Details of reinforcement
PROBLEMS
17.1. The inside diameter of a circular room is 10 mm. Design a spherical dome to carry a uniformly
distributed load (live load) is 18 kN/m2. The dome is to support a lantern of load 24 kN as
point load from a circular opening of 2 m at the crown. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel
of grade Fe 415 shall be used.
17.2. The inside diameter of a circular room is 18 m. The uniformly distributed load is 2 kN/m2.
Design the conical dome. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be
used.
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Design of Lintels
18
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The horizontal structural flexural members (viz., beams) of small length used to span the
openings over the doors, windows, ventilators, almirahs, cup-boards, etc.) are called lintels.
The behaviour of lintels is just like beams. Depending upon the availability of materials and
the development of technology, the lintels were made of different materials. In old time, the
timber lintels were in common use. Where stone is easily available, the stone lintels are very
common in use. The steel lintels [made of angle sections for small span and light loads, rolled
steel sections, (beams and/or channels) for large spans and heavy loads] are also very commonly
used. The reinforced brick lintels and reinforced concrete lintels are also used in rural and
urban construction (where the construction is cheap and where the construction is sophisticated].
The lintels support stone or brick masonry over the openings and transfer all the loads to the
side walls by arch action. An imaginary arch is formed within the masonry over the opening
which transmits the masonry and other loads to side walls. In general, the lintels support the
load of masonry constructed over the lintels also support the live loads transferred to them by
roofing slabs. The height of the masonry above the lintel, the length of the supporting walls at
the sides of lintels, any roofing slab transferring the load to the wall and the positions of
openings above the lintels are the various factors which decide the transfer of the load to the
lintels.
18.2 TRANSFER OF LOADS ON LINTELS

There are five cases of transfer of loads on the lintels. These cases have been described in the
following sub sections.
Case 1 : Length of each side wall is more than half the effective span of lintel
It is the most general case of transfer of load to the lintels. It is assumed that there is an arch
action in the masonry and as a result of which the complete load of masonry above the lintel is
not transmitted to the lintel. Only the load of masonry within an equilateral triangle of sides
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equal to the effective span of the lintel is supported by the lintel (as shown in Fig. 18.1).
Instead of equilateral triangle, the distribution of the load may be triangular only. The angle
of triangle at the base may vary 45° for good masonry work to 60° for poor masonry work. The
arch action in the masonry shall be formed in case the height of wall above the lintel is more
than or equal to 1.25 times the height of triangle weight of masonry within the triangle
1
W = (w × L0 × h × t ) ...(i)
2
where, w = unit weight of masonry
Lo = effective span of the lintel
L = clear span of the masonry
H = height of wall above
t = masonry thickness of wall
h/(L0/2) = tan θ
1
h = lo . tan θ ...(ii)
2
( H 1 > 1.25 h 1 )
6 0° 6 0°
L intel
Lo = ES
S ide S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L= CS A2
( A 1 > 0.5 L o ) O pe n in g ( A 2 > 0.5 L o )
Fig. 18.1
Substituting for h in the expression (i)

In case θ is equal to 60°
1
h = ⋅ Lo ⋅ 3
2
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Design of Lintels 1013
1
Then = Lo × 0.866 ...(iii)
2
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
W = ⎜ w × Lo × Lo × 0.866 × t⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 0.866 ⎞
∴ W = ⎜ w ⋅ L2o ⋅ t⎟ ...(18.2)
⎝ 4 ⎠
In case, the height of wall above the lintel is either equal to or less than 0.866 Lo, the
complete load of rectangular masonry above the lintel shall be acting over the lintel as shown
in Fig. 18.2.
( H > 0.8 6 6 L o )
6 0° 6 0°
L intel
S ide Lo = E S S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L= CS A2
( A 1 > 0.5 L o ) O pe n ing ( A 2 > 0.5 L o )
R e ctan gu la r d istrib utio n o f loa d

( H > 0 .86 6 L o )
Fig. 18.2
Weight of lintel
W = (w × Lo × h × t) ...(18.3)
Case 2 : Length of one side wall is less than half the effective span of lintel
In case the length of one side wall of the lintel is less than half the effective span of lintel and
the length of other side wall is more than half the effective span of lintel, the load transferred
to the lintel shall be the load of rectangular portion of the masonry (Height of wall effective
span) as shown in Fig. 18.3.
Weight of wall
W = w × Lo × h × t ...(iv)
and h = Lo,
Therefore,
W = (w × L2o × t) (18.4)
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L in tel
S ide Lo = ES S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L = CS A2
( A 1 < 0.5 L o ) O pe n in g ( A 2 > 0.5 L o )
R e ctan gu la r d istrib u tio n of lo ad

(H > Lo = E S )
Fig. 18.3
Case 3 : Length of side wall beyond each side of lintel less than half the effective
span
In case, the length of side wall beyond each side is less than half the effective span, the load
which shall be acting over the lintel, is equal to the weight of masonry of rectangular portion
L intel
S ide Lo = ES S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L= ES A2
( A 1 < 0.5 L o ) O pe n ing ( A 2 < 0.5 L o )
S ide w a lls o n ea ch sid e le ss th an 0 .5 E S

Fig. 18.4
above the lintel. The height of this portion of masonry shall be complete height masonry.
Weight of the masonry
W = (w × Lo× H × t) ...(18.5)
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Case 4 : Openings in masonry wall above lintel

In case, there are openings (say due to construction of ventilators) above the lintel and these
openings are intersected by 60° lines, these 60° lines are extended from the top edges of the
openings as shown in Fig. 18.5. The loads shall be obtained by considering such a dispersion.
The load supported by the lintel shall be the weight of masonry within the 60° lines.
( H 3 > 1.25 h 3 )
h3
( H 2 > 1.25 h 2 )
6 0° 6 0°
( H 1 > 1 .2 5 h 1 )
h2
6 0° 6 0°
h1
6 0° 6 0°
L intel
S ide Lo = E S S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L = CS A2
( A 1 > 0 .5 L o ) ( A 2 > 0 .5 L 0 )
D istribu tion o f loa d

(O p en in gs a bo ve lin tel)
Fig. 18.5
Case 5 : Floor slab carrying load lies within dispersion triangle

In case a floor slab carrying load lies within the dispersion triangle, the loads of masonry
transferred to the lintel are as under : (as shown in Fig. 18.6)
(a) load of rectangular masonry lying between floor slab and the lintel, W 1
(b) uniformly distributed load on the effective span of the lintel transferred by the floor
slab (UDL)
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(c) load of the triangular masonry lying above the floor slab, W 2.
However, in case, the floor slab transferring the load to the masonry will lies wall above the
apex of dispersion triangle, it shall not transfer the load to the lintel.
( H 2 > 1 .2 5 h 2 )
( H 1 > 1.25 h 1 )
h2 W2
6 0° 6 0°
Floo r sla b h1
W1
6 0° 6 0°
L in tel
S ide S ide
w a ll w a ll
A1 L = CS A2
( A 1 > 0 .5 L o ) O pe n in g
( A 2 > 0 .5 L o )
Floo r sla b ca rryin g lo ad lies

w ithin dispersio n trian gle
Fig. 18.6
Maximum bending moment due to the total weight of masonry in the triangular portion
above the lintel
⎛w L ⎞
M1 = ⎜ 1 o ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 6 ⎠
Maximum bending moment due to the uniformly distributed load from the floor slab
⎛ w ⋅ L2o ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Maximum bending moment due to the total weight of masonry in the triangular portion
above the floor slab ( supported by lintel)
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⎛w L ⎞
M2 = ⎜ 2 o ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ 6 ⎠
Total bending moment
Mtotal = (M1 + M + M2)
⎛ W1 Lo w ⋅ lo2 W2 Lo ⎞
= ⎜ + + ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ 6 8 6 ⎠
Maximum shear force
⎛ W w ⋅ Lo W2 ⎞
V = ⎜ 1+ + ⎟ ...(ix)
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
18.3 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE LINTEL

The lintel over single opening may be considered as simply supported beam. In case of light
and moderate loads, the simply supported beam may be designed as singly reinforced beam. In
case of heavy loads, the simply supported beam, if necessary, may designed as doubly reinforced
beam. In case, there are more than one adjacent openings, the lintels may be designed as
continuous beam.
In case of simply supported singly reinforced beam, the loads supported by lintel are
determined including the self-wright. The factored (design) load shall be found by multiplying
the service (working loads acting over the lintel by multiplying with the partial safety factor
for loads rfL (equal to 1.5). The factored (design) maximum bending moment MFd is calculated
after appropriate analysis. The overall depth of lintel and the main reinforcement in tension
are calculated as under.
18.3.1 Overall Depth of Beam

The lintel remains in equilibrium. The flexural ultimate strength of lintel may be equated to
the factored (design) bending moment and effective depth, d of the lintel may be obtained. The
width or breadth of lintel, b shall be kept equal to the thickness of wall. Therefore,
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u.max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u.max ⎟ bd2 = MFd ...(18.6)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
The ratio of limiting value of depth of neutral axis, x u.max and the effective depth of the
lintel, d may be noted from IS : 456–1978 knowing the characteristic strength of grade of
concrete and the yield strength fy, of type of steel to be used for the lintel. The effective d is
calculated by solving Eq 18.6. The effective cover of concrete covering the reinforcement is
decided and added to the effective depth, d so calculated and the overall depth, D is suitably
round-off.
18.3.1 Area of Steel Reinforcement in Tension

The area of steel reinforcement in tension is also found by equating the flexural strength of
beam to the factored bending moment, MFd.
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd ...(18.7)
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
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Knowing the area of steel reinforcement necessary Ast after solving the quadratic Eq. 18.7,
the number of steel bars to be provided in the lintel is calculated after deciding the diameter of
steel bars. 16 mm, 18 mm, 20 mm, and 22 mm diameter of steel bars are very commonly used
for the lintel.
The transverse reinforcement and spacing of the stirrups are found after usual calculations
and analysis for the facotred shear force.
The main steel bars provided in the lintel as tension reinforcement are also checked for their
development length as usual.
The design of lintel has also been explained by illustrative examples.
Example 18.1. A reinforced concrete lintel is to be provided over an opening 2.5 m for a
shop entrance positioned in the central length of a long wall 300 mm thick. The height of
masonry over the lintel shall be 4 m. The unit weight of masonry in 20 kN/m3. M 20 grade of
concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be used. Design the lintel.
Solution
Design : M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be used
The ratio of limiting depth of neutral axis and the effective depth of lintel, from IS : 456–
1978
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
The clear span of opening is 25 m. The effective depth of lintel may be assumed as under:
⎛1 ⎞
D = ⎜ × 2500 ⎟ = 312.5 mm.
⎝8 ⎠
Effective span
ES = (CS + d)
= (2.5 + 0.3125) = 2.8125 m
Step 3. Load on the lintel
Self-weight (estimated of the lintel)
⎛ 300 312.50 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ × 20 kN/m = 1.875 kN/m
⎝ 1000 1000 × 1 ⎠
Factored self-weight = (1.5 × l.875) = 2.8125 kN/m
Total weight of triangular masonry
⎛ 0.866 × 2.8125 × 2.8125 300 × 20 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 20.551 kN
⎝ 2 1000 ⎠
Factored (design) weight of triangular masonry
= (1.5 × 20.551) = 30.827 kN
Step 4. Factored (design) bending moment
Factored maximum bending moment due to self-weight of the lintel
⎛ 2.8125 × 2.81252 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 2.781 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
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Factored maximum bending moment due to total weight of masonry

⎛ 30.827 × 2.8125 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
= 14.45 kN-m
Total factored (design) bending moment
MFd = 17.231 kN-m
Step 5. Overall depth of lintel
It is obtained by equating ultimate flexural strength of lintel to the factored (design) bending
moment.
From Eq. 18.6
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u.max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u.max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1– 0.42 × 48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 300 × d2 = 17.231 × 106
d = 144.28 mm
Let the effective cover EC be 50 mm. The overall depth of lintel, D shall be (144.28 + 50) =
194.28 mm. Let the overall depth of lintel, D be 200 mm. The effective depth of lintel d shall be
(200 – 50) = 150 mm.
The size of lintel shall be 300 mm wide × 200 mm deep.
Step 6. Area of steel reinforcement in tension
It is calculated by equating the ultimate moment of resistance of the lintel to the factored
(design) moment.
Therefore,
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast ⋅ 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast ×150 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 17.23 ×106
⎝ 300 × 150 × 20 ⎠
5.41475 × 106 × Ast – 24.973 Ast2 – 17.231 × 106 = 0

Ast = 394.5 mm2
10 mm φ Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 may be used
⎛π ⎞
Aφ = ⎜ × 102 ⎟ = 78.54 mm2
⎝4 ⎠
Number of bars
⎛ 394.5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 78.54 ⎠
= 5.023 (say 6 bars)
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6 steel bars of 10 mm φ shall be used as main reinforcement in tension. At supports, four

bars shall be continued at bottom surface for top surface. The details of reinforcement in tension
L intel o ve r o pe ning in
lo ng w a ll o n b oth side s
2 ba rs 8 m m φ 2 -L eg ge d
Y X
10 m m φ stirrup s @ 45 0 m m c/c
2 00 m m 2 00 m m
S ide w a ll Y 6 ba rs 4 ba rs S ide w a ll
X
10 m m φ 10 m m φ
A1 C S 2 .5 m A2
( A 1 > 0 .5 L o ) G ra de of con crete M 2 0 ( A 2 > 0 .5 L o )

G ra de of stee l hysd F e 41 5
(a ) L on gitud in al e le va tio n of linte l
2 le gg ed 2 ba rs
8 ba rs
2 00 m m she ar 1 0 m m φ 4 ba rs 2 00 m m
10 m m φ
S tirru ps 10 m m φ
8 mm φ
h ysd stee l
b ars
3 00 m m 3 00 m m
S e ctio n at X X S e ctio n at Y Y
(b ) C ro ss-section al e le va tio n at X X an d Y Y d esig n o f lin te l
Fig. 18.7 Design of lintel
Step 7. Factored shear force

Factored (design) shear force at support
⎛ W wLo ⎞
V Fd = 1.5 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 30.827 2.8125 ×2.8125 ⎞
= 1.5 ⎜ + ⎟ kN
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
= 1.5 (15.4135 + 3.9551) = 29.053 kN
Step 8. Transverse reinforcement in lintel
⎛V ⎞
τc = ⎜ Fd ⎟ N/mm2
⎝b×d ⎠
⎛ 29.053 × 103 ⎞
τc = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.4842 N/mm2
⎝ 300 × 200 ⎠
< (τc.max = 28 N/mm2 for M 20 grade of concrete)
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Area of steel bars available near support in tension

= (4 × 78.54) = 314.16 mm2
⎛ 100 × 314.16 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.524
⎝ 300 × 200 ⎠
From IS : 456–1978, the design shear strength of concrete
⎡ ⎛ 0.524 − 0.500 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢0.48 + ⎜ ⎟ (0.56 − 0.48)⎥
⎣ ⎝ 0.750 − 0.500 ⎠ ⎦
= 0.48768 N/mm2
The nominal shear stress is less than the design shear strength of concrete. Therefore, nominal
transverse (shear) reinforcement (8 mm of steel bars as two legged shear stirrups) shall be
used at maximum allowable spacing of 450 mm spacing centre to centre throughout the length
of lintel as shown in Fig. 18.7.
For Hysd steel bars, the development length necessary
⎛ 0.87 fy φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.60× 1.20 ⎠
⎛ 0.87 ×415 × φ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 67.697 φ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.60× 1.20 ⎠
= (67.697 × 10) = 676.97 mm
Two bars of 10 mm φ shall be bent-up at
⎛L L⎞
⎜ − ⎟ = 2.8125 (0.5 – 0.14286) m
⎝2 7⎠
= (2.8125 × 0.35714) = 1.0045 m
Since (1004.5 mm > 676.97 mm), it is satisfactory. Four bars shall be continued upto a
distance (L/3) within the support. Moment of resistance provided by four bars at support
⎛ π 2 2⎞
⎜ 4 × × 10 = 314.159 mm ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
M1 = 0.87 fy . As . d . ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 314.159 × 150 ⎞ ⎛ 314.159 × 415 ⎞

M2 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ × ⎜⎝1– 300 × 150 × 20 ⎟⎠ kN-m
⎝ 1000×1000
= (17.014 × 0.85514) = 14.5493 kN-m
V = 29.053 kN
M1 ⎛ 14.5493 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.501
V ⎝ 29.053 ⎠
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Anchorage length of one bar beyond the centre of support

Lo = (8 φ + 150) = (8 × 10 + 150) = 230 mm
⎛ M ⎞
Ld = ⎜1.30 1 + Lo ⎟
⎝ V ⎠
0.67697 < [(1.30 × 0.501 + 0.230) = 0.881 m]
As such, at simple supports (where the bending moment is zero), Ld calculated does not
⎡ M ⎤
exceed ⎢1.30 1 + Lo ⎥ . Hence, it is satisfactory. The details of reinforcement is shown in
⎣ V ⎦
Fig. 18.7.
Example 18.2. A sun shade of 800 mm projection shall be cast integrally with the lintel
covering an opening of 3.2 m over a Varanda 3 m wide. The verandah roof shall carry a live
load of 2 kN/m2. Design the lintel and sun shade. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars
of grade Fe 415 shall be used. The thickness of masonry wall is 300 mm. The height of opening
and that of roof ore 3.4 m and 4.4 m, respectively.
Solution
Design : M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be used for the
lintel and sunshade both. These structural members are designed as under :
Design constants. The ratio of limiting depth of neutral axis to the effective depth, form
IS : 456–1978
⎛ xu.max ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.48
⎝ d ⎠
3 00 m m 3 00 m m
M aso nry w all
o ve r lin tel
Ve ra nd ah ro of
2 00 m m th ick
Sun
sha de
1m
L in tel
Ve ra nd ah 8 00 m m
3 m w id e
O pe n in g 3 .4 m
h ig h
Fig. 18.8 Verandah, sun shade and lintel over opening
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(A) Design of sun shade. The details of verandah, sunshade and lintel over the opening
are shown in Fig. 18.8. The bottom surface of the sunshade and that of lintel shall be kept in
one level. The sunshade with 800 mm projection shall be cast integrally with the lintel. It acts
as a cantilever beam. It may be designed by considering a strip of 1 m width carrying a live
load of 2 kN/m2.
Step 2 (A) Estimation of loads acting over sun shade
From requirement of limit of serviceability, the depth of sun shade acting as a cantilever
Span
d =
7×m
where m´ = modification (multiplication) factor
for M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel Fe 415 limiting percentage of reinforcement for the
balanced section from SP 16–1980 and IS : 456–1978
PB.lim = 0.96 percent
∴ m´ = 1.00
⎛ 800 ⎞
d = ⎜ ⎟ = 114.286 mm
⎝ 7 ×1 ⎠
Let the effective cover be 20 mm. Then the overall thickness (depth) of sun shade
D = (114.286 + 20) = 134.286 mm
@ (say 150 mm)
Let overall depth at free end be 60 mm self-weight of sun shade
1 ⎛ 150 + 60 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ × 0.8 × 1 × 25
2 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 2.100 kN/m
Live-load over sun shade
= (2 × 0.8 × 1) = 1.6 kN/m
Total load = (2.1 + 1.6) = 3.7 kN/m
w Fd = (1.5 × 3.7) = 5.55 kN/m
Step 3(A) Factored (design) moment
Maximum bending moment occurs at support.
Therefore, factored (design) moment
⎛1 ⎞
MFd = ⎜ wFd × l2 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 5.55 × 0.82 ⎟ = 1.776 kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
Step 4(A) Overall depth of sun shade
The overall depth of sun shade may be calculated by equate strength of this beam to the
factored (design) moment. Therefore,
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⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
0.36 fck ⎜ u.max ⎟⎜1 − 0.42 u.max ⎟ bd2 = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 (1 – 0.42 × 48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fck . b.d2 = MFd
0.13796 × 1000 × 20 × d2 = 1.776 × 106
d = 25.37 mm
Effective cover is 20 mm. The overall depth of sun shade (25.37 + 20) = 45.37 mm. Let its
overall depth at free end be 60 mm and at the support be 150 mm. The effective depth of sun
shade at support
d = (150 – 20) 130 mm
Step 5(A) Area of steel reinforcement in tension
Area of steel reinforcement in tension may also be obtained by equating the stength of beam
to the factored (design) moment. Therefore,
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast ⋅ 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 130 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 1.776 × 106
⎝ 300 × 130 × 20 ⎠
4.69765 × 104 × Ast – 7.4918 Ast2 – 1.776 × 106 = 0
Ast2 – 0.6265 × 104 Ast + 0.2371 × 106 = 0

Ast = 38.07 mm2
Let the diameter of steel bar be 10 mm
Aφ = 78.54 mm2
Spacing of steel bars in sun shade
⎛ 1000× 78.54 ⎞
s = ⎜ ⎟ = 2063.034 mm
⎝ 38.04 ⎠
10 mm φ steel bars may be used provided at maximum allowable spacing of 450 mm
Step 6(A) Check for development length
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟ = 47.012 φ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.6 × 1.2 ⎠
Ld = (47.012 × 10) = 470.12 mm
It shall be embedded for a length equal to 480 mm
Area of distribution reinforcement
⎛ 0.12 ⎞
Ld = ⎜ × 1000 ×150 ⎟ = 180 φ mm2
⎝ 100 ⎠
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Let the diameter of bar be 8 mm,

⎛π ⎞
Aφd = ⎜ × 82 ⎟ = 50.265 mm2
⎝4 ⎠
Spacing of bars
⎛ 1000 × 50.265 ⎞
sd = ⎜ ⎟ = 279.25 mm
⎝ 180 ⎠
Provide 8 mm diameter Hysd steel bars at 250 mm spacing centre to centre. Details of
reinforcement in sun shade is shown in Fig. 18.10.
(B) Design of lintel
Step 2 (B) Estimation of loads
Clear span for lintel,
L = 3.20 m
Overall depth of lintel may be estimated as
⎛1 ⎞
D = ⎜ × 3200 ⎟ = 400 mm
⎝8 ⎠
Considering the effective cover of concrete as 50 mm. The effective depth shall be
d = (400 – 50) = 350 mm.
Effective span of lintel
ES = Lo = (CS + d)
= (3200 + 350) = 3550 mm
The width of lintel shall be equal to the estimated overall depth of lintel
1
D = × 3200 = 320 mm
10
Let the effective cover be 50 mm
1
Dead load from the verandah = × (0.2 × 1 × 0.15) × 25 = 0.375 kN/m
2
Live load from the verandah
1
= × (1 × 2.5) × 2 = 2.5 kN/m
2
Height of masonry above the lintel is more than 1.25 times height of equilateral triangle.
Therefore, there shall be an arch action. Hence, the weight of masonry within the triangular
portion
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 3.550 × 0.866 × 3.550 × 20 ⎟ = 109.14 kN/m
⎝2 ⎠
Self-weight of lintel
⎛ 300 × 320 × 1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ × 25 = 2.4 kN/m
⎝ 1000 ×1000 ⎠
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Weight of sun shade

⎛ 1 (150 + 60) ⎞
= ⎜ × × 1 × 0.8 × 25 ⎟ = 2.1 kN/m
⎝2 1000 ⎠
Total load per 1 m run
= 114.113 kN/m
= (1.5 × 114.113) = 171.17 kN/m
Step 3(B) Factored (design) moment
The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre. Therefore, the factored (design) moment
⎛ 171.17 × 3.5502 ⎞
MFd = ⎜ ⎟ = 269.64 kN/m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 4(B) Overall depth of lintel
The depth of lintel is calculated by equating the strength of lintel (beam) to the factored
(design) moment. The grade of concrete is M 20 and steel bars shall be of Hysd, Fe 415 grade.
Therefore,
⎛x ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 2
0.36 fck ⎜ u.max ⎟ ⎜1 − 0.42 u.max ⎟ bd = MFd
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
0.36 fck × 0.48 × (1 – 0.42 × 48) bd2 = MFd
0.13796 fek . bd2 = MFd
0.13796 × 20 × 300 × d2 = 269.64 × 106
d = 570.74 mm.
Let the effective cover be 50 mm. The overall depth of lintel shall be (570.74 + 50) = 620.74
mm (say 625 mm). The effective depth of lintel d = (625 – 50) = 575.
Step 5(B) Area of steel reinforcement in tension
The area of steel reinforcement may also be found by equating the strength of lintel (beam)
to the factored (design) moment. Therefore,
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
0.87 fy . Ast . d. ⎜1 − ⎟ = MFd
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎛ Ast ⋅ 415 ⎞
0.87 × 415 × Ast × 575 ⎜1 −
⎝ ⎟ = 269.64 × 106
300 × 575 × 20 ⎠
Ast = 1611.10 mm2
Let the diameter of steel bars for longitudinal reinforcement in tension be 20 mm. Cross-
sectional area of one bar
⎛π ⎞
Aφ = ⎜ × 202 ⎟ = 314.159 mm2
⎝4 ⎠
Number of bars
⎛ 1611.10 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 5.128 (say 6 bars)
⎝ 314.159 ⎠
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L
Bend two bars at from the centre of support for resisting negative bending moment, if
7
develops.
Step 6(B) Transverse reinforcement
Factored (design) maximum shear force
⎛ w ⋅ Lo ⎞ ⎛ 171.17 × 3.550 ⎞
V Fd = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 303.83 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛V ⎞
τc = ⎜ Fd ⎟
⎝b⋅d ⎠
⎛ 303.83 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.76 N/mm2
⎝ 300 × 575 ⎠
τc.max = 2.8 N/mm2
τv < τc.max
Percentage of steel in tension at support
⎛ 100 Ast ⎞ ⎛ 100 × 4 × 314.159 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.728
⎝ b ⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ 300 × 575 ⎠
Design shear strength of concrete from IS : 456 – 1978
⎡ ⎛ 0.728 − 0.500 ⎞ ⎤
τc = ⎢0.48 + ⎜ ⎟ × 0.08 ⎥ = 0.553 N/mm2
⎣ ⎝ 0.750 − 0.500 ⎠ ⎦
τv < τc
Therefore, transverse (shear) reinforcement is necessary to resist shear force
vs = (VFd – τc – b.d)
⎛ 0.553 × 300 × 575 ⎞
= ⎜ 303.83 − ⎟ kN = 208.44 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
8 mm diameter two legged shear stirrups shall be provided for transverse reinforcement
⎛ π ⎞
Asv = ⎜ 2 × × 82 ⎟ = 100.53 mm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Spacing of the shear stirrups
⎛ 0.87 fy ⋅ Asv ⋅ d ⎞
sv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Vs ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 100.531 × 575 ⎞ 2

sv = ⎜ ⎟ = 100.128 mm
⎝ 208.44 × 1000 ⎠
Provide the transverse (shear) reinforcement at 80 mm spacing centre to centre.
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Step 7(B) Development length

Development length
⎛ 0.87 fy φ ⎞
Ld = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 × 1.60× 1.2 ⎠
⎛ 0.87 × 415 × φ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 47.012 φ mm
⎝ 4 × 1.60× 1.20 ⎠
= (47.012 × 20) = 940.234 mm
⎛L L⎞
Two steel bars of 20 mm diameter shall be bent up at ⎜ − ⎟ = 3.550 (0.5 – 0.1428) =
⎝2 7⎠
1.268 m from either side of the centre of span. Since 1.268 m is more than 0.940 m, it is
satisfactory. These two bars 20 mm diameter shall continue beyond the point of bent up section
upto a distance such that these are cable of developing their design strength at the cut-off
point. IS : 456–1978 recommends that these bars must continue upto at teast (L/3) within
upper support that is 313.41 mm.
Since, the width of wall is 300 mm, a 90° bent of 20 mm bars shall be adequate as anchorage
length. At support, the bending moment is zero. At the point of contraflexture, following
conditions shall be satisfied as specified by IS : 456–1978
⎛ M ⎞
Ld ≤ ⎜1.30 1 + Lo ⎟
⎝ v ⎠
Moment,of resistance of 4 bars available at support
⎛ Ast ⋅ fy ⎞
M = 0.87 fy . Ast . d. ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ b ⋅ d ⋅ fck ⎠
⎡⎛ 0.87 × 415 × 4 × 314.159 × 575 ⎞ ⎛ 4 × 314.159 × 415 ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢⎜ ⎟ × ⎜1 −
⎣ ⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 300×575×20 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= (260.88 × 0.84884) = 221.447 kN-m
Factored shear force at support
V = 303.83 kN
⎛ 1.30 × M ⎞ ⎛ 1.30 × 221.447 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9475 m
⎝ V ⎠ ⎝ 303.83 ⎠
Anchorage length of one steel bars beyond the centre of support
Lo = 8 φ + 150 mm
= (8 × 20 + 150) = 310 mm
150 mm is the length of bar after 90° bent
⎡⎛ M ⎞⎤
Lo ≤ ⎢⎜1.30 + Lo ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ v ⎠⎦
0.940 m ≤ (0.9475 + 0.310) = 1.25751 m
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It is satisfactory. The details of shear reinforcement and the longitudinal reinforcement are
shown in Figs. 18.9 and 18.10.
L intel o ve r o pe ning in
lo ng w a ll o n b oth side s
2 ba rs 8 m m φ 2 -le gg e d
Y X stirrup s @ 45 0 m m c/c
20 m m φ
6 25 m m 6 25 m m
S ide w a ll Y 6 ba rs 4 ba rs S ide w a ll
X
20 m m φ 20 m m φ
A1 C S = 3.2 0 m
( A 1 > 0 .5 L 0 ) G ra de of con crete M 2 0 ( A 2 > 0 .5 L o )

G ra de of stee l hysd F e 41 5
(a ) L on gitud in al e le va tio n of linte l
2 le gg ed 2 ba rs
6 ba rs
6 25 m m she ar 1 0 m m φ 4 ba rs 6 25 m m
20 m m φ
S tirru ps 10 m m φ
8 mm φ
h ysd stee l
3 00 m m b ars 3 00 m m
S e ctio n at XX S e ctio n at YY
(b ) C ro ss-section al e le va tio n at xx a nd yy
Fig. 18.9 Design of lintel
3 00 m m
M aso nry w a ll ove r lintel
L intel
8 m m φ tw o leg ge d stirru ps
@ 8 0 m m spa cin g c/c
6 25 m m
6 m m φ ste el b ars @ 2 50 m m
spa cing c/c
S u n sh ad e
1 0 m m @ 4 50 c/c
1 50 m m
60 m m
3 00 m m 8 00 m m
O pe n in g M ain reinfo rcem e nt
6 -20 m m φ hysd ste el ba rs
Fig. 18.10 Details of reinforcement for sun shade and lintel over opening
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PROBLEMS
18.1. A reinforced concrete lintel is to be provided over an opening 280 m for a shop entranee
positioned in the central length of a long wall 300 mm thick. The height of masonry over the
lintel shall be 4.2 m. The unit weight of masonry is 20 kN/m3. M 20 grade of concrete and
Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415 shall be used. Design the lintel.
18.2. A sun shade of 1200 mm projection shall be cast integrally with lintel covering an opening of
2.6 m over a verandah 3.20 m wide. The verandah roof shall carry a live load of 25 kN/m2.
Design the lintel and sun shade. M 20 grade of concrete and Hysd steel bars of grade Fe 415
shall be used. The thickness of masonry wall shall be 300 mm. The height of opening and that
of roof are 3.20 m and 4.5 m respectively.
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Index
A longitudinal (main) reinf. two way slabs, 407

beam, 120,143 Bends in steel bars, 252
Admixtures, 17 column, 702 Bond, 249
accelerating, 17 maximum, 702 Bond stresses, 249
air entraining, 3 minimum,702 Bi-axial bending, 691
plasticizing, 17,18 transverse reinf. Bending (flexural) strength
retarding, 17 beam, 264 doubly reinforced beams, 280
water-reducing, 17, 18 Axially loaded column, 684 flanged beams, 344
Aggregates, 10, 13, 15 singly reinforced beams, 112
coarse, 10, 11 B Buildings, 46
classification, 22, 35 assembly, 46
Balanced beam section, 99,115
fine, 2, 3 business, 46
Balanced failure of columns
fineness -modulus, 14, 15 educational, 46
long (slender), 619
grading limits, 10, 11 industrial, 47
short, 619
heavy-weight, 13, 14 institutional, 47
Bar
impurities, 10, 11 mercantile, 47
bent-up, 235
light-weight, 13, 38 residential, 47
spacing, 155
natural, 10, 14, 25, 25 storage, 47
splicing, 273
normal weight, 13
Beams, 259
other types, 4
continuous reinforced, 140
C
Anchorages of steel bars
doubly reinforced, 305, 313 Cement, 3
plain steel bars, 249
flanged reinforced, 344 Bogue’s compounds, 4
compression, 85, 90
L-beams, 337,383 chemical requirements, 6
tension,85, 124
T-beams, 337, 360 compressive strength, 6
plain bars, 160
singly reinforced, 85 fineness, 6
bends, 253
Behaviour heat of hydration, 6
hooks, 249, 253, 260
beams (singly reinforced), 91 hydraulic, 3
values, 89, 134, 262
flexure, 86 hydrolysis, 6
Area of footing
shear, 229 mineral compounds, 4
combined,885
columns ordinary patiant, 4
independent, 626, 738, 895
short, 310, 619 physical requirements, 6
reinforcement, 111, 120, 152
flat slabs, 482 setting time, 6
distribution, 516
one way slabs, 137, 463 soundness, 6
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1032 Index
tests, 5 single curvature, 717 necessity of control, 151

Characteristic values correction factor for Crack width, 187
load, 66 ultima, 722 Gergely-Lute equation, 107
strength, 675 eccentrically loaded, 730 Beeby’s equation, 187
concrete, 69 failures, 706 permissible, 165
steel, 79, 80 material, 732, 794 Ferry-berges equation, 188
Coarse aggregate, 9 instability, 134 Kaar-hongnest equation, 189
Coefficient or method of design, 733, 839 Critical section, 233
creep,143 exact method, 733 shear force, 244
friction, 839 frame analysis approach, 733 bending moment , 267
thermal expansion, 463 moment-magnifier, 734 development, 323
Columns, 613 Circular slabs, 584 one way, 423, 470, 810
short columns, 613 Concrete, 464 two way, 820, 846
axially loaded behaviour, 619 building frames, 733, 408 Curtailment of
axially loaded, 682 compression failure reinforcement, 332
elastic, 626 doubly reinforced, 320 conditions, 707
ultimate, 626, 634 singly reinforced, 215, 267 continuous beams, 456
clear cover, 628 compressive strength, special requirements, 257
effective length, 684 79, 85, 185 tension reinforcement, 254
equivalent x-sectional area, 67 cover, 117, 129 Curvature of beam, 185
longitudinal reinforcement, grade, 72, 89 Curvature area theorem, 178
630 properties, 28, 35, 47, 61
requirements, 650 creep, 28, 57 D
minimum eccentricity, 635 durability, 25, 74 Dead loads deflection, 42
radius of gyration, 619, 730 shrinkage, 27, 56 calculations,137
slenderness ratio, 609 workability, 25, 59 combined effect, 150
transverse reinforcement, 704 strength, 25, 59 control creep, 151
lateral ties, 269, 757 tensile strength, 74 effects, 537
requirements, 734 flexural, 74 immediate, 138
spirals, 680 split, 74 methods of controlling, 134
unsupported length, 628, 249 Continuous beams, 141, 339 shrinkage, 147
axial load plus bi-axial critical section (moment) 405 temperature, 150
bending, 686 coefficients, 419, 472 vertical, 134
equivalent uniaxial moment, 707 Depth of neutral axial
interaction diagram, 683 shear, 409, 418 doubly reinforced beam, 1017
load contour method, 679 design, 455 singly reinforced beam, 1017
reciprocal load method, 679 effective span, 404 Design beam, 855
super position method,147 extension of reinf., 416 continuous beams, 32
circular column, 687 live load arrangement, 410 flanged beams, 337
rectangular column, 688 Cover for reinforcement, 268 constants, 84, 163
arrangement of live loads,471 clear, 128 short columns, 675
analysis, 784, 616 effective, 130 slender columns, 717
slender (long) columns, 620 slabs, 337 codes, 34
additional moment, 710 Crack, 150, 168, 365 aggregates, 10, 13, 15
axially loaded, 737 ACI recommendations, 165 cement, 35
behaviour, 759 causes, 153 concrete, 37
braced, 610 long-term, 164 loads, 360
unbraced, 709, 712 machanism, 154 reinforcement, 351
double curvature, 721 axial tension, 154 footing, 759
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Index 1033
combined, 826 Effective moment of inertia, 151 safe, 803

independent, 831, 760 Effective width of flange, 338 ultimate, 841
retaining wall, 918 Effective span, 222 bearing pressue in soil, 761
cantilever, 934 cantilever beam, 277 cohesive soil, 763
counter fort, 959 simply supported beam, 311 distribution, 761
circular, 813 stairs, 886 combined footing, 760
flat slabs, 523 Elastic axial shortening, 64 approximate method, 936
Design loads, 366 Elastic method, 26 cantilever, 767
dead load, 42 analysism, 27, 28 continuous strip, 827
live loads, 46 Equivalent bending moment, 399 grid foundation, 827, 832
Design aids, 215 Erection loads, 41 mat foundation, 832
Design constants, 290 Exceptional loads, 41 raft foundation, 832
Design strength material, 337 Extension of reinforcement, 416 rectangular, 834
Development length, 375 continuous beams, 411 strap, 828
hysd steel, 297 negative bending trapezoidal, 837
tension, 323 moment, 417 critical sections, 256
Diagonal tension, 246 positive bending bending moment, 828
torsional reinforcement, 390 moment, 504 concrete wall, 768
Domes, 987 restrained, 507 masonry wall, 407
conical, 1105 simply supported, 507 dowels in footing, 712
hoop force, 1106 Factors for, 153 footing on rock, 818
meridional thrust, 1106 coefficient of creep, 143 Independent footing, 831
design, 1011 lever arm, 127 sloped, 825
hoop compression, 989 modification, 217 square, 825
hoop tension, 989 moment of resistance, 350 spread, 826
meridional thrust, 991 strength reduction, 192 stepped, 761
spherical (cone, load), 994 Factored (design), 191 wall, 765
hoop compression, 995 Fatigue, 65 thickness at edge, 765
bond stresses, 249 Fine aggregate, 10
deflections, 310 Fineness modulus, 14 G
depth of neutral axis, 290 isolated L-beams, 339 Gaussian probability
design, 360 symmetrical, 339 distribution, 70
design aids, 370 location of N.A., 339 Grading of aggregates, 10
development length in outside the flange, 341 Grading limits (aggregates), 11
compression failures within the flange, 340 Grades of concrete, 71
in compression, 324 serviceability, 194 Gerge-Lutz equation
tension, 323 width of flange, 340 for crack width, 160
location of neutral axis, 339 Flat slabs, 409
moment of resistance, 344
area of reinforcement, 415 H
behaviour, 421
servicesability, 309 Helical reinforcement, 637
bending, 422
Dwellings, 47 Hydration, 3, 4, 6, 8
development, 469
Dynamic effects, 41 Hydraulic cement, 36
direct design method, 537
Hydrolysis, 6, 75
E equivalent frame
method, 555 I
Earth pressure, 925 equivalent column, 675
Effects, 409 equivalent frame method, 555 Immediate deflection, 87
creep, 421 ralative stiffness columns, 541 Impact, 65
Effective modulus of basic requirements, 773 Imposed floor loads, 46
elasticity, 144 bearing capacity of soil, 762 Inclined stirrups, 259
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1034 Index
Influence line for bending, 419 gross, 195 stem, 928

Interaction diagrams, 674 balanced section, 199 vertical slab, 961
axial load and uniaxial Modulus of rupture, 203 width of base slab
bending, 657 counterfort, 961
N vertical wall, 961
L Neutral axis location, 230 earth pressure, 920
Lap splice, 259 ordinary Portlant cement, 3 active, 920
L-beams, 337 Neutral axis factor, 114 backfill, 923
Lever arm factor, 114 Nominal load, 21 passive, 923
Limit analysis, 28 Nominal shear stress, 223 stability, 929
Limit stale of collapse, 115 overturning, 930
flexure, 116 P sliding, 938
Limit state design, 130 subsidence, 951
Partial safety factors, 84, 87
Limit state of serviceability, 131 strength, 983
collapse, 86
cracking, 31, 60 surcharge, 955
serviceability, 77
deflection, 133
Limiting values of, 193
strength of materials, 29 S
collapse, 30
factors, 116 Plastic method, 32 Seismic load, 41
percentage of steel reinf., 116 lower bound method, 32 critical section, 27
Lintels, 267, 1011 upper bound method, 32 limit state of collapse, 29
area of steel, 1017 Poisson’s ratio, 78 beams of varying depth, 227
overall depth, 1017 distribution, 47
transfer of loads, 1011 R steel, 229
characteristic, 368 assumptions, 175
Reinforcement
erection loads, 41 bond, 223
cold twisted, 88
exceptional loads, 41 deflection, 223
deformed, 88
factored (design) loads, 191 stress block, 268
maximum, 89
floors, 54 characteristic, 64
minimum, 127
imposed loads, 931 P100, 456
plain, 22, 35
normal loads, 686 CP 110 (simplified), 456
maximum distance, 129
permanent load, 41 equivalent, 65
mild steel bars, 24
seismic load, 41 Strain, 463
shear reinforcement, 262
snow load, 46 spacing, 463
side face reinforcement, 128
transient load, 46, 54 side cover, 130
spacing,154
wind load, 54 Snow load, 55
transverse reinforcement, 129
Long columns, 620 flat slabs, 409
lateral ties, 269
Lower bound method 32 circular slabs, 584
spiral, 859
M stirrups, 153 Grashoff-Rankine, 487
bent-up, 248 IS : 456-1978 method, 502
Method of design vertical, 248 Marcus method, 492
upper bound method, 32 types, 274 Pigeaud’s method, 492
working stress method, 35 fixed beam, 420 Westergaard’s method, 499
Modification factor for, 201 ideal material, 72 moments, 499
Modular ratio (short-term), 202 stability, 33 dog-legged, 888
Modulus of elasticity, 205 Restrained slabs, 490 geometrical, 889
initial, 205 ideal elastic-plastic, 421 open-newel, 888
secant, 736 base slab, 584 open-well, 889
tangent, 920 heel slab, 920 quarter-turn, 888
cracked section, 139, 175 toe slab, 934 spiral, 889
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Index 1035
System of slab, 487 U W

spanning horizontally, 889
Ultimate design, 28 Permissible limits for solids, 15
Substitute frames, 408
Ultimate load method, 28 Water-cement ratio, 18
T Web reinforcement, 139
Ultimate strain due
Whitney’s equivalent
to shrinkage, 57 stress block, 94
Temperature effects, 41
Under reinforced beam, 216 Width of flange, 338
Temperature and shrinkage, 462
Unit weight of materials, 42 Workability, 464
Tension failure, 563 compaction factor test, 23
Upper bound method, 32
Tensile strength, 674 slump test, 23
Torsion, 396 V Vee bee test, 23
limit state of collapse, 31 Working stress method, 432
Vee-bee test, 23
plain concrete members, 383 Vee-bee time, 24 Y
Truss analogy, 240 Vertical spacing, 130
Vertical stirrup, 235 Yield stress, 27
moment coefficients, 499
spacing, 154 Young’s modulus of elasticity, 139
concrete, 433
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LIMIT STATE DESIGN A Text Book of

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Engineering

STANDARD BOOK HOUSE

First Edition: 2013

System International d’ Unites (SI System of Units)

March 2013 Ramchandra

PART I : STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING : AN OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1–39

1.11 Storage of Materials 22

PART II : LOADS AND STRESSES

CHAPTER 2 LOAD AND STRESS 40–84

2.6 Seismic Loads 55

PART III : DESIGN OF BEAMS

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

3.22 Methods of Controlling Deflections 134

3.43 Behaviour of Diagonally Cracked Beams 232

CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF DOUBLY REINFORCED

4.4.1 Compression Steel at Yield Stress 275

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS 337–402

5.5.3 Total Load 366

CHAPTER 6 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS 403–456

6.15 Coefficients for Shear Force for Continuous Beams 419

PART IV : DESIGN OF SLABS

CHAPTER 7 DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN ONE DIRECTION 457–485

7.8.3 Continuous One-way Slabs of Equal Spans

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF SLABS SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS 486–522

CHAPTER 9 DESIGN OF FLAT SLABS 523–583

9.6.1 Total Design Moment 533

CHAPTER 10 DESIGN OF CIRCULAR SLABS 584–608

10.4 Circular Slab (Simply Supported at Edges) Carrying Uniformly Distributed

PART V : DESIGN OF COLUMNS

CHAPTER 11 DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMNS 609–706

11.13 Requirements of Transverse (Lateral) Reinforcements 630

CHAPTER 12 DESIGN OF LONG (SLENDER) COLUMN 706–758

12.5 Correction Factor for Ultimate Curvature 722

PART VI : DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

CHAPTER 13 DESIGN OF INDEPENDENT FOOTINGS 759–825

13.17 Footings on Rock 818

CHAPTER 14 DESIGN OF COMBINED FOOTING 826–885

PART VII : DESIGN OF OTHER CONCRETE STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 15 DESIGN OF STAIRS 886–917

CHAPTER 16 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS 918–986

16.8 Strength of Retaining Wall 929

CHAPTER 17 DESIGN OF DOMES 987–1010

17.4 Spherical Dome Carrying Uniformly Distri buted Load 990

CHAPTER 18 DESIGN OF LINTELS 1011–1030

1.3.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (IS : 269)

Table 1.1 Chemical composition of Portland cement

(iii) Rapid hardening Portland cement (IS : 8041)

1.4 CEMENT TESTS

1.4.1 Chemical Requirements

[2.4 (SiO2) + 1.2 (Al2O3) + 0.65 (Fe2O3)]

1.4.2 Physical Requirements

S.No. Portland cements Special cements Other

1. Ignition loss >/ 5 5 >/ 5 >/ 5 >/ 4 >/ 5 >/ 5 — —

3. Magnesia, >/ 6 6 >/ 6 >/ 6 >/ 8 >/ 6 >/ 6 >/ 10 —

5. Manganese oxide (Mn2O3) — — — — 2 — — — —

Portland cements Special cements Other

1.5.1 Coarse Aggregate

1.5.2 Fine Aggregate

1.5.2.1 Grading of Aggregates

1.5.2.2 Impurities in Aggregate

Table 1.6 Grading Limits for fine aggregate (IS : 383–1970)

Table 1.7 Grading Limits for all-in-aggregates (IS : 383–1970)